Bible

o hI Mark Bible Dictionary page 161. Badger Skins</ref> Translating ערת תחשׁים skins taḥashim as "badgers' skins" also presents a contradiction. The Book of Leviticus, chapter 11, forbids touching the carcasses of all animals that walk on paws, because they are טָמֵא tame unclean. This is no trivial matter, as God Himself is thus represented in the KJV as commanding the handling and use of skins of carcasses He forbids the Israelites to touch, and as commanding them to cover the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant with unclean skins and then commanding them to remove from the camp all that is unclean so that nothing unclean will be seen by Him in the camp (Numbers 5:2-3; Deuteronomy 23:14). They are forbidden to defile the tabernacle, the sanctuary of the LORD (Leviticus 20:2-3; 21:10-12), and they are commanded to cover it with טָמֵא tame unclean/polluting/defiling "badgers' skins" (KJV). Even on the sole hermeneutical principle of "Scripture interprets Scripture" this is not accurate, and it presents a serious difficulty. John Grigg Hewlett, D.D. (Bible difficulties explained 1860) says:

"It would involve a great inconsistency, that the ark of the covenant, which was considered so holy, that no human hand could touch it with impunity, except the hands of those who had been consecrated to God, that it should constantly be covered with the skins of unclean animals...Therefore the coverings of purple, or blue, which our translators have called 'badgers' skins', were of a material that was accounted pure, and could not impart any impurity to those who prepared them, or to those whose office it was to adjust them amidst the vicissitudes of the camp of Israel."

The KJV was first published in 1611, a year after the Douay-Rheims Bible. The later KJV revision of 1769 is the version generally published today as the King James Bible, and is the form of the text cited here:

Leviticus 5:2 "if a soul touch any unclean thing...he also shall be unclean and guilty"
Leviticus 5:5-6 "he shall confess that he hath sinned"
Leviticus 11:5-8 "and their carcase shall ye not touch, they are unclean to you"
Leviticus 11:24-28 "and whatsoever goeth upon his paws...those are unclean unto you"
Leviticus 11:43-44 "Ye shall not make yourselves abominable...neither shall ye make yourselves unclean...neither shall ye defile yourselves"
Leviticus 22 "Say unto them, Whosoever he be of all your seed among your generations, that goeth unto the holy things, which the children of Israel hallow unto the LORD, having his uncleanness upon him, that soul shall be cut off from my presence: I am the LORD."
Numbers 4:15-20 "but they shall not touch any holy thing, lest they die"
Deuteronomy 23:14 "For the LORD thy God walketh in the midst of thy camp, to deliver thee, and to give up thine enemies before thee; therefore shall thy camp be holy: that he see no unclean thing in thee, and turn away from thee."

The Committee appointed by James I of England that was tasked with the translation of the Bible was made of men who had read the Bible in Hebrew and Greek and Latin and knew these passages. Yet they chose to translate tachashim as unclean badgers "that goeth upon paws" whose carcasses the Israelites were forbidden to touch.

Exodus 25:1-8 "Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring me an offering...rams' skins dyed red, and badgers' skins"
Exodus 26:14 "and a covering above of badgers' skins"
Exodus 35:7 "and rams' skins dyed red, and badgers' skins"
Exodus 35:23 "and red skins of rams, and badger skins"
Exodus 36:19 "and a covering of badgers' skins above that"
Exodus 39:34 "And the covering of rams' skins dyed red, and the covering of badgers' skins"
Numbers 4:6-25 "a covering of badgers' skins...the covering of badgers' skins"
Ezekiel 16:10 "and shod thee with badgers' skin"

Readers of the KJV saw a grave difficulty here because of the apparently great inconsistency that the holy ark of the covenant and the Tabernacle of the LORD should be constantly covered with skins of unclean animals which made unclean anyone who touched them. The Douay-Rheims Bible had translated the skins as "violet skins".

The motivation for interpreting and translating tachash skins in the Bible as being skins of creatures the Israelites are clearly forbidden to touch is unclear, and a mystery, what is known in Logic as a non sequiter (Lat. "it does not follow"). The purpose being served by a deliberate translation of תחשׁ as badger and of ערת תחשׁים as badgers' skins, by scholars who have a thorough knowledge of the whole of the Bible, and of the history of the Hebrew language and of the fauna and varied customs of the ancient Middle East, is also a non sequiter mystery, involving an evident contradiction of the context of the Bible. Alternate word choices, harmoniously consistent with the biblical context, and attested by the ancient sources as cited in scholarly published commentaries both technical and general, were available to the translators, who chose not to use them. Their translation covers the tabernacle, the ark and the sacred vessels with the equivalent of טָמֵא tame unclean swines' skins (Leviticus 11:3-8, 11:24-28). The inconsistency is not in the ancient biblical text, but in the interpretations of translators which violate its context.

"A text without a context is a pretext for a proof text." Donald A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies.

Study Bible footnotes, along with published articles, Bible dictionaries, commentaries, encyclopedias, and books on the Bible, and a multitude of internet online blogs and pages, which strongly support the translation of ערת תחשׁים as badgers' skins or as the skins of any kind of sea mammal, often omit the fact that within the context of the Bible these creatures are classified as unclean, defiling שִׁקַּץ sheqats abominations, as loathsome, abhorrent, detestible, filthy and disgusting for the people of Israel. Those that do mention it offer various speculative rationales, debates and discussions to explain why in their opinion God would command the Israelites to cover the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant and the sacred vessels for worship with skins of unclean animals and abominations they are explicitly forbidden to touch, skins and hides that according to the word of the LORD defile any Israelites who touch them. Many of them assert that the prohibitions in Leviticus 11 are dietary rules only (Lev. 11:2, 11:46-47), and declare that touching and wearing skins and leather of unclean animals is permitted as long as their flesh is not eaten. These commentaries say that touching the carcass of these animals is only a minor offense which did not require an atoning sacrifice, and that it applied only to kohanim (priests) and applied to the laity only during the three feasts of Passover/Unleavened Bread, Weeks/Pentecost, and Booths/Tabernacles (Deut. 16). And some cite the Talmud as their authority, for example, Tractate Rosh Hashana 16b, and the Sifra, Torath Kohanim 11:74, and Rashi's commentary, providing us with an example of what the prophet Jeremiah said,

"How can you say, 'We are wise, and the law of the LORD is with us'? But behold, the false pen of the scribes has made it into a lie" (Jeremiah 8:8).

They omit any reference to that part of Leviticus which decrees that wilfully touching the carcasses of unclean animals (which must be done to harvest their skins) is a sin, which even Rashi's commentary confirms. No mention is made by them of the law in the Torah which says: "Ye shall not make yourselves abominable...neither shall ye make yourselves unclean...neither shall ye defile yourselves" (Leviticus 11:43-44) and that anyone who wilfully does this will be cut off. Some commentaries on the Old Testament supporting badgers' skins and sea mammals' skins as the covering of the tabernacle cite the New Testament example of Saint Paul working with Simon the tanner (Acts 9:43; 10:6, 32), as if both of them were examples of Jews wilfully working with the skins of non-kosher beasts. Some cite Pliny's Natural History 2:56, which says that [pagan] temples had roofs of sealskin, as if this applied to the Israelites under the Law of Moses, and cite Eduard Rüppell's short-lived taxonomic designation of the dugong as Halicore tabernaculi "dugong of the tabernacle" as an additional support for their opinion. The 1843 published scientific nomen Halicore tabernaculi, expressing as it did the personal opinion of a professional zoologist, Eduard Rüppell, was soon discarded by the scientific community, but it has nevertheless persuaded many to this day that science has established that the dugong was indeed the animal whose skins were used to cover the tabernacle. However, it has no fins or scales. According to the Bible this creature is an abomination to the Jews (loathsome / abhorrent / detestible / filthy / disgusting) (Leviticus 11:10-12). Jesus himself commented on the practice of constantly seeking pretexts for making exceptions to the Torah:

"You have a fine way of rejecting the commandment of God in order to keep your tradition!" (Mark 7:9 RSV).

King James Only

Advocates of the King James Only movement are fully persuaded that the translators of the King James Version of the Bible always chose the correct reading [interpretation] of the biblical text, under the infallible guidance of the Holy Spirit Himself, and that therefore the translation badgers' skins is the most accurate possible English translation of the Hebrew ערת תחשׁים and עור תחשׁ and תחשׁ . They declare without reservation that the King James Bible is the divinely preserved, infallible Word of God, and that it is the only and final authority on all matters of faith and morals and practice for the whole of the English-speaking world.

–See the Preface to the King James Version of 1611.

"...wee affirme and avow, that the very meanest translation of the Bible in English, set foorth by men of our profession (for wee have seene none of theirs of the whole Bible as yet) containeth the word of God, nay, is the word of God..."

—from the Preface to the King James Version of 1611: The Translators to the Reader. (boldface emphasis added)

See Logical fallacy.

Other versions

Today, the Bible is available in many versions across the English-speaking world, and has been translated into languages spoken by the vast majority of people on Earth, and even portions into a recently created language from the fictional world of Star Trek, Klingon. The past two decades saw the emergence of Internet use; the creation of the Bible as a software program was inevitable, and several, such as E-Sword and Theophilos, are available at no cost with a wealth of Bible-study material as well.

Bible Scientific Foreknowledge

Bible scientific foreknowledge holds that the Bible shows an understanding of scientific knowledge beyond that believed to exist at the time the Bible was composed. Many Christian scientists and apologists such as the Christian scientists and apologists at Creation Ministries International, Answers in Genesis, and CreationWiki assert that the Bible contains knowledge that shows an understanding of scientific knowledge beyond that believed to exist at the time the Bible was composed.

Humor in the Bible

For a more detailed treatment, see Humor in the Bible.

The Bible, especially the Old Testament, contains irony, puns, sarcasm, etc. It may be noted that the sense of what is humorous varies from people to people and from nation to nation, as well as varying from age to age. What caused a chuckle, smile, or laughter in the biblical "genre" was more connected with satisfaction at the vindication of righteousness among men. Thus to our day and age, and the commonality of people, for believers and non believers, the meaning of the spewing up of Jonah on the shores (even the great fish could not stomach him!) might be viewed as God working out His original will in history. Jonah's flight from responsibility being aborted, for the people in the "days and ages" of the Bible, there was the added satisfaction derived from the understanding that God was not mocked by the rebellion of Jonah. Likewise that the "many cattle" also found repentance and acceptance by God, would not have brought the smile of glee, mingled with doubt, but the smile of satisfaction that God's wide heart found its exultant victory over the measly, narrow perspective of the renagade prophet. There was no shame to stifle the Biblical chuckle at the "hows" of the vindication of God's justice. Yet, what we consider humorous also appears:

For example:

• After noticing that his father-in-law Laban was not treating him as in the past, Jacob decided to flee with his family. Rachel, one of Jacob’s wives, stole her father Laban’s teraphim (statues used for idolatry and/or divination). Laban pursued them and intercepted them in the Gilead mountains (Genesis 31:30): "Why have you stolen my gods?" Laban said to Jacob. The Midrash comments that it cannot be much of a god if it can be stolen (Midrash Genesis Rabbah 74:8). Jonsson (1985, 44-45) suggests that there is humor (albeit "rough" humor) in the fact that, not only was Laban deceived, but his idols were actually underneath his daughter Rachel’s posterior while she claimed that the "manner of women" was upon her. This idol did not get much respect. [1]

• In the Orthodox Bible, in the Epistle of Jeremiah, the prophet declares with delightful contempt the stupidity of the idols of Babylon. Their faces have to be wiped to get the dust off them. They have weapons in their hands but cannot punish anyone who offends them. They are as useless as a broken dish. Their eyes are clogged with dust from the feet of the worshippers entering to adore them. Their priests lock them up like a man who has offended the king and has been sentenced to death. Bats, swallows and birds perch on their heads, and so do cats. If they are tipped over, they cannot get up. Their priests howl and shout before them as some do at a funeral feast for a man who has died. When fire breaks out in their temples the priests run away and the idols are burned in two like logs. Robbers strip them naked and they cannot help themselves. The door of a house that protects its contents, or a wooden pillar in a palace holding up the roof is better than these useless gods. Like a scarecrow in a cucumber patch guarding nothing, so are these gods.

• In the book of Esther, Haman, the prime minister of King Ahasuerus of Persia who hates Mordecai the Jew and has built a gallows 50 cubits high to hang him on it, has entered the court to ask for Mordecai's death. The king, meanwhile, not being able to sleep, hears in the reading of the records that Mordecai once saved the king from assassination, and that Mordecai received no reward. The king seeks an opinion from one of his court and asks who is immediately available. Haman enters, and the king asks him what should be done to honor the man who pleases the king, and Haman thinks to himself, "Who should the king wish to honor more than me?" So he makes his recommendation, to dress the man in the king's own robes, to set a crown on his head, to set him on the king's own horse, and have the king's most noble prince conduct him throughout the city proclaiming, "Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delights to honor." The king then told Haman, "Quickly! Take the robes and the horse, as you said, and do it to Mordecai the Jew. Omit nothing you mentioned." When he had obeyed the king, he ran home, mourning, with his head covered.

• In the Acts of the Apostles is a serious incident which has some wonderfully slapstick comedic overtones (19:11-16). God had been doing extraordinary miracles by the hands of Paul, and even cloths that he had touched were applied to the sick and to possessed persons and they were completely cured. So some traveling Jewish exorcists decided to use the Name of Jesus as a word of power over people who were possessed, by saying, "I adjure you by the Jesus whom Paul preaches". When the seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest, did this, the evil spirit said, "Jesus I know, and Paul I know: but who are you?", and he leaped on them and beat them so badly they ran out of the house naked and bleeding.

Paronomasia in the Bible

The Bible frequently uses paronomasia (wordplay, puns); for example:

"With the jawbone of an ass (hamor), heaps upon heaps (hamor hamortayim), with the jawbone of an ass have I smitten a thousand men" (Judges 15:16). In Hebrew, the word for both "ass" and "heap" is hamor. (See also Judges 14:12-14).

"And he had thirty sons that rode on thirty ass colts (ayarim), and they had thirty cities (ayarim), which are called Havvoth-jair unto this day, which are in the land of Gilead" (Judges 10:4). The Hebrew word ayarim can mean both "ass colts" and "cities." Another more "dynamic translation" might render in English the play on words in this verse as: "He had thirty sons who rode thirty burros who had thirty boroughs."

"And they were both naked (arummim), the man and his wife, and were not ashamed" (Genesis 2:25). The next verse says, "Now the serpent was more cunning (arum) than any beast of the field which the Lord God had made (Genesis 3:1). In one verse the term arum is used to mean "naked" and in the next verse the same basic root denotes "cunning" or "subtle." In both places the meaning includes "smooth". The serpent was "smooth-bodied" and "smooth-tongued".

"the king sent an Athenian senator to compel the Jews to forsake the laws of their fathers and cease to live by the laws of God, and also to pollute the temple in Jerusalem and call it the temple of Olympian Zeus, and to call the one in Gerizim the temple of Zeus the Friend of Strangers, as did the people who dwell in that place" (2 Maccabees 6:1-2). The Jews equated Olympian Zeus with the Syrian Baal Shamen (“the lord of the heavens”), a term which the Jews mockingly rendered as shiqqus shomem, “desolating abomination” (Daniel 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; 1 Maccabees 1:54; Matthew 24:15; Mark 13:14).

There are many other examples in the OT:

Genesis 9:27; 25:26; 48:22

Exodus 2:10

Ruth 1:20

Ecclesiastes 7:1 a שֵׁם, שֶׁמֶן

Isaiah 63:1

Micah 1:10-15

In the New Testament, see for example:

Philemon 1:11, Ὀνήσιμον—ἄχρηστον—εὔχρηστον Onesimon—achreston—euchreston. Onesimus in Greek literally means "profitable". In the Greek New Testament, "useless" is ἄχρηστον achrēston, and "useful" is εὔχρηστον euchrēston. The prefix "a-" is a negative, meaning "not-". The prefix "eu-" is a positive, meaning "good-". The phrase in the Greek text of Philemon verse 11 is: τόν ποτέ σοι ἄχρηστον , νυνὶ δὲ καὶ σοὶ καὶ ἐμοὶ εὔχρηστον

Matthew 16:18 σὐ εἶ Πέτρος (a huge rock), καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ (huge boulder, rock) οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν.

There are also possible examples of paronomasia in Matthew 2:23; Matthew 3:9.

In Matthew 2:23 the words Ναζωραῖος κληθήσεται Nazoraios klethesetai are not found in Hebrew or Aramaic in any of the books of the Old Testament prophets (Nazoraios= an inhabitant of Nazareth). They appear to many interpreters to be an allusion to Isaiah 11:1 where Messiah is called נֵצֶר (netzer = a branch), and possibly also to the word נָצַר (netzer = to preserve); see Isaiah 49:6.

In Matthew 3:9 (see Luke 3:8) John the Baptist says δύναται ὁ θεὸς ἐκ τῶν λίθων τούτων ἐγεῖραι τέκνα τῷ Ἀβραάμ dynatai o Theos ek ton lithos touton egeirai tekna to Abraham. The Hebrew words for the Greek λίθοι lithoi ("stones") and τέκνα tekna ("children") are similar in sound: "God can from these stones (אֲבָנִים ’ăbânîm) raise up children (בָּנִים bânîm) to Abraham."

In the paronomasia of John 2:19-21 Jesus refers to destruction of the temple and to raising it up again:

“

Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up. Then said the Jews, Forty and six years was this temple in building, and wilt thou rear it up in three days? But he spake of the temple of his body.

”

Scholars have pointed out the multiple examples of paronomasia in the profound double meanings used in John's Gospel.

Bible Translations

The Bible has been translated many times and in many ways so anyone, from the youngest child to the most learned scholar, can read the entire scripture in their own language and at their own reading level. Early versions in the languages of their people include the Septuagint, Syriac Peshitta and Vulgate, also the Arabic, the Coptic, and Persic Farsi. Here are some common English versions:

• American Standard Version
• Amplified Bible
• Douay-Rheims
• English Standard Version
• Good News Version
• King James Version
• Living Bible
• New American Standard Version
• New English Bible
• New International Version
• New King James Version
• Revised Standard Version
• Revised Version
• Septuagint
• Wycliffe Bible
• Conservative Bible - still a work-in-progress here at Conservapedia

Bible versions

Apart from Bibles that include the Apocrypha, The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a distinct version that was produced to justify many of the unique doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Joseph Smith, founder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints also produced his own version of the Bible which was published after his death: see Joseph Smith’s Inspired Version of the Bible pdf

Online multiple versions are also available for comparison by entering Bibles online in the search-engine window of the computer.

Simultaneous multiple versions of any one Bible verse are available at biblehub.com.

A drop-down menu of a multiple selection of Bible translations and versions is available on the biblegateway.com site.

For example: See a sample of the biblehub.com site with multilingual versions and translations of John 3:16.

For example: See a sample of the biblegateway.com site with drop-down menu feature: John 3:16 NABRE

Below at External links is featured online access to several versions of the Bible in English: Bible#English

Greek Bible online

Greek/English Bible Greek original according to the text used by the Church of Greece. English translation by L.C.L. Brenton, published side by side Greek Septuagint and Greek New Testament

Clementine Vulgate online

The Clementine Vulgate BIBLIA SACRA JUXTA VULGATAM CLEMENTINAM EDITIO ELECTRONICA PLURIMIS CONSULTIS EDITIONIBUS DILIGENTER PRÆPARATA A MICHAELE TVVEEDALE .pdf

1611 Authorized Version online

Authorized Version Official King James Bible Online. original 1611 King James Bible, Old Testament, New Testament, Apocrypha

See also

• Bible exegesis
• Biblical Canon
• Evidence supporting the Bible
• Bible apologetics website resources
• Bible prophecy
• Biblical accuracy
• Famous Bible paintings
• Gematria
• Midrash
• Targum
• Pseudepigrapha
• Aramaic Church
• Judaism
• Essay: The Way of Salvation
• Essay: How to choose a Bible
• Conservative Bible Project
• Inspiration of Holy Scripture: An Eastern Christian and Jewish Perspective
• New Testament understanding through the Jewish perspective
• Messianic Prophecies
• Gospel reading in the Church: the Turgama
• Wicked Bible
• Badger skins (Bible)
• Biblical timeline
• Literalist Bible chronology
• Harmony of the Gospel (Conservative Version)
• Revelation, Book of (historical exegesis)

External links

Bible societies

• American Bible Society
• United Bible Society
• The International Bible Society (New York/Colorado Springs)
• World Bible Translation Center
• Wycliffe Bible Translators
• La Biblia In Spanish.

Online, internet, and downloadable Bibles

Hebrew

• Hebrew-English Bible (JPS 1917 translation; includes Hebrew audio)
• XML Hebrew-English (KJV) Bible
• Old Testament in Hebrew

Greek

• Koine Greek New Testament
• Modern Greek Bible

Latin

• Latin Vulgate — Latin Vulgate with parallel Douay-Rheims and King James English translations
• SacredBible.org — Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible
• Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 A.D.)

English

• AudioBible — Audio version of the King James Version.
• Blue Letter Bible — On-line interactive reference library continuously updated from the teachings and commentaries of selected pastors and teachers who hold to the conservative, historical Christian faith.
• E-sword — Downloadable Bible for Windows.
• The Online Bible North America — Downloadable Bible for Windows.
• Theophilos Bible program
• American Standard Version.
• English Standard Version from Good News/Crossway (the publisher).
• King James Version with dictionary.
• King James Version.
• New Living Translation
• New Revised Standard Version.
• World English Bible.
• King James Version built using AJAX technologies, with Strongs and Greek Morphological Codes by Robinson.
• The Hypertext Bible with side-by-side translations in English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
• Bible Gateway at GospelCom.net text search in any one of many translations in numerous languages.
• Bible Read-Through — read through the Bible in a year aid.
• TheFreeBible.com Bible software downloads
• Interlinear (word-by-word) translation of the Christian Bible Hebrew and Koine Greek
• Aramaic New Testament resources
• Over 40 versions of the Bible
• Eastern and Western Armenian Bible
• Online Bible (King James Version & Old Testament)
• Bible — Louis Segond de 1910
• Complete Sayings of Christ
• Crosswalk.com Parallel Bible
• Blue Letter Bible
• Recovery Version Bible

Spanish

• Spanish Bible PDT version
• Versiones de la Biblia In Spanish.

Turkish

• Turkish Bible (Turkish Old and New Testament)

Finnish

• Finnish Bible (Finnish Old and New Testament)
• Raamattu (Study Finnish Bible)

Japanese

• On-line version hosted by the International Bible Society
• Japan Bible Society

Others

• Bible Timeline
• My Jewish Learning.com
• American Bible Society to search NASB, KJV, CEV, ASV and others.
• University of Virginia Library KJV word proximity search.
• Many translations in English, verse by verse
• Nava Karar NT Translation from Greek to Marathi
• Gender-neutral Bible translations.
• Word-for-Word vs.Thought-for-Thought translation Outlines the difference between formal and dynamic equivalent translation philosopy.
• Klingon Bible.

Commentaries and analysis

• Bible study topics - Bible studies and exposition online
• Biblical chronology by Alan Montgomery, B.Sc.(Hon)
• Biblical History, The Jewish History Resource Center — Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
• Judaica Press Translation — online Jewish translation of the Tanakh.
• Reading and Understanding the Bible.
• Source for Bible Answers.
• Amazing Facts Bible Studies.
• Learning Bible Today — a historical approach the Bible.
• John Gill's Exposition of the Bible — verse by verse commentary.
• Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible — unabridged.
• Topical References
• Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedia
• Bible Wiki, a database covering the people, places, books, doctrine and history of the Bible.

Bibliography

• Achtemeier, Paul J., ed. Harper's Bible Dictionary (1985), 1190pp; mainstream scholarship
• Ackroyd, P.R., ed. The Cambridge History of the Bible: From the Beginnings to Jerome; the West from the Fathers to the Reformation; the West from the Reformation to the Present Day (3 vol 1978), standard summary of scholarship; excerpt and text search vol 1; excerpt and text search vol 2; excerpt and text search vol 3
• Coggins, R.J. Introducing the Old Testament (Oxford University Press: 1990), 172pp. online edition
• Morgan, Robert, and John Barton. Biblical Interpretation (Oxford University Press: 1988), 342 pp online edition
• Sakenfeld, Katharine Doob, ed. The New Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible (NIDB) (5 vol 2009), the latest mainstream scholarship
• Unger, Merril F. Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1966; new edition 2006); Evangelical
  • Unger, Merril F. The New Unger's Bible Dictionary, (2006); 1416pp; Evangelical
• Unger, Merril F. Unger's Bible Handbook, Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1967); Evangelical.
• Halley, Henry H. Halley's Bible Handbook, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI (1965); Evangelical
• Sandys-Wunsch, John. What Have They Done to the Bible: A History of Modern Biblical Interpretation (2005) Scholarly history of transations and interpretations to 1900; excerpt and text search
• Williamspn, Peter. Catholic principles for interpreting scripture: a study of the Pontifical Biblical Commission's The interpretation of the Bible in the Church (2001); Catholic; excerpts and text search
• Wilson, Robert D. A Scientific Investigation of the Old Testament, Sunday School Times, Inc, Philadelphia, PA (1926).

Language

• Blass, Frederich, and others. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and other early Christian literature, translated by Robert W. Funk; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL (1961); German edition Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch Friedrich Rehkopf, editor, 14th edition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1976.
• Moulton, James H., and others. A Grammar of New Testament Greek (two volumes), edited by Wilbert Francis Howard, T&T Clark Publishers, Harrisburg, PA (1985); originally published 1920, Edinburgh, Scotland.
• Bauer, Walter. Griechisch-Deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Scriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Litteratur. Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, editors; 6th edition. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany (1988). Heading βιβλίον, columns 281-82.