Evidence
Evidence is a fact or information that is used to support or prove an idea or claim.[1]
In a court, evidence is presented in the form of testimony or documents that are used to persuade the fact finder (judge or jury) to decide the case for one side or the other.
In science, evidence is used to support or falsify a hypothesis or theory.
Evidence does not speak for itself, but must be interpreted. For example, a judge or jury must decide whether a gun found at the scene of a crime (the evidence) supports the prosecutor's claim that the gun's owner was present, or whether the gun got there by other means.
Evidence must be able to distinguish between two competing claims. For example, similarity of living things (homology) does not necessarily support the theory of evolution over the creationary viewpoint because the same evidence is consistent with both ideas.
Contrary to atheists who try to separate faith and scientific evidence, faith itself is evidence as stated in Hebrews 11:1: "Faith is the foundation of our hopes, the evidence of the unseen."
Contents
Historical evidence
See also: Historiography
.jpg)
Historiography is "the writing of history", or otherwise-preserving of historical facts to the generations.
Fischer's 7 habits of sound historiography
"David Hackett Fischer's book Historians’ Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper Collins, 1970): In only approximately 300 pages, Fischer surveys an immense amount of background historical literature to point out a comprehensive variety of analytical errors that many, if not most, historians commit. Fischer points out specific examples of faulty or sloppy reasoning in the work of even the most prominent historians, making it a useful book for beginning students of history. While this book presumably did not make Fischer popular with many of his peers, it should be noted that his contributions as a historian have not been limited simply to criticizing the work of others; since 1976, he has published a number of well-received books on other historical topics."[2]
Fischer's 7 rules for historians taken from Josh McDowell's book The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict:
1. The burden of proof for a historical claim is always upon the one making the assertion.
2. Historical evidence must be an answer to the question asked and not to any other question.
3. "An historian must not merely provide good evidence, but the best evidence. And the best evidence, all other things being equal, is the evidence which is most nearly immediate to the event itself."
4. Evidence must always be affirmative. Negative evidence is no evidence at all. In other words, Fischer is saying that an absence of evidence is not necessarily evidence of absence.
5. The meaning of any historical evidence is dependent upon the context from which it is obtained from.
6. "An empirical statement must not be more precise than its evidence warrants."
7. "All inferences from historical evidence are probabilistic."
(Source: Josh McDowell's Evidence that Demands a Verdict, page 674, 1999, Mark MCGarry, Texas Type and Book Works, Dallas, TX, ISBN 0-7852-4219-8)
Articles:
Evidence and the law
See also: Evidence (law)
In law, evidence is data, information or objects that support a legal claim or fact in the context of a particular legal case. The legal rules relating to evidence vary by legal systems (Country, state/province, city, town, etc.).
Types of evidence in legal systems
Broadly speaking, below are the types of evidence in legal cases:
1. Direct evidence: Direct evidence is straightforward in nature (Eyewitness's testimony, physical object, a confession)
2. Circumstantial evidence (Indirect evidence): Suggests a fact, but it doesn't directly prove it (Eyewitness testimony that suspect was seen near the crime scene, etc.)
3. Physical evidence: Tangible that is relevant to a trial and can be used to help prove facts or link a defendant to a crime. It's commonly known as real evidence or material evidence (Weapons, fingerprints or DNA evidence)
4. Documentary evidence: Written or recorded materials (Contracts, emails, medical records, audio/video recordings, etc.)
5. Expert evidence: Expert testimony from a qualified and relevant expert, such as a medical expert
6. Corroborating evidence: Strengthens or confirms other evidence in a trial (Another eyewitness backs up a witness's testimony in a trial)
7. Testimonial evidence: Testimony from a witness under oath, such as when a witness testifies in court that they saw a crime or an affidavit.
Scientific evidence
See also: Scientific evidence
Scientific evidence for a theory consists of observations and measurements which are consistent with predictions made by the theory. When a theory remains consistent with the facts, no matter how hard scientists try to find counter-examples, scientific confidence in the theory is bolstered.
Findings which are contrary to a theory normally cast doubt upon it. The theory must then be discarded, or significantly modified.
See also
References
- ↑ For example: evidence of a "Notice of Funding Opportunity (NOFO) for Grants to Support the Needs of the LGBTQI+ Community in Poland on the website of the U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Poland should be enough for a rational thinking person to make the decision that there were serious problems in American foreign policy and US federal budget discretionary spending priorities.
- ↑ Thinking About NASA History
