Difference between revisions of "Christopher Columbus"
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[[Image:columbus.jpg|thumb]] '''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] explorer who explored the [[West Indies]] for [[Spain]] from 1492 to 1502. His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas. | [[Image:columbus.jpg|thumb]] '''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] explorer who explored the [[West Indies]] for [[Spain]] from 1492 to 1502. His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas. | ||
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| + | As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.<ref> Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" ''Continuity'' 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446 </ref> | ||
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==First Voyage== | ==First Voyage== | ||
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==Death== | ==Death== | ||
[[Image:Rabida.jpg|thumb|Santa María de la Rábida, Palos de la Frontera, Huelva, Spain.]] | [[Image:Rabida.jpg|thumb|Santa María de la Rábida, Palos de la Frontera, Huelva, Spain.]] | ||
| − | Columbus died a prosperious man | + | Columbus died a prosperious man in Spain at the age of 55. He still believed he had reached Asia at the time. The notion that Columbus died in poverty and relative anonymity is a myth. It is also a myth that Columbus prove that the world was round. Europeans had known for centuries that the world was round. Columbus's disagreement with the experts was that he thought that the Earth was much smaller, and that he had enough supplies to sail to India. |
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| + | ==The Memory of Columbus== | ||
| + | Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a "malleable and durable American symbol." Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia, "an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty"; as Columbus, an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned American Manifest Destiny; and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving "cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities." During this evolution of "discovering" Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.<ref> Thomas J. Schlereth, "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794 in JSTOR] </Ref> | ||
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| + | In the 19th century the works of historians [[Washington Irving]], [[George Bancroft]], and [[William Hickling Prescott]] created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in ''A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed "savages" to whom he introduced a "superior" culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity. | ||
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| + | Americans celebrated Columbus's discovery of the New World and built numerous monuments to him in the late 19th century. [[Columbus Day]], is a national holiday in the United States, proclaimed so in 1937 by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], primarily at the behest of Catholics and Italain Americans who wanted a suitable day of celebration. | ||
| − | + | By the quincentenary celebration of his discovery in 1992, Columbus stood accused of genocide and ecocide. Columbus Day became controversial in the 1970s, as a matter of white guilt regarding the mistreatment of native Americans. The main accuser was Colorado professor [[Ward Churchill]] (who was fired in 2008 for academic misconduct and falsifying history) compared Columbus to Nazi Holocaust sponsor [[Heinrich Himmler]], pointing to the genocidal outcome of Columbus's brutal practices in the Caribbean. | |
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| + | Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.<ref>http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day</ref> | ||
| − | + | Protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas frequently used the term "genocide" to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy "maleficent myths" about the past and expose complex origins of "current fortunes and misfortunes" without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.<ref>James Axtell, "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370 </ref> | |
| − | + | ==Further reading== | |
| − | == | ||
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| − | == | + | ===Historiography=== |
| + | * Axtell, James. "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995." ''William And Mary Quarterly'' 1995 52(4): 649-696. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2947042 in JSTOR], reviews the major publications | ||
| + | * Axtell, James. "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370 | ||
| + | * Davidson, Miles H. ''Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined.'' (1997). 609 pp. | ||
| + | * Summerhill, Stephen J. and John Alexander Williams. ''Sinking Columbus: Contested History, Cultural Politics, and Mythmaking during the Quincentenary.'' (2000). 219 pp. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==External links== | ||
*http://www.eesd.org/Matsumoto/TM30/history/Explorers/colom.html | *http://www.eesd.org/Matsumoto/TM30/history/Explorers/colom.html | ||
*http://www.italian-american.com/columbus.htm | *http://www.italian-american.com/columbus.htm | ||
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*http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history | *http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history | ||
| − | + | == References == | |
| + | <references/> | ||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Columbus, Christopher}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Columbus, Christopher}} | ||
{{Nb_explorers}} | {{Nb_explorers}} | ||
[[Category:European History]] | [[Category:European History]] | ||
Revision as of 21:46, June 1, 2009
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was a Genoese explorer who explored the West Indies for Spain from 1492 to 1502. His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas.
As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.[1]
First Voyage
He went to Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain to ask them to finance his journey to the Far East (China and Japan); his plan was to sail west to get to the east: contrary to popular misconceptions, it was well known at the time, that the world was round - however its true circumference was unknown, so it seemed feasible to Columbus, to be able to sail from Europe to Asia within a reasonable amount of time. His first appeal to the king and queen was disappointing but the second time they furnished him with three ships (The Niña, The Pinta and The Santa Maria). Leaving August 3 1492, from the port of Palos, he sailed for months without sight of land while his crew was becoming increasingly disillusioned with the voyage believing themselves to be sailing towards their deaths; they began plotting mutiny.
Finally they came to land in the West Indies (October 12, 1492). When they explored a little they found the natives to be friendly and they found many new things that no European had ever seen before. Columbus thought he had landed in India, so he called the native people "Indians" - a designation which remains common to this very day. As they prepared to return to Spain the Santa Maria ran aground on a coral reef and could not be repaired. Columbus saw this as a sign from God and established a trading outpost he called Navidad (after the Christmas holiday).
However he still had the Nina and Pinta, and so he took most of his crew up the Windward Passage and onwards to Spain. The king and queen were amazed by the colorful birds and strange foods that Columbus brought with him. Columbus was then called Admiral.
Second Voyage
When Columbus sailed back to the new world in 1493, he found no sign of Navidad or of his crew. It is unknown what became of the crew, but one widely believed theory is the local Indian population grew tired of being harassed for gold and killed the sailors. Columbus then built a new settlement called Isabella (after the queen), then left it in the charge of his brother Diego and went exploring. He was puzzled that his maps of the east did not match with what he had seen. When he reached modern day Cuba he believed that this was the mainland and forced his crew to swear that it was. He also discovered Jamaica shortly afterwards. On his second voyage Columbus was able to sail back exactly to the same place as on his first voyage, despite poor navigating techniques of the time period. Some attribute this fact to divine providence.
Third Voyage
In 1498, Columbus left Spain with 17 ships carrying 1,200 colonists. He explored Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada and the coast of Venezuela.
When he returned to Isabella he found it in a state of confusion that he was unable to control. Because there was no gold he sent 500 Indians to Spain as slaves against the will of the king and queen. This brought much ridicule on Columbus. He sailed back to Spain to defend himself and the king and queen refused to furnish him with the necessary ships for continued exploration for three years.
Fourth Voyage
When rumors of the confusion in Isabella reached Spain the king and queen sent Francisco de Bobadilla to investigate. Bobadilla arrested Columbus and his brother in the name of the crown, took charge of Isabella forcefully and sent them back to Spain. Columbus begged for one more chance to explore “Asia”. They gave him four broken down ships. His fleet was beaten with storms and he was forced to give up his last journey. He started back for Spain, but his ships were on the verge of collapse and he was forced to stay at Jamaica. He sent one of his crew to Isabella in a canoe to get rescue ships. Seven months later the ships came and took him back to Spain.
Death
Columbus died a prosperious man in Spain at the age of 55. He still believed he had reached Asia at the time. The notion that Columbus died in poverty and relative anonymity is a myth. It is also a myth that Columbus prove that the world was round. Europeans had known for centuries that the world was round. Columbus's disagreement with the experts was that he thought that the Earth was much smaller, and that he had enough supplies to sail to India.
The Memory of Columbus
Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a "malleable and durable American symbol." Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia, "an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty"; as Columbus, an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned American Manifest Destiny; and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving "cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities." During this evolution of "discovering" Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.[2]
In the 19th century the works of historians Washington Irving, George Bancroft, and William Hickling Prescott created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed "savages" to whom he introduced a "superior" culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity.
Americans celebrated Columbus's discovery of the New World and built numerous monuments to him in the late 19th century. Columbus Day, is a national holiday in the United States, proclaimed so in 1937 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, primarily at the behest of Catholics and Italain Americans who wanted a suitable day of celebration.
By the quincentenary celebration of his discovery in 1992, Columbus stood accused of genocide and ecocide. Columbus Day became controversial in the 1970s, as a matter of white guilt regarding the mistreatment of native Americans. The main accuser was Colorado professor Ward Churchill (who was fired in 2008 for academic misconduct and falsifying history) compared Columbus to Nazi Holocaust sponsor Heinrich Himmler, pointing to the genocidal outcome of Columbus's brutal practices in the Caribbean.
Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.[3]
Protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas frequently used the term "genocide" to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy "maleficent myths" about the past and expose complex origins of "current fortunes and misfortunes" without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.[4]
Further reading
Historiography
- Axtell, James. "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995." William And Mary Quarterly 1995 52(4): 649-696. in JSTOR, reviews the major publications
- Axtell, James. "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," Historian 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370
- Davidson, Miles H. Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined. (1997). 609 pp.
- Summerhill, Stephen J. and John Alexander Williams. Sinking Columbus: Contested History, Cultural Politics, and Mythmaking during the Quincentenary. (2000). 219 pp.
External links
- http://www.eesd.org/Matsumoto/TM30/history/Explorers/colom.html
- http://www.italian-american.com/columbus.htm
- http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/columbus.php
- http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history
References
- ↑ Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" Continuity 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446
- ↑ Thomas J. Schlereth, "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." Journal of American History 1992 79(3): 937-968. in JSTOR
- ↑ http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day
- ↑ James Axtell, "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," Historian 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370
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