Changes

[[Image:Javier AguirreHispanic Demographic.jpg|350px|right|thumb|Javier Aguirre Mexican [[soccer]] coach of Latinos at first concentrate to states nearest Mexico (and Cuba), but then diffuse throughout the Spanish team "Atletico de Madrid"U.]]'''Latinos''' are persons of Latin or Latin languages-speaking descentS. Latinos, in the US, is a term used to describe [[Mexicans]] and other Hispanics (Latin-American or Spanish-speaking descent).

== Latinos '''Latino''' (in the [[US ==]]) is a new [[Image:HispanicEnglish]] word ([[American]]ism) derived from a [[Spanish]] word that means a person of [[Latin]] languages-speaking descent.jpg|thumb|Hispanic population Latinos, in English, means descendents of the US in 1990.''[[Conquistador]]By 2005, s'' of the Latino population in the US reached 41.3 million, Spanish Conquest of whom 64% were Mexican, 10% Puerto Rican, 3% Cuban, 3% Dominican, 3% Salvadoran, North and South America (Spanish: ''La Conquista'') living in the remaining 17% from smaller groupsU.S. <ref> See Census Bureau press release, July 16, 2007 David G. at Gutiérrez, ed. ''The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960'' (2004) pp 1-2 [httphttps://www.censusamazon.govcom/PressColumbia-ReleaseHistory-Latinos-United-States/wwwdp/releases0231118090/archivesref=sr_1_1/facts_for_features_special_editions103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190386160&sr=8-1 online excerpt]</010327ref><ref>[http://dictionary.htmlreference.com/browse/latinos Latino]Dictionary.com</ref> About 12 million undocumented ("illegal") immigrants live Many descendants of the Spanish Conquest in the U.S., a number territories of the former Spanish Empire that has grown since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9-11 attacks are now part of 2001]]. The undocumented--and indeed the legal immigrants-- have become targets United States were never part of verbal Mexico and political attackfind it highly offensive to be referred to as "Mexican-American. "

Culturally they are mostly [[conservative]] [[Catholics]]Latino (female is "Latina", with plural is "Latinos") is a strong broad geographic term referring to those who come from [[evangelicalLatin American]] element. They are known for very strong family tiescountries, and high birth rates. They cluster at the bottom regardless of the socio-economic scale, with low levels of education and high dropout rates from schools, and mostly hold unskilled whether he or semi-skilled jobsshe speaks Spanish. The illegals ("undocumented") hold even lower-skilled jobs in agriculture, construction, landscaping, hotels and restaurants, while sending money back to their families. The Latino crime rate term is about not used universally across the national average. The illegals pay the same sales taxes as everyone, but usually have incomes too low United States and tends to pay income taxes. Many of the ilegals pay social security taxes into false accounts (which means they are not entitled to benefits). The legals include both citizens and legal residents who are not yet citizens; all children born be used regionally in the Eastern U.S. have U.S. citizenship. In many familiesthe border states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, some members are illegal and some are legal non-citizens California, people of Spanish and others are full citizensmixed Native American descent most often refer to themselves as [[Hispanic]].

The term "Latin" is derived from Southern [[Europe]]ans' ancient language, [[Latin]], the language spoken by the [[Roman]]s; descendant languages are [[Spanish]], [[French]], [[Italian]], [[Portuguese]] (also spoken in [[Brazil]] in [[South America]]), and to a distance, [[Romanian]] in [[Romania]] and the [[Balkans]]. == Latinos in the US ==[[File:Sotomeyr2.jpg|thumb|250px|Sotomayor's parents came from Puerto Rico; her mother was a WAC in the US Army in World War II]] Latinos are diverse: 60% are native-born and 40% foreign-born; 64% are of Mexican heritage, and the other 36% are from Cuba, Puerto Rico, Central America and beyond. They split their vote in 2004, when President [[George Bush|Bush]] appealed for their votes, but voted 2–1 against McCain in 2008 when he made little appeal to them. Despite their diversity they were united in celebrating the nomination to the Supreme Court of Judge [[Sonia Sotomayor]] in May 2009. She was born to a poor family of migrants from Puerto Rico, and after attending Princeton and Yale Law School made it to the top through very hard work. Her nomination marked the national recognition and acceptance of all Latinos.  As a united whole, [[Hispanic]]s make up more than 15% of the U.S. population and accounted for about half of the country's growth in the past decade. [[Image:Hispanic.jpg|thumb|450px|Hispanic population in the US in 1990. Since 1990 there has been a doubling in numbers and much greater presence outside the Southwest]]By 2005, the Latino population in the US reached 41.3 million, of whom 64% were Mexican, 10% [[Puerto Rican]], 3% [[Cuba]]n, 3% [[Dominican]], 3% [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]], and the remaining 17% from smaller groups.<ref>[https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/010327.html See Census Bureau press release, July 16, 2007 at]</ref> According to the Pew Research Center in 2008, 12,7 millions were of Mexican origin (32% of all immigrants living in this country).<ref>[http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1191/mexican-immigrants-in-america-largest-group Mexican Immigrants in the United States, 2008]</ref> About 30% of the Latinos—12 million—are illegal ("undocumented") immigrants to the U.S., a number that has grown since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9-11 attacks of 2001]]. The illegal—and indeed the legal immigrants—have become targets of verbal and political criticism.  Culturally they are mostly [[conservative]] [[Catholics]], with a strong [[evangelical]] element. They are known for very strong family ties, and high birth rates. They cluster at the bottom of the socio-economic scale, with low levels of education and high dropout rates from schools, and mostly hold unskilled or semi-skilled jobs. The "illegals" (undocumented) hold even lower-skilled jobs in agriculture, construction, landscaping, hotels and restaurants, while sending money back to their families. The Latino crime rate is about the national average. The illegals pay the same sales taxes as everyone, but usually have incomes too low to pay income taxes. Many of the illegals pay social security taxes into false accounts (which means they are not entitled to benefits). The legals include both citizens and legal residents who are not yet citizens; all children born in the U.S. have U.S. citizenship. In many families, some members are illegal and some are legal non-citizens and others are full citizens. They have been politically rather inactive (except in [[New Mexico]] and [[Puerto Rico]]). PolicallyPolitically, the citizens have low turnout rates, but their rapid increase of numbers presages a major voting block. [[George W. Bush]], and to a lesser extent [[John McCain]] have made major efforts to attract them to the Republican Party, but Democrats outnumber Republicans by about 65:35. The assimilation rates of Latinos resembles that of Italians and Poles in the early 20th century, and is higher than the rate of immigrants who came from Germany in the 18th and 19th century. Latinos have assimilated smoothly into American religion, sports, jobs and popular culture. They cling to favorite foods, but have made Mexican cuisine as popular in the U.S. as pizza (which the Italians brought over). The first generation, who came to the U.S. as adults, mostly speak Spanish. Their children are usually bilingual; very few of the children attend Spanish language schools or read Spanish. Many [[politically correct]] liberals and leftists<ref>[https://www.americanthinker.com/articles/2020/05/latinx__the_latest_leftist_educational_maneuver.html Latinx -- The Latest Leftist Educational Maneuver] at the American Thinker</ref> (most of whom are white), as well as many liberal media outlets, choose to use the made-up<ref>[https://www.dailywire.com/news/latinx-not-real-word-michael-j-knowles ‘Latinx’ Is Not A Real Word] at the Daily Wire</ref> misspelling ''Latinx''<ref>[https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/07/latinx-word-elizabeth-warren-mispronunciation/ ‘Latinx’ Is a Stupid Word] at National Review</ref> (pronounced "la-tinks", which they claim is "gender-neutral") to refer to Latinos as a whole; Wikipedia even has an article on the term. The term ''Latinx'' is not embraced by most Latinos, however,<ref>[https://reason.com/2019/11/04/latinx-poll-think-now-hispanics-2020-woke/ Survey: Only 2% of Hispanics Prefer the Politically Correct Term 'Latinx']</ref><ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2019/10/25/latinx-race-progressives-hispanic-latinos-column/4082760002/ Progressives, Hispanics are not 'Latinx.' Stop trying to Anglicize our Spanish language] at USA Today</ref> and many find the term offensive.<ref>[https://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/ny-oped-please-dont-call-me-latinx-20201031-3d4e3sz7jnabdflkd45dui625m-story.html Please don’t call me Latinx: Why it’s not my preferred term] at the ''New York Daily News''</ref> Also, conservatives as a whole, regardless of ethnic or racial background, find the conscious use of the politically-correct term by white liberals to be ludicrous as well as condescending to Latinos.<ref>[https://www.newsbusters.org/blogs/nb/pj-gladnick/2019/09/02/pc-term-latinx-had-outbreak-vox PC Term 'Latinx' Had an Outbreak at Vox] at NewsBusters</ref>

When [[Mexico]] took over control from [[Spain]] in the early 1820s, the new government ignored and isolated the "norteños" (inhabitants of Mexico's northern provinces), except to break up the mission system in [[California]]. The systematic [[Navajo]] and [[Apache]] raids on [[New Mexico]] villages and ranches were ignored, as was the vulnerability of California, as the central government pulled back its soldiers to use them in recurrent civil wars and factional battles. When [[Republic of Texas|Texas]] seemed too independent, Mexico's President [[Santa Anna]] led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas; The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City. The "norteños" played a minor role in the [[Mexican American War]] of 1846-481846–48, and when offered the choice of repatriating to Mexico or remaining and becoming full citizens of the United States, the great majority remained. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of "lo mexicano," that is of "being Mexican," and that new identification had little to do with far-off Mexico. <ref> David G. Gutiérrez, "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517. ISSN: 0021-8723 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]</ref> American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of [[Texas]] and [[California]], and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Californios--who Californios—who only numbered 10,000 in 1848, remained in California but were soon overwhelmed by the immigration of hundreds of thousands of newcomers to California, and largely became invisible to Anglos. The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, called itself "Spanish" (rather than "Mexican") to distinguish themselves from "los norteamericanos". The Latinos emphasized their own religion, language, customs and kinship ties, and drew into enclaves, rural colonias and urban barrios, which norteamericanos seldom entered; intermarriage rates were low.

[[ImageFile:Prize workers 1926Texas-1905-Mexicans.jpg|thumbleft|250px|Prize Mexican American field workers 1926picking carrots in the Rio Grande Valley, about 1905]]After 1911 the ferocious civil wars in Mexico led 600,000 to 1 million refugees to flee north across the border, which was generally open. Well educated middle -class families emigrated, as well as poor peons.  In Texas a band of radicals based in Mexico issued the manifesto "[[Plan de San Diego]]" in 1915 in South Texas calling on Hispanics to reconquer the Southwest and kill all the Anglo men. These radicals assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. The vast majority of Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). LULAC, headed by professionals, businessmen and modernizers, became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.<ref> Benjamin H. Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (2003). </ref>

Over 500,000 returned after 1930, but many stayed. The consulates In Texas a band of the Mexican government in major cities radicals based in Mexico issued the Southwest organized a network of "juntas patrioticas" (patriotic councils) and manifesto "comisiónes honoríficos" (honorary committees) to celebrate Mexican national holidays such as the [[Cinco Plan de MayoSan Diego]]; " in 1915 in South Texas calling on Hispanics to reconquer the target audience was Southwest and kill all the Latino middle classAnglo men.<ref> In Mexico itself, These radicals assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the emergence Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. The vast majority of a national identity for Tejanos strongly repudiated the average person was Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the work League of the 20th centuryUnited Latin American Citizens (LULAC). After 1920 the national government promoted "true" mexicanismo LULAC, headed by stirring up anti-American sentiment; promoting contemporary Mexican art, musicprofessionals, businessmen and literature; extolling and placing new emphasis on modernizers, became the value of the nation's indigenous peoples central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and the heritage of mestizajecivil rights.<ref>Benjamin H. Gutiérrez Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (19992003).</ref> [[Image:Prize workers 1926.jpg|thumb|Prize workers, 1926]]

Over 500,000 returned after 1930, but many stayed. The consulates of the Mexican government in major cities in the Southwest organized a network of "juntas patrioticas" (patriotic councils) and "comisiónes honoríficos" (honorary committees) to celebrate Mexican national holidays such as the [[Cinco de Mayo]]; the target audience was the Latino middle class.<ref>In Mexico itself, the emergence of a national identity for the average person was the work of the 20th century. After 1920 the national government promoted "true" mexicanismo by stirring up anti-American sentiment; promoting contemporary Mexican art, music, and literature; extolling and placing new emphasis on the value of the nation's indigenous peoples and the heritage of mestizaje. Gutiérrez (1999)</ref> [[Image:Mexican people.jpg|thumb|Mexicans in Madison, Wisconsin.]]In borderlands towns such as Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Laredo, San Antonio, El Paso, Tucson, Yuma, San Diego, and Los Angeles, local Latino leaders wanted to restrict the influx of immigrants, because the newcomers directly competed with resident Latinos for jobs and housing and because they reinforced negative stereotypes regarding a lazy and violent lifestyle. In 1929 the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) was formed on the premise that full acceptance of American social, educational and political values was the only way Latinos could reasonably expect to improve their political, economic, and social position in American society. Some upwardly mobile families joined [[Protestant]] churches, but most remained devout, conservative [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]. From the early 1930s through the 1960s, LULAC's political agenda focused on citizenship training and naturalization of "foreign-born Mexicans," English-language training, active support of antidiscriminatory litigation and legislation (particularly regarding public schools), and strict control of further immigration from Mexico. LULAC promoted the liberal rhetoric of "equality" and "rights" and the mutual obligations of [[Republicanism, U.S.|republican civic duty]]. However, voting levels were quite low, and especially in South Texas the Latino vote was controlled by local "bosses." There was little in the way of radical movements.

From 1945 to the early 1970s, large numbers of Latinos moved out of dead-end, low-wage work into higher-paying and higher-status skilled blue-collar occupations.<ref> 43% of the men were still unskilled workers or farm laborers in 1950; by 1960, the proportion had fallen to 33%.</ref> They and their children experienced steady gains in virtually all major socioeconomic indicators, including income, occupational status, English-language proficiency, years of education, and geographic mobility. The opportunities were in the cities; there was little upward mobility for those who remained in the California farmland or in the chronically depressed lower [[Rio Grande]] Valley of Texas, and in the isolated rural hamlets of [[Colorado]] and [[New Mexico]].<ref> Bean and Tienda, ''The Hispanic Population of the United States'' (1987), 17-22, 280-337. </ref>

A common pattern emerged after 1940 of men working summers in the U.S. and spending the winter season in the village back in Mexico. While this became illegal in 1965, the numbers involved kept growing. By 2007 there were 12 million or so undocumented workers in the U.S.; they had jobs, often using fake identity cards. They made money in the U.S. but returned to the villages to spend it, attend [[fiesta]]sfiestas, tend to family business, and participate in extended kinship rituals such as [[baptism]]s, weddings, and funerals. After the increased border security following the [[9-11 attacks]] in 2001, the [[seasonal migration|back-and-forth pattern]] became dangerous. People kept coming north, but they stayed in the U.S. and sent money home every month. Locked into the American economy year-round, millions of these undocumented workers moved out of season agricultural jobs into year-round jobs in restaurants, hotels, construction, landscaping and semiskilled factory work, such as meat packing. Most paid federal social security taxes into imaginary accounts (and thus were not eligible for benefits.) Few had high enough incomes to pay federal or state income taxes, but all paid local and state sales taxes on their purchases as well as local property taxes (via their rent payments to landlords).

[[Image:Jessica Alba.jpg|thumb|Actress [[Jessica Alba]], born in Pomona, California to [[Denmark|Danish]] and [[France|French]] [[Canada|Canadian]] descent mother and Mexican American descent father.]]California in 2006 had the largest Hispanic population of any state as of 2006 (13.1 million), followed by Texas (8.4 million) and Florida (3.6 million). Texas had the largest numerical increase between 2005 and 2006 (305,000), with California (283,000) and Florida (161,000) following. In New Mexico, Hispanics comprised the highest proportion of the total population (44%), with California and Texas (36% each) next in line. The Hispanic population in 2006 was much younger, with a median age of 27.4 compared with the population as a whole at 36.4. About a third of the Hispanic population was younger than 18, compared with one-fourth of the total population.<ref> See Census report May 17, 2007 at [httphttps://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/010048.html] with details at [httphttps://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/cb07-70tbl2.xls]</ref>

The rapid growth of the Hispanic population after 1972 began in the Southwest, but spread nationwide by 2000. The diffusion of Latinos across the country was dramatic by 2008, and became a major issue in the presidential election, with Republicans echoing nativist hostilities. In Georgia, for example, there were barely 60,000 Latinos in 1980, and 100,000 in 1990, less than 2%. By the 2000 Census the number had surged to 435,000, or 5%, with continuing rapid growth to 700,000 in 2006.<ref> Bullock and Hood (2006)</ref>

The U.S. acquired Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, and engaged in a massive modernization program involving disease control, sanitation, transportation, internal improvements, and medical care, along with corporate investment in sugar plantations. The island was overpopulated, so a systematic effort was made to assist migration. Over 5000 migrated to Hawaii (also acquired in 1898) to work in sugar plantations. By 1920 Puerto Ricans had full U.S. citizenship and had a presence in 45 states. New York City was the destination of 60%; children born anywhere on the mainland were dubbed "Nuyorican."<ref> Ruiz (2006)</ref>==Historiography==The study of Latino history raises a issues regarding the definition and boundaries of "Latino." Are Latinos a "group" and if so, what are its defining boundaries and characteristics? Is speaking Spanish a requirement to be Latino? Are indigenous peoples from Latin America part of the group? Do Latinos consider themselves a group? Do they cluster along lines of geographical origin? What is the relationship between old established settlements and new arrivals? How does the presence of 12 million undocumented ("illegal") arrivals affect the 25 million "legal" residents of the U.S. How has nativism and the hostility of Anglos and blacks shaped the group identity and opportunity? What impact is the rapid diffusion across the country having on local communities, schools, labor markets. Will the Latinos start voting in large numbers and become a political force? What is the impact of high dropout rates? Will majority-Latino communities change the national culture? Does Latino immigration follow or alter traditional patterns of assimilation?

Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079

==Further readingHistoriography==See The study of Latino history raises issues regarding the more detailed guide at definition and boundaries of "Latino." Are Latinos a "group" and if so, what are its defining boundaries and characteristics? Is speaking Spanish a requirement to be Latino? Are indigenous peoples from Latin America part of the Bibliography subpagegroup? Do Latinos consider themselves a group? Do they cluster along lines of geographical origin? What is the relationship between old established settlements and new arrivals? How does the presence of 12 million undocumented ("illegal") arrivals affect the 25 million "legal" residents of the U.S. How has nativism and the hostility of Anglos and blacks shaped the group identity and opportunity? What impact is the rapid diffusion across the country having on local communities, schools, labor markets. Will the Latinos start voting in large numbers and become a political force? What is the impact of high dropout rates? Will majority-Latino communities change the national culture? Does Latino immigration follow or alter traditional patterns of assimilation?

* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics,'' Regina Books, (2007). [httphttps://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1930053509/ref=sib_dp_bod_bc/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S0CO#reader-link Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

* García, María Cristina. ''Havana, USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994'' (1996); [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Havana-USA-Americans-Florida-1959-1994/dp/0520211170/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274078&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Gutiérrez, David G. ed. ''The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960'' (2004) 512pp[httphttps://www.amazon.com/Columbia-History-Latinos-United-States/dp/0231118090/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190386160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search] * Gutiérrez, David G. "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517481–517. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR] covers 1800 to the 1980s* Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity in the Southwest, 1910-1986'' 1995. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Walls-Mirrors-Americans-Immigrants-Ethnicity/dp/0520202198/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439733&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement'' (2000) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Mexican-American-Rights-Movement/dp/0313304254/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511642&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]* Meier, Matt S. ''Notable Latino Americans'' (1997), 127 very well written interpretive biographies

* Sãnchez Korrol, Virginia E. ''From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2g5004p1/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Colonia-Community-History-American-Society/dp/0520079000/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274120&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Whalen, Carmen Teresa, and Victor Vásquez-Hernández, eds. '' The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives'' (2005),===Primary sources===* Augenbraum, Harold, and Margarite Fernández Olmos, eds. '' The Latino Reader: An American Literary Tradition from 1542 to the Present'' (1997) 502 pages [https://books.google.com/books?id=07GPejy0bZ4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Latino&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 excerpts and text search]* Augenbraum, Harold, and Ilan Stavans, eds. ''Growing Up Latino: Memoirs and Stories'' (1993) 344 pages [https://books.google.com/books?id=quPX3vBkk58C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Latino&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 excerpts and text search]

* Garcia, Richard A. "Religion as Language, Church as Culture: Changing Chicano Historiography," ''Reviews in American History'' 34.4 (2006) 521-528 521–528 in [[http://muse.uq.edu.au/login?uri=/journals/reviews_in_american_history/v034/34.4garcia.html Project Muse]].

* Gutiérrez, David G. ed. ''The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960'' (2004) 512pp[httphttps://www.amazon.com/Columbia-History-Latinos-United-States/dp/0231118090/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190386160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search] * Gutiérrez, David G. "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517481–517. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR] covers 1800 to the 1980s* Rochín, Refugio I., and Denis N. Valdés, eds. ''Title: Voices of a New Chicana/o History.'' (2000). 307 pp. * Ruiz, Vicki L. “Nuestra América: Latino History as United States History,” ''Journal of American History,'' 93 (Dec. 2006), 655–72.in [[History Cooperative]]

* Sanchez, George J. ''Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945'' (1995) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Becoming-Mexican-American-Ethnicity-1900-1945/dp/0195096487/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196813292&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]

* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics,'' Regina Books, 2007. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1930053509/ref=sib_dp_bod_bc/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S0CO#reader-link Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

* Fregoso, Rosa Linda. ''The Bronze Screen: Chicana and Chicano Film Culture.'' (1993) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Bronze-Screen-Chicana-Chicano-Culture/dp/0816621365/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439770&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* Garcia, Ignacio M. ''Viva Kennedy: Mexican Americans in Search of Camelot,'' Texas A&M University Press, 2000. 227pp [httphttps://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0890969175/ref=sib_books_pg/002-3913059-9393623?ie=UTF8&keywords=Viva%20Kennedy&p=S00W&checkSum=%252FgJCGbhD9ZhkdM7tbdQ24Nkv6GwGpcQXxELnjjwNHTI%253DExcerpts Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com].

* Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity in the Southwest, 1910-1986'' 1995. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Walls-Mirrors-Americans-Immigrants-Ethnicity/dp/0520202198/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439733&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Kenski, Kate and Tisinger, Russell. "Hispanic Voters in the 2000 and 2004 Presidential General Elections." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(2): 189-202189–202. Issn: 0360-4918

* Matovina, Timothy. ''Guadalupe and Her Faithful: Latino Catholics in San Antonio, from Colonial Origins to the Present.'' 2005. 232 pp. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Guadalupe-Her-Faithful-Catholics-Religions/dp/080188229X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439807&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement'' (2000) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Mexican-American-Rights-Movement/dp/0313304254/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511642&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]

* Saldívar-Hull, Sonia. ''Feminism on the Border: Chicana Gender Politics and Literature'' 2000. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Feminism-Border-Chicana-Politics-Literature/dp/0520207335/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439846&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics'' (2007) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Search-Civic-Voice-California-Politics/dp/1930053509/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198650140&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* García, Matt. ''A World of Its Own: Race, Labor, and Citrus in the Making of Greater Los Angeles, 1900-1970'' (2001)* Gutierrez,Ramon A., and Patricia Zavella, eds. ''Mexicans in California: Transformations and Challenges'' essays by leading scholars (2009)* Hayes-Bautista, David E. ''La Nueva California: Latinos in the Golden State.'' U. of California Press, (2004). 263 pp. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Nueva-California-Latinos-Golden-State/dp/0520241460/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230154&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Sánchez; George J. ''Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945'' (1993) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Becoming-Mexican-American-Ethnicity-1900-1945/dp/0195096487/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190472154&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

** [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/17/album1.html Vol. 17 ''History of Arizona and New Mexico 1530-1888)]'' (1889)] * Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. ''Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio'' 1984. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Women-Depression-Culture-1929-1939-Southwestern/dp/0890968640/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511202&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* Buitron Jr., Richard A. ''The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913-2000'' (2004) [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Tejano-Identity-Antonio-1913-2000-Communities/dp/0415949505/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511249&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Weber, David J. ''The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American Southwest under Mexico'' (1982)[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00585.0001.001 in ACLS e-book]

* García, María Cristina. ''Havana, USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994'' (1996); [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Havana-USA-Americans-Florida-1959-1994/dp/0520211170/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274078&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Millard, Ann V. and Chapa, Jorge. ''Apple Pie and Enchiladas: Latino Newcomers in the Rural Midwest.'' 2004. 276 pp. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Apple-Pie-Enchiladas-Newcomers-Midwest/dp/0292705689/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274263&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Sãnchez Korrol, Virginia E. ''From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2g5004p1/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Colonia-Community-History-American-Society/dp/0520079000/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274120&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search] * Vargas, Zaragosa. ''Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933'' (1993) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8t1nb5q5/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Proletarians-North-Industrial-1917-1933-American/dp/0520219627/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274212&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]* Weise, Julie M. "Mexican Nationalisms, Southern Racisms: Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the U.S. South, 1908–1939," ''American Quarterly,'' Volume 60, Number 3, September 2008, pp.&nbsp;749–777 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_quarterly/v060/60.3.weise.html in Project Muse]