{{Founding FathersOfficeholder|name=Alexander Hamilton
|image=alexhamilton.jpg
|State:party=New York[[Federalist]]|Religion:spouse=Elizabeth Schuyler|religion=[[EpiscopalianChristian]]|Founding Documents:offices= {{Officeholder/secretary (cabinet) |of=the Treasury |number=1st |president=[[United States ConstitutionGeorge Washington]] |terms=September 11, 1789 – January 31, 1795 |preceded=none |succeeded=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]] }}}}'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 - – July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most [[conservative]] and [[Patriotic|nationalistic]], of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. One of the greatest American intellectuals ever, Hamilton became a [[Christian]] about a decade before he was shot and killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.<ref>D'Elia, Donald (1983). [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history/alexander-hamilton-from-caesar-to-christ.html "Alexander Hamilton: From Caesar to Christ"], ch. 6 of ''The Spirits of 76'' (Front Royal, VA: Christendom College Press), p. 87. Republished at Catholic Education Resource Center website/Culture/History.</ref>
After wartime service as aide-de-camp to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in [[New York]]. He called for a strong new [[constitution]] to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time and the driving force of the [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] Administration that shaped the young nation.
As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far-reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over [[state debt]]s as well as [[debts]] owed by the [[Federal government|national government]], and funded them with long-term [[national debt]], which in turn was paid by a new [[tariff]] on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a [[central bank]] to make [[liquidity]] in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single [[economy]], and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular [[political party]] in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republicans]], a party founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]].
In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of [[Britain]], and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with [[George Washington]], Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored [[France]] in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was Presidentpresident, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless, he helped Jefferson become President president when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by [[Democrats]] as undemocratic and even pro-[[monarchy]].
By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's [[patriotism|nationalism]], financial wizardry, and promotion of business and [[banking]] increasingly appealed to [[conservative]]s, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an [[aristocracy]] or [[monarch]].
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the British [[West Indies]] to a mother who had a reputation as the town harlot and a father who was a gambler and who had a wife on another Caribbean island. When he was ten his father left, leaving he, his brother, and his mother alone. At twelve, his mother died while sick, due to fever. Alexander and his brother James would later move in with their older cousing Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide.
A prodigy in every sense of the word, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a [[hurricane]] that had hit the town attracted patrons, who would later collect a fund to pay his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton’s Hamilton's origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.
==Revolution==
==Constitutional Convention==
Hamilton, alongside [[James Madison]] and [[James Wilson]], voiced strong opposition to [[state's rights]], [[decentralization]], and [[limited government]] at the Constitutional Convention and favored a radically [[nationalist]] approach to American government. Hamilton believed that the central principle of the [[Articles of Confederation]] was the idea of state sovereignty, but he argued that this indicated that the entire idea was completely wrong. Because state sovereignty, "the fundamental principle of the old Confederation," was wholly defective, Hamilton argued that America's only choice was to "eradicate and discard this principle before we can expect an efficient government."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, Elliot II, 234. The idea is also present in "The Federalist" no. 15. </ref>
During the Conventionconvention, Hamilton argued for the most heavily centralized plan of government out of all of the attendees. He proposed making the chief executive an elected monarch who could not be removed from office unless he ceased to rule "in good behavior." The president under Hamilton's plan would have been given an absolute veto which could not be overturned by the legislature. The national government would have had the power to appoint all state [[governors]] and would wield absolute veto power over all state legislation. Hamilton's plan also gave a life-time tenure in office to senators and to the judiciary. With his plan considered as a whole, Hamilton "advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty, noting that as long as there was power to be had in the states, people would aspire to acquire that power, to the detriment of the nation as a whole."<ref>https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html#hamilton</ref> Hamilton himself put it even more tersely, saying that "no amendment of the confederation can answer the purpose of a good government, so long as State sovereignties do, in any shape, exist."<ref>https://archive.org/stream/secretproceedin00convgoog/secretproceedin00convgoog_djvu.txt</ref>
Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in [[newspaper]]s in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].
==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s Washington's Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and [[excise tax]]es (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world’s world's leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an [[agriculture|agrarian]] republic.
In 1790, Hamilton appointed [[Tench Coxe]] as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury.<ref>[http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0280 Appointment of Tench Coxe as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, (10 May 1790)]</ref>
==Adams and Jefferson administrations==
During the Adams administration, Hamilton was Senior Officer of the United States Army. Although he and Adams were both Federalists, both had a strong disagreement over how to handle the XYZ Affair, with Hamilton supporting war and Adams opposing it. This led to Hamilton supporting Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president in 1800, though this backfired and Pinckney was not nominated, further straining Hamilton's relationship with Adams. During the election of 1800, Aaron Burr and Thomas Jefferson tied in electoral votes, sending the election to the House of Representatives. The vote deadlocked, but Hamilton intervened and endorsed Jefferson over Burr, saying, "At least Jefferson is honest." In 1802 Hamilton proposed the idea of a "Christian Constitution Society", one that would likely be a pro-Federalist Party organization.<ref>Turner, John. (April 29, 2015). [https://www.patheos.com/blogs/anxiousbench/2015/04/alexander-hamiltons-christian-constitutional-society/ Alexander Hamilton's "Christian Constitutional Society"]. ''Patheos''.</ref> Later in 1804, Hamilton would stop Aaron Burr from being elected governor of New York, leading to their duel and Hamilton's death.
==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of [[American values]]—and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in [[republicanism]], admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a [[monarchy]]. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "[[Farewell Address]]." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican [[citizenship]] and [[freedom of the press]]. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, [[elitist]] reformulation of republicanism.
Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on [[John Locke]]'s concept of [[liberty]], [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s concept of power, and [[Nicolò Machiavelli]]'s concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian [[philanthropy]] that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74</ref>
==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, [[New Jersey]]. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>httphttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's [[gun]]shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day.<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.
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==Trivia==
Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of the very few only two non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill. Originally the United States Treasury planned to replace Hamilton with a female on the $10 bill (since Hamilton was not a sitting president); however, the plan was shelved due to the popularity of [[Hamilton (musical)|the Hamilton musical]].
==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."
* "In the general course of human nature, a power over a man's subsistence amounts to a power over his will." - Federalist 79
*"Foreign influence is truly the Grecian horse to a republic. We cannot be too careful to exclude its influence."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay (1842). “The Federalist, on the New Constitution, Written in the Year 1788”, p. 427</ref>
*"The best we can hope for concerning the people at large is that they be properly armed."<ref>[[Federalist No. 69]]</ref>
==See also==
==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [httphttps://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31207–31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444429–444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist—A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-4621–46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [httphttps://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581–630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [httphttps://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s
===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326287–326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-148–14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)
===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [httphttps://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [httphttps://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers'' under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]
*[https://librivox.org/alexander-hamilton-by-charles-a-conant/ Alexander Hamilton], by Charles A. Conant - Audiobook at [[LibriVox]]
==External links==
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