Difference between revisions of "Black Sea"

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[[Image:Black-Sea-NASA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|NASA satellite image of the Black Sea]]
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The [[Black Sea]] is a large body of water forming part of the boundary between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].
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[[Image:Black Sea map.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Black Sea]]
 
  
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The '''Black Sea''' is an inland [[sea]] between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Anatolia]] that is actually a distant arm of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by way of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is connected to the Mediterranean by the [[Bosporus]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]], and to the [[Sea of Azov]] by the [[Strait of Kerch]].
 
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There is a net inflow of seawater through the Bosporus, 200&nbsp;km³ per year. There is an inflow of freshwater from the surrounding areas, especially central and middle-eastern Europe, totalling 320&nbsp;km³ per year. The most important river entering the Black Sea is the [[Danube]].<ref>[http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=16477 The Danube Spills into the Black Sea] NASA Visible Earth. Retrieved [[2 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> The Black Sea has an area of [[1 E11 m²|436,400 km²]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Sea Geography |work=University of Delaware College of Marine Studies |url=http://www.ocean.udel.edu/blacksea/geography/index.html |date=2003 |accessdate=December 2 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> with a maximum depth of 2200 m. (7,218 ft.) <ref>{{cite web |title=Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea |work=Nature Publishing Group |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6214/abs/338411a0.html |date=[[30 March 1989]] |accessdate=December 2 |accessyear=2006}}</ref>
 
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Countries bordering on the Black Sea are [[Turkey]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref>Sosio-economic indicators for the countries of the Black Sea basin. (2001). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved [[2 December]] [[2006]] from http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/sosio_economic_indicators_for_the_countries_of_the_black_sea_basin_giwa.</ref> The [[Crimea]]n [[peninsula]] is a Ukrainian autonomous republic.
 
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Important cities along the coast include: [[Constanţa]] (urban area of 401,613), [[Mangalia]], [[Burgas]], [[Varna]] (urban area of 357,752) , [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], [[Yalta]], [[Kerch]], [[Novorossiysk]] (281,400), [[Sochi]], [[Sukhumi]], [[Poti]], [[Batumi]], [[Trabzon]], [[Samsun]] (439,000) and [[Zonguldak]].
 
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==Name==
 
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Modern names of the Sea are universally equivalents of the English name, "Black Sea", including [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Cherno more'' (Черно море), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ''Shavi zghva'' (შავი ზღვა), [[Laz language|Laz]] ''Ucha Zuğa'', or simply ''Zuğa'' 'Sea', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''Marea Neagră'', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''Chyornoye more'' (Чёрное море), [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''Karadeniz'', [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ''Chorne more'' (Чорне море), [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] {{IPA|/ʃʷaʤa/}}. This name cannot be traced to an earlier date than the [[thirteenth century]], but there are indications that it may be considerably older.
 
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[[Strabo]]'s Geography (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea" (''pontos''). For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the 'Hospitable sea', ''Euxeinos Pontos'' ({{Polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος}}). This is a [[euphemism]] replacing an earlier 'Inhospitable Sea', ''Pontos Axeinos'', first attested in [[Pindar]] (early fifth century BCE). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes; and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the [[Milesians (Greek)|Milesians]] had colonized, making it part of Greek civilization. It is also possible that the name ''Axeinos'' arose by [[Folk etymology|popular etymology]] from an Iranian ''axšaina-'' 'dark'; the designation "Black Sea" may thus date from Antiquity. The reason for the name may be an ancient assignment of colours to the direction of the compass &mdash; black referring to the north, and red referring to the south. [[Herodotus]] on one occasion uses [[Red Sea]] and Southern Sea interchangeably.<ref>Schmitt 1996</ref>
 
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Another possible explanation comes from the colour of the Black Sea's deep waters. Being further north than the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and much less saline, the [[algae|microalgae]] concentration is much richer, causing the dark colour.  Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately five meters (5.5&nbsp;[[Yard|yd]]), as compared to up to thirty-five meters (38&nbsp;yd) in the Mediterranean.
 
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One [[Bulgaria]]n understanding of the name is that the sea used to be quite stormy. Some sources stipulate that it goes back to the time of [[Noah's Ark]]. The [[Black Sea deluge theory]] is based on that idea.
 
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In [[naval science]], the Black Sea is thought to have received its name because of its hydrogen sulfide layer that begins about 200 meters below the surface, and that ends all life from that point downward.
 
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==Geology and bathymetry==
 
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[[Image:Sudak vlasenko.jpg|thumb|250px|Bay of [[Sudak]].]]
 
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The Black Sea forms an enclosed basin, located between south-eastern Europe and [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. The basin was formed during the [[Miocene]] [[orogeny|orogenies]] which uplifted the mountain ranges and divided the ancient [[Tethys Ocean]] into several brackish basins, including the [[Sarmatic Sea]]. The [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]], [[Sea of Azov|Azov]], [[Aral Sea|Aral]] and Black Seas are the remnants of this evaporated basin.
 
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The basin is divided into two sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the [[Crimea|Crimean peninsula]]. The north-west of the basin is characterized by a relatively large shelf up to 190&nbsp;km wide, which has a relatively shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around [[Turkey]] and the eastern edge around [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] however, are typified by a shelf that rarely exceeds 20&nbsp;km in width and an apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,206&nbsp;[[Metre|m]] just south of [[Yalta]] on the Crimean peninsula. The basin is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] via the Turkish Straits System (TSS) in the south-west, which includes the [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]] straits and the [[Sea of Marmara]]. The Black Sea is connected to the [[Sea of Azov]] in the north-east via the [[Kerch]] straits.
 
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==Hydrology and hydrochemistry==
 
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[[Image:Ev25334 BlackSea.A2003105.1035.1km.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by [[NASA]] [[MODIS]].]]
 
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The Black Sea is the world’s largest [[meromictic]] basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive [[oxygen]] from the atmosphere.  As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is [[Anoxic sea water|anoxic water]].  The current hydrochemical configuration is primarily controlled by basin topography and [[fluvial]] inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure and a positive water balance. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large fluvial systems, whereas the deep waters originate from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. This influx of dense water from Mediterranean is balanced by an outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea, maintaining the stratification and [[salinity]] levels.
 
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The surface water has an average salinity of 18 to 18.5&nbsp;[[Parts per notation|ppt]] and contains [[oxygen]] and other nutrients required to sustain biotic activity. These waters circulate in a basin-wide anti-cyclonic shelfbreak [[gyre]] known as the Rim Current which transports water round the perimeter of the Black Sea. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. Outside the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed due to upwelling around the coastal apron and ‘wind curl’ mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. Sea Surface Temperature of the surface waters varies seasonally from 8°[[Celsius|C]] to 30°C.
 
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Directly beneath the surface waters the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) is found. This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localised atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. The production of this water is focussed in the centre of the major gyres and on the NW shelf and as the water is not dense enough to penetrate the deep waters, [[isopycnal]] [[advection]] occurs, dispersing the water across the entire basin. The base of the CIL is marked by a major [[thermocline]], [[halocline]] and [[pycnocline]] at ~100-200m  and this density disparity is the major cause of deep-water isolation.
 
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Below the pycnocline, salinity increases to 22 to 22.5&nbsp;ppt and temperatures rise to around 8.5°C. The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilises all of the free oxygen. Certain species of [[extremophile]] bacteria are capable of using [[sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>) in the [[redox|oxidation]] of organic material, which leads to the creation of [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S).  This enables the precipitation of [[sulfide]]s such as iron-sulphides like [[pyrite]], [[greigite]] and iron-monosulphide as well as the dissolution of carbonate matter such as [[Calcium carbonate]] (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) found in shells. Organic matter, including anthropogenic artefacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms cause organic rich layer known as [[sapropel]]s to occur. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/natural_hazards_v2.php3?img_id=3669 Black Sea Becomes Turquoise] earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved [[2 December]] [[2006]].</ref>
 
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Another danger to people posed by the anoxic layer could come from a small asteroid's impact into the Black Sea.  Recently modelling shows there is a significant threat to life for people living on the sea's shore.<ref>R.D. Schuiling, R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu, D. Isvoranu and E. Pelinovsky, "Asteroid impact in the Black Sea. Death by drowning or asphyxiation?", Natural Hazards (October 2006) DOI: 10.1007/s11069-006-0017-7</ref>
 
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== Fauna ==
 
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{{sect-stub}}
 
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<center><gallery>
 
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Image:black_sea_fauna_jelly_01.jpg|Jellyfish, near Romanian coast.
 
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Image:black_sea_fauna_actinia_01.jpg|Actinia, near Romanian coast.
 
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Image:black_sea_fauna_actinia_02.JPG|Actinia, near Romanian coast.
 
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Image:black_sea_fauna_goby_01.jpg|Goby, near Romanian coast.
 
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Image:black_sea_fauna_stingray_01.jpg|Stingray, near Romanian coast.
 
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</gallery></center>
 
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== Mediterranean connection during the Holocene ==
 
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[[Image:Istambul and Bosporus big.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Bosporus, taken from the [[International Space Station|ISS]].]]
 
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[[Image:Dardanelles map2.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of the Dardanelles.]]
 
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While it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a freshwater [[lake]] (at least in upper layers) with a considerably lower level during the [[Ice Age|last glaciation]], its post glacial development into a marine sea is still a subject of intensive study and debate. There are catastrophic scenarios such as put forward by [[William Ryan (geologist)|William Ryan]] and [[Walter Pitman %28geologist%29|Walter Pitman]] as well as models emphasizing a more gradual transition to saline conditions and transgression in the Black Sea.
 
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They are based on different theories about the level the freshwater lake had reached by the time the Mediterranean Sea was high enough to flow over the [[Dardanelles]] and the [[Bosporus]]. On the other hand, a study of the sea floor on the Aegean side shows that in the 8th millennium BC there was a large flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea.<ref>[[New Scientist]], [[4 May]] [[2002]], p.13.</ref>
 
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In a series of expeditions, a team of marine archaeologists led by [[Robert Ballard]] identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, drowned river valleys, tool-worked timbers, and man-made structures in roughly 300 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (100&nbsp;m) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern [[Turkey]]. [[Radiocarbon dating]] of freshwater mollusc remains indicated an age of about seven thousand years.
 
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==Deluge theory==
 
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{{main|Black Sea deluge theory}}
 
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In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from [[Columbia University]] published a theory that a massive flood through the [[Bosporus]] occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and [[Caspian Sea]]s were vast freshwater lakes, but that about [[5600 BC]], the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done both to support and to discredit this theory, and archaeologists still debate it. This has led some to associate this catastrophe with prehistoric [[Deluge (mythology)|flood myths]].
 
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== History ==
 
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[[Image:Aivaz theodosia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]. ''Black Sea Fleet in the Bay of Theodosia'', just before the [[Crimean War]].]]
 
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The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (''[[Urheimat]]'') of the speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], (PIE) the progenitor of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family, by some scholars (see [[Kurgan]]; others move the heartland further east towards the [[Caspian Sea]], yet others to [[Anatolia]]).
 
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The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, [[Colchis]] (now [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world.
 
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{{clear}}
 
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{{expand-section|date=January 2007}}
 
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==Holiday resorts and spas==
 
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[[Image:sochi_edited.jpg|right|thumb|right|250px|Photo of the Black Sea near Gagra, taken in 1915.]]
 
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[[Image:Cities of the Black Sea.png|thumb|right|250px|Cities of the Black Sea.]]
 
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In the years following the end of the [[Cold War]], the popularity of the Black Sea as a [[Tourism|tourist]] destination has been steadily increasing, particularly in [[Bulgaria]].  Overall, tourism at Black Sea resorts has become one of the region's growth industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bulgariansearesorts.com/ |title=Bulgarian Sea Resorts |accessdate=2007-02-02 |format= |work= }}</ref> The following is a list of well-known Black Sea [[resort]]s:
 
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{{columns |width=20em
 
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|col1 =
 
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*[[2 Mai]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Ahtopol]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Anapa]] (Russia)
 
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*[[Albena]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Alupka]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Alushta]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Balchik]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Batumi]] (Georgia)
 
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*[[Burgas]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Byala, Varna Province|Byala]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Chakvi]] (Georgia)
 
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*[[Constantine and Helena]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Costineşti]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Eforie Nord]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Eforie Sud]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Emona (Burgas)|Emona]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Eupatoria]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Feodosiya]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Giresun]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Gagra]] (Abkhazia, Georgia<sup>1</sup>)
 
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*[[Gelendzhik]] (Russia)
 
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*[[Golden Sands]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Gonio]] (Georgia)
 
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*[[Gurzuf]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Jupiter, Romania|Jupiter]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Kamchia]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Kavarna]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Kiten, Bulgaria|Kiten]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Kobuleti]] (Georgia)
 
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*[[Koktebel]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Kvariati]] (Georgia)
 
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|col2 =
 
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*[[Lozenetz]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Mamaia]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Mangalia]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Neptun, Romania|Neptun]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Nesebar]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Novorossiysk]] (Russia)
 
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*[[Obzor]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Odessa]] (Ukraine)
 
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*[[Olimp, Romania|Olimp]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Pitsunda]] (Abkhazia, Georgia<sup>1</sup>)
 
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*[[Pomorie]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Primorsko]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Rize]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Rusalka, Bulgaria|Rusalka]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Samsun]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Saturn, Romania|Saturn]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Sinop]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Sochi]] (Russia)
 
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*[[Sozopol]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Sudak]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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*[[Sunny Beach]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Şile]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Sveti Vlas]] (Bulgaria)
 
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*[[Trabzon]] (Turkey)
 
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*[[Tuapse]] (Russia)
 
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*[[Ureki]] (Georgia)
 
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*[[Vama Veche]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Venus, Romania|Venus]] (Romania)
 
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*[[Yalta]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
 
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}}
 
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<sup>1</sup> [[Abkhazia]] has been a ''[[de facto]]'' independent republic since 1992, although remains a ''[[de jure]]'' autonomous republic of Georgia.
 
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==Regional organizations==
 
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{| style="width:500px"
 
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|-
 
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|[[Image:BSEC members.png|right|thumb|280px|[[Black Sea Economic Cooperation]] (BSEC) {{legend|#ff7f40|members}} {{legend|#00ff00|observers}}]] || [[Image:GUAM members.png|right|thumb|280px|[[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development]]]]
 
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|-
 
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|[[Image:CDC members.png|right|thumb|280px|[[Community of Democratic Choice]] (CDC) {{legend|#ff7f40|members}} {{legend|#00ff00|observers}}]] || [[Image:BSF members.png|right|thumb|280px|[[Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue]] (BSF) {{legend|#ff7f40|members}} {{legend|#00ff00|observers}}]]
 
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|-
 
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|}
 
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See also the [[Balkans#Regional organizations|Balkans Regional organizations]] and [[Post-Soviet states#Regional organizations|Post-Soviet Regional organizations]]
 
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==See also==
 
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[[Image:Ostrvo.gif|thumb|right|400px|The [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast|Bulgarian coastline]]]]
 
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* [[Anoxic event]]
 
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* [[Black Sea deluge theory]]
 
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* [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast]]
 
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* [[Black Sea Romanian resorts|Romanian Black Sea Coast]]
 
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* [[Ancomah]]
 
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* [[Tourism]]
 
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==References and bibliography==
 
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<div class="references-small">
 
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<references/>
 
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* [[Charles King (author)|Charles King]], ''The Black Sea: A History'', 2004, ISBN 0-19-924161-9
 
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* William Ryan and Walter Pitman, ''Noah's Flood'', 1999, ISBN 0-684-85920-3
 
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* [[Neal Ascherson]], ''Black Sea'' (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0-09-959371-8
 
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* [[Özhan Öztürk]]. Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük (Black Sea: Encyclopedic Dictionary). 2 Cilt (2 Volumes). Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul.2005 ISBN 975-6121-00-9.
 
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* Rüdiger Schmitt, "Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea", in: ''Hellas und der griechische Osten'' (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219–224
 
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* West, Stephanie. "‘The Most Marvellous of All Seas’: the Greek Encounter with the Euxine", ''Greece & Rome'', Vol.&nbsp;50, Issue&nbsp;2 (2003), pp.&nbsp;151–167.
 
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</div>
 
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==External links==
 
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{{wiktionary}}
 
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{{commonscat|Black Sea}}
 
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* [http://blacksea.orlyonok.ru/blacksea.shtml Black Sea Environment and Marine Life - Learning Pages]
 
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* [http://www.blacksea-archaeology.org/en/zaks_en.html The Center for Black Sea Archaeology]
 
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* [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Sinop/SinopIntro.htm The Black Sea Trade Project]
 
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* [http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_blacksea.html Earth from Space: Black Sea]
 
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* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ National Geographic Society]
 
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* [http://www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/ Black Sea Environmental Internet Node]
 
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* [http://sealevel.ns.ca/igcp521/ Black Sea-Mediterranean Corridor during the last 30 ky: UNESCO IGCP 521 WG12]
 
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* [http://www.radyolazmix.com Black sea People]
 
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* [http://www.trabzon.org Pearl city of Blacksea]
 
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{{Countries bordering the Black Sea}}
 
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[[Category:Black Sea| ]]
 
 
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[[Category:Anoxic basins]]
 
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Revision as of 16:40, July 15, 2007

Template:Expand The Black Sea is a large body of water forming part of the boundary between Europe and Asia.

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