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}}</ref> that astronomers infer when the actual mass of any observed celestial object is not sufficient to account for an observed [[Gravitation|gravitationalgravitation]] al effect.{{#tag:ref|cf. "...much of the support for the existence of the dark matter is due to the observed very high velocities of gas molecules or galaxies. For example galaxies in the far-off Coma-cluster are observed whirling around one another faster than the laws of physics would allow. So is the mysteriously rapid rotation of spiral galaxies."<ref name="CSR"/>|group=note}} It is one of two concepts (the other is [[dark energy]]) that [[evolution]]istic astronomers invoke to account for observations that old-[[universe]] cosmologies, including the [[Big Bang]], cannot explain. The term was introduced by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky who hypothesized that it must be the gravity of unseen ''dark matter'' that holds fast moving galaxies together in [[Galaxy cluster|cluster]]s.<ref>{{Cite web

|pages = 110-127110–127

|url=httphttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWaOyy3WfWk|quote=So how he did discover the Dark Matter? He was the first astronomer to study the clusters of galaxies. Clusters of galaxies are joint collections of 2000 or 3000 galaxies. F.Zwicky measured how fast these galaxies are moving. ...thousands of km per second ...He asks himself if these galaxies are moving so fast, what keeps the clusters together? And the answer is: Should be gravity, the gravity is a universal glue that holds things together. The planets in our solar system move fast, not quite this fast, and it is the gravity of our Sun that holds the Solar system together. There was little problem though: If you add up all the gravity of all the stars in all the galaxies it is not enough to hold the clusters together - it is off by factor of 50. Zwicky was bold enough to say that clusters must be held together by the gravity of unseen material, "Dark Matter".}}</ref>  '''''Dark matter'' is also the title and topic of a fact-based [[Greatest Conservative Movies|tremendous conservative movie]] having fabulous acting and top stars, but which was apparently buried due to its unflattering portrayal of [[liberal]] academia'''. 

|date=04 4 July 2012

|quote=}}</ref>) making bold claims that the Dark Matter have has been 'directly' observed or detected ,{{#tag:ref|cf."However, to get the [Big Bang] theory to work, a universe comprising 22% dark matter is an absolute must."<ref name="clamour of claims">{{cite web

|url=httphttps://creation.com/images/pdfs/tj/j20_3/j20_3_6-8.pdf|quote=Halton Arp suggested that these arcs, which are very prominent in the Abell 2218 cluster, are not the result of [[gravitational lensing]] but ejections of galaxies and matter from other clusters. Of course that flies in the face of standard big bang cosmology, which assumes all matter originated in the initial big bang. See Arp, H. C., Seeing Red: Redshifts, Cosmology and Academic Science, Apeiron, Montreal, 1998; and review, Hartnett, J.G., The heavens declare a different story! J. of Creation 17(2): 94–97, 2003. Note also that the redshift of the Bullet cluster is near 0.3 which is one of the discrete values that Arp claims is associated with ejection events of one galaxy giving birth to another.}}</ref>|group=note}}, their opponents including [[John Hartnett|J.Hartnett]] however express their strong reservations and suggest that it ''"seems to be stretching things a bit, to put it mildly, given the many assumptions and interpretations necessarily involved."''. According to J.Hartnett the very essence of the ‘dark matter’ concept is that we have no explanation for what we observe and the whole dark matter scenario is in his view the result of incorrect physics being applied to the dynamics of astronomical bodies requiring ad hoc assumptions to be introduced to the norm. As an alternative explanation based on applying [[Occam’s razor]] for phenomena leading to dark matter hypothesis is proposed a new theory by late Israeli cosmologist/physicist [[Moshe Carmeli]] whose 5D space-time-velocity metric explains both galactic rotation curves and the flatness of the universe—without dark matter or other fudge factors and explains more of the data. [[Halton Arp]] also in the past suggested that observed arcs in vicinity of clusters are not the result of [[gravitational lensing ]] but ejections of galaxies and matter from other clusters, i.e. the filament connecting the clusters of galaxies<ref>{{cite web

|date=01 1 April 2008

|quote=About half of the baryons in the local Universe are invisible and - according to simulations - their dominant fraction resides in filaments connecting clusters of galaxies in the form of low density gas with temperatures in the range of 105 < T < 107 K. This warm-hot intergalactic medium has never been detected indisputably using X-ray observations.}}</ref> might be associated with ejection events of one galaxy giving birth to another.{{#tag:ref|cf."There is much evidence that galaxies, quasi-stellar objects (quasars), etc. are generated and ejected from galactic nuclei (as Arp has shown), and not from initial density fluctuations in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. The observed rapid release of large amounts of energy from galactic nuclei could conceivably come from creation process that are occurring in the present-day universe."<ref name="DismantlingBB">{{cite book|author=Alex Williams, John Hartnett|title=Dismantling the Big Bang|publisher=Master Books|location=Green Forest, AR, USA|year=2005|page=284|pages=346|isbn=978-0-89051-437-5|url=httphttps://books.google.com/books?id=FR7basoxkSwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hartnett+dismantling+the+big+bang&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JvNwT_6nJJOP4gTP6fG_Ag&sqi=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hartnett%20dismantling%20the%20big%20bang&f=false|quote=}}</ref>|group=note}} Such hypothesis undermines the standard big bang cosmology which assumes all matter originated in the initial big bang.<ref name="clamour of claims"/>

[[Image:Sky wmap.jpg|100px|left]]The current problem involving a mass deficit in astronomical observations has been known since the 1930's1930s, when astronomers first found serious differences between the masses they inferred by examining orbital speeds and the masses they inferred by measuring stellar, galactic, and other visual magnitudes. The classic gravitational equation, derived from the theory of [[gravity]] of Sir [[Isaac Newton]], gives the total dynamical mass in any system that is inside the orbit of any given body (for example, a particular star in its galaxy):

[[Jan Oort]] first determined that the total mass of our [[galaxy]] was insufficient by a factor of at least two to account for the galaxy's rotational speed.<ref name=Thompson>Thompson, Tim. "[http://www.electric-cosmos.org/darkmatter.htm Missing 'Dark' Matter]." ''[http://www.electric-cosmos.org/indexOLD.htm The Electric Cosmos], n.d. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref> The swiss Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky is also credited with the discovery of the discrepancy between dynamical and luminous mass, in 1933. Zwicky examined the Coma supercluster, and found that its dynamical mass exceeded the luminous mass by a factor of ten.<ref name=Silk>Silk, Joe. "[http://astro.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/essay.html Dark Matter]." Department of Astronomy, University of California-Berkeley, ca. 1995. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref><ref name=Soter>Soter S and deGrasse-Tyson N, eds. "[Fritz Zwicky's Extraordinary Vision]." Excerpt from ''Cosmic Horizons: Astronomy at the Cutting Edge'', New Press, 2000. ISBN 978-1565846029 Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref><ref name=Miller>Miller CM. "[http://www.eclipse.net/~cmmiller/DM/ Cosmic Hide and Seek: the Search for the Missing Mass]." 1995. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref>

[[Image:HubbleDarkMatterRing.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Image of galactic cluster with ring of alleged dark matter around it]]Since that time, astronomers have assumed that some form of matter, which gives off no measurable radiation, is nevertheless present in various galaxies and galactic clusters that clearly spin faster than their measured luminous masses would predict.<ref name=Harvard>Authors unknown. "[http://xrtpub.harvard.edu/xray_astro/dark_matter.html Dark Matter Mystery]." ''Field Guide to X-ray Astronomy'', Chandra X-ray Center, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, August 29, 2006. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref> They acknowledge, however, that the notion of a new, non-luminous form of matter is difficult to accept. Yet many astronomers insist that they have observational evidence for which dark matter remains the only plausible explanation. One such communication comes from the Chandra X-ray Center, whose astronomers stated in 2006 that they had observed two galactic clusters for hundreds of hours, and that each one clearly showed a rotational speed consistent with far more mass than was visible.<ref name=Chandra>Hupp E, Roy S., and Watzke M. "[httphttps://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06297_CHANDRA_Dark_Matter.html NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter]." [[NASA]], press release 06-297, August 21, 2006. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref>

[[Creationism]], of course, declares that any observed effect results from the [[creation|creative]] action of [[God]]. In 2000, relying primarily on this theory, Don DeYoung, writing in the [[Creation Research Society Quarterly]],<ref name=deYoung>DeYoung DB. "[http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/36/36_4/darkmatter.html Dark Matter]." ''Creation Research Society Quarterly'', 36(4), March 2000. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref> concluded that the hand of [[God]] was responsible for holding rapidly spinning galaxies and larger systems together, despite the observed mass deficits. This is not a scientific explanation, as it is not [[falsifiable]];, it does not explain the phenomenon in anything but the most general terms, and makes no observable predictions.

[[Image:Cosmos percent comp.jpg|200px|right]]The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) team at [[NASA]] has used measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation<ref name=WMAP>Hinshaw GF, and Griswold, B. "[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/index.html WMAP Mission Results]." [[NASA]], April 17, 2008. Accessed July 26, 2008.</ref> to determine that the universe is geometrically flat. According to standard cosmology, the universe should then be at a critical mass density of 9.9 * 10^-27−27kg/m³. The actual mass density of the universe is more than twenty times less than that.<ref name=WMAP2>Hinshaw GF, and Griswold B. "[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html WMAP - Content of the universe]." [[NASA]], April 17, 2008. Accessed July 28, 2008.</ref>

Dark matter filaments on the galactic scale have been directly measured, and are considered to be a major factor in the super-galactic structure of the universe. <ref>http://www.nature.com/news/dark-matter-s-tendrils-revealed-1.10951</ref>

# New, previously unknown forms of matter. Many cosmologists have formed hypotheses that suggest entirely new particles of matter. They call these Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, or WIMPs.<ref name=WMAP2Silk/><ref name=SilkMiller/><ref name=MillerWMAP2/> Other cosmologists have suggested other types of particles, named ''axions''.<ref name=Hartnett/><ref name=axionnote>The name ''Axion'' is a registered trademark of the Colgate-Palmolive Company ([[USA]]) and was the name of a once-popular brand of laundry detergent used to pre-soak heavily-soiled garments before washing them with a conventional detergent. The astrophysicists who coined this name suggested that axions performed some kind of cosmic cleansing.</ref> The recently sought Higgs boson is another proposed dark-matter elementary particle.

|url=httphttps://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0608407

|url=http://www.universetoday.com/502/galaxy-collision-separates-out-the-dark-matter/}}</ref> The latest claim published in [[Nature (journal)|journal Nature]] (04 4 July 2012) is that ''"A ‘finger’ of the Universe’s dark-matter skeleton, which ultimately dictates where galaxies form, has been observed for the first time."'' Despite the bold statement that ''"Researchers have directly detected a slim bridge of dark matter joining two clusters of galaxies"'', the declaration seems self-contradictory as at the same time it has been admitted that the results were obtained by usage of computer simulations and astrophysicists are still faced with necessity to identify what the dark matter is made of. It has been proposed that this mysterious invisible substance that should dominate the space all around us in concentrations six or seven times more than normal matter could be either:

*a warm (fast-moving) one, like a [[neutrino]].{{#tag:ref|cf."Researchers have directly detected a slim bridge of dark matter joining two clusters of galaxies, using a technique that could eventually help astrophysicists to understand the structure of the Universe and identify what makes up the mysterious invisible substance known as dark matter...Refining the technique could also help to pin down the identity of dark matter — whether it is a cold (slow-moving) particle or a warm (fast-moving) one, like a neutrino — because different particles will clump differently along the filament."<ref name="Nature"/>|group=note}}<ref name="Nature"/>

[[John Hartnett|J.Hartnett]] commented on similar occasion that there are many assumptions and interpretations necessarily to be involved, and these kind of arguments typically all hinge on the interpretation of the [[gravitational lensing ]] evidence, i.e. whether the correct physics has been applied. He points out that some claim dark matter comprises heavy neutrinos. If it was standard neutrinos, there would need to be about 10 billion times the amount of the normal [[matter ]] made from protons [[proton]]s and neutrons[[neutron]]s. Hence the need to look for a massive neutrino. But there are supposed to only be about 20 particles per cubic centimetre! It seems more than prudent to adopt a ‘wait and see’ approach on this alleged ‘proof’.

==See Also:also==

[[Category:PhysicsCosmology]]