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'''Plymouth Colony''', founded in 1620 in what is now [[Massachusetts]], was an early English colony in New England. It was founded by "Pilgrims", who were members of a [[Puritan]] religious group known as the Separatists. It is most famous for introducting [[Thanksgiving]] and, more important, introducing self government into America through the "Mayflower Compact," signed aboard their ship, the Mayflower.  Plymouth Colony later merged with the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] to form the colony of [[Massachusetts]].

'''Plymouth Colony''', founded in 1620 in what is now [[Massachusetts]], was an early English colony in New England. It was founded by "Pilgrims", who were members of a [[Puritan]] religious group known as the Separatists. It is most famous for introducing [[Thanksgiving]] and, more important, introducing self government into America through the "Mayflower Compact," signed aboard their ship, the Mayflower.  Plymouth Colony later merged with the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] to form the colony of [[Massachusetts]].

[[Image:Hubbard map 1677.jpg|thumb|right|1677 map of New England by William Hubbard showing the location of Plymouth Colony.  The map is oriented with west at the top.]]'''Plymouth Colony''' (officially '''New Plymouth Colony'''; sometimes called '''The Old Colony''') was an English colony in North America from 1620 until 1691, when it was absorbed by its much larger neighbor, Massachusetts.  At its height, the colony occupied most of the southeastern portion of the modern state of [[Massachusetts]].  

[[Image:Hubbard map 1677.jpg|thumb|right|1677 map of New England by William Hubbard showing the location of Plymouth Colony.  The map is oriented with west at the top.]]'''Plymouth Colony''' (officially '''New Plymouth Colony'''; sometimes called '''The Old Colony''') was an English colony in North America from 1620 until 1691, when it was absorbed by its much larger neighbor, Massachusetts.  At its height, the colony occupied most of the southeastern portion of the modern state of [[Massachusetts]].  

In November 1621, a second ship sent by the Merchant Adventurers arrived.  It also carried a letter from the Merchant Adventurers chastising the colony for failure to return goods with the ''Mayflower'' that had been promised in return for their support.  The ''Fortune'' began its return to England laden with ₤500 worth of goods, more than enough to keep the colonists on schedule for repayment of their debt, however the Fortune was captured by the French before she could deliver her cargo to England, creating an even larger deficit for the colony.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 123-126, 134</ref>

In November 1621, a second ship sent by the Merchant Adventurers arrived.  It also carried a letter from the Merchant Adventurers chastising the colony for failure to return goods with the ''Mayflower'' that had been promised in return for their support.  The ''Fortune'' began its return to England laden with ₤500 worth of goods, more than enough to keep the colonists on schedule for repayment of their debt, however the Fortune was captured by the French before she could deliver her cargo to England, creating an even larger deficit for the colony.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 123-126, 134</ref>

In July 1623, two more ships arrived, carrying 90 new settlers, among them Leideners, including William Bradford's future wife, Alice. Some of the settlers were unprepared for frontier life and returned to England the next year.  In September 1623, another ship carrying settlers destined to refound the failed colony at Weymouth arrived and temporarily stayed at Plymouth.  In March 1624, a ship bearing a few additional settlers and the first cattle arrived.  In 1627 the settlers bought out the Merchant Adventurers in London, who lost money on their investment.  A 1627 division of cattle lists 156 colonists divided into twelve lots of thirteen colonists each.  Another ship also named the ''Mayflower'' arrived in August 1629 with 35 additional members of the Leiden congregation.  Ships arrived periodically throughout 1629-1630 carrying numbers of passengers. By January 1630, the colony had almost 300 people.  By 1643 the colony had an estimated 600 males fit for military service, implying a total population of about 1500-2000.  By 1690, the estimated total population of Plymouth County, the most populous, was 3055 people, and around 7000 in all.<ref>Leach (1951) </ref> For comparison it is estimated that between 1630-1640, a period known as the "Great Migration," over 20,000 settlers had arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony alone, and by 1678 the English population of all of New England was estimated to be in the range of 60,000. Plymouth was the first colony in the region but by 1690 was much smaller than Massachusetts Bay Colony in terms of population.

In July 1623, two more ships arrived, carrying 90 new settlers, among them Leideners, including William Bradford's future wife, Alice. Some of the settlers were unprepared for frontier life and returned to England the next year.  In September 1623, another ship carrying settlers destined to re-found the failed colony at Weymouth arrived and temporarily stayed at Plymouth.  In March 1624, a ship bearing a few additional settlers and the first cattle arrived.  In 1627 the settlers bought out the Merchant Adventurers in London, who lost money on their investment.  A 1627 division of cattle lists 156 colonists divided into twelve lots of thirteen colonists each.  Another ship also named the ''Mayflower'' arrived in August 1629 with 35 additional members of the Leiden congregation.  Ships arrived periodically throughout 1629-1630 carrying numbers of passengers. By January 1630, the colony had almost 300 people.  By 1643 the colony had an estimated 600 males fit for military service, implying a total population of about 1500-2000.  By 1690, the estimated total population of Plymouth County, the most populous, was 3055 people, and around 7000 in all.<ref>Leach (1951) </ref> For comparison it is estimated that between 1630-1640, a period known as the "Great Migration," over 20,000 settlers had arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony alone, and by 1678 the English population of all of New England was estimated to be in the range of 60,000. Plymouth was the first colony in the region but by 1690 was much smaller than Massachusetts Bay Colony in terms of population.

===Military History===

===Military History===

Conflicts started to accumulate with Wampanoag after Massasoit died in 1662; the new Indian leaders, especially Metacom, or Philip, the new sachem, rejected friendship with the English, ignored the fate of the Pequot, and were suspected of conspiring against the settlers and the Indians allied to the settlers. By 1660 the settlers no longer needed furs or food provided by trading with Indians. Conversely, Indians  suspected English motives, chafed under English laws, and resented missionary efforts.  

Conflicts started to accumulate with Wampanoag after Massasoit died in 1662; the new Indian leaders, especially Metacom, or Philip, the new sachem, rejected friendship with the English, ignored the fate of the Pequot, and were suspected of conspiring against the settlers and the Indians allied to the settlers. By 1660 the settlers no longer needed furs or food provided by trading with Indians. Conversely, Indians  suspected English motives, chafed under English laws, and resented missionary efforts.  

[[Image:King Philip C by Revere.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait of King Philip, by [[Paul Revere]], illustration from the 1772 edition of Benjamin Church's ''The Entertaining History of King Philip's War'']]  The proximate cause of the conflict was the murder in 1675 of an Indian convert ot Christianity (a "Praying Indian")  named John Sassamon.  Accused in the murder of Sassamon were some of Philip's most senior lieutenants.  A jury of twelve Englishmen and six Praying Indians found the Indians guilty of murder and sentenced them to death.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 221-223</ref>

[[Image:King Philip C by Revere.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait of King Philip, by [[Paul Revere]], illustration from the 1772 edition of Benjamin Church's ''The Entertaining History of King Philip's War'']]  The proximate cause of the conflict was the murder in 1675 of an Indian convert to Christianity (a "Praying Indian")  named John Sassamon.  Accused in the murder of Sassamon were some of Philip's most senior lieutenants.  A jury of twelve Englishmen and six Praying Indians found the Indians guilty of murder and sentenced them to death.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 221-223</ref>

Philip had already begun war preparations at his home base near [[Mount Hope, Rhode Island|Mount Hope]] where he started raiding English farms and pillaging their property.  In response, Governor [[Josiah Winslow]] called out the militia, and they organized and began to move on Philip's position.  The war had started.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 229-237</ref>

Philip had already begun war preparations at his home base near [[Mount Hope, Rhode Island|Mount Hope]] where he started raiding English farms and pillaging their property.  In response, Governor [[Josiah Winslow]] called out the militia, and they organized and began to move on Philip's position.  The war had started.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 229-237</ref>

King Philip systematically attacked unarmed women and children. One such attack resulted in the capture of [[Mary Rowlandson]] and the murder of her small children.  The memoirs of her capture would provide historians with much information on Indian culture during this time period.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 288-289</ref>

King Philip systematically attacked unarmed women and children. One such attack resulted in the capture of [[Mary Rowlandson]] and the murder of her small children.  The memoirs of her capture would provide historians with much information on Indian culture during this time period.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 288-289</ref>

The war continued through the rest of 1675 and into the next year.  The English were constantly frustrated by the Indians refusal to meet them in pitched battle.  The Indians employed a form of [[guerilla warfare]] that confounded the English.  Benjamin Church continuously campaigned to enlist the help of friendly Indians to help learn how to fight on even footing with Philip's troops, he was constantly rebuffed by the Plymouth leadership, who mistrusted all Indians as potential enemies.  Eventually, faced with difficulty in meeting the Indians on their terms, Governor Winslow and Plymouth military commander Major [[William Bradford (1624-1703)|William Bradford]] (son of the late Governor William Bradford) relented and gave Church permission to organize a combined force of English and Indians.  After securing the alliance of the [[Sakonnet]] Indians, he led his combined force in pursuit of Philip, who had thus far avoided any major battles in the war that bears his name.  Throughout July, 1676, Church's band of Englishmen and Indians would capture hundreds of Indian troops, often without much of a fight, though Philip eluded him.  After Church was given permission to grant amnesty to any captured Indians who would agree to join the English side his force grew immensely.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 311-323</ref>  Philip was killeed by a [[Pocasset]] Indian; the war soon ended as an overwhelming English victory.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 331-337</ref>

The war continued through the rest of 1675 and into the next year.  The English were constantly frustrated by the Indians refusal to meet them in pitched battle.  The Indians employed a form of [[guerilla warfare]] that confounded the English.  Benjamin Church continuously campaigned to enlist the help of friendly Indians to help learn how to fight on even footing with Philip's troops, he was constantly rebuffed by the Plymouth leadership, who mistrusted all Indians as potential enemies.  Eventually, faced with difficulty in meeting the Indians on their terms, Governor Winslow and Plymouth military commander Major [[William Bradford (1624-1703)|William Bradford]] (son of the late Governor William Bradford) relented and gave Church permission to organize a combined force of English and Indians.  After securing the alliance of the [[Sakonnet]] Indians, he led his combined force in pursuit of Philip, who had thus far avoided any major battles in the war that bears his name.  Throughout July, 1676, Church's band of Englishmen and Indians would capture hundreds of Indian troops, often without much of a fight, though Philip eluded him.  After Church was given permission to grant amnesty to any captured Indians who would agree to join the English side his force grew immensely.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 311-323</ref>  Philip was killed by a [[Pocasset]] Indian; the war soon ended as an overwhelming English victory.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 331-337</ref>

Eight percent of the English adult male population is estimated to have died during the war, a rather large percentage by most standards.  The impact on the Indian population was far higher, however.  So many were killed, fled, or shipped off as slaves that their population fell by 60-80 percent.<ref name=slave>Philbrick (2006) pp 332, 345-346</ref>

Eight percent of the English adult male population is estimated to have died during the war, a rather large percentage by most standards.  The impact on the Indian population was far higher, however.  So many were killed, fled, or shipped off as slaves that their population fell by 60-80 percent.<ref name=slave>Philbrick (2006) pp 332, 345-346</ref>

Plymouth Colony did not have a royal charter authorizing them to form any government.  Still, some means of government was needed, and the first document to establish one was the Mayflower Compact, signed by the 41 able-bodied men aboard the Mayflower upon their arrival in Provincetown Harbor on November 21, 1620.  It stayed in effect as the primary governing document until the first formal codification of laws in 1636.  Before that time, and indeed for the life of the colony, the laws of Plymouth were based on a hybrid form of English [[Common Law]] and religious law as laid out in the [[Bible]]. <ref name=plymlegal/>  

Plymouth Colony did not have a royal charter authorizing them to form any government.  Still, some means of government was needed, and the first document to establish one was the Mayflower Compact, signed by the 41 able-bodied men aboard the Mayflower upon their arrival in Provincetown Harbor on November 21, 1620.  It stayed in effect as the primary governing document until the first formal codification of laws in 1636.  Before that time, and indeed for the life of the colony, the laws of Plymouth were based on a hybrid form of English [[Common Law]] and religious law as laid out in the [[Bible]]. <ref name=plymlegal/>  

The colony recognized all "freemen" as full male citizens of the colony with full rights and privilages in voting and holding office.  The original group of freemen were the original adult male settlers from the Mayflower.  Later adult males were made freemen by sponsorship of an existing freemen and acceptance by the General Court.  Later restriction enabled a one-year waiting period between nomination and acceptance of freemen status, and also placed religious restrictions, specifically preventing [[Quakers]] from becoming freemen.<ref name=plymlegal/>  Freemen status was also restricted by age; while the official minimum age was 21, in practical terms most men were elevent to freemen status between the ages of 25 and 40, averaging somewhere in the early thirties.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 148</ref>

The colony recognized all "freemen" as full male citizens of the colony with full rights and privileges in voting and holding office.  The original group of freemen were the original adult male settlers from the Mayflower.  Later adult males were made freemen by sponsorship of an existing freemen and acceptance by the General Court.  Later restriction enabled a one-year waiting period between nomination and acceptance of freemen status, and also placed religious restrictions, specifically preventing [[Quakers]] from becoming freemen.<ref name=plymlegal/>  Freemen status was also restricted by age; while the official minimum age was 21, in practical terms most men were elevated to freemen status between the ages of 25 and 40, averaging somewhere in the early thirties.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 148</ref>

The colony's main executive was the Governor, who originally was elected by the freemen, but later was appointed by the General Court in an annual election.  The General Court also elected 7 "Assistants" to form a [[cabinet]].  The Governor and Assistants then appointed "Constables", who would serve as the chief administrators for the towns, and "Messengers", who were the main civil servants of the colony.  They were responsible for publishing announcements, performing land surveys, carrying out executions, and a host of other duties.<ref name=plymlegal/>

The colony's main executive was the Governor, who originally was elected by the freemen, but later was appointed by the General Court in an annual election.  The General Court also elected 7 "Assistants" to form a [[cabinet]].  The Governor and Assistants then appointed "Constables", who would serve as the chief administrators for the towns, and "Messengers", who were the main civil servants of the colony.  They were responsible for publishing announcements, performing land surveys, carrying out executions, and a host of other duties.<ref name=plymlegal/>

As a legislative body, the General Court would make proclamations of law periodically as needed.  In the early years, these laws were not formally compiled anywhere.  In 1636 the first organization of these laws was realized in the 1636 Book of Laws.  The book was reissued in 1658, 1672, and 1685.<ref name=plymlegal/>  Among these laws included the right to levy "rates", or taxes, and distribution of colony lands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 7</ref>  Control of land distribution was of particular concern.  It established townships as a means of providing local government over settlements, but reserved for itself the right to control specific distribution of land to individuals within those towns.  When new land was granted to a freeman, it was directed that only the person to whom the land was granted was allowed to settle it.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 10</ref>.  As well, it was forbidden for individual settlers to purchase land from Indians without formal permission from the General Court.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 14</ref>

As a legislative body, the General Court would make proclamations of law periodically as needed.  In the early years, these laws were not formally compiled anywhere.  In 1636 the first organization of these laws was realized in the 1636 Book of Laws.  The book was reissued in 1658, 1672, and 1685.<ref name=plymlegal/>  Among these laws included the right to levy "rates", or taxes, and distribution of colony lands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 7</ref>  Control of land distribution was of particular concern.  It established townships as a means of providing local government over settlements, but reserved for itself the right to control specific distribution of land to individuals within those towns.  When new land was granted to a freeman, it was directed that only the person to whom the land was granted was allowed to settle it.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 10</ref>.  As well, it was forbidden for individual settlers to purchase land from Indians without formal permission from the General Court.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 14</ref>

The laws also set out crimes and associated punishements.  There were several crimes that mandated the [[capital punishment|death penalty]]: [[treason]], [[murder]], [[witchcraft]], [[arson]], [[sodomy]], [[rape]], [[bestiality|buggery]], [[adultery]], and cursing or smiting one's parents.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 133 cite the first eight examples (treason-adultery), Demos (1970) pp 100 mentions the last</ref>.  The actual exercise of the death penalty was fairly rare.  Only one sex-related crime, a 1642 incidence of buggery (sex with animals) by Thomas Granger, resulted in death.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 135</ref>  One person, Edward Bumpus, was sentanced to death for "striking and abusing his parents" in 1679, but his sentance was commuted to a severe whipping, for reason of insanity.<ref>Demos (1970) pp 102.  Bumpus's actual sentance was to be "whipt att the post", with the note that "hee was crasey brained, ortherwise hee had bine put to death."</ref>.  Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Indians convicted of the murder of John Sassamon, the direct cause of King Philip's War.<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 223</ref>

The laws also set out crimes and associated punishments.  There were several crimes that mandated the [[capital punishment|death penalty]]: [[treason]], [[murder]], [[witchcraft]], [[arson]], [[sodomy]], [[rape]], [[bestiality|buggery]], [[adultery]], and cursing or smiting one's parents.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 133 cite the first eight examples (treason-adultery), Demos (1970) pp 100 mentions the last</ref>.  The actual exercise of the death penalty was fairly rare.  Only one sex-related crime, a 1642 incidence of buggery (sex with animals) by Thomas Granger, resulted in death.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 135</ref>  One person, Edward Bumpus, was sentenced to death for "striking and abusing his parents" in 1679, but his sentence was commuted to a severe whipping, for reason of insanity.<ref>Demos (1970) pp 102.  Bumpus's actual sentence was to be "whipt att the post", with the note that "hee was crasey brained, ortherwise hee had bine put to death."</ref>.  Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Indians convicted of the murder of John Sassamon, the direct cause of King Philip's War.<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 223</ref>

Adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation.  The standard punishment was for the convicted adulterers to wear the letters "A.D." sewn into their garments, much in the manner of [[Hester Prynne]] in [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s novel ''The Scarlet Letter''.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 96-98; Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 143</ref>

Adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation.  The standard punishment was for the convicted adulterers to wear the letters "A.D." sewn into their garments, much in the manner of [[Hester Prynne]] in [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s novel ''The Scarlet Letter''.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 96-98; Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 143</ref>

The boundaries were not clearly set out by London authorities. In 1630 the "Warwick Patent" granted Bradford sole proprietorship of the entire territory of Plymouth Colony, but was vague on the outer limits. To the north was Massachusetts Bay Colony and to the west Rhode Island.  In 1639-40 Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth settled their boundary with the exception of the Narragansett Bay region.  Bradford surrendered his patent rights to the area to the Plymouth Colony, and Massachusetts Bay agreed to recognize the rights of Plymouth Colony to include the area along the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay and along the east side of the [[Pawtucket River]] for a mile or so. In 1644, "The Old Colony Line", which had been surveyed in 1639, was formally accepted as the boundary between Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth.

The boundaries were not clearly set out by London authorities. In 1630 the "Warwick Patent" granted Bradford sole proprietorship of the entire territory of Plymouth Colony, but was vague on the outer limits. To the north was Massachusetts Bay Colony and to the west Rhode Island.  In 1639-40 Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth settled their boundary with the exception of the Narragansett Bay region.  Bradford surrendered his patent rights to the area to the Plymouth Colony, and Massachusetts Bay agreed to recognize the rights of Plymouth Colony to include the area along the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay and along the east side of the [[Pawtucket River]] for a mile or so. In 1644, "The Old Colony Line", which had been surveyed in 1639, was formally accepted as the boundary between Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth.

When [[Roger Williams]] in 1636 settled near modern Pawtucket, Rhode Island, he was forcebly evicted to maintain Plymouth's claim to the area.  As various settlers from both Rhode Island and Plymouth began to settle along the area, the exact nature of the western boundary of Plymouth became more and more confused  and was not fully resolved until 1740.

When [[Roger Williams]] in 1636 settled near modern Pawtucket, Rhode Island, he was forcibly evicted to maintain Plymouth's claim to the area.  As various settlers from both Rhode Island and Plymouth began to settle along the area, the exact nature of the western boundary of Plymouth became more and more confused  and was not fully resolved until 1740.

==Social History==

==Social History==

[[Image:Robinson1.jpg|thumb|right|John Robinson memorial, placed outside of St. Peter's Church in Leiden]] The most important religious figure in the colony was [[John Robinson]], the original pastor of the Scrooby congregation and leader throughout the Leiden years.  Though he never actually set foot in New England, much of his theological pronouncements, later collected in 1853 by Robert Ashton as ''The Works of John Robinson'',<ref>Demos (1970), foreword pp x.</ref> were important to establishing the nature and character of the Plymouth church.  Among Robinson's pronouncements were on the roles of women and men.  It was in the natural order that women and men have differing roles in the household, though neither was lesser in the eyes of God.  Robinson's views were not purely egalitarian, as he frequently assigned inferior characteristics to the feminine roles, and noted that they should be under the "subjection" of their husbands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 83-84</ref>  Robinson also made pronouncements on the proper methods of child rearing, and prescribed a strict upbringing with a strong emphasis on corporal punishment.  Robinson clearly believed that a child's natural inclination towards independence was a manifestation of the original sin, and thus was to be repressed at all costs.<ref>Demos (1970) pp 134-136</ref>

[[Image:Robinson1.jpg|thumb|right|John Robinson memorial, placed outside of St. Peter's Church in Leiden]] The most important religious figure in the colony was [[John Robinson]], the original pastor of the Scrooby congregation and leader throughout the Leiden years.  Though he never actually set foot in New England, much of his theological pronouncements, later collected in 1853 by Robert Ashton as ''The Works of John Robinson'',<ref>Demos (1970), foreword pp x.</ref> were important to establishing the nature and character of the Plymouth church.  Among Robinson's pronouncements were on the roles of women and men.  It was in the natural order that women and men have differing roles in the household, though neither was lesser in the eyes of God.  Robinson's views were not purely egalitarian, as he frequently assigned inferior characteristics to the feminine roles, and noted that they should be under the "subjection" of their husbands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 83-84</ref>  Robinson also made pronouncements on the proper methods of child rearing, and prescribed a strict upbringing with a strong emphasis on corporal punishment.  Robinson clearly believed that a child's natural inclination towards independence was a manifestation of the original sin, and thus was to be repressed at all costs.<ref>Demos (1970) pp 134-136</ref>

The Pilgrims themselves were a subset of an English religious movement known as [[Puritanism]], which sought to "purify" the [[Anglican Church]] of its secular trappings.  The movement sought to return the church to a more primitive state, and to practice Christianity as was done by the earliest Church Fathers.  It held that the Bible was the only source of religious teaching, and that any additions made to Christianity since the Bible, especially with regard to church heirarchy, had no place in Christian practice.  The Pilgrims distinguished themselves from the Puritans in that they sought to "seperate" themselves from the Anglican Church, rather than reform it from within.  It was this desire to worship from outside of the Anglican Communion that led them first to the Netherlands and ultimately to New England.<ref> Richard Howland Maxwell, "Pilgrim and Puritan : a Delicate Distinction" (2003) [http://www.pilgrimhall.org/PSNoteNewPilgrimPuritan.htm Pilgrim Hall Museum] </ref>

The Pilgrims themselves were a subset of an English religious movement known as [[Puritanism]], which sought to "purify" the [[Anglican Church]] of its secular trappings.  The movement sought to return the church to a more primitive state, and to practice Christianity as was done by the earliest Church Fathers.  It held that the Bible was the only source of religious teaching, and that any additions made to Christianity since the Bible, especially with regard to church hierarchy, had no place in Christian practice.  The Pilgrims distinguished themselves from the Puritans in that they sought to "separate" themselves from the Anglican Church, rather than reform it from within.  It was this desire to worship from outside of the Anglican Communion that led them first to the Netherlands and ultimately to New England.<ref> Richard Howland Maxwell, "Pilgrim and Puritan : a Delicate Distinction" (2003) [http://www.pilgrimhall.org/PSNoteNewPilgrimPuritan.htm Pilgrim Hall Museum] </ref>

Each town in the colony was also considered a single church congregation; in later years some of the larger towns split into two or three congregations.  While church attendance was manditory for all residents of the colony, church membership was restricted to those that received God's grace through a personal conversion event.  In Plymouth Colony, it seems that a simple [[Profession (religious)|profession of faith]] was all that was required for acceptance.  This was a rather more liberal than other Puritan congregations, such as those of the Masschusetts Bay Colony, where it was common to subject those seeking formal membership to strict and detailed cross-examination.  Individual congregations were left to their own affairs.  There was no central governing body for the churches.  Each church was left to determine its own standards of membership, hire its own ministers, and conduct its own business. <ref>Demos (1970), pp 8</ref>

Each town in the colony was also considered a single church congregation; in later years some of the larger towns split into two or three congregations.  While church attendance was mandatory for all residents of the colony, church membership was restricted to those that received God's grace through a personal conversion event.  In Plymouth Colony, it seems that a simple [[Profession (religious)|profession of faith]] was all that was required for acceptance.  This was a rather more liberal than other Puritan congregations, such as those of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where it was common to subject those seeking formal membership to strict and detailed cross-examination.  Individual congregations were left to their own affairs.  There was no central governing body for the churches.  Each church was left to determine its own standards of membership, hire its own ministers, and conduct its own business. <ref>Demos (1970), pp 8</ref>

The church was undoubtedly the most important social institution in the colony.  Not only was the bible the primary religious document of the society, it served as a primary legal document as well.<ref name=plymlegal> {{cite web | last = Fennell | first = Christopher | title = Plymouth Colony Legal Structure | publisher = The Plymouth Colony Archive Project | date = 1998 | url = http://etext.virginia.edu/users/deetz/Plymouth/ccflaw.html | accessdate = 2007-04-02}}</ref>.  Church attendance was mandatory, and church membership was socially vital.  Education was caried out for almost purely religious purposes.  The laws of the colony specifically asked parents to provide for the education of their children, to "at least to be able duely to read the Scriptures" and to understand "the main Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion".  It was expected that the male head of the household was primarily responsible for the religious well being of all members of his household, children and servants alike.<ref>Demos 1970, pp 104-106, 140</ref>

The church was undoubtedly the most important social institution in the colony.  Not only was the bible the primary religious document of the society, it served as a primary legal document as well.<ref name=plymlegal> {{cite web | last = Fennell | first = Christopher | title = Plymouth Colony Legal Structure | publisher = The Plymouth Colony Archive Project | date = 1998 | url = http://etext.virginia.edu/users/deetz/Plymouth/ccflaw.html | accessdate = 2007-04-02}}</ref>.  Church attendance was mandatory, and church membership was socially vital.  Education was carried out for almost purely religious purposes.  The laws of the colony specifically asked parents to provide for the education of their children, to "at least to be able duely to read the Scriptures" and to understand "the main Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion".  It was expected that the male head of the household was primarily responsible for the religious well being of all members of his household, children and servants alike.<ref>Demos 1970, pp 104-106, 140</ref>

Most churches utilized two acts to sanction its members: censure and excommunication.  Censure was a formal reprimand for behavior that was not in line with accepted religious and social norms, while excommunication included full removal from church membership.  Many social evils, from fornication to public drunkenness, were dealt with in the confines of church sanction, and many church sanctions had no official recognition outside of the confines of church membership.  While often no civil or criminal proceedings would result from these sanctions, it was still a powerful tool of social control.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 8-9</ref>

Most churches utilized two acts to sanction its members: censure and excommunication.  Censure was a formal reprimand for behavior that was not in line with accepted religious and social norms, while excommunication included full removal from church membership.  Many social evils, from fornication to public drunkenness, were dealt with in the confines of church sanction, and many church sanctions had no official recognition outside of the confines of church membership.  While often no civil or criminal proceedings would result from these sanctions, it was still a powerful tool of social control.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 8-9</ref>

The Pilgrims practiced infant baptism.  The public baptism ceremony was usually performed within six months of birth.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 132</ref>  Marriage was considered a civil, rather than religious ceremony.  In the one case, such an arrangement may have been a habit that had been picked up during the Leiden years, for civil marriage was common in the Netherlands.  Additionally, the Pilgrims cited a theological argument for such an arrangement, for there is no evidence in Scripture that a minister should preside over a wedding.<ref name=marriage>Philbrick (2006), pp 104</ref>

The Pilgrims practiced infant baptism.  The public baptism ceremony was usually performed within six months of birth.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 132</ref>  Marriage was considered a civil, rather than religious ceremony.  In the one case, such an arrangement may have been a habit that had been picked up during the Leiden years, for civil marriage was common in the Netherlands.  Additionally, the Pilgrims cited a theological argument for such an arrangement, for there is no evidence in Scripture that a minister should preside over a wedding.<ref name=marriage>Philbrick (2006), pp 104</ref>

Besides the Puritan theology expoused by their religious leaders, the people of Plymouth Colony had a strong belief in the supernatural.  [[Richard Greenham]], a Puritan theologian whose works were known to the Plymouth residents, counseled extensively against turning to magic or wizardry to solve ones problems.  The Pilgrims saw Satan's work in nearly every calamity that befell them; the dark magical arts were very real and present for them.  They believed in the presence of malevolent spirts who brought misfortune to people.  In 1660, an court inquest into the drowning death of Jeremiah Burroughs determined that a possessed canoe was to blame.<ref>Deetz and Deetz, pp 87-100 and endnotes</ref>

Besides the Puritan theology espoused by their religious leaders, the people of Plymouth Colony had a strong belief in the supernatural.  [[Richard Greenham]], a Puritan theologian whose works were known to the Plymouth residents, counseled extensively against turning to magic or wizardry to solve ones problems.  The Pilgrims saw Satan's work in nearly every calamity that befell them; the dark magical arts were very real and present for them.  They believed in the presence of malevolent spirits who brought misfortune to people.  In 1660, an court inquest into the drowning death of Jeremiah Burroughs determined that a possessed canoe was to blame.<ref>Deetz and Deetz, pp 87-100 and endnotes</ref>

While Massachusetts Bay colony experienced the famous Salem witchcraft outbreat, there were no reported witches in Plymouth Colony. The court records only show two formal accusations of witchcraft.  The first, of Goodwife Holmes in 1661, never went to trial.  The second, of Mary Ingram in 1677, did result in an indictment, but the accused witch was acquitted at trial.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 92-98 and endnotes</ref>

While Massachusetts Bay colony experienced the famous Salem witchcraft outbreak, there were no reported witches in Plymouth Colony. The court records only show two formal accusations of witchcraft.  The first, of Goodwife Holmes in 1661, never went to trial.  The second, of Mary Ingram in 1677, did result in an indictment, but the accused witch was acquitted at trial.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 92-98 and endnotes</ref>

===Marriage and family life===

===Marriage and family life===

[[Edward Winslow]] and Susanna White, each of who lost their spouses during the harsh winter of 1620-1621, became the first couple to be married in Plymouth.  Governor Bradford presided over the civil ceremony.  

[[Edward Winslow]] and Susanna White, each of who lost their spouses during the harsh winter of 1620-1621, became the first couple to be married in Plymouth.  Governor Bradford presided over the civil ceremony.  

Marriage was considered the normal state for all adult residents of the colony.  Most males first married in their mid-twenties, for women it was about five years earlier.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 151</ref>.  Second marriages were not uncommon, and widows and widowers did not remain so for long.  On average, most widows and widowers remarried within six months to a year.  As most adults who reached marriagable age often lived into their sixties, two-thirds of a person's life was spent in a state of matrimony.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 66.</ref>  

Marriage was considered the normal state for all adult residents of the colony.  Most males first married in their mid-twenties, for women it was about five years earlier.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 151</ref>.  Second marriages were not uncommon, and widows and widowers did not remain so for long.  On average, most widows and widowers remarried within six months to a year.  As most adults who reached marriageable age often lived into their sixties, two-thirds of a person's life was spent in a state of matrimony.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 66.</ref>  

Within the confines of the marriage, women and men were certianly not equal, either from a legal or social standpoint.  However, it should be noted that, compared to 17th century European norms, women in Plymouth Colony had quite extensive legal and social rights.  From the perspective of the Church, women were considered equal to men before God.  The entire family worshiped together, and God's grace was available equally to all professed Christians.  Women were expected to take traditionally feminine roles in the families; involved in child-rearing and maintaining the household.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 82-99</ref>

Within the confines of the marriage, women and men were certainly not equal, either from a legal or social standpoint.  However, it should be noted that, compared to 17th century European norms, women in Plymouth Colony had quite extensive legal and social rights.  From the perspective of the Church, women were considered equal to men before God.  The entire family worshiped together, and God's grace was available equally to all professed Christians.  Women were expected to take traditionally feminine roles in the families; involved in child-rearing and maintaining the household.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 82-99</ref>

Unlike in Europe, however, where women had no legal rights, and were represented in all dealings as a subject of her husband, Plymouth women enjoyed extensive property and legal rights.  Widows in Plymouth could not be legally "written out" of her husband's will, and were guaranteed a full third of the families property upon his death.  Women were parties to contracts in Plymouth; most notably [[prenuptual agreement]]s.  It was common for brides-to-be (and not, notably, their fathers) to enter into contractual agreements on the consolidation of property upon marriage.  In some cases, especially in second marriages, women were given exclusive right to retain control of their property separately from their husbands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 66.  Demos quotes a 1667 contract between John Phillips and Faith Doty which states "The said Faith Doty is to enjoy all of her house and land, goods and cattles, that she is now possessed of, to her owne proper use, to dispose of them at her owne  free will..."</ref>

Unlike in Europe, however, where women had no legal rights, and were represented in all dealings as a subject of her husband, Plymouth women enjoyed extensive property and legal rights.  Widows in Plymouth could not be legally "written out" of her husband's will, and were guaranteed a full third of the families property upon his death.  Women were parties to contracts in Plymouth; most notably [[prenuptial agreement]]s.  It was common for brides-to-be (and not, notably, their fathers) to enter into contractual agreements on the consolidation of property upon marriage.  In some cases, especially in second marriages, women were given exclusive right to retain control of their property separately from their husbands.<ref>Demos (1970), pp 66.  Demos quotes a 1667 contract between John Phillips and Faith Doty which states "The said Faith Doty is to enjoy all of her house and land, goods and cattles, that she is now possessed of, to her owne proper use, to dispose of them at her owne  free will..."</ref>

Women would occasionally sit on juries in Plymouth, a remarkable circumstance in seventeenth century legal practice.  Historians James and Patricia Scott Deetz cite a 1678 inquest into the death of Anne Batson's child, where the jury was composed of 5 women and seven men.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 99-100</ref>

Women would occasionally sit on juries in Plymouth, a remarkable circumstance in seventeenth century legal practice.  Historians James and Patricia Scott Deetz cite a 1678 inquest into the death of Anne Batson's child, where the jury was composed of 5 women and seven men.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 99-100</ref>

===Black Slaves===

===Black Slaves===

A few of the wealtheir families in Plymouth Colony owned black slaves, which unlike the white [[indentured servants]], were considered the property of their owners, and passed on to heirs like any other property.  Slave ownership was not widespread, very few families possessed the wealth necessary to own slaves.  In 1674, the inventory of Capt. Thomas Willet of Marshfield includes "8 Negroes" at a value of ₤200.  Other inventories of the time valued slaves at ₤24-25 each, well out of the financial ability of most families.  A 1689 census of the town of Bristol shows that of the 70 families that lived there, only one had a black slave.<ref>Demos, pp 110-111, also see Demos's footnote #10 on pp 110</ref>

A few of the wealthier families in Plymouth Colony owned black slaves, which unlike the white [[indentured servants]], were considered the property of their owners, and passed on to heirs like any other property.  Slave ownership was not widespread, very few families possessed the wealth necessary to own slaves.  In 1674, the inventory of Capt. Thomas Willet of Marshfield includes "8 Negroes" at a value of ₤200.  Other inventories of the time valued slaves at ₤24-25 each, well out of the financial ability of most families.  A 1689 census of the town of Bristol shows that of the 70 families that lived there, only one had a black slave.<ref>Demos, pp 110-111, also see Demos's footnote #10 on pp 110</ref>

==Economy==

==Economy==

The largest source of wealth for Plymouth Colony was the fur trade.  The disruption of this trade caused by Miles Standish's raid at Wessagusset created great hardship for the colonists for many years to come, and was directly cited by William Bradford as a contributing factor to the colonists economic difficulties in their early years. The colonists attempted commercial fishing. They failed; although there were plent of fish but a shortage of fishermasn skills.<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 136</ref>  The colony traded throughout the region, establishing trading posts as far away as [[Penobscot, Maine]].  They also were frequent trading partners with the Dutch at [[New Amsterdam]].<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 199-200</ref>

The largest source of wealth for Plymouth Colony was the fur trade.  The disruption of this trade caused by Miles Standish's raid at Wessagusset created great hardship for the colonists for many years to come, and was directly cited by William Bradford as a contributing factor to the colonists economic difficulties in their early years. The colonists attempted commercial fishing. They failed; although there were plenty of fish but a shortage of fishermen skills.<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 136</ref>  The colony traded throughout the region, establishing trading posts as far away as [[Penobscot, Maine]].  They also were frequent trading partners with the Dutch at [[New Amsterdam]].<ref>Philbrick (2006), pp 199-200</ref>

The economic situation improved with the arrival of cattle in the colony.  It is unknown when the first cattle arrived, but the division of land for the grazing of cattle in 1627 represented one of the first moves towards private land ownership in the colony.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 77-78.</ref>.  Cattle became an important source of wealth in the colony; the average cow was selling for ₤20-28 apiece in 1638.  However, the flood of immigrants during the Great Migration drove the price of cattle down, causing a collapse of the Plymouth economy. Besides cattle, there were also pigs, sheep, and goats raised in the colony. The introduction of European animals had a major impact on the landscape, as the Pilgrims removed forests and built farms and feces, and later dams.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (2003) </ref>

The economic situation improved with the arrival of cattle in the colony.  It is unknown when the first cattle arrived, but the division of land for the grazing of cattle in 1627 represented one of the first moves towards private land ownership in the colony.<ref>Deetz and Deetz (2000), pp 77-78.</ref>.  Cattle became an important source of wealth in the colony; the average cow was selling for ₤20-28 apiece in 1638.  However, the flood of immigrants during the Great Migration drove the price of cattle down, causing a collapse of the Plymouth economy. Besides cattle, there were also pigs, sheep, and goats raised in the colony. The introduction of European animals had a major impact on the landscape, as the Pilgrims removed forests and built farms and feces, and later dams.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (2003) </ref>

Agriculture was central to the economy.  The colonists adopted Native American agricultural practices and crops.  They planted [[maize|corn]], [[squash (food)|squash]], [[pumpkin]], [[beans]], and [[potato]].  Besides the crops themselves, the Pilgrims learned valuable farming techinques from the Native Americans, such as proper crop rotation, and the use of dead fish to fertilize the soil.  Besides the native crops, the colonists also successfully planted Old World crops such as turnips, carrots, peas, wheat, barley, and oats.

Agriculture was central to the economy.  The colonists adopted Native American agricultural practices and crops.  They planted [[maize|corn]], [[squash (food)|squash]], [[pumpkin]], [[beans]], and [[potato]].  Besides the crops themselves, the Pilgrims learned valuable farming techniques from the Native Americans, such as proper crop rotation, and the use of dead fish to fertilize the soil.  Besides the native crops, the colonists also successfully planted Old World crops such as turnips, carrots, peas, wheat, barley, and oats.

Overall, there was very little cash in Plymouth Colony, so most wealth was accumulated in the form of possessions.  Trade goods such as furs, fish, and livestock were subject to fluctuations in price, and so were unreliable repositories of wealth.  Most Plymouth residents accumulated fine wares as a means of holding their wealth.  Goods such as clothes and furnishings represented an important source of economic stability for the residents.<ref>Demos (1970) pp. 52-53</ref>

Overall, there was very little cash in Plymouth Colony, so most wealth was accumulated in the form of possessions.  Trade goods such as furs, fish, and livestock were subject to fluctuations in price, and so were unreliable repositories of wealth.  Most Plymouth residents accumulated fine wares as a means of holding their wealth.  Goods such as clothes and furnishings represented an important source of economic stability for the residents.<ref>Demos (1970) pp. 52-53</ref>

[[Image:Of Plimoth Plantation Front.jpg|right|thumb|Front page of William Bradford's manuscript for ''Of Plimoth Plantation'']]The earliest artistic depiction of the Pilgrims was actually done before their arrival in America, as Dutch painter [[Adam Willaerts]] painted a portrait of their departure from Delfshaven in 1620.<ref>Philbrick 2006, pg 22</ref>  The same scene was recreated by [[Robert W. Weir|Robert Walter Weir]] in 1844, and hangs in the Rotunda of the [[United States Capitol]] building.  Numerous other paintings have been created memorializing various scenes from the life of Pilgrim Colony, including their landing and the "First Thanksgiving", many of which have been collected by [[Pilgrim Hall]], a museum and historical society founded in 1824 to preserve the history of Plymouth Colony.<ref>{{cite web | title = History Paintings | publisher = Pilgrim Hall | date = 1998 | url = http://www.pilgrimhall.org/hispaint.htm | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>

[[Image:Of Plimoth Plantation Front.jpg|right|thumb|Front page of William Bradford's manuscript for ''Of Plimoth Plantation'']]The earliest artistic depiction of the Pilgrims was actually done before their arrival in America, as Dutch painter [[Adam Willaerts]] painted a portrait of their departure from Delfshaven in 1620.<ref>Philbrick 2006, pg 22</ref>  The same scene was recreated by [[Robert W. Weir|Robert Walter Weir]] in 1844, and hangs in the Rotunda of the [[United States Capitol]] building.  Numerous other paintings have been created memorializing various scenes from the life of Pilgrim Colony, including their landing and the "First Thanksgiving", many of which have been collected by [[Pilgrim Hall]], a museum and historical society founded in 1824 to preserve the history of Plymouth Colony.<ref>{{cite web | title = History Paintings | publisher = Pilgrim Hall | date = 1998 | url = http://www.pilgrimhall.org/hispaint.htm | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>

Several contemporary accounts of life in Plymouth Colony have become both vital primary historical documents and literary classics.  ''[[Of Plymouth Plantation|Of Plimoth Plantation]]'' by William Bradford and ''[[Mourt's Relation]]'' by Bradford, Edward Winslow, and others and published by [[George Morton]] are both accounts written by ''Mayflower'' passangers which provide much of the information we have today regarding the trans-Atlantic voyage and early years of the settlement.  Benjamin Church wrote several accounts of King Philip's War, including ''Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip's War'', which remained popular for a century; one edition was illustrated by [[Paul Revere]] in 1772.  One of the most famous memoirs in American letters is [[Mary Rowlandson]]'s ''A True History of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, or The Sovereignty and Goodness of God'' (1677), a  penetrating and deeply religious account of how she was captured, her children murdered and herself held hostage by Indians as part of their warfare against the whites during of King Philip's War.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 75, 288, 357-358; Mitchell Breitwieser, ''American Puritanism and the Defense of Mourning: Religion, Grief, and Ethnology in Mary White Rowlandson's Captivity Narrative'' (1990). </ref>  Later works, such as "[[The Courtship of Miles Standish]]" by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], have provided a romantic and partially fictionalized account of life in Plymouth Colony.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 354</ref>   

Several contemporary accounts of life in Plymouth Colony have become both vital primary historical documents and literary classics.  ''[[Of Plymouth Plantation|Of Plimoth Plantation]]'' by William Bradford and ''[[Mourt's Relation]]'' by Bradford, Edward Winslow, and others and published by [[George Morton]] are both accounts written by ''Mayflower'' passengers which provide much of the information we have today regarding the trans-Atlantic voyage and early years of the settlement.  Benjamin Church wrote several accounts of King Philip's War, including ''Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip's War'', which remained popular for a century; one edition was illustrated by [[Paul Revere]] in 1772.  One of the most famous memoirs in American letters is [[Mary Rowlandson]]'s ''A True History of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, or The Sovereignty and Goodness of God'' (1677), a  penetrating and deeply religious account of how she was captured, her children murdered and herself held hostage by Indians as part of their warfare against the whites during of King Philip's War.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 75, 288, 357-358; Mitchell Breitwieser, ''American Puritanism and the Defense of Mourning: Religion, Grief, and Ethnology in Mary White Rowlandson's Captivity Narrative'' (1990). </ref>  Later works, such as "[[The Courtship of Miles Standish]]" by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], have provided a romantic and partially fictionalized account of life in Plymouth Colony.<ref>Philbrick (2006) pp 354</ref>   

Films about the Pilgrims have also been numerous, including the several filmed versions of "The Courtship of Miles Standish",<ref> {{cite web | title = IMDB search: Miles Standish | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/find?s=all&q=miles+standish | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>, the 1952 film ''[[Plymouth Adventure]]'' starring [[Spencer Tracy]], and,<ref> {{cite web | title = Plymouth Adventure (1952) | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045039/ | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref> and the 2006 [[History Channel]] produced TV documentary "Desperate Crossings:The True Story of the Mayflower".<ref> {{cite web | title = The Mayflower (2006) | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0493146/ | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>

Films about the Pilgrims have also been numerous, including the several filmed versions of "The Courtship of Miles Standish",<ref> {{cite web | title = IMDB search: Miles Standish | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/find?s=all&q=miles+standish | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>, the 1952 film ''[[Plymouth Adventure]]'' starring [[Spencer Tracy]], and,<ref> {{cite web | title = Plymouth Adventure (1952) | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045039/ | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref> and the 2006 [[History Channel]] produced TV documentary "Desperate Crossings:The True Story of the Mayflower".<ref> {{cite web | title = The Mayflower (2006) | publisher = IMDB | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0493146/ | accessdate = 2007-04-05}}</ref>