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==Cultural icons and iconography: Ethnic, Pagan, Jewish and Christian, [[Secular]] and Political==

==Cultural icons and iconography: Ethnic, Pagan, Jewish and Christian, [[Secular]] and Political==

The class of graphic [[art]] forms of ''iconic'' imagery of any [[culture]] or people or religion is termed by art historians and historians in general as a particular '''iconography''', roughly divided into [[Ethnic Group|ethnic]], pagan<ref>[https://voynichportal.com/tag/pagan-iconography Pagan Iconography - Voynich Portal (voynichportal.com)]</ref>, and Jewish and Christian iconographies<ref>[https://www.oakland.edu/Assets/Oakland/religiousstudies/files-and-documents/student-research/Durnbaugh,%20Elena%20Marie%20%20-%20%20Iconography%20in%20Judaism%20and%20Christianity%20in%20Relation%20to%20the%20Roman%20World.pdf Helios in the Synagogue and Sol Invictus Burial with the Saints: Iconography in Judaism and Christianity in Relation to the Roman World, Elena Marie Durnbaugh, Anthropology/Linguistics, Oakland University–pdf (oakland.edu)].</ref>. [[Vexillology]] is the study of the iconography of flag imagery and flag worship from ancient times to the present.<ref>Members of some religious sects, for example, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], do not participate in the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] because they have been taught that it is an act of [[idolatry]].</ref> An example of U.S. political iconography includes the National Statuary Hall in the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.<ref>National Statuary Hall is a chamber in the United States Capitol devoted to sculptures of prominent Americans. The hall, also known as the Old Hall of the House, is a large, two-story, semicircular room with a second story gallery along the curved perimeter. It is located immediately south of the Rotunda.  —[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Statuary_Hall National Statuary Hall - Wikipedia]</ref>, and the various memorials and monuments around the Washington Mall, including the Pacific War Memorial of the [[United States Marine Corps]] based on the famous [[World War II]] photograph taken by Joe Rosenthal on top of [[Iwo Jima]].

The class of graphic [[art]] forms of ''iconic'' imagery of any [[culture]] or people or religion is termed by art historians and historians in general as a particular '''iconography''', roughly divided into [[Ethnic Group|ethnic]], pagan,<ref>[https://voynichportal.com/tag/pagan-iconography Pagan Iconography - Voynich Portal (voynichportal.com)]</ref> and Jewish and Christian iconographies.<ref>[https://www.oakland.edu/Assets/Oakland/religiousstudies/files-and-documents/student-research/Durnbaugh,%20Elena%20Marie%20%20-%20%20Iconography%20in%20Judaism%20and%20Christianity%20in%20Relation%20to%20the%20Roman%20World.pdf Helios in the Synagogue and Sol Invictus Burial with the Saints: Iconography in Judaism and Christianity in Relation to the Roman World, Elena Marie Durnbaugh, Anthropology/Linguistics, Oakland University–pdf (oakland.edu)].</ref> [[Vexillology]] is the study of the iconography of flag imagery and flag worship from ancient times to the present.<ref>Members of some religious sects, for example, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], do not participate in the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] because they have been taught that it is an act of [[idolatry]].</ref> An example of U.S. political iconography includes the National Statuary Hall in the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.,<ref>National Statuary Hall is a chamber in the United States Capitol devoted to sculptures of prominent Americans. The hall, also known as the Old Hall of the House, is a large, two-story, semicircular room with a second story gallery along the curved perimeter. It is located immediately south of the Rotunda.  —[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Statuary_Hall National Statuary Hall - Wikipedia]</ref> and the various memorials and monuments around the Washington Mall, including the Pacific War Memorial of the [[United States Marine Corps]] based on the famous [[World War II]] photograph taken by Joe Rosenthal on top of [[Iwo Jima]].

===Christian adaptation===

===Christian adaptation===

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] iconography is the oldest and only Christian art form which has continued unchanged for the past 2000 years. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by [[Luke|St. Luke the Evangelist]]. St. Luke is the Patron Saint of iconographers.

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] iconography is the oldest and only Christian art form which has continued unchanged for the past 2000 years. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by [[Luke|St. Luke the Evangelist]]. St. Luke is the Patron Saint of iconographers.

Iconography is considered to have begun the day our Lord Jesus Christ pressed a cloth to His face and imprinted His divine-human image thereon<ref>This is according to tradition the Veil of Veronica ("true image") which she offered in pity to the Lord with which He (or she) wiped the sweat and spit from His face, also simply called the Veronica. [http://www.catholictradition.org/Christ/veronica.htm The Holy Face: Veil of Veronica (catholictraditon.org)]</ref><ref name=Letters>According to the tradition associated with an ancient document purporting to be "The Letters of Jesus Christ the Lord and Abgarus king of Edessa" this image was impressed on the cloth by Christ before the Lord's passion, death, crucifixion and resurrection. See [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/LostBooks/lettersJesusAbgarus.htm Letters of Christ and Abgarus (pseudepigrapha.com)]</ref>. According to Tradition, Luke the Evangelist painted the image of the Mother of God; and, also according to tradition, there still exist today many Icons which were painted by him. An artist, he painted not only the first Icons of the Mother of God, but also those of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, as well as possibly, others. Many early Church fathers from the 2nd century through the 3rd and 4th centuries before the time of [[Constantine]] supported the "underground" (literally, in the catacombs) use of relics, statues and images including icons.<ref name=Fathers>[https://practicalapologetics.blogspot.com/2013/07/early-church-fathers-on-relics-statues.html Early Church Fathers on Relics, Statues and Images (practicalapologetics.blogspot.com)] ''Includes [[Apologetics|apologetic]] quotations from [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] in support of the use of images in early Christian worship and devotion''.</ref>

Iconography is considered to have begun the day our Lord Jesus Christ pressed a cloth to His face and imprinted His divine-human image thereon.<ref>This is according to tradition the Veil of Veronica ("true image") which she offered in pity to the Lord with which He (or she) wiped the sweat and spit from His face, also simply called the Veronica. [http://www.catholictradition.org/Christ/veronica.htm The Holy Face: Veil of Veronica (catholictraditon.org)]</ref><ref name=Letters>According to the tradition associated with an ancient document purporting to be "The Letters of Jesus Christ the Lord and Abgarus king of Edessa" this image was impressed on the cloth by Christ before the Lord's passion, death, crucifixion and resurrection. See [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/LostBooks/lettersJesusAbgarus.htm Letters of Christ and Abgarus (pseudepigrapha.com)]</ref> According to Tradition, Luke the Evangelist painted the image of the Mother of God; and, also according to tradition, there still exist today many Icons which were painted by him. An artist, he painted not only the first Icons of the Mother of God, but also those of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, as well as possibly, others. Many early Church fathers from the 2nd century through the 3rd and 4th centuries before the time of [[Constantine]] supported the "underground" (literally, in the catacombs) use of relics, statues and images including icons.<ref name=Fathers>[https://practicalapologetics.blogspot.com/2013/07/early-church-fathers-on-relics-statues.html Early Church Fathers on Relics, Statues and Images (practicalapologetics.blogspot.com)] ''Includes [[Apologetics|apologetic]] quotations from [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] in support of the use of images in early Christian worship and devotion''.</ref>

Iconography did not develop further during the time of the Roman persecutions A.D. 64–313, but Christians did attempt to express in symbols what they wished to convey. In the catacombs Christ is portrayed as the Good Shepherd and in the guise of various personalities from pagan mythology.

Iconography did not develop further during the time of the Roman persecutions A.D. 64–313, but Christians did attempt to express in symbols what they wished to convey. In the catacombs Christ is portrayed as the Good Shepherd and in the guise of various personalities from pagan mythology.

The early church historian Eusebius (c. AD 263 – 339) about the year 327 wrote, "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error."<ref>David M. Gwynn, “From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy” [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251], p. 227.</ref>  

The early church historian Eusebius (c. AD 263 – 339) about the year 327 wrote, "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error."<ref>David M. Gwynn, “From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy” [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251], p. 227.</ref>  

However, the same Eusebius of Caesarea '''Church History, Book 7''' (A.D. 295-340) testifies to the approved proper use of images of Jesus, Peter and Paul: "They say that this statue is an image of Jesus. It has remained to our day, so that we ourselves also saw it when we were staying in the city. Nor is it strange that those of the Gentiles who, of old, were benefited by our Savior, should have done such things, since we have learned also that the likenesses of his apostles Paul and Peter, and of Christ himself, are preserved in paintings, the ancients being accustomed, as it is likely, according to a habit of the Gentiles, to pay this kind of honor indiscriminately to those regarded by them as deliverers."<ref name=Fathers/>

However, the same Eusebius of Caesarea '''Church History, Book 7''' (A.D. 295–340) testifies to the approved proper use of images of Jesus, Peter and Paul: "They say that this statue is an image of Jesus. It has remained to our day, so that we ourselves also saw it when we were staying in the city. Nor is it strange that those of the Gentiles who, of old, were benefited by our Savior, should have done such things, since we have learned also that the likenesses of his apostles Paul and Peter, and of Christ himself, are preserved in paintings, the ancients being accustomed, as it is likely, according to a habit of the Gentiles, to pay this kind of honor indiscriminately to those regarded by them as deliverers."<ref name=Fathers/>

Basil '''Letter 360''' (A.D. 329-379) cites with approbation the approved use of images, saying, "I acknowledge also the holy apostles, prophets, and martyrs; and I invoke them to supplication to God, that through them, that is, through their [[Intercession|mediation]], the merciful God may be propitious to me, and that a ransom may be made and given me for my sins. Wherefore also I honor and kiss the features of their images, inasmuch as they have been handed down from the holy apostles, and are not forbidden, but are in all our churches."<ref name=Fathers/>

Basil '''Letter 360''' (A.D. 329–379) cites with approbation the approved use of images, saying, "I acknowledge also the holy apostles, prophets, and martyrs; and I invoke them to supplication to God, that through them, that is, through their [[Intercession|mediation]], the merciful God may be propitious to me, and that a ransom may be made and given me for my sins. Wherefore also I honor and kiss the features of their images, inasmuch as they have been handed down from the holy apostles, and are not forbidden, but are in all our churches."<ref name=Fathers/>

Epiphanius (inter 310–320 – 403), bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus wrote, in '''Letter 51''' (c. 394), to John, Bishop of Jerusalem about an incident of finding an image in a church in his jurisdiction: "I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loath that an image of a man should be hung up in Christ's church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person." He goes on to tell John that such images are “contrary to our religion” and to instruct the presbyter of the church that such images are “an occasion of offense.”<ref>John B. Carpenter, "Icons and the Eastern Orthodox Claim to Continuity with the Early Church," ''Journal of the International Society of Christian Apologetics'', Vol. 6, No. 1, 2013, p. 118.</ref>

Epiphanius (inter 310–320 – 403), bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus wrote, in '''Letter 51''' (c. 394), to John, Bishop of Jerusalem about an incident of finding an image in a church in his jurisdiction: "I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loath that an image of a man should be hung up in Christ's church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person." He goes on to tell John that such images are “contrary to our religion” and to instruct the presbyter of the church that such images are “an occasion of offense.”<ref>John B. Carpenter, "Icons and the Eastern Orthodox Claim to Continuity with the Early Church," ''Journal of the International Society of Christian Apologetics'', Vol. 6, No. 1, 2013, p. 118.</ref>

====Sixth century====

====Sixth century====

'''[[Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] Letters Book 4 letter 30''' (A.D. 540-604) testifies to the reverent dread in respect given even the silver over the body of the apostle Peter: "The Serenity of your Piety, conspicuous for religious zeal and love of holiness, has charged me with your commands to send to you the head of Saint Paul, or some other part of his body, for the church which is being built in honor of the same Saint Paul in the palace. And, being desirous of receiving commands from you, by exhibiting the most ready obedience to which I might the more provoke your favor towards me, I am all the more distressed that I neither can nor dare do what you enjoin. For the bodies of the apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul glitter with so great miracles and terrors in their churches that one cannot even go to pray there without great fear. In short, when my predecessor, of blessed memory, was desirous of changing the silver which was over the most sacred body of the blessed apostle Peter, though at a distance of almost fifteen feet from the same body, a sign of no small dreadfulness appeared to him."<ref name=Fathers/>

'''[[Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] Letters Book 4 letter 30''' (A.D. 540–604) testifies to the reverent dread in respect given even the silver over the body of the apostle Peter: "The Serenity of your Piety, conspicuous for religious zeal and love of holiness, has charged me with your commands to send to you the head of Saint Paul, or some other part of his body, for the church which is being built in honor of the same Saint Paul in the palace. And, being desirous of receiving commands from you, by exhibiting the most ready obedience to which I might the more provoke your favor towards me, I am all the more distressed that I neither can nor dare do what you enjoin. For the bodies of the apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul glitter with so great miracles and terrors in their churches that one cannot even go to pray there without great fear. In short, when my predecessor, of blessed memory, was desirous of changing the silver which was over the most sacred body of the blessed apostle Peter, though at a distance of almost fifteen feet from the same body, a sign of no small dreadfulness appeared to him."<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Gregory the Great Letters Book 9 letter 105''' (A.D. 540-604) attempted to correct a distortion or misrepresentation regarding the proper use of iconic pictorial images in the minds of a certain Fraternal Order, counselling them to preserve the images and also prohibit the people from adoration of them: "Furthermore we notify to you that it has come to our ears that your Fraternity, seeing certain adorers of images, broke and threw down these same images in Churches. And we commend you indeed for your zeal against anything made with hands being an object of adoration; but we signify to you that you ought not to have broken these images. For pictorial representation is made use of in Churches for this reason; that such as are ignorant of letters may at least read by looking at the walls what they cannot read in books. Your Fraternity therefore should have both preserved the images and prohibited the people from adoration of them, to the end that both those who are ignorant of letters might have wherewith to gather a knowledge of the history, and that the people might by no means sin by adoration of a pictorial representation<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Gregory the Great Letters Book 9 letter 105''' (A.D. 540–604) attempted to correct a distortion or misrepresentation regarding the proper use of iconic pictorial images in the minds of a certain Fraternal Order, counselling them to preserve the images and also prohibit the people from adoration of them: "Furthermore we notify to you that it has come to our ears that your Fraternity, seeing certain adorers of images, broke and threw down these same images in Churches. And we commend you indeed for your zeal against anything made with hands being an object of adoration; but we signify to you that you ought not to have broken these images. For pictorial representation is made use of in Churches for this reason; that such as are ignorant of letters may at least read by looking at the walls what they cannot read in books. Your Fraternity therefore should have both preserved the images and prohibited the people from adoration of them, to the end that both those who are ignorant of letters might have wherewith to gather a knowledge of the history, and that the people might by no means sin by adoration of a pictorial representation<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Gregory the Great Letters Book 11 letter 13''' (A.D. 540-604) explains that images are permitted by him but that adoration paid to them is improper: "If for this instruction for which images were anciently made you wish to have them in the church, I permit them by all means both to be made and to be had. And explain to them that it was not the sight itself of the story which the picture was hanging to attest that displeased thee, but the adoration which had been improperly paid to the pictures.<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Gregory the Great Letters Book 11 letter 13''' (A.D. 540-604) explains that images are permitted by him but that adoration paid to them is improper: "If for this instruction for which images were anciently made you wish to have them in the church, I permit them by all means both to be made and to be had. And explain to them that it was not the sight itself of the story which the picture was hanging to attest that displeased thee, but the adoration which had been improperly paid to the pictures.<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Constantinople/Trullo/Quinisext canon 82''' (A.D. 692): "In some pictures of the venerable icons, a lamb is painted to which the [[John the Baptist|Precursor]] points his finger, which is received as a type of grace, indicating beforehand through the Law, our true Lamb, Christ our God."<ref name=Fathers/>

'''Constantinople/Trullo/Quinisext canon 82''' (A.D. 692): "In some pictures of the venerable icons, a lamb is painted to which the [[John the Baptist|Precursor]] points his finger, which is received as a type of grace, indicating beforehand through the Law, our true Lamb, Christ our God."<ref name=Fathers/>

'''''Avenging of the Savior''''' (A.D. 700)<ref>[http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/apocrypha_nt/avsav.htm Avenging of the Savior (pseudepigrapha.com)–text]</ref> gives testimony to the martyrdom of Veronica, the woman who, according to tradition, was healed of the hemorrhage she had suffered for 12 years, and to the iconic image she kept: "It is the woman called Veronica who has the portrait of the Lord in her house. And immediately he ordered her to be brought before his power. And he said to her: Hast thou the portrait of the Lord in thy house? But she said, No. Then Velosianus ordered her to be put to the torture, until she should give up the portrait of the Lord. And she was forced to say: I have it in clean linen, my lord, and I daily adore it. Velosianus said: Show it to me. Then she showed the portrait of the Lord." (Veronica was the woman who suffered for 12 years with the issue of blood)<ref name=Fathers/><ref name=Letters/>

'''''Avenging of the Savior''''' (A.D. 700)<ref>[http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/apocrypha_nt/avsav.htm Avenging of the Savior (pseudepigrapha.com)–text]</ref> gives testimony to the martyrdom of Veronica, the woman who, according to tradition, was healed of the hemorrhage she had suffered for 12 years, and to the iconic image she kept: "It is the woman called Veronica who has the portrait of the Lord in her house. And immediately he ordered her to be brought before his power. And he said to her: Hast thou the portrait of the Lord in thy house? But she said, No. Then Velosianus ordered her to be put to the torture, until she should give up the portrait of the Lord. And she was forced to say: I have it in clean linen, my lord, and I daily adore it. Velosianus said: Show it to me. Then she showed the portrait of the Lord." (Veronica was the woman who suffered for 12 years with the issue of blood)<ref name=Letters/><ref name=Fathers/>

====Eighth century====

====Eighth century====