Roman Empire - Revision history

RobSmith: /* Aftermath and the Eastern Empire */

2025-11-22T03:28:22Z

Aftermath and the Eastern Empire

RobSmith: /* Aftermath and the Eastern Empire */

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Aftermath and the Eastern Empire

Conservative: /* List of Roman Emperors */

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List of Roman Emperors

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List of Roman Emperors

Conservative: /* Fall */

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Fall

Conservative: /* Aftermath and the Eastern Empire */

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Aftermath and the Eastern Empire

Conservative: /* Aftermath and the Eastern Empire */

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Aftermath and the Eastern Empire

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Aftermath and the Eastern Empire

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Fall

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Roman Engineering

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 This twilight period was finally cut short by the reconquest campaign planned by the Byzantine emperor [[Justinian|Justinian I]], led by the general [[Belisarius]].  In a bloody war, both sides reduced the Italian countryside to nothing, with the Byzantines finally inheriting a ravaged husk.<ref>Procopius, ''the Gothic Wars''</ref>  Many Romans - Eastern and Western - blamed Justinian for this devastation.<ref>Procopius, ''the Secret Histories''</ref>
-When [[Charles the Great]] (''Fr. [[Charlemagne]]'' was crowned Emperor of the Romans, the Church saw that as the revival of the Roman Empire, disowning the Roman [[rump state]] in the [[East]], the Eastern Roman Empire as the "Empire of the Greeks".  After the fourth crusade, the crusaders, who had taken Constantinople, crowned their leader as "Emperor of the Romans".  However, later leaders of the Crusader States in the area were referred to as "Emperor of Constantinople".  When the [[Byzantine Empire]] fell in 1453, this left the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as the only Roman successor state to use the title emperor.  The [[Orthodox Patriarch]], under [[Ottoman]] pressure, recognized the [[Caliph]]s as "Ceaser of Rome" a title they kept until a deal was reached with the Holy Roman Empire.  A Byzantine pretender left the titles to the King and Queen of [[Spain]] on his deathbed, and these titles were never renounced by the Spanish Monarchs, meaning that the Kingdom of Spain is the last country to have a claim to the Roman mantel, as all others have renounced the Empire.  The [[Fascist]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] wished to see the Empire restored, but no legitimate organization, meaning no Church or Pretender from a previous Empire, as they were the ones to recognize Roman Emperors, ever endorsed him.
+When [[Charles the Great]] (''Fr. [[Charlemagne]]'') was crowned Emperor of the Romans, the Church saw that as the revival of the Roman Empire, disowning the Roman [[rump state]] in the [[East]], the Eastern Roman Empire as the "Empire of the Greeks".  After the fourth crusade, the crusaders, who had taken Constantinople, crowned their leader as "Emperor of the Romans".  However, later leaders of the Crusader States in the area were referred to as "Emperor of Constantinople".  When the [[Byzantine Empire]] fell in 1453, this left the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as the only Roman successor state to use the title emperor.  The [[Orthodox Patriarch]], under [[Ottoman]] pressure, recognized the [[Caliph]]s as "Ceaser of Rome" a title they kept until a deal was reached with the Holy Roman Empire.  A Byzantine pretender left the titles to the King and Queen of [[Spain]] on his deathbed, and these titles were never renounced by the Spanish Monarchs, meaning that the Kingdom of Spain is the last country to have a claim to the Roman mantel, as all others have renounced the Empire.  The [[Fascist]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] wished to see the Empire restored, but no legitimate organization, meaning no Church or Pretender from a previous Empire, as they were the ones to recognize Roman Emperors, ever endorsed him.
 ==See also==

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 This twilight period was finally cut short by the reconquest campaign planned by the Byzantine emperor [[Justinian|Justinian I]], led by the general [[Belisarius]].  In a bloody war, both sides reduced the Italian countryside to nothing, with the Byzantines finally inheriting a ravaged husk.<ref>Procopius, ''the Gothic Wars''</ref>  Many Romans - Eastern and Western - blamed Justinian for this devastation.<ref>Procopius, ''the Secret Histories''</ref>
-When Charles the Great was crowned Emperor of the Romans, the Church saw that as the revival of the Roman Empire, disowning the Roman rump state in the East, the Eastern Roman Empire as the "Empire of the Greeks".  After the fourth crusade, the crusaders, who had taken Constantinople, crowned their leader as "Emperor of the Romans".  However, later leaders of the Crusader States in the area were referred to as "Emperor of Constantinople".  When the Byzantine Empire fell in 1453, this left the Holy Roman Empire as the only Roman successor state to use the title emperor.  The Orthodox Patriarch, under Ottoman pressure, recognized the Caliphs as "Ceaser of Rome" a title they kept until a deal was reached with the HRE.  A Byzantine pretender left the titles to the King and Queen of Spain on his deathbed, and these titles were never renounced by the Spanish Monarchs, meaning that the Kingdom of Spain is the last country to have a claim to the Roman mantel, as all others have renounced the Empire.  The [[Fascist]] dictator Benito Mussolini wished to see the Empire restored, but no legitimate organization, meaning no Church or Pretender from a previous Empire, as they were the ones to recognize Roman Emperors, ever endorsed him.
+When [[Charles the Great]] (''Fr. [[Charlemagne]]'' was crowned Emperor of the Romans, the Church saw that as the revival of the Roman Empire, disowning the Roman [[rump state]] in the [[East]], the Eastern Roman Empire as the "Empire of the Greeks".  After the fourth crusade, the crusaders, who had taken Constantinople, crowned their leader as "Emperor of the Romans".  However, later leaders of the Crusader States in the area were referred to as "Emperor of Constantinople".  When the [[Byzantine Empire]] fell in 1453, this left the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as the only Roman successor state to use the title emperor.  The [[Orthodox Patriarch]], under [[Ottoman]] pressure, recognized the [[Caliph]]s as "Ceaser of Rome" a title they kept until a deal was reached with the Holy Roman Empire.  A Byzantine pretender left the titles to the King and Queen of [[Spain]] on his deathbed, and these titles were never renounced by the Spanish Monarchs, meaning that the Kingdom of Spain is the last country to have a claim to the Roman mantel, as all others have renounced the Empire.  The [[Fascist]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] wished to see the Empire restored, but no legitimate organization, meaning no Church or Pretender from a previous Empire, as they were the ones to recognize Roman Emperors, ever endorsed him.
 ==See also==

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 * Magentius, Nepotian, Vetranio, and Silvanus, who rebelled with some success against Constantine's sons.
 * [[Julian]] the Apostate ''(361-363)'', Constantine the Great's nephew.
-* [[Jovian]] ''(363-364)''
+* Jovian ''(363-364)''
 The final emperor to rule a united Western and Eastern Roman Empire was [[Theodosius I]] the Great ''(379-395)'', who made Christianity the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.
-After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father Orestes) by his general, the Germanic chieftain [[Odoacer]], in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.
+After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father [[Orestes]]) by his general, the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.
 ==Roman Engineering==

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 * [[Constantine]] the Great ''(311-337)''.  He was the first man since Diocletian to rule the entire empire, and the first emperor to publicly adopt [[Christianity]].  He moved the Imperial capital from [[Rome]] to [[Constantinople]].
-* Constantine left the empire to his three sons, [[Constantine II]] ''(337-340)'', [[Constans I]] ''(337-350)'', and [[Constantius II]] ''(337-361)''.  However, they fought among themselves, and the army soon rebelled.  Emperors after them include:
+* Constantine left the empire to his three sons, [[Constantine II]] ''(337-340)'', Constans I ''(337-350)'', and [[Constantius II]] ''(337-361)''.  However, they fought among themselves, and the army soon rebelled.  Emperors after them include:
 * Magentius, Nepotian, Vetranio, and Silvanus, who rebelled with some success against Constantine's sons.
 * [[Julian]] the Apostate ''(361-363)'', Constantine the Great's nephew.
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 The final emperor to rule a united Western and Eastern Roman Empire was [[Theodosius I]] the Great ''(379-395)'', who made Christianity the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.
-After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father [[Orestes]]) by his general, the Germanic chieftain [[Odoacer]], in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.
+After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father Orestes) by his general, the Germanic chieftain [[Odoacer]], in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.
 ==Roman Engineering==

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 === Fall ===
 [[File:Rome-Barbarians2.jpg|thumb|560px|actual barbarian invasions 400-526 AD]]
-The actual "fall" of the Western Roman Empire is said to have occurred on September 4, 476 A.D. when [[Odoacer]], a barbarian part Hun general led a mutiny by most of the barbarian mercenaries in Orestes' army (the master general in Italy, and father of the Emperor whom he had placed on the throne the previous year after a coup).  Orestes was defeated at the Battle of Pavia on August 23 and captured and killed after a brief siege.  Odoacer deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] and seized control of Italy.  He did not take the title of Emperor, thus ending 500 years of Roman rule.<ref>Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 171</ref>
+The actual "fall" of the Western Roman Empire is said to have occurred on September 4, 476 A.D. when Odoacer, a barbarian part Hun general led a mutiny by most of the barbarian mercenaries in Orestes' army (the master general in Italy, and father of the Emperor whom he had placed on the throne the previous year after a coup).  Orestes was defeated at the Battle of Pavia on August 23 and captured and killed after a brief siege.  Odoacer deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] and seized control of Italy.  He did not take the title of Emperor, thus ending 500 years of Roman rule.<ref>Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 171</ref>
 == Aftermath and the Eastern Empire ==

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 The Roman Empire continued with the Eastern (or [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) Empire until its fall in 1453 A.D. Despite the fact that the Eastern Empire shifted away from Roman culture as the [[Middle Ages]] progressed, it was the direct continuation of the Roman Empire, and was continued to be known and called by its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, who also continued to refer to themselves as Romans.<ref>Teall, John L. & Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. [https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire Byzantine Empire]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref name="Boundless">[https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-byzantine-empire-6/byzantium-the-new-rome-35/naming-of-the-byzantine-empire-134-13338/ Naming of the Byzantine Empire]. ''boundless.com''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> The terms "Eastern Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" are modern historiographical terms that were created after the fall of the empire in 1453.<ref name="Boundless"/>
-Accounts of the Roman world's immediate descent into poverty have been greatly exaggerated.  Rather, rulers such as Theoderic the Ostrogoth and his followers (the Amal clan) ruled from [[Ravenna]] in the Roman style, maintaining much of Roman life and infrastructure.<ref>Peter Wolfram, ''The Goths''</ref>  Theoderic even employed Romans to ensure this continuity and sense of Roman stability.  Indeed, in the eyes of the people of Italy, the formal pronouncement of the end of the Roman empire wasn't apparent; that is only a label that was put on in retrospect due to the One example was [[Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator]] (or just Cassiodorus), who, writing as Theoderic, famously urged all Romans to "clothe themselves with the morals of the [[toga]]" - i.e., retain your Roman ways, in spite of the "barbarian" rule.
+Accounts of the Roman world's immediate descent into poverty have been greatly exaggerated.  Rather, rulers such as Theoderic the Ostrogoth and his followers (the Amal clan) ruled from [[Ravenna]] in the Roman style, maintaining much of Roman life and infrastructure.<ref>Peter Wolfram, ''The Goths''</ref>  Theoderic even employed Romans to ensure this continuity and sense of Roman stability.  Indeed, in the eyes of the people of Italy, the formal pronouncement of the end of the Roman empire wasn't apparent; that is only a label that was put on in retrospect due to the One example was Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (or just Cassiodorus), who, writing as Theoderic, famously urged all Romans to "clothe themselves with the morals of the toga" - i.e., retain your Roman ways, in spite of the "barbarian" rule.
 This twilight period was finally cut short by the reconquest campaign planned by the Byzantine emperor [[Justinian|Justinian I]], led by the general [[Belisarius]].  In a bloody war, both sides reduced the Italian countryside to nothing, with the Byzantines finally inheriting a ravaged husk.<ref>Procopius, ''the Gothic Wars''</ref>  Many Romans - Eastern and Western - blamed Justinian for this devastation.<ref>Procopius, ''the Secret Histories''</ref>

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 Aqueducts were built to supply water to cities by finding an [[aquifer]] or reservoir and channeling it along the route of the aqueduct with a slight reduction in grade to provide water pressure. Once the aqueduct arrived at destination city, lead pipes directed the flow of water to fountains and even the wealthier homes. Sewers were provided, as were large public latrines and often extravagant public and private baths.
-These baths, known as '''thermae''' usually provided separate rooms for cold '''(frigidarium)''', warm '''(tepidarium)''', and hot '''(caldarium)''' bathing. Water and floors were heated using a hypocaust heating system; an under floor furnace. Tending these furnaces was a dangerous job, done by slaves. As bath complexes grew larger, they began to include saunas and gyms, along with other health and hygiene related buildings and areas. Roman baths were not merely salubrious, however. They also were an important social gathering point along with [[forum]]s and [[curiae]].
+These baths, known as '''thermae''' usually provided separate rooms for cold '''(frigidarium)''', warm '''(tepidarium)''', and hot '''(caldarium)''' bathing. Water and floors were heated using a hypocaust heating system; an under floor furnace. Tending these furnaces was a dangerous job, done by slaves. As bath complexes grew larger, they began to include saunas and gyms, along with other health and hygiene related buildings and areas. Roman baths were not merely salubrious, however. They also were an important social gathering point along with [[forum]]s and curiae.
 Much of Roman construction was poured concrete, made primarily from seashells. This concrete was able to cure underwater, vital to bridging rivers and bodies of water.