Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Nelson Mandela

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Nelson Mandela was the 11th president of South Africa. He was in office from 1994 to 1999. In 1962 he was arrested and spent 27 years in prison on conviction of sabotage with the African National Congress.

Cultural Revolution

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The Cultural Revolution was an upheaval which began in August of 1966 by Chinese Chairman Mao Zedong. He began this revolution in his last ten years of power because he feared that China would become like the Soviet Union and that he might have a bad, if any, place in history. His objective was to cause a cultural revolution that would replace leaders with people who would think like him and be supportive of him as Chairmen, make the Chinese Communist Party function the way he wanted, give the Chinese youth a revolutionary experience, and make changes so that education, health care, and cultural systems would be for the entirety of China and not just for the elite. Mao Zedong desired the Cultural Revolution to affect all in China but it mostly affected those in urban places.

In August 1966 all schools were closed. During this time Mao told the Red Guards to question things that traditionally had great value and importance, and question the activities of government officials by slighting them in a way that was visible to all. This resulted in the harm and even death of many people. In the end, Mao Zedong achieved none of what he wanted. The end Cultural Revolution came about with death of Mao Zedong, but was not officially ended until 1977.

Leucoplasts

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[[Organelle]]s that store [[starch]]es or [[oil]]s.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Babylonia

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The state that grew up around Babylon.

Physical Science Terms U

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Saint Benedict

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Saint Benedict lived from AD 480 to 543. He was a great monk who founded twelve monasteries and wrote the [[Rule of St. Benedict]].

[[Category:Biographies]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Pantheon, Rome

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''The Pantheon'' is a temple in Rome dedicated to the seven planetary gods: Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Saturn.

== History ==

It was first designed and erected by emperor Agrippa between 27 and 25 BC. In 80 AD, it was destroyed in a fire, and was restored immediatly by an architect named Domitian. It burned down again in another fire in 110 AD, and this time it was restored and completely rebuilt by Hadrian, who made the building as it is known today, from 118 to 128 AD. In 609, Brizantine emperor Phocas donated the building to then-Pope Boniface IV, who made it into a [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic church]], ''Santa Maria ad Martyres'', or ''The Church of Saint Mary and all the Martyres.'' This action preserved the building throughout the ages. It is still in use as a Catholic Church and holds service on all major Catholic holidays.

== The Architecture ==

The building is composed of two parts: The porch, a standard Roman feature with front stairs going up to a platform surrounded by pillars with a door to the dome, and the dome, which was a huge circular room with a dome overhead. The dome room had a maximum height of 43.3 meters, and the diameter of the circle was exactly 43.3 meters. Because of this, a perfect sphere could fit into the room, with a diameter of 43.3 meters.

Macroeconomics Terms R

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Gaul

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Roman term for a territory comprised by modern northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland, and parts of Netherlands and Germany.

The Gauls, who called this area home, were a Celtic people. There are still some elements of Celtic influence in places like Brittany, but their culture was largely overrun by the Romans and the Franks.

Julio-Claudian emperors

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The Julio-Claudian emperors were the line of Roman Emperors following [[Augustus Caesar]].

{{stub}}

[[Category:History]]

Taiping Rebellion

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The Taiping Rebellion was a rebellion in 1850 led by [[Hong Xiuquan]]. Its goal was to get rid of Opium and establish a "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace".

Vassals

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In [[feudalism]], the vassals rented their manors from [[lord]]s and then had their land worked by [[serfs]]. They were considered [[noble|nobles]], but had less power than the lords.

Covenant

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A covenant is a promise or oath. The word "covenant" is used hundreds of times in some English translations of the Bible to describe God's promises to his people.

Property Clause

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The Property Clause of the U.S. Constitution states that "Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ...." (Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2).

The U.S. government owns 30% of the land within its territory, and a far higher percentage in western states. In Nevada, the U.S. government owns over 80% of the land.

Algebra Terms X

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United States Senate

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A Senate is a governing body of a legislature.

==Roman Senate==

The first senate was that of the [[Roman Republic]]. The senate was the dominant force in the politics of the Roman Republic. The Roman Senate consisted of 300 senators who met in the [[Curia]] or Senate house.

The senate of the [[Roman Empire]] was similar to the senate of the Roman Republic. The senate continued to meet in the Curia, but the number of senators was increased to over a thousand by [[Julius Caesar]]. During this time the senate was essentially a figurehead subject to the orders of the emperor.

==Senates Today==

Today senates exist in these countries (Please add to and improve this list!)

*United States
*Canada
*Mexico
*Australia

==Notes and References==

<references/>

Sensory Nervous System

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The system of nerves which carries information from the body's [[receptors]] to the [[CNS]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With General Science''. Anderson: Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc.

2000</ref>

==References==
<references/>

William Quantrill

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{{stub}}
'''William Clarke Quantrill''' (1837-1865) was a Confederate guerilla who is most notorious for leading the August 21, 1863 raid of Lawrence, [[Kansas]], which killed nearly 200 people. This perpetuated the cycle of violence in the newly admitted state of Kansas, which was appropriately known as "Bleeding Kansas". Quantrill was killed during a raid in Kentucky two years later. <ref>http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/i_r/quantrill.htm</ref>

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Biographies]]

Cytolysis

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The rupturing of a [[cell]] due to excess internal pressure.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Golgi bodies

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The [[organelle]]s where [[protein]]s and [[lipid]]s are stored and then modified to suit the needs of the [[cell]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Nonfeasance

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Nonfeasance is the total failure or omission of an employee of a government agency to do his job. More generally, nonfeasance is the failure of an agent to perform a duty required by his principal.

Nonfeasance is different from [[misfeasance]] (performing a lawful task improperly) and [[malfeasance]] (doing something illegal or wrongful).

Papyrus

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'''Papyrus''' was one of the earliest types of paper invented. (The word ''paper'' derives from the word ''papyrus.'') It was very important to the ancient Egyptians. It helped transform the Egyptian society in many ways. Once the technology of papyrus making was formed, the method of production was kept a secret, allowing Egypt to have molopoly on it. The first use of papyrus is believed to be around 4000 B.C.

Chemistry Terms P

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T.S. Eliot

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Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888-1965) was a poet, playwright, and literary critic. He was a dominant force in English and American literary scene during the middle third of the twentieth century. Some of his works include the "Waste Land" in 1922, and the "Journey of the Magi" in 1927. He studied at Oxford, Paris, and Harvard. Eventually, he won the Nobel Prize for literature.

T. S. Eliot was born and grew up in St. Louis, [[Missouri]], along the Mississippi River. But in adulthood he moved to England. In 1927 he renounced his American citizenship, became a British subject, and converted to Anglicanism. He described himself as "classicist in literature, royalist in politics, and Anglo-Catholic in religion."

Notable plays include ''The Cocktail Party,'' which concerns a group of contemporary people talking about their marital and other problems, and who are counselled by a mysterious character, ostensibly a psychiatrist; and ''Murder in the Cathedral,'' about the death of [[Thomas Becket]].

Some famous lines from T. S. Eliot that are often alluded to or quoted include:

  Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach? 
  I shall wear white flannel trousers, and walk upon the beach 
  I have heard the mermaids singing, each to each. 
  I do not think that they will sing to me. 
::(from "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock")

  This is the way the world ends 
  Not with a bang but a whimper. 
::(from "The Hollow Men")

  April is the cruellest month, breeding 
  Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing 
  Memory and desire, stirring 
  Dull roots with spring rain. 
::(from "The Waste Land")

==External links==
*[http://www.bartleby.com/198/1.html The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/201/1.html The Waste Land]

[[Category:Biographies]]

Livy

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Livy (59 B.C. - 17 A.D.) was a Roman historian who wrote a 142-book history of Rome from its beginning to his day. His approach emphasized the greatness of Rome.

Peninsular War

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The Peninsular War was a war between [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] and Spain from 1808 to 1813. It contributed to the weakening and eventual fall of Napolean's empire.

Macroeconomics Terms B

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Classicism

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Classicism was an artistic movement that lasted roughly from 1600 until 1800. As a movement classicism looked back to the arts of the classic period ([[pagan]] Greece and Rome) and sought inspiration there. <ref> Art History Database [http://wwar.com/masters/movements/classicism.html]</ref>

==Reference==

<references/>

Yiddish

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Yiddish is a worldwide Jewish language that mixes words from primarily high German and also Hebrew and French. Yiddish also borrows words from other languages, such as "umbrella" from English. Written Yiddish is based on Hebrew characters.

Johannes Gutenberg

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[[Image:Johann_Gutenberg.jpg|thumb|200px|Johann Gutenberg]]
Johannes Gutenberg (A.D. 1400-1468) was a German printer who invented the first printing press using movable type. He was also the first to use a press to print, by setting up a matrix for typecasting.

His first printed book, and definitely the most important, is known as the Gutenberg Bible, which was the Latin version of the Bible used at the time. This is the oldest book still in existence ("extant") in the West. He was printing copies of the Bible by 1455.

The invention of the printing press is considered one of the greatest inventions of all time, and it had an enormous impact on Europe. The Reformation in the following century relied on the printing press to circulate translations of the Bible in German to the public. Before Johann Gutenberg and the press, no common person could own their own copy.

Some historians claim that the printing press had already been invented in China before Gutenberg, but this is debatable as no one in the West was aware of it.

Marie Curie

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Marie Curie was a Polish scientist and atheist<ref>http://womenshistory.about.com/od/mariecurie/p/marie_curie.htm</ref> who did extensive work on radioactivity and radioactive materials along with her husband, Pierre.

She discovered two elements, previously unknown, both radioactive. One of them she named ''polonium'' in honor of her native Poland, the other ''radium.''

The ''Curie,'' a unit of radioactivity, is named in her honor.
==Reference==

<references/>

Karyotype

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The figure produced when the [[chromosome]]s of a species during [[metaphase]] are arranged according to size.

[[Category:Biology]]

Empress Dowager Cixi

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{{stub}}
Empress Cixi lived from November 29, 1835 to November 15, 1908. She was a consort of the Xianfeng emperor, mother of the Tongzhi emperor, and adoptive mother of the Guangxu emperor.

[[Category:Biographies]]

Circulatory system

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A system that transports food and other necessary substances throughout a creature's body.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

== History ==
One of the first men to give a nearly accurate description of the human circulatory system was [[Michael Servetus]], during the early Sixteenth Century, A.D.

== See also ==
*[[Closed circulatory system]]
*[[Open circulatory system]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Balkans

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The Balkans are the countries occupying the Balkan Peninsula. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, & Turkey in Europe.

Pre Modern Terms B

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Complete (mathematics)

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In mathematics, a [[metric (mathematics)|metric space]] is said to be '''complete''' if all [[Cauchy sequences]] [[converge]].

[[Category:Mathematics]]

Apartheid

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Apartheid is a social and political policy of racial segregation and discrimination enforced by white minority governments in South Africa from 1948 to 1994.

Vittorio Orlando

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Vittorio Orlando was an Italian statesman and prime minister during the end of [[World War I]]. He lived from May 19, 1860 to December 1, 1952. Orlando represented his country at the [[Paris Peace Conference]].

Autonomic nervous system

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The system of [[nerve|nerves]] which carries instructions from the [[CNS]] to the body's [[organ|organs]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With General Science''. Anderson: Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc.

2000</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Microeconomics Terms W

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Talk:Massachusetts liberal

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So, would it be at all relevant that Massachusetts has the lowest divorce rate[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0923080.html], one of the lowest crime rates. [http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/macrime.htm], [http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/], [http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/uscrime.htm], one of the lowest murder rates [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=169&scid=12] and (I don't have a citation at the moement) one of the lowest adultery rates? [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 02:56, 4 March 2007 (EST)

Massachusetts liberal

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A [[Liberal]] from Massachusetts, in many ways the most liberal state in the United States. It is the only state where it is a crime, with a mandatory prison sentence of at least one year, for transporting a lawfully owned gun for a lawful purpose in an automobile without a special permit. Out-of-state drivers traveling to hunting or gun competitions in the Northeast have to choose between going hours out of their way to avoid Massachusetts, or spending hours attempting to obtain a permit.

Massachusetts is also the only state that has same-sex marriage. Two of the most liberal senators in the entire [[U.S. Senate]], [[Teddy Kennedy]] and [[John Kerry]], represent Massachusetts.

[[John Kerry]] lost by millions of votes nationwide in the 2004 election against [[George W. Bush]], yet Kerry won Massachusetts by a margin of about 62-38%.

[[Category:Politics]]

Talk:Fox News

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Is a citation ''from'' Fox News saying that Fox News is fair and balanced really a good idea?
I would think that it would be more appropriately said as "Fox News claims to be fair and balanced," or something along those lines.
Anyone disagree?
--[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 15:23, 7 March 2007 (EST)
*I disagree. One of the ways Fox News attempts to be fair and balanced is by inviting guests from both sides of the issue. Personally I would prefer to only hear from conservatives, but Fox News has both sides. Hannity and Colmes is a great example of a Fair and Balanced show - Sean is the Conservative and Alan is the liberal (and proud of it). [[User:Crocoite|Dean]] 17:28, 7 March 2007 (EST)
**What other programs do they air that feature both sides of the political spectrum? Regardless, Colmes is quite overshadowed by the rapacious Hannity. -[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 14:41, 8 March 2007 (EST)

----

I think this entire article could use an overhaul. Although I am a supporter of Fox News, the bias in this article in very apparent. --[[User:David R|<<-David R->>]] 15:25, 7 March 2007 (EST)
*I disagree. If there's any bias in this article, it's toward conservatism and the Truth, which was the whole purpose of Conservapedia in the first place! --[[User:Ashens|Ashens]] 16:44, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:*Well it does have a very obvious bias. You are right in saying that Conservapedia has a point of view to impose. But the srticle goes beyond the point of view of Conservapedia.
:Take this example from the article: "Fox News is best because instead of just telling you what to think, they only report the news unbiased and then allow the viewer to decide."
:#Even though I may think it is a fact that Fox News is the best, it is merely my opinion.
:#This sentence and others are worded as if they were written by a 1st grader - read after comma to see what I mean.
:The point is the article must be written over again to present a factual, encyclopedia-worthy article. --[[User:David R|<<-David R->>]] 16:56, 7 March 2007 (EST)
**If one news source tells you what to think (as any of the leftist mainstream media stations do) and another just reports the facts in a fair and unbiased manner, then clearly the second news source is superior, by definition! --[[User:Ashens|Ashens]] 17:00, 7 March 2007 (EST)
***Every source has a bias. Fox News is no exception.

True. Didn't even notice the "Sean Hannity is a great American" statement at first, which I think is safe to say is an opinion. Also, the reference points to an outdated car giveaway. Doesn't seem like it belongs.
--[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 15:42, 7 March 2007 (EST)

I think the link for the first reference needs to be changed. It is used as a citation for Fox News saying it is Fair and Balanced, but the link only goes to a page with employment opportunities.

== Fair and Balanced? ==

Let's look at the conservative personalities on Fox

-Bill Oreilly 
-Neil Cavuto 
-John Gibson 
-Sean Hannity 
-Brit Hume 
-Everyone on Fox & Friends

Liberal personalities 
-Allen Colmes (and he doesn't even get his own show) 
-Greta Van Susteren (her show is never deals with politics so it doesn't really matter)
*Greta's liberal? Hmmm. Never really watched that, anyways. -[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 14:34, 8 March 2007 (EST)

== Let's complain about the show "Red Eye" on Fox News ==

Let's complain about the show "Red Eye" on Fox News. I am a conservative and I would have to say that it is the stupidest show on Fox News. Fox News if you are listening pull the show off your network. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 23:37, 7 March 2007 (EST)conservative

== Is this why Murdoch started Fox? ==

"Fox News was started in 1996 in response to the other cable news channels which all had obvious liberal biases. Because of this, Rupert Murdoch decided to start a news channel which would counteract them."

Has anyone got a source that says this ''is'' the reason he started Fox News? What does Murdoch himself say?

==Cable?==
Isn't Fox a broadcast channel? Doesn't it compete with the other broadcast networks (ABC, NBC, CBS) rather than with the cable news channels (e.g. CNN)? [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 14:45, 8 March 2007 (EST)

: Fox News is the cable news channel. Fox is the broadcast channel, and it doesn't carry a news program of its own. So, Fox as a corporation competes in both areas. The only other network that splits itself like this is NBC (MSNBC, CNBC), although they have an integral news program on their broadcast channel.--[[User:Dave3172|Dave3172]] 15:25, 8 March 2007 (EST)

== "The religion they represent" ==

That line is bat-**-crazy. You cannot say that suicide bombings need to be "put in the context of the religion they represent." It's flat-out racist. Further, it's an obvious bias, just like this entire page.

I have edited out the offensive line. I have also changed some of the wording to sound less biased.--[[User:AmesG|AmesG]] 22:17, 9 March 2007 (EST)

: Good quick removal of my changes, which were awesome, Tim, since they put the article more in line with your *stated goal* of maintaining a non-biased site.--[[User:AmesG|AmesG]] 22:20, 9 March 2007 (EST)

The fact is that few Christians or Buddhists are blowing themselves up, and Fox News isn't afraid to say that. I find that to be quite an appropriate statement. [[User:ATB|ATB]] 15:06, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

So, then it would be fine to say that Jim Jones represents Christianity?
--[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 19:06, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

: The fact is, ATB-uglybar-ATB, that few Muslims are blowing themselves up either. Just the crazy ones. Would it be fair to say that abortion clinic bombers are representative of Christians? See, that might make me mad, since I'm Christian, and I believe that blowing anyone up is a bad thing to do. Take your racist hate-mongering elsewhere.--[[User:AmesG|AmesG]] 19:29, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

I have nothing personal against Muslims except that they should convert to Christianity. However, I think it is a fair to say that Fox News is much harder on them then the other news channels (i.e., they're willing to connect their suicidal nature to their fundamentalism.) I think we can all agree that in America (with proper border controls) we have no room for racism. [[User:ATB|ATB]] 20:09, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

== "Dominating the ratings" ==

So, uh, if they're dominating the ratings, PROVIDE A SOURCE. Either, you know, give us a source, or leave it out. Or has somebody not looked at the commandments? --[[User:Mattybee|Mattybee]] 14:44, 11 March 2007 (EDT)

Fox News Channel

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Fox News was started in 1996 by [[Rupert Murdoch]] in response to the other cable news channels which he believed to all have [[Liberal Biased Media|liberal biases]]. Fox News claims to be "Fair & Balanced"<ref>Fair & Balanced[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,27906,00.html]</ref> a claim which it backs up by having shows like [[Hannity & Colmes]]. Fox News characterizes itself as reporting the news in an unbiased manner and then allowing the viewer to decide. <ref>We Report. You Decide.[http://img83.imageshack.us/my.php?image=foxiu1.jpg]</ref>.

Fox News was the first and only US cable news company to use the term "homicide bombing" to describe attacks by [[Arabs]] and [[Palestine|Palestinians]] on [[Israel|Israelis]]. Similarly, in reporting the prosecution of [[Scooter Libby]], Fox was the only news outlet to report his one acquittal and make no mention of the four convictions. Their news report implied, falsely, that he was innocent of all charges.

In 2005 the [[White House]] rewarded Fox News for its partisan support of its policies by appointing [[Tony Snow]] to be the new White House press secretary.<ref>Tony Snow to be Named White House Press Secretary[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,193093,00.html]</ref>

The network has come under attacks from all sides of the political spectrum since its inception, largely for its uncritical and blatantly partisan support for the Bush administration and for the fact that it has consistantly failed to hand over Bill o'Reily to the Hague like all the other Fascists.

==References==
<references/>

Talk:Medina

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The author of the article was probably thinking about the Medici family in Florence. Medina is the town which Mohammed fled after being expelled from Mecca (an event known as the hijra). It is also a Hebrew word meaning "Country" or "State" and a German-style boardgame, among other things. --[[User:WOVcenter|WOVcenter]] 01:47, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

Medina

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A powerful Italian family from the 13th to the 17th century; produced 3 popes, members of European royalty, and encouraged the Italian [[The Renaissance|Renaissance]].

Talk:Music

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== Classical v. Popular Music ==
What is classical music? What is popular music? What were they used for?

Bring citations and examples here for consideration.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]] 07:53, 12 March 2007 (EDT)

Music

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Willy on Wheels II: Music moved to Music on wheels

[[Image:Musicalnotes.jpg|right]]

[[Music]] (Middle English ''musik'', from Anglo-French ''musike'', from [[Latin]] ''musica'', from [[Greek]] μουσικη ''mousike'') is an [[art]] form consisting entirely of organized [[sound]] interspersed with periods of silence. It takes its name from three [[Greek mythology|Greek]] goddesses known as the ''[[Muses]]'', who specialized in stimulation of an artist's or poet's mind.

Music is the highest of all the arts, and the one best able to stir human emotion. Depending on what sort of work of music one composes, interprets, or hears, it can build a person up in spirit, or break it; make a person happy, or sad; inspire a person to greatness, or lead him into very challenging temptation. It is the art form to which the [[Bible]] gives its strongest endorsement, and to which the Bible pays the greatest attention. At the same time, it is arguably the most dangerous of all the arts, when misused.

== What is music? ==

Strictly speaking, ''music'' means sound having any organization at all, while ''noise'' is purely random sound. But the roots of these two words suggest that ''music'' ought to mean that which makes one think and feel something new and significantly different, while ''noise'' (from the same root from which we get the verb ''I annoy'') is merely a distracting, disturbing, or often physically damaging sound. Some modern composers have attempted to stretch the definition of music by using noises in a manner that they insist is organized. Whether such a work product properly falls under the heading of "music" is debatable.

Note that music is ''not'' limited to such sounds that a human being might produce by fashioning an instrument for the making of a simplified or otherwise organized sound and then "playing" said instrument. The chirping of birds and certain insects may properly be called music, especially if the sound produced is particularly pleasant to the listener. Furthermore, some of the most sophisticated music attempts to imitate the sounds made by birds, insects, and other animals.

== Basic music theory ==
: ''Main Article: [[Music theory]]''
Classically, music consists of ''tones'', ''melodies'', ''counterpoint'', and ''rhythm''. A ''tone'' is the purest form of sound, having a single [[frequency]]. However, pure tones in music are rare. Most tones present themselves to the human ear together with ''overtones'', which typically are small-[[integer]] multiples of the basic frequency (the ''fundamental tone'').

=== Notes, intervals, and scales ===
Two tones played together form an ''interval''. The simplest of all intervals is the ''octave'', formed by two tones, one of whose frequencies is the exact double of the other. The full collection of tones that one can play between the two notes of an octave is called a ''scale.'' In Western music, most scales are ''semi-tonal'', with twelve tones between the octave notes. (The high end of the octave is considered a repetition of the low end, but at twice the frequency.) [[Oriental]] music commonly has ''quarter-tonal'' scales, with twenty-four separate tones within an octave. Quarter tones are often difficult to distinguish for a Western listener, and such music, as a result, tends to suggest the sinuous movement of a snake.

The [[Greece|Greeks]] recognized early that fundamental tones in music have a simple and strict [[mathematics|mathematical]] relationship. As mentioned, the octave consists of two notes, one at double the frequency of the other. At ''triple'' the frequency, one hears a low fundamental tone, and a higher tone that is past the octave but roughly midway toward the second octave. If one then divides the high-tone frequency by two, one creates the interval called the ''perfect fifth'' or ''dominant'' interval, one of the most common intervals used in Western music. One can test this relationship by striking a note on a [[piano]] while holding down another key that is one octave higher than the perfect fifth. The second note will sound in sympathy with the first--because it is resonating with the overtone from the first note.

=== Melody and counterpoint ===
''Melody'' is the series of notes that most closely captures the attention of the listener. A ''counterpoint'' is another series of notes that complements the melody. Either melody or counterpoint can exist either as series of single notes, or as intervals, or as ''chords''. A ''chord'' (named after the string of a Greek hand-held instrument called a [[lyre]]) is any three or more notes sounded at once.

=== Rhythm ===
''Rhythm'' consists of all aspects of music that suggest ''forward movement.'' Most music contains a regularly repeating sequence of ''beats'', or strong elements, that typically lead with a ''down beat'' followed by any of a small number of slightly weaker beats. A down beat and its weaker beats form a ''measure.'' Usually, all measures in a piece of music have the same number of beats.

A note in music is described not only by pitch, or frequency, but also by duration. Notes in Western music have names that typically describe how long they would sound in a typical measure. ''Whole notes'' are so called because normally they would sound for the full measure. ''Half notes'' would sound for half the measure, ''quarter notes'' for a fourth of the measure, and so on. A note may also carry a ''dot'' to the right of it, that indicates that the note is to sound for one and one-half times its usual duration.

Any one of these notes may carry a beat, and a measure may have any number of beats. Thus every piece of music commonly carries at least one ''time signature'' describing how many beats a measure has, and which type of note carries one beat. The most common time is "four-quarter time" (four beats per measure, with the beat given to the quarter note), which is therefore called "common time." Other commonly used time signature include three-quarter, six-eighth, nine-eighth, or rarely, two-half (called ''Alla breve'' or "cut time"). Even rarer are the time signatures with prime numbers of beats (other than three-quarter), including five-quarter or even eleven-eighth.

''Tempo'' (Italian for "time") describes how frequently the beats occur. The typical tempo signature is a drawing of the note that has the beat, followed by the number of beats per minute.

Notes may be ''accented'' at any time. In fact, often the accent will fall on the weak beat and make the beats seem to sound out-of-sequence. The result is ''syncopated'' rhythm.

The genre of music called [[rock and roll]] features a unique rhythm convention: the ''backbeat.'' This is a third beat, in four-quarter time, that is stressed even more strongly than the down beat. This produces a profound sense of restlessness in the listener.

== Types of instruments ==
: ''Main Article: [[Musical instruments]]''

== History ==
The [[Bible]] suggests that music actually began in [[heaven]], and that the first-ever musician was [[Lucifer]], then the chief of [[God]]'s messengers, or angels. When he fell, so Scripture says, his choir fell with him.

Human music goes back to [[antediluvian civilization]]. The Bible specifically credits [[Jubal]], son of [[Lamech the Murderer]] by his wife [[Adah]], with introducing music to mankind. ({{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=5|verses=19-21|version=KJV}})

The earliest ''post''-diluvian records of music have been found in [[Iraq]] and [[India]], and date at least from the time of [[Abraham]]. They probably were made shortly after the [[Babel]] Incident.

Almost every culture and religious movement has its own particular form of music. Some forms are richer and more sophisticated than others. The [[Hebrew]] people, and especially the children of [[Jacob|Israel]], have some of the grandest of all musical traditions. Mentions of "singing to the Lord" abound in the Old Testament. The most highly specific testimony to the power of music over human emotions is surely contained in the story of King [[Saul]] and how he came to recruit the young [[David]] as his armorbearer and personal musician. {{Bible ref|book=I_Samuel|chap=16|verses=14-23|version=KJV}}

King [[David]], at the height of his reign, once had a ''four-thousand-voice choir'' to assist in the worship of [[God]]. The Book of [[Psalms]] is in fact a collection of lyrics for some of the first worship songs in Israelite tradition. (Most of these came from David, but at least one comes from [[Moses]].) The [[Song of Solomon]] is a grand ballad of love that most scholars regard as a type of the love of [[Jesus Christ]] for His elect.

The Greeks, when [[Alexander the Great]] accepted the surrender of [[Jerusalem]] in his wars of conquest, introduced their own brand of music to the region--which the Jews largely resisted. But music was highly prominent throughout the Greek world--and later in the [[Rome|Roman]] world following Rome's conquest of Greece. The Greeks' contributions to musical theory influenced the classical artists for centuries to come, and still influence those composers who prefer to adhere to the classical traditions of music.

The earliest Greek music was associated with Greek [[theater]]. But beginning with the fall of Rome, music became largely liturgical. The primary influence remained the [[Roman Catholic Church]] until the twin movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation, each of which introduced a countervailing tradition.

From that time forward, most scholars divide music into "classical" music (composed primarily to achieve a high art) and "popular" music (composed for the masses in the primary hope of financial remuneration). In the former category one can usually find music composed for these purposes:

# As an aid to worship, by placing the listener into a proper frame of mind for worship or instill in the listener a proper appreciation of the grandeur and glory of [[God]] and of the listener's own place in relation to Him.
# To rally troops, either during training, on the march, or in battle.
# To celebrate military victory or the reign of a king, usually the one presently on the throne.
# Occasionally as a supplement to various forms of [[theater]]. Originally (especially in the Greek era) this meant the open-air live theater of classical fame. Today such music might accompany a live stage performance or several scenes in a [[motion picture]].

Popular music, on the other hand, is almost always used:

# For entertainment, and more particularly for financial remuneration.
# As a powerful aid to [[propaganda]].
# Very frequently as a supplement to modern [[theater]] in all its forms, including stage, [[motion picture|motion pictures]], and especially [[television]].

== The power of music over human emotion ==
Music has a very powerful effect on the emotions of the listener. Music relies on [[sound]], and if "faith comes through hearing," then so does emotion. Music can instantly bring joy or sorrow, ecstasy or despair, and far more quickly than can any other form of art. Many musical composers insist that their music merely expresses emotions. This does not do music justice. Music does more than express emotions; it induces them.

The amateur botanist Dorothy L. Retallack, in [[1973]], found that music can have an effect on plants. "Positive" music (that produces joy or contentment) makes plants flourish and even "reach" for, or grow toward, such music. Negative music (that produces frustration, restlessness, or especially anger and rage) causes plants to "recoil" (grow away) from the music, and prolonged or repeated exposure debilitates and eventually kills plants.

As powerful as are the effects of music on plants, its effects on animals and man are far more profound. That animals, and especially [[dog]]s and [[cat]]s, recoil in horror from the sound of a poorly trained voice, is proverbial (and in fact the animals might be reacting to a sound that is not merely grating but acutely and physically painful to their ears). But the effects of music on human beings are far better documented and recognized. The history of warfare includes a rich history of martial music. More recently, music has now found a use in the healing of negative emotional states and even as an aid to the healing of physical disabilities.

Commercial enterprises always attempt, at great expense of time, money, and effort, to find and deploy forms of music that will enhance worker productivity or cause prospective customers to behave in a manner calculated to make them purchase their goods and/or services. The rock-and-roll selections played in supermarkets are a prime example.

Music has always been an adjunct to [[theater]]. This is especially true of the performing arts called ''opera'' and ''ballet'', but applies also to the use of music as an adjunct to a theatrical production, whether on the stage, as a [[motion picture]], or as a [[television]] show.

Music has an obvious use in [[propaganda]], in which the propagandist seeks to manipulate people's emotions and stir them typically to rage and hostility against certain groups.

Finally, music can strengthen in the listener a curiosity about, or even a desire for, an act of sexual or other [[sin]]. Sadly, this use of music is probably as old as "the oldest profession." Cultural critics observe, pointedly, that permissive cultures have permissive music, and non-permissive cultures avoid such music.

Yet for all this, music is still important in worship. If it were not, then it would not have received the favorable attention that the [[Bible]] clearly gives to it. As powerful a force for evil as it might be, music can be an equally powerful force to encourage the listener to worship, appreciate, and above all obey God and keep His laws--at least, as best as any human being is able.

== Traditions and principles for liturgical music ==
[[Saint Paul]] specifically exhorts his readers to employ music, and specifically "psalms, hymns, and spiritual odes," to bring them closer to God. ({{Bible ref|book=Ephesians|chap=5|verses=19|version=KJV}}, {{Bible ref|book=Colossians|chap=3|verses=16|version=KJV}}) In this context, a ''psalm'' is not necessarily a chapter out of the Book of [[Psalms]]; it can be any song that primarily quotes any part of Scripture. ''Hymns'' are songs primarily of praise and magnification of [[God]]; they do not, however, directly quote Scripture in most of their lyrics, as "psalms" do. ''Spiritual odes'' are primarily personal testimonies, either of salvation or of one's own perception of God. ''Amazing Grace'', by John Newton, is a prime example. ''It Is Well With My Soul'', by Horatio Spafford, is one song that has features of a hymn ''and'' a spiritual ode.

The Rev. Alan B. Brown, MDiv, ThM, has studied liturgical music extensively. In his view, liturgical music ought to satisfy three prime tests:

# Are the lyrics ''accurate'', either when they quote Scripture or reflect [[Christian]] principles?
# Can you properly ''associate'' the lyrics and/or the notes with Godly things, as opposed to worldly things?
# Are the lyrics and/or the notes ''appropriate'' for worship in general, and in the setting of a particular celebration?

The actual notes to the tunes that, say, King David's choir might have sung, or his royal orchestra might have produced, are lost to us today. But the titles of many of the Psalms contain specific instructions, originally to the music director at King David's court, as to the type of tune and the types of instruments required. Hymnists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries often set the Psalms and other portions of Scripture to music, often with very good effect. The best-known example is the ''Doxology'' (literally, "study in glory") that is a paraphrase of Psalm 100; the tune is called "Old Hundredth" and remains popular today.

== Controversies surrounding music today ==
Music perhaps has always been controversial, but the controversies surrounding music today rage with particular vehemence. The question of what is, and what is not, music is relatively tame. Different composers have always experimented with different music conventions. Many such experiments fail, in that the works produced draw only small audiences, and ultimately no one will play them, because no one will pay to listen to them or to have them played for other people.

Rather, the most raging controversy concerns certain genres of popular music that have provoked adverse political comment precisely because of the emotions they incite and the themes they sound, both in lyrics and in notes. Parents of adolescent and pre-adolescent children object to music that explicitly (mainly through its lyrics) exhorts its listeners to sexual sin. Members of various political interest groups object to music that they believe provokes its listeners to show ''disrespect'' for members of those groups.

Some listeners and music critics attempt to defend music as "amoral," that is to say, devoid of moral significance and always good and safe to listen to. The reaction of so many interested parties to various types of popular music today would seem to belie that stance. Indeed, history is replete with examples of various pieces of music from earlier eras inciting their listeners to violence; [[Maurice Ravel]]'s signature work ''Bolero'', for example, was known to incite riots. Riots have also broken out at many rock-and-roll concerts, and often the responding law-enforcement authorities have been at a loss to determine the ultimate causes of those riots. The ''proximate'' cause typically is a one-on-one fight in which other concert attendees joined in--but what put the original combatants into a fighting mood, or causes others to join a fight that was, strictly speaking, not theirs, is far more difficult to explain. The causes of the quarrels involved seem trifling in comparison to the damage that ultimately results--and riots like these do not normally occur at performances of other, "tamer" types of music.

== Related references ==
* [http://creationwiki.org/Music Music] by [[CreationWiki]]
* [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?sourceid=Mozilla-search&va=Music Music] defined in the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music Music] by [[Wikipedia]]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music History of music] by [[Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.dovesong.com/positive_music/ About Positive and Negative Music] from the Dovesong Foundation.
:* [http://www.dovesong.com/positive_music/archives/basement/Cows%20and%20Classical%20Music.asp Cows Prefer Classical Music]
:* [http://www.dovesong.com/positive_music/archives/basement/Steinhart_Dolphins.asp Dolphins Don't Like Rock] (The article refers to the classic [[dolphin]] (family [[Cetacea]]), aka "porpoise," not the fish of that name.)
* Retallack, Dorothy L. ''The Sound of Music and Plants''. Devorss and Company, June 1973, 96 pp., paperback. ISBN 0875161707
* [http://www.musictherapy.org/ The American Music Therapy Association]
* [http://cranach.worldmagblog.com/cranach/archives/2006/08/draft_linking_s.html Linking Sexual Music and Teen Behavior] by Gene Edward Veith at the [http://www.worldmagblog.com World Magazine Blog]
* Brown, Alan B.: telephone interview conducted on 1 March 2007 with user [[User:TerryH|TerryH]]

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

Talk:Joan of Arc

2007-03-13T03:10:32Z

Willy on Wheels II: Talk:Joan of Arc moved to Talk:Joan of Arc on wheels

==Name==
I've changed:
:It has been proved that her real name was ''Jehanne Darc'' which was falsely transliterated as ''Joan of Arc'' in English.
This seems overstated. Jehanne is simply a variant spelling of Jeanne (in a time when spellings were not standardized); "Darc" is simply a variant of "d'Arc;" and "Joan of Arc" is a perfectly valid English translation of Jeanne d'Arc. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 09:56, 20 February 2007 (EST)