Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Efficacy rate

2011-02-11T19:34:44Z

WPoe: Added references and links

An '''efficacy rate''' is a statistical measure used to describe how successful a treatment is at preventing [[disease]].<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/about/terms/glossary.htm#e</ref> Like most [[statistical analysis]] and arguments from [[liberal]] [[scientist]]s and [[professor values|professors]], the numbers are often fradulent, manufactured to suit the ideology and further personal profit.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Damned-Lies-Statistics-Untangling-Politicians/dp/0520219783 Damned lies and Statistics], Joel Best</ref> See also [[obamacare]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Medicine]]

Dharma

2011-02-10T03:44:29Z

WPoe:

'''''Dharma''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word (Sanskrit: धर्म, Pali: ''dhamma''), from a root meaning "to hold up, to carry, to bear, to sustain",<ref>http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Sanskrit/sanskritterms.htm</ref> with a great variety of meanings in the [[Dharmic religion]]s of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]].

==''Dharma'' in Hinduism==
The Hindu concept of ''dharma'' is difficult to render in English. Its most generic sense is that of righteousness or duty. It also refers to an [[ethics|ethical]] way of living; it is the path one should follow to live rightly in accordance with [[Hindu]] philosophical principles.

==''Dharma'' in Buddhism==
In Buddhism, followers adhere to these five principles of the dharma:

*Faith in the triple gem, which is [[Buddha]], Dharma, and [[Sangha]]. Sangha is the community.
*The Precepts: don’t [[kill]], don’t [[steal]], don’t engage in sexual misconduct ([[rape]] or [[adultery]]), don’t [[lie]], and don’t take [[alcohol|intoxicants]] which cloud the mind.
*Listening: Only through listening can we understand [[good]] and [[evil]].
*Giving: Engaging in [[charity]] and selflessness reminds us that the Dharma is not intended for us alone, but it is to be shared with everyone.
*Wisdom: One has to listen, contemplate and put into practice the Dharma. Then one may gain [[wisdom]], and realize the truth.

===References===
<references/>

==See also==
*The [[Ten Commandments]] of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]]

[[category:Hinduism]]
[[category:Buddhism]]

Dharma

2011-02-10T03:42:53Z

WPoe: added Sanskrti

'''''Dharma''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word (Sanskrit: बर्फ क्रीम, Pali: ''dhamma''), from a root meaning "to hold up, to carry, to bear, to sustain",<ref>http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Sanskrit/sanskritterms.htm</ref> with a great variety of meanings in the [[Dharmic religion]]s of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]].

==''Dharma'' in Hinduism==
The Hindu concept of ''dharma'' is difficult to render in English. Its most generic sense is that of righteousness or duty. It also refers to an [[ethics|ethical]] way of living; it is the path one should follow to live rightly in accordance with [[Hindu]] philosophical principles.

==''Dharma'' in Buddhism==
In Buddhism, followers adhere to these five principles of the dharma:

*Faith in the triple gem, which is [[Buddha]], Dharma, and [[Sangha]]. Sangha is the community.
*The Precepts: don’t [[kill]], don’t [[steal]], don’t engage in sexual misconduct ([[rape]] or [[adultery]]), don’t [[lie]], and don’t take [[alcohol|intoxicants]] which cloud the mind.
*Listening: Only through listening can we understand [[good]] and [[evil]].
*Giving: Engaging in [[charity]] and selflessness reminds us that the Dharma is not intended for us alone, but it is to be shared with everyone.
*Wisdom: One has to listen, contemplate and put into practice the Dharma. Then one may gain [[wisdom]], and realize the truth.

===References===
<references/>

==See also==
*The [[Ten Commandments]] of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]]

[[category:Hinduism]]
[[category:Buddhism]]

Siddhartha Gautama

2011-02-10T03:40:34Z

WPoe: added Sanskrti

[[Image:Buddha.gif|right|240px]]
'''Siddhartha Gautama''', known as the Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; meaning "awakened one" or "enlightened one"), is the founder of [[Buddhism]]. Born a wealthy prince in the fifth century B.C., the future Buddha lived a life of pleasure, shielded from the misery outside the palace. When he found out what life was really like for most people—encountering old age, sickness, and death—he left to find answers and eventually reached a state of enlightenment and came up with the Buddhist religion/philosophy. After traveling the land teaching his insights for 45 years, he died at about 80 years of age.

==External links==
*[http://www.writespirit.net/religious_traditions/buddhism/life_of_buddha The Life of The Buddha]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Internet Sacred Texts Archive :: Buddhism]
 
[[Image:Buddha.jpg|120px|left]]"Indeed, the Blessed One is worthy and rightly self-awakened, consummate in knowledge & conduct, well-gone, an expert with regard to the world, unexcelled as a trainer for those people fit to be tamed, the Teacher of divine & human beings, awakened, blessed." [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gautama, Siddhartha}}
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Indian Philosophers]]

Five Tiger Generals

2011-02-09T00:27:45Z

WPoe:

The '''Five Tiger Generals of Shu Han''' (五虎大將軍蜀看)<ref>[http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E8%99%8E%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%86%E8%BB%8D Five tiger generals]</ref> were [[Guan Yu]] (关于), [[Zhang Fei]] (漲啡), [[Zhao Yun]] (赵云), [[Ma Chao]] (馬超), and [[Huang Zhong]] (黄种). They received the title from [[Liu Bei]] for their contributions to the establishment of the kingdom.

The equivalent in Cao Wei were the [[Five Wei Generals]] (五將難看). The equivalent in Eastern Wu were the [[Five Wu Elders]] (吾太老).<ref>[http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E5%B0%86%E8%BB%8D 吾太老]</ref>

<references />

[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]

Five Tiger Generals

2011-02-09T00:21:44Z

WPoe: Added translation & link

The '''Five Tiger Generals of Shu Han''' (五虎大將軍蜀看)<ref>[http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E8%99%8E%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%86%E8%BB%8D Five tiger generals]</ref> were [[Guan Yu]], [[Zhang Fei]], [[Zhao Yun]], [[Ma Chao]], and [[Huang Zhong]]. They received the title from [[Liu Bei]] for their contributions to the establishment of the kingdom.

The equivalent in Cao Wei were the [[Five Wei Generals]] (五將難看). The equivalent in Eastern Wu were the [[Five Wu Elders]] (吾太老).<ref>[http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E5%B0%86%E8%BB%8D 吾太老]</ref>

<references />

[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]

Dictatorship

2011-02-09T00:09:06Z

WPoe: Added biblical references

A '''dictatorship''' (also called an '''autocracy''') is a political system in which a single person (the dictator) has absolute power, because no legal process exists by which the leader can be removed from office against his will. Many ancient political systems were effectively dictatorships, although the term is usually used only in the modern context, where [[democracy]] exists as an alternative.

In modern usage "dictatorship" has developed an unfortunate and unnecessary negative connotation. God blesses dictators provided that they are justly God-fearing:

<blockquote>
"''He who rules over men must be just, ruling in the fear of God''. And he shall be like the light of the morning when the sun rises, a morning without clouds, like the tender grass springing out of the earth, by clear shining after rain." (2 Sam 23:3-4)
</blockquote>

<blockquote>"Select capable men from all the people -- ''men who fear God, trustworthy men who hate dishonest gain'' -- and appoint them as officials over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens." (Exod 18:21) </blockquote>

<blockquote>“When good people run things, everyone is glad.” (Proverbs 29:2)</blockquote>

<blockquote>“A nation will prosper when its ruler is mature, and its leaders don't party too much.” (Ecclesiastes 10:17)</blockquote>

<blockquote>"Now therefore, be wise, O Kings; Be instructed, you judges of the earth. ''Serve the Lord with fear, and rejoice with trembling''." (Ps 2:10-11)
</blockquote>

The [[Greek]] [[philosopher]] [[Socrates]] approves the Philosopher-King as an improvement over [[democracy]] in [[Plato]]'s influential book [[The Republic]]. [[Solomon]] of [[Israel]] and [[Li Quan Yew]] of [[Singapore]] are examples of blessed dictators in the ancient world and modern world respective<ref>[http://www.sustainer.org/dhm_archive/index.php?display_article=vn210singaporeed Singapore Leads the Good Life Under a Benevolent Dictator]</ref>

==Examples of bad dictators==

*[[China]]
*[[North Korea]]
*The former [[Soviet Union]] under [[Stalin]] and [[Lenin]]
*[[Nazi Germany]]
*Communist [[Romania]]
*[[Cuba]]
*[[Chile]] (under [[General_Pinochet|General Augusto Pinochet]])
*[[Cambodia]] under [[Pol Pot]]
*[[Mubarak]] of [[Egypt]]

==Dictatorship in Fiction==
Most often for dystopian or bleak futures, dictatorships are the governing systems, such as in [[Ayn Rand]]'s Anthem and [[Atlas Shrugged]], George Orwell's [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]], Ray Bradbury's [[Fahrenheit 451]] or Aldous Huxley's [[Brave New World]].

<references />
[[Category:Forms of Government]]
[[Category:Dictatorships]]

Calcutta

2011-02-08T20:54:24Z

WPoe:

'''Kolkata''' is the name now used in [[India]] and overseas for the city formerly known as [[Calcutta]]. Until Delhi was declared capital in the early twentieth century, Kolkata was the capital of [[British India]] and it was the largest city in India until its population was overtaken by that of [[Mumbai]] in the 1980s. Today Kolkata has a population of 4.5 million (city) 14.6 million ([[conurbation]]).

Kolkata is the capital of the state of [[West Bengal]]. However, it had suffered a severe blow to its prosperity in 1947 when, during the [[Partition]] of India, the larger part of the province of [[Bengal]] was allotted to the new state of [[Pakistan]], becoming [[East Pakistan]] and later, in 1971, [[Bangladesh]]. This partition deprived the city of much of its economic hinterland.

[[Category:Indian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Indian History]]

Calcutta

2011-02-08T20:54:06Z

WPoe: correct sp

'''Kolkata''' is the name now used in [[India]] and overseas for the city formerly known as [[Calcutta]]. Until Delhi was declared capital in the early twentieth century, Kolkata was the capital of [[British India]] and it was the largest city in India until its populationw was overtaken by that of [[Mumbai]] in the 1980s. Today Kolkata has a population of 4.5 million (city) 14.6 million ([[conurbation]]).

Kolkata is the capital of the state of [[West Bengal]]. However, it had suffered a severe blow to its prosperity in 1947 when, during the [[Partition]] of India, the larger part of the province of [[Bengal]] was allotted to the new state of [[Pakistan]], becoming [[East Pakistan]] and later, in 1971, [[Bangladesh]]. This partition deprived the city of much of its economic hinterland.

[[Category:Indian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Indian History]]

Great Calcutta Killing

2011-02-08T20:53:09Z

WPoe: added links

The '''Great [[Calcutta]] Killing''' or the '''Day of Direct Action''' ([[Muslim]] title) was a large-scale riot which took place in mid-August, 1946 between [[Hindu]]s and Muslims in [[India]]<ref>[http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/bengal_india_history/tuker_calcutta_riot.html The Great Calcutta Killing], Sir Francis Tuker</ref>. The result of a proposal to partition the country into separate Muslim/Hindu states in the wake of the departure of British rule in India, the riot resulted in the deaths of 5000-10000 people.<ref>http://www.massviolence.org/The-Calcutta-Riots-of-1946</ref>

<references />
[[category:Indian History]]

Talk:Pretty Woman

2011-02-08T20:50:51Z

WPoe: response

WPoe, your username doesn't seem real, and your scripture reference seems over the top. We don't just condemn. The point of describing a movie is first to see what it portrays that '''is''' in accordance with goodness. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 13:42, 8 February 2011 (EST)

: Hi Ed, I try to not engage in talks since there is a 90% edit rule, so I'll respond to your comment in [[Talk:Oil]] here as well. I will try to label the POV in the future even if they are obvious in the source, although it should be obvious that it is creation science POV here. "Poe" is not common, but [http://www.surnamedb.com/Surname/Poe actually] a last name - there's a famous fiction writer with the same name. [[User:WPoe|WPoe]] 15:50, 8 February 2011 (EST)

Theobaric

2011-02-08T20:37:36Z

WPoe: new artice

'''Theobaric''' (Gk., ''theo-'', God; ''bar'', weighty) means "made by God". This word is recently discovered by John D Matthews.<ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/origin-of-oil</ref>

<references />

Crude oil

2011-02-08T20:32:22Z

WPoe:

Crude oil

2011-02-08T20:31:14Z

WPoe:

User:WPoe

2011-02-08T20:30:05Z

WPoe:

{{Useful links}}

'''What I'm doing''': Checking out how this place is compared to other similar onine encyclopedias.

Great Calcutta Killing

2011-02-08T20:26:48Z

WPoe:

The Great Calcutta Killing was a riot in 1946 between Hindus and Muslims in [[India]].<ref>[http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/bengal_india_history/tuker_calcutta_riot.html The Great Calcutta Killing], Sir Francis Tuker</ref> It resulted in the deaths of 5000-10000 people.<ref>http://www.massviolence.org/The-Calcutta-Riots-of-1946</ref>

<references />
[[category:Indian History]]

Great Calcutta Killing

2011-02-08T20:26:14Z

WPoe: Added citations to claims

Pretty Woman

2011-02-08T18:20:48Z

WPoe: added bible teachings

'''Pretty Woman,''' starring [[Richard Gere]] and [[Julia Roberts]], is a movie about a billionaire who never gives his girlfriends enough of his time to form a lasting relationship. After his latest breakup, he meets poor [[prostitute|hooker]] Vivian, and a prince-[[Cinderella]] relationship forms. The movie is directed by [[Garry Marshall]], and features supporting actor [[Hector Elizando]] who helps Edward mentor Vivian (a role he reprises in [[The Princess Diaries]])

It is a dark movie, as prostitution is not a light subject. Vivian and her hooker roommate live and work in Beverly Hills, a place where many young people come to find their dreams. They are trying to hold on to a shred of autonomy ("We say who, we say when, we say how much") instead of having a [[pimp]] run their lives, and they are portrayed as unselfishly (if erratically) supportive toward each other.

The movie begins in Los Angeles with a party of (white) jet-setters, where Edward breaks up by phone with his New York girlfriend. He borrows his lawyer's car and picks up Vivian in a [[meet cute]] where he stops to ask for directions. In his own element, he starts teaching her how to act in upper-class society, draping his coat around her so her garish street clothes won't stand out. Other little things he teaches her include: not calling attention to herself when entering an elevator; the fact that bellboys want to be tipped; the idea that strawberries go well with champagne.

==Problems with the movie==
The movie fails to reveal how degrading prostitution is, with the story portraying [[casual sex]] and [[serial dating]] as options equally as valid as [[marriage]]. This is clearly [[immoral]], as it had been stated in the Scripture that "Marriage is honourable in all, and the bed undefiled: but whoremongers and adulterers God will judge." (Hebrews 13:4)

Egypt

2011-02-08T18:16:05Z

WPoe: /* 2011 Freedom Protests */ - re-word

{{Country
|name =''جمهورية مصر العربية ''Gumhūriyyat Misr al-Arabiyyah'''
|map =Egypt rel97.jpg
|map2 =Location of Egypt.png
|flag =Flag of Egypt.png
|arms =Arms of Egypt.png
|capital =Cairo
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-Presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Hosni Mubarak
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Ahmed Nazif
|pm-raw =
|area =386,660 sq mi
|pop =80,335,036 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$329.791 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$4,836 (2006)
|currency =Egyptian pound
|idd =
|tld =
}}

''This entry relates to the Republic of Egypt. For Pharaonic and Greco-Roman Egypt see [[Ancient Egypt]]''

'''Egypt''' is a country located in north-east [[Africa]], and is the site of one of the oldest recorded civilizations on earth.

==Name==
The name "Egypt" is derived from the [[Greek]] word ''Aígyptos'' (Αίγυπτος), which was possibly a corruption from the compound word ''Aegaeon uptiōs'' (''Aίγαίου υπτίως''), meaning "below the Aegean" (Strabo). Ancient Egyptians referred to their land as ''Kemet'' ("black land"), in reference to the black [[silt]] deposited by the annual [[Nile]] [[flood]]s.

"Misr" (مصر)is the modern [[Arabic]] name for Egypt, which is based upon the [[Hebrew]] word "Mizraim" (מִצְרַיִם); the ancient Hebrews referred to Egypt as the "land of Mizraim" after the founder of that country.

==Geography==
Egypt has four main regions: the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, where about 99 percent of population lives. Modest amounts of [[rain]]fall occur along the Mediterranean coast; rainfall throughout the remainder of the country is minimal to nonexistent.

==People==
Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab-speaking world and the second-most populous on the African Continent. Nearly all of the country's 79 million people live in [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]]; elsewhere on the banks of the Nile; in the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the [[Suez Canal]]. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole.
[[Image:Egypt shop owner.jpg|left]]
Small communities spread throughout the [[desert]] regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly [[irrigation|irrigated]] land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people of Hamitic origin. Mediterranean and Arab influences appear in the north, and there is some mixing in the south with the Nubians of northern [[Sudan]]. Ethnic minorities include a small number of [[Bedouin]] Arab nomads in the eastern and western deserts and in the [[Sinai]], as well as some 50,000-100,000 Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt.

The literacy rate is about 58% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of [[children]] enter [[primary school]] today, compared with 87% in 1994. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning.

Egypt's vast and rich [[literature]] constitutes an important cultural element in the life of the country and in the Arab-speaking world as a whole. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Egyptian literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Egyptian to win the [[Nobel prize]] for literature. Egyptian books and films are available throughout the Middle East.
*Population (July 2006 est.): 78,887,007.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 1.75%.
*Ethnic groups: Egyptian, Bedouin Arab, Nubian.
*Religions: Muslim 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%.
*Languages: Arabic (official), English, French.
*Education: Years compulsory--ages 6-15. Literacy--total adult: 58%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--31.33 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.): 71 years.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Hassan Mohamed Hassan Egypt Breaking Chains.jpg|thumb|Hassan Mohamed Hassan, Egypt Breaking Chains.]]
The Egyptian Constitution provides for a strong executive. Authority is vested in an elected president who can appoint one or more vice presidents, a prime minister, and a cabinet. The president's term runs for 6 years. Egypt's legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 454 members--444 popularly elected and 10 appointed by the president. The constitution reserves 50% of the assembly seats for "workers and peasants." The assembly sits for a 5-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. There also is a 264-member Shura (consultative) Council, in which 88 members are appointed and 174 elected for 6-year terms. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.

Opposition party organizations make their views public and represent their followers at various levels in the political system, but power is concentrated in the hands of the President and the National Democratic Party majority in the People's Assembly and those institutions dominate the political system. In addition to the ruling National Democratic Party, there are 18 other legally recognized parties, whereas in 2004 there were only 16 other legally recognized parties.

The November 2000 elections were generally considered to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections, because of universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights.

Progress was seen in the September 2005 presidential elections when parties were allowed to field candidates against President Mubarak and his National Democratic Party. In early 2005, President Mubarak proposed amending the constitution to allow, for the first time in Egypt's history, competitive, multi-candidate elections. An amendment was drafted by parliament and approved by public referendum in late May 2005. In September 2005, President Mubarak was reelected, according to official results, with 88% of the vote. His two principal challengers, Ayman Nour and No'man Gom'a, took 7% and 3% of the vote respectively.

Egypt's judicial system is based on European (primarily French) legal concepts and methods. Under the Mubarak government, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the Napoleonic Code. Marriage and personal status (family law) are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned, which for most Egyptians is Islamic Law (Sharia).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Mohamed Hosny Mubarak
*Vice President--Omar Suleiman
*Prime Minister--
*Interior Minister--Mahmoud Wagdi
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Ahmed Abul Gheit
*Ambassador to the United States--Ambassador Nabil Fahmy
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations--Ambassador Maged Abdel Fattah Abdelaziz

===Foreign Relations===
Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.

The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amre Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. President Mubarak has often chaired the African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity). Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region--from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under U.S. and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with President Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President Bush for another summit on the Middle East peace process. Throughout mid-2004, Egypt worked closely with Israel and the Palestinian Authority to facilitate stability following Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza, which occurred in August and September of 2005. Prior to this Egypt and Israel reached an agreement that allowed Egypt to deploy additional forces along the Philadelphi Corridor in an attempt to control the border and prevent the smuggling of weapons.

Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was the third-largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and U.K. In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to UN peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. In August 2004, Egypt was actively engaged in seeking a solution to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan, including the dispatch of military monitors. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and actively supported the Iraqi Governing Council, as well as the subsequent government of Prime Minister Allawi. In July 2005, terrorists attacked the Egyptian city of Sharm El Sheikh. In the same month, Egypt's envoy to Iraq was assassinated.

==Defense==
Egypt's armed forces, among the largest in the region, include the army, air defense, air force, and navy. The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the United States, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, the former Soviet Union, and China. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of African and Arab states. Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner of the United States.

==Economy==
With the installation of the 2004 Egyptian parliament, the Government of Egypt began a new reform movement, following a stalled economic reform program begun in 1991, but moribund since the mid-1990s. In the past year, the cabinet economic team has simplified and reduced tariffs and taxes, improved the transparency of the national budget, revived stalled privatizations of public enterprises and implemented economic legislation designed to foster private sector-driven economic growth and improve Egypt's competitiveness. Despite these achievements, the economy is still hampered by government intervention, substantial subsidies for food, housing, and energy, and bloated public sector payrolls. Moreover, the public sector still controls most heavy industry.

In sectoral terms, agriculture is mainly in private hands, and has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic marketing are also largely private. The Egyptian economy, however, relies heavily on tourism, oil and gas exports, and Suez Canal revenues, much of which is controlled by the public sector and is also vulnerable to outside factors. The tourism sector suffered tremendously following a terrorist attack in Luxor in October 1997. The tourism sector feared a repeat of the downturn in tourist numbers when terrorists attacked resorts in the Sinai Peninsula in 2004 and 2005. So far, however, the sector has not suffered as greatly as expected.

The U.S. has a large assistance program in Egypt and provides funding for a variety of programs in addition to some cash transfers. A portion of U.S. assistance to Egypt under the 2003 Iraq war supplemental appropriations was provided in the form of bond guarantees, which were contingent upon Egyptian compliance with a series of economic conditions. Egypt met the conditions and in September 2005 issued $1.25 billion in 10-year bonds that were fully guaranteed by the United States. To support the Middle East peace process through regional economic integration, the United States permits products to be imported from Egypt without tariffs if they have been produced in Qualified Industrial Zones and 11.7% of the inputs of these products originate from Israel.
*GDP (2005 est.): $303 billion.
*Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 4.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.
*Agriculture: Products--cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.
*Industry: Types--food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.
*Trade (FY 2005): Exports--$14.3 billion: petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. *Major markets--EU, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports--$24.1 billion: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers--EU, U.S., Japan.

===Agriculture===
Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Nearly all of Egypt’s agricultural production takes place in some 2.5 million hectares (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.

Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Further improvement is possible, but land is worked intensively and yields are high. Cotton, rice, wheat, corn, sugarcane, sugar beets, onions, and beans are the principal crops. Increasingly, a few modern operations are producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. While the desert hosts some large, modern farms, more common traditional farms occupy one acre each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also have cows, water buffaloes, and chicken, although larger modern farms are becoming more important.

The United States is a major supplier of wheat, corn, and soybean products to Egypt, almost all through commercial sales. Egypt is, in fact, traditionally the U.S.'s largest market for wheat sales. U.S. agricultural sales to Egypt average $1 billion annually. U.S. food assistance programs to Egypt ended in 1992 as Egypt became more prosperous. Egypt continues to receive modest food assistance through the World Food Program and from France.

"Egypt," wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive [[oasis]]. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi.) from south to north.

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on millions of acres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of billions of low-cost kilowatt hours of electricity.

The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.

===Natural Resources===
[[Image:Woman bread egypt.jpg|290px|right]]
In addition to the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley and Delta, Egypt's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, and iron ore. Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean seashore, and in the Western Desert. Oil and gas accounts for approximately 12% of GDP. Export of petroleum and related products (including bunker and aviation sales) amounted to $2.7 billion in fiscal year 2003-04.

Crude oil production has been in decline for several years, from a high of more than 920,000 barrels per day (BPD) in 1995 to less than 662,000 BPD as of April 2006. To minimize the growing domestic demand of petroleum products, currently estimated at 25 million metric tons per year, Egypt is encouraging the production of natural gas. Over a 5-year period, production of natural gas increased by approximately 75% to reach about 3.3 billion cubic feet per day (BCFD) by the end of FY 2003/04. Currently, gas accounts for almost 50% of all hydrocarbon usage in Egypt.

Over the last 22 years, more than 230 oil and gas exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. As of September 2003, crude oil reserves were estimated at 2.8 billion barrels, and proven natural gas reserves were estimated at 62 trillion cubic feet (TCF) with probable additional reserves totaling another 40-60 TCF. Texas-based Apache Oil Company is the largest American investor in Egypt, with a total investment of more than $2.8 billion since 1996.

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The Ministry of Petroleum has determined that expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. As of September 2005, three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains had been in operation. The first is in Damietta on the eastern side of the Delta and started exporting in early 2005. It is headed by the Spanish electric utility, Union Fenosa. The second LNG project is located at Idku on the western side of the Delta and started exporting in 2005. The first train started in April 2005, and the second in September. British Gas (BG) Group and the Malaysian state oil company Petronas are the major investors. Another project that will utilize gas for export and domestic consumption is the Mediterranean Gas Complex in Port Said where the Italian company AGIP and BP are the main shareholders. This facility will have a total cost of about $315 million and went on line in late 2004.

Egypt and Jordan established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas to Jordan, and then later to Syria and Lebanon. In summer 2003 Egypt began exporting gas to Jordan via a new pipeline from El Arish on Egypt’s north Sinai cost to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba, and then underwater to the Jordanian city of Aqaba. Gas exports to Jordan generated gross revenues of approximately $60 million in 2003/04 and are currently reaching $85-100 million.

===Transport and Communication===
Transportation facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.

Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safraga on the Red Sea.

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab-speaking world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.

Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ETV) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the Arab-speaking world. In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.

ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.

Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.

Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Egyptian and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.

Radio in Egypt almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.

==History==

''Also see: [[Ancient Egypt]]''

Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and archaeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society has existed for much longer. Egyptians take pride in their "pharaonic heritage" and in their descent from what they consider mankind's earliest civilization. The Arabic word for Egypt is Misr, which originally connoted "civilization" or "metropolis."
[[Image:5457e.jpg|right|thumb|300px|View of the Sphinx with Khafra Pyramid in background ''(Photograph taken by [http://www.ianandwendy.com Ian Sewell])'']]
Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. Based on these time estimates, organized agriculture appeared by 6000 B.C.

In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided--the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]] (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).

===Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab Conquerors===
In 525 B., [[Cambyses]], the son of [[Cyrus the Great]], led a [[Persian]] invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. The country remained a Persian province until conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 322 BC, ushering in [[Ptolemeic]] rule Egypt that lasted for nearly 300 years. [[Cleopatra]] was the last ruler of that dynasty, but when she committed suicide after losing to Rome when her lover [[Marc Antony]] was defeated by [[Octavian]] in the [[Battle of Actium]], Egypt became a part of the [[Roman Empire]].

Egypt was invaded and conquered by Arab forces under [[Islam]] in 642. A process of Arabization and Islamization ensued. Although a [[Coptic Christian]] minority remained--and remains today, constituting about 10% of the population--the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab, [[Mameluke]], and Ottoman [[caliph]]s, beys, and [[sultan]]s ruled the country.

Like most of the middle east, the current population in modern Egypt is by [[Arabs]] that have Arabized the [[indigenous]] people, the Nubians and the [[Copts]] are considered to be the real natives to Egypt.

===European Influence===
The [[Ottoman Turks]] controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for a brief period of [[French]] rule under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. In 1805, [[Mohammed Ali (Egypt)|Mohammed Ali]], commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops, was appointed [[Pasha]], founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt, at least in name, until his great-great grandson, [[Farouk I]], was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, writing the first chapter in the modern history of Egypt. The growth of modern urban [[Cairo]] began in the reign of [[Ismail]] (1863-79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. The [[Suez Canal]] was completed in his reign in 1869, and its completion was celebrated by many events, including the commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).

In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the virtual inclusion of Egypt within the [[British Empire]]. In deference to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.

In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British influence; [[King Fuad]], whom the British had installed during [[World War II]]; and the British themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal. Other political forces emerging in this period included the communist party (1925) and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (1928), which eventually became a potent political and religious force.

During [[World War II]], British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. On July 22-23, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with [[Israel]]. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the [[Arab world]], promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized Egypt’s economy.

Nasser helped establish the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis [[Soviet Union|Moscow]], Nasser concluded an arms deal with [[Czechoslovakia]] in September 1955.

When the U.S. and the [[World Bank]] withdrew their offer to help finance the [[Aswan High Dam]] in mid-1956, Nasser nationalized the privately owned Suez Canal Company. The crisis that followed, exacerbated by growing tensions with Israel over [[guerrilla]] attacks from Gaza and Israeli reprisals, resulted in the invasion of Egypt that October by [[France]], [[Britain]], and Israel. Israel occupied the [[Sinai Peninsula]] while the canal was in the hands of the France and Britain, but all withdrew under U.S. pressure.

Nasser's domestic policies were arbitrary and frequently oppressive, yet generally popular. All opposition was stamped out, and opponents of the regime frequently were imprisoned without trial. Nasser's foreign and military policies helped provoke the [[Six-Day War|Israeli attack of June 1967]] that virtually destroyed Egypt's armed forces along with those of [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]]. Israel wrested and occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt. Personally, Nasser never recovered from that loss. Nasser, nonetheless, was revered by the masses in Egypt and in the Arab world until his death in 1970.

After Nasser's death, another of the original "free officers," Vice President [[Anwar el-Sadat]], was elected President. In 1971, Sadat concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union, but a year later, ordered Soviet advisers to leave. In October 1973, he launched the [[Yom Kippur War]] with Israel, in which Egypt's armed forces achieved unexpected initial successes but were defeated in Israeli counterattacks.

===Camp David and the Peace Process===
In a momentous change from the Nasser era, President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to [[Jerusalem]] in November 1977, the first Egyptian head of state to do so. This led to President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s invitation to President Sadat and [[Prime Minister Begin]] to join him in trilateral negotiations at [[Camp David]].

The outcome was the historic [[Camp David Accords|Camp David accords]], signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the U.S. on September 17, 1978. The accords led to the March 26, 1979, signing of the Egypt-Israel peace treaty, by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982 and guaranteed continuous U.S. economic aid. Throughout this period, U.S.-Egyptian relations steadily improved, but Sadat's willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him the enmity of most Arab states. This enmity turned into open war between Egypt and Libya, which lasted for several months.

===Domestic Change===
[[Image:MuslimWomanEgypt.jpg|thumb|Muslim Woman]]
Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "open door." This relaxed government controls over the economy and encouraged private, including foreign, investment. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during the Nasser era.

Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was racked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions from radical Islam, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression.

===From Sadat to Mubarak===
On October 6, 1981, Islamic extremists assassinated President Sadat. [[Hosni Mubarak]], Vice President since 1975 and air force commander during the October 1973 war, was elected President later that month. He was subsequently confirmed by popular referendum for four more 6-year terms, most recently in September 2005. Mubarak has maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as a leader in the Arab-speaking world. Egypt was readmitted to the [[Arab League]] in 1989. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international fora as the [[UN]] and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Since 1991, Mubarak has overseen a domestic economic reform program to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the private sector. There has been less progress in political reform. The November 2000 People's Assembly elections saw 34 members of the opposition win seats in the 454-seat assembly, facing a clear majority of 388 ultimately affiliated with the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP). Opposition parties continue to face various difficulties in mounting credible electoral challenges to the NDP. The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, remains an illegal organization and is not recognized as a political party (current Egyptian law prohibits the formation of political parties based on religion). Members are known publicly and openly speak their views, although they do not explicitly identify themselves as members of the organization. Members of the Brotherhood have been elected to the People's Assembly and local councils as independents, and most recently scored a major victory in 2005 parliamentary elections, winning 20% of the seats, thus forming the largest opposition group.

===2011 Freedom Protests===
In January 2011, spurred by increasing [[food]] and [[oil]] prices as well as rampant [[corruption]] of the [[Muslim]] [[autocrats]],<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/feb/08/egypt-revolution-muslim-brotherhood-democracy Egyptian revolution], the Guardian.</ref> millions of Egyptians gathered at Tahrir square in [[Alexandria]] in an uprising. [[Conservatives]], irked by the inactions of the [[liberal]] [[president]] and [[secretary of state]], have taken this as a sign that the [[democrats]] implicitly supports the Mubarak [[dictatorship]].<ref>[http://spectator.org/blog/2011/01/25/as-egypt-erupts-will-obama-rem Obama silent as Egypt erupts], American Spectator.</ref> [[American]] leadership to [[democracy]], the most promising of which includes personal intervention by Alaska Governor [[Sarah Palin]].<ref>[http://christwire.org/2011/01/as-egypt-descends-in-chaos-should-sarah-palin-support-a-us-led-invasion/ As Egypt descends in chaos, Palin should support a US led invasion] Christwire</ref>

==Further reading==
* Thompson, Jason. ''A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present'' (2009) 432 pages

== External links ==
*[http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html Ancient Egypt] The Trustees of the British Museum.
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Default.htm Egypt] Egypt State Information Service.

==References and Footnotes==

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}
Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm]
<references />

[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:African Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:British Empire]]

Egypt

2011-02-08T18:12:48Z

WPoe: Added info re: uprising

{{Country
|name =''جمهورية مصر العربية ''Gumhūriyyat Misr al-Arabiyyah'''
|map =Egypt rel97.jpg
|map2 =Location of Egypt.png
|flag =Flag of Egypt.png
|arms =Arms of Egypt.png
|capital =Cairo
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-Presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Hosni Mubarak
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Ahmed Nazif
|pm-raw =
|area =386,660 sq mi
|pop =80,335,036 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$329.791 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$4,836 (2006)
|currency =Egyptian pound
|idd =
|tld =
}}

''This entry relates to the Republic of Egypt. For Pharaonic and Greco-Roman Egypt see [[Ancient Egypt]]''

'''Egypt''' is a country located in north-east [[Africa]], and is the site of one of the oldest recorded civilizations on earth.

==Name==
The name "Egypt" is derived from the [[Greek]] word ''Aígyptos'' (Αίγυπτος), which was possibly a corruption from the compound word ''Aegaeon uptiōs'' (''Aίγαίου υπτίως''), meaning "below the Aegean" (Strabo). Ancient Egyptians referred to their land as ''Kemet'' ("black land"), in reference to the black [[silt]] deposited by the annual [[Nile]] [[flood]]s.

"Misr" (مصر)is the modern [[Arabic]] name for Egypt, which is based upon the [[Hebrew]] word "Mizraim" (מִצְרַיִם); the ancient Hebrews referred to Egypt as the "land of Mizraim" after the founder of that country.

==Geography==
Egypt has four main regions: the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, where about 99 percent of population lives. Modest amounts of [[rain]]fall occur along the Mediterranean coast; rainfall throughout the remainder of the country is minimal to nonexistent.

==People==
Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab-speaking world and the second-most populous on the African Continent. Nearly all of the country's 79 million people live in [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]]; elsewhere on the banks of the Nile; in the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the [[Suez Canal]]. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole.
[[Image:Egypt shop owner.jpg|left]]
Small communities spread throughout the [[desert]] regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly [[irrigation|irrigated]] land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people of Hamitic origin. Mediterranean and Arab influences appear in the north, and there is some mixing in the south with the Nubians of northern [[Sudan]]. Ethnic minorities include a small number of [[Bedouin]] Arab nomads in the eastern and western deserts and in the [[Sinai]], as well as some 50,000-100,000 Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt.

The literacy rate is about 58% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of [[children]] enter [[primary school]] today, compared with 87% in 1994. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning.

Egypt's vast and rich [[literature]] constitutes an important cultural element in the life of the country and in the Arab-speaking world as a whole. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Egyptian literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Egyptian to win the [[Nobel prize]] for literature. Egyptian books and films are available throughout the Middle East.
*Population (July 2006 est.): 78,887,007.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 1.75%.
*Ethnic groups: Egyptian, Bedouin Arab, Nubian.
*Religions: Muslim 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%.
*Languages: Arabic (official), English, French.
*Education: Years compulsory--ages 6-15. Literacy--total adult: 58%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--31.33 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.): 71 years.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Hassan Mohamed Hassan Egypt Breaking Chains.jpg|thumb|Hassan Mohamed Hassan, Egypt Breaking Chains.]]
The Egyptian Constitution provides for a strong executive. Authority is vested in an elected president who can appoint one or more vice presidents, a prime minister, and a cabinet. The president's term runs for 6 years. Egypt's legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 454 members--444 popularly elected and 10 appointed by the president. The constitution reserves 50% of the assembly seats for "workers and peasants." The assembly sits for a 5-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. There also is a 264-member Shura (consultative) Council, in which 88 members are appointed and 174 elected for 6-year terms. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.

Opposition party organizations make their views public and represent their followers at various levels in the political system, but power is concentrated in the hands of the President and the National Democratic Party majority in the People's Assembly and those institutions dominate the political system. In addition to the ruling National Democratic Party, there are 18 other legally recognized parties, whereas in 2004 there were only 16 other legally recognized parties.

The November 2000 elections were generally considered to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections, because of universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights.

Progress was seen in the September 2005 presidential elections when parties were allowed to field candidates against President Mubarak and his National Democratic Party. In early 2005, President Mubarak proposed amending the constitution to allow, for the first time in Egypt's history, competitive, multi-candidate elections. An amendment was drafted by parliament and approved by public referendum in late May 2005. In September 2005, President Mubarak was reelected, according to official results, with 88% of the vote. His two principal challengers, Ayman Nour and No'man Gom'a, took 7% and 3% of the vote respectively.

Egypt's judicial system is based on European (primarily French) legal concepts and methods. Under the Mubarak government, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the Napoleonic Code. Marriage and personal status (family law) are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned, which for most Egyptians is Islamic Law (Sharia).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Mohamed Hosny Mubarak
*Vice President--Omar Suleiman
*Prime Minister--
*Interior Minister--Mahmoud Wagdi
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Ahmed Abul Gheit
*Ambassador to the United States--Ambassador Nabil Fahmy
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations--Ambassador Maged Abdel Fattah Abdelaziz

===Foreign Relations===
Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.

The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amre Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. President Mubarak has often chaired the African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity). Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region--from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under U.S. and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with President Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President Bush for another summit on the Middle East peace process. Throughout mid-2004, Egypt worked closely with Israel and the Palestinian Authority to facilitate stability following Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza, which occurred in August and September of 2005. Prior to this Egypt and Israel reached an agreement that allowed Egypt to deploy additional forces along the Philadelphi Corridor in an attempt to control the border and prevent the smuggling of weapons.

Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was the third-largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and U.K. In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to UN peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. In August 2004, Egypt was actively engaged in seeking a solution to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan, including the dispatch of military monitors. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and actively supported the Iraqi Governing Council, as well as the subsequent government of Prime Minister Allawi. In July 2005, terrorists attacked the Egyptian city of Sharm El Sheikh. In the same month, Egypt's envoy to Iraq was assassinated.

==Defense==
Egypt's armed forces, among the largest in the region, include the army, air defense, air force, and navy. The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the United States, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, the former Soviet Union, and China. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of African and Arab states. Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner of the United States.

==Economy==
With the installation of the 2004 Egyptian parliament, the Government of Egypt began a new reform movement, following a stalled economic reform program begun in 1991, but moribund since the mid-1990s. In the past year, the cabinet economic team has simplified and reduced tariffs and taxes, improved the transparency of the national budget, revived stalled privatizations of public enterprises and implemented economic legislation designed to foster private sector-driven economic growth and improve Egypt's competitiveness. Despite these achievements, the economy is still hampered by government intervention, substantial subsidies for food, housing, and energy, and bloated public sector payrolls. Moreover, the public sector still controls most heavy industry.

In sectoral terms, agriculture is mainly in private hands, and has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic marketing are also largely private. The Egyptian economy, however, relies heavily on tourism, oil and gas exports, and Suez Canal revenues, much of which is controlled by the public sector and is also vulnerable to outside factors. The tourism sector suffered tremendously following a terrorist attack in Luxor in October 1997. The tourism sector feared a repeat of the downturn in tourist numbers when terrorists attacked resorts in the Sinai Peninsula in 2004 and 2005. So far, however, the sector has not suffered as greatly as expected.

The U.S. has a large assistance program in Egypt and provides funding for a variety of programs in addition to some cash transfers. A portion of U.S. assistance to Egypt under the 2003 Iraq war supplemental appropriations was provided in the form of bond guarantees, which were contingent upon Egyptian compliance with a series of economic conditions. Egypt met the conditions and in September 2005 issued $1.25 billion in 10-year bonds that were fully guaranteed by the United States. To support the Middle East peace process through regional economic integration, the United States permits products to be imported from Egypt without tariffs if they have been produced in Qualified Industrial Zones and 11.7% of the inputs of these products originate from Israel.
*GDP (2005 est.): $303 billion.
*Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 4.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.
*Agriculture: Products--cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.
*Industry: Types--food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.
*Trade (FY 2005): Exports--$14.3 billion: petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. *Major markets--EU, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports--$24.1 billion: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers--EU, U.S., Japan.

===Agriculture===
Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Nearly all of Egypt’s agricultural production takes place in some 2.5 million hectares (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.

Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Further improvement is possible, but land is worked intensively and yields are high. Cotton, rice, wheat, corn, sugarcane, sugar beets, onions, and beans are the principal crops. Increasingly, a few modern operations are producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. While the desert hosts some large, modern farms, more common traditional farms occupy one acre each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also have cows, water buffaloes, and chicken, although larger modern farms are becoming more important.

The United States is a major supplier of wheat, corn, and soybean products to Egypt, almost all through commercial sales. Egypt is, in fact, traditionally the U.S.'s largest market for wheat sales. U.S. agricultural sales to Egypt average $1 billion annually. U.S. food assistance programs to Egypt ended in 1992 as Egypt became more prosperous. Egypt continues to receive modest food assistance through the World Food Program and from France.

"Egypt," wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive [[oasis]]. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi.) from south to north.

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on millions of acres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of billions of low-cost kilowatt hours of electricity.

The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.

===Natural Resources===
[[Image:Woman bread egypt.jpg|290px|right]]
In addition to the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley and Delta, Egypt's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, and iron ore. Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean seashore, and in the Western Desert. Oil and gas accounts for approximately 12% of GDP. Export of petroleum and related products (including bunker and aviation sales) amounted to $2.7 billion in fiscal year 2003-04.

Crude oil production has been in decline for several years, from a high of more than 920,000 barrels per day (BPD) in 1995 to less than 662,000 BPD as of April 2006. To minimize the growing domestic demand of petroleum products, currently estimated at 25 million metric tons per year, Egypt is encouraging the production of natural gas. Over a 5-year period, production of natural gas increased by approximately 75% to reach about 3.3 billion cubic feet per day (BCFD) by the end of FY 2003/04. Currently, gas accounts for almost 50% of all hydrocarbon usage in Egypt.

Over the last 22 years, more than 230 oil and gas exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. As of September 2003, crude oil reserves were estimated at 2.8 billion barrels, and proven natural gas reserves were estimated at 62 trillion cubic feet (TCF) with probable additional reserves totaling another 40-60 TCF. Texas-based Apache Oil Company is the largest American investor in Egypt, with a total investment of more than $2.8 billion since 1996.

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The Ministry of Petroleum has determined that expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. As of September 2005, three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains had been in operation. The first is in Damietta on the eastern side of the Delta and started exporting in early 2005. It is headed by the Spanish electric utility, Union Fenosa. The second LNG project is located at Idku on the western side of the Delta and started exporting in 2005. The first train started in April 2005, and the second in September. British Gas (BG) Group and the Malaysian state oil company Petronas are the major investors. Another project that will utilize gas for export and domestic consumption is the Mediterranean Gas Complex in Port Said where the Italian company AGIP and BP are the main shareholders. This facility will have a total cost of about $315 million and went on line in late 2004.

Egypt and Jordan established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas to Jordan, and then later to Syria and Lebanon. In summer 2003 Egypt began exporting gas to Jordan via a new pipeline from El Arish on Egypt’s north Sinai cost to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba, and then underwater to the Jordanian city of Aqaba. Gas exports to Jordan generated gross revenues of approximately $60 million in 2003/04 and are currently reaching $85-100 million.

===Transport and Communication===
Transportation facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.

Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safraga on the Red Sea.

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab-speaking world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.

Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ETV) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the Arab-speaking world. In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.

ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.

Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.

Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Egyptian and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.

Radio in Egypt almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.

==History==

''Also see: [[Ancient Egypt]]''

Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and archaeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society has existed for much longer. Egyptians take pride in their "pharaonic heritage" and in their descent from what they consider mankind's earliest civilization. The Arabic word for Egypt is Misr, which originally connoted "civilization" or "metropolis."
[[Image:5457e.jpg|right|thumb|300px|View of the Sphinx with Khafra Pyramid in background ''(Photograph taken by [http://www.ianandwendy.com Ian Sewell])'']]
Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. Based on these time estimates, organized agriculture appeared by 6000 B.C.

In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided--the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]] (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).

===Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab Conquerors===
In 525 B., [[Cambyses]], the son of [[Cyrus the Great]], led a [[Persian]] invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. The country remained a Persian province until conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 322 BC, ushering in [[Ptolemeic]] rule Egypt that lasted for nearly 300 years. [[Cleopatra]] was the last ruler of that dynasty, but when she committed suicide after losing to Rome when her lover [[Marc Antony]] was defeated by [[Octavian]] in the [[Battle of Actium]], Egypt became a part of the [[Roman Empire]].

Egypt was invaded and conquered by Arab forces under [[Islam]] in 642. A process of Arabization and Islamization ensued. Although a [[Coptic Christian]] minority remained--and remains today, constituting about 10% of the population--the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab, [[Mameluke]], and Ottoman [[caliph]]s, beys, and [[sultan]]s ruled the country.

Like most of the middle east, the current population in modern Egypt is by [[Arabs]] that have Arabized the [[indigenous]] people, the Nubians and the [[Copts]] are considered to be the real natives to Egypt.

===European Influence===
The [[Ottoman Turks]] controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for a brief period of [[French]] rule under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. In 1805, [[Mohammed Ali (Egypt)|Mohammed Ali]], commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops, was appointed [[Pasha]], founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt, at least in name, until his great-great grandson, [[Farouk I]], was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, writing the first chapter in the modern history of Egypt. The growth of modern urban [[Cairo]] began in the reign of [[Ismail]] (1863-79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. The [[Suez Canal]] was completed in his reign in 1869, and its completion was celebrated by many events, including the commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).

In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the virtual inclusion of Egypt within the [[British Empire]]. In deference to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.

In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British influence; [[King Fuad]], whom the British had installed during [[World War II]]; and the British themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal. Other political forces emerging in this period included the communist party (1925) and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (1928), which eventually became a potent political and religious force.

During [[World War II]], British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. On July 22-23, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with [[Israel]]. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the [[Arab world]], promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized Egypt’s economy.

Nasser helped establish the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis [[Soviet Union|Moscow]], Nasser concluded an arms deal with [[Czechoslovakia]] in September 1955.

When the U.S. and the [[World Bank]] withdrew their offer to help finance the [[Aswan High Dam]] in mid-1956, Nasser nationalized the privately owned Suez Canal Company. The crisis that followed, exacerbated by growing tensions with Israel over [[guerrilla]] attacks from Gaza and Israeli reprisals, resulted in the invasion of Egypt that October by [[France]], [[Britain]], and Israel. Israel occupied the [[Sinai Peninsula]] while the canal was in the hands of the France and Britain, but all withdrew under U.S. pressure.

Nasser's domestic policies were arbitrary and frequently oppressive, yet generally popular. All opposition was stamped out, and opponents of the regime frequently were imprisoned without trial. Nasser's foreign and military policies helped provoke the [[Six-Day War|Israeli attack of June 1967]] that virtually destroyed Egypt's armed forces along with those of [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]]. Israel wrested and occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt. Personally, Nasser never recovered from that loss. Nasser, nonetheless, was revered by the masses in Egypt and in the Arab world until his death in 1970.

After Nasser's death, another of the original "free officers," Vice President [[Anwar el-Sadat]], was elected President. In 1971, Sadat concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union, but a year later, ordered Soviet advisers to leave. In October 1973, he launched the [[Yom Kippur War]] with Israel, in which Egypt's armed forces achieved unexpected initial successes but were defeated in Israeli counterattacks.

===Camp David and the Peace Process===
In a momentous change from the Nasser era, President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to [[Jerusalem]] in November 1977, the first Egyptian head of state to do so. This led to President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s invitation to President Sadat and [[Prime Minister Begin]] to join him in trilateral negotiations at [[Camp David]].

The outcome was the historic [[Camp David Accords|Camp David accords]], signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the U.S. on September 17, 1978. The accords led to the March 26, 1979, signing of the Egypt-Israel peace treaty, by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982 and guaranteed continuous U.S. economic aid. Throughout this period, U.S.-Egyptian relations steadily improved, but Sadat's willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him the enmity of most Arab states. This enmity turned into open war between Egypt and Libya, which lasted for several months.

===Domestic Change===
[[Image:MuslimWomanEgypt.jpg|thumb|Muslim Woman]]
Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "open door." This relaxed government controls over the economy and encouraged private, including foreign, investment. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during the Nasser era.

Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was racked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions from radical Islam, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression.

===From Sadat to Mubarak===
On October 6, 1981, Islamic extremists assassinated President Sadat. [[Hosni Mubarak]], Vice President since 1975 and air force commander during the October 1973 war, was elected President later that month. He was subsequently confirmed by popular referendum for four more 6-year terms, most recently in September 2005. Mubarak has maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as a leader in the Arab-speaking world. Egypt was readmitted to the [[Arab League]] in 1989. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international fora as the [[UN]] and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Since 1991, Mubarak has overseen a domestic economic reform program to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the private sector. There has been less progress in political reform. The November 2000 People's Assembly elections saw 34 members of the opposition win seats in the 454-seat assembly, facing a clear majority of 388 ultimately affiliated with the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP). Opposition parties continue to face various difficulties in mounting credible electoral challenges to the NDP. The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, remains an illegal organization and is not recognized as a political party (current Egyptian law prohibits the formation of political parties based on religion). Members are known publicly and openly speak their views, although they do not explicitly identify themselves as members of the organization. Members of the Brotherhood have been elected to the People's Assembly and local councils as independents, and most recently scored a major victory in 2005 parliamentary elections, winning 20% of the seats, thus forming the largest opposition group.

===2011 Freedom Protests===
In January 2011, spurred by increasing [[food]] and [[oil]] prices as well as rampant [[corruption]] of the [[Muslim]] [[autocrats]],<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/feb/08/egypt-revolution-muslim-brotherhood-democracy Egyptian revolution], the Guardian.</ref> millions of Egyptians gathered at Tahrir square in [[Alexandria]] in an uprising. [[Conservatives]], irked by the inactions of the [[liberal]] [[president]] and [[secretary of state]], have taken this as a sign that the [[democrats]] implicitly supports the Mubarak [[dictatorship]].<ref>[http://spectator.org/blog/2011/01/25/as-egypt-erupts-will-obama-rem Obama silent as Egypt erupts], American Spectator.</ref> [[American]] leadership in supporting [[democracy]] by competent parties had been called for, including personal intervention by Governor [[Palin]].<ref>[http://christwire.org/2011/01/as-egypt-descends-in-chaos-should-sarah-palin-support-a-us-led-invasion/ As Egypt descends in chaos, Palin should support a US led invasion] Christwire</ref>

==Further reading==
* Thompson, Jason. ''A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present'' (2009) 432 pages

== External links ==
*[http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html Ancient Egypt] The Trustees of the British Museum.
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Default.htm Egypt] Egypt State Information Service.

==References and Footnotes==

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}
Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm]
<references />

[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:African Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:British Empire]]

Tongzhi

2011-02-08T03:37:33Z

WPoe: added information and link

Tongzhi (同志) is the ninth [[emperor]] (1861-1875) of the [[Qing Dynasty]], and a direct Manchurian descendent of [[Shuntzi]], the second emperor (順治). He led an unsuccessful attempt to stabilize China.

[[Category:Chinese Emperors]]

Shunzhi

2011-02-08T03:32:49Z

WPoe: added information

'''Shunzhi''' (順治 1638-1661, Emperor of [[China]] 1641-1661) was the first [[Emperor]] of the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644-1911 A.D.), which was the last to rule [[China]] before the setting up of the [[Chinese Republic]]. He was the second Emperor of this [[Manchurian]] dynasty, but the first to rule as Emperor of China.{{citation needed}}

[[Category:Chinese Emperors]]

Islamabad

2011-02-08T03:30:35Z

WPoe:

'''Islamabad''' ("City of Islam", or "City of Peace") has been the capital of [[Pakistan]] since 1961. It has a 1998 population of 800,000 people.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295631/Islamabad Islamabad], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>

<references />

[[Category:Asian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Pakistan]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]

Islamabad

2011-02-08T03:30:07Z

WPoe: added information

'''Islamabad''' ("City of Islam", or "City of Peace") has been the capital of [[Pakistan]] since 1961. It has a 1998 population of 800,000 people.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295631/Islamabad Islamabad], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>

[[Category:Asian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Pakistan]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]

Iron-Deficiency Anemia

2011-02-08T03:26:16Z

WPoe: added link

'''Iron-Deficiency Anemia''' is a common and easily treated condition that occurs when there is not enough [[iron]] in the body. It is the most common type of [[anemia]]. A lack of iron in the body can come from bleeding, not eating enough foods that contain iron, or not absorbing enough iron from food that is eaten.

== Anemia ==

The term "anemia" (uh-NEE-me-uh) is used for a group of conditions in which the number of red [[blood]] cells in the blood is lower than normal, or the red blood cells don’t have enough hemoglobin (HEE-muh-glow-bin). Hemoglobin—an iron-rich protein that gives the red color to blood—carries the [[oxygen]] from the [[lungs]] to the rest of the body. In people with anemia, the blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of the body. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide, a waste product, from cells and carry it to the lungs to be exhaled.

Red blood cells also are called RBCs or erythrocytes (eh-RITH-roh-sites). Normal red blood cells are all about the same size and look like doughnuts without a hole in the center. They are produced by the spongy marrow inside the large [[bone]]s of the body. Healthy red blood cells have an average lifespan of 120 days. When they die, the iron from the hemoglobin is recycled to make new red blood cells.

There are many types of anemia. The three major causes of anemia are blood loss, decreased production of red blood cells, or increased destruction of red blood cells. White blood cells and platelets are the two other kinds of blood cells. White blood cells help fight infection. Platelets help blood to clot. In some kinds of anemia, there are low amounts of all three types of blood cells. The most common symptom of all types of anemia is feeling tired because the body is not receiving enough oxygen.

== Iron-Deficiency Anemia ==

In iron-deficiency anemia, the body does not have enough iron to form hemoglobin, which means there is not enough hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the whole body. The body gets its iron from food. The main foods that contain iron are liver, sardines, meat, dried peaches, and shellfish as well as iron-fortified foods (that is, foods that have iron added).<ref>[http://www.loveyourbaby.com/iron-rich-food-list.html Iron rich food list]</ref> A steady supply of iron is needed to form hemoglobin and healthy red blood cells.

A person can have low iron levels for three reasons:

* Blood loss, either from disease or injury
* Not getting enough iron in the diet
* Not being able to absorb the iron in the diet

Iron-deficiency anemia also can develop when the body needs higher levels of iron, such as during pregnancy.

== Effects of Iron-Deficiency Anemia on the Body ==

Iron-deficiency anemia can range from mild to severe. A mild case usually causes no symptoms or problems. However, a severe case can cause extreme fatigue (tiredness) and weakness. Severe iron-deficiency anemia can lead to serious problems for young children and pregnant women, and it can affect the heart.

In young children, iron-deficiency anemia can cause a heart murmur and delays in growth and development. It puts a child at greater risk for [[lead poisoning]] and [[infection]]s, and it can cause behavior problems.

In pregnant women, iron-deficiency anemia can increase the risk of a premature delivery and a low-birth-weight baby.

The heart is affected when there is a lack of [[oxygen]] in the body. The heart has to work harder to get enough oxygen throughout the body. Over time, this stress on the heart can lead to a fast or irregular heartbeat, chest pain, an enlarged heart, and even [[heart failure]].

== Important General Information ==

A lack of iron in the body is the most common nutritional problem. Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common form of anemia. It is most often found in young children, pregnant women, and women of childbearing age. In fact, it affects half of all pregnant women and 1 out of 5 women of childbearing age.

== Outlook ==

Iron-deficiency anemia can be treated successfully. The causes of iron-deficiency anemia can most often be treated successfully as well. However, if not treated, it can lead to severe symptoms and serious problems.

== See also ==

*[[Vegetarianism]]

== Sources ==

* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Browse/Blood.html NIH Glossary]
[[category:medicine]]

Iron-Deficiency Anemia

2011-02-08T03:24:00Z

WPoe: /* Effects of Iron-Deficiency Anemia on the Body */ Added internal links

'''Iron-Deficiency Anemia''' is a common and easily treated condition that occurs when there is not enough [[iron]] in the body. It is the most common type of [[anemia]]. A lack of iron in the body can come from bleeding, not eating enough foods that contain iron, or not absorbing enough iron from food that is eaten.

== Anemia ==

The term "anemia" (uh-NEE-me-uh) is used for a group of conditions in which the number of red [[blood]] cells in the blood is lower than normal, or the red blood cells don’t have enough hemoglobin (HEE-muh-glow-bin). Hemoglobin—an iron-rich protein that gives the red color to blood—carries the [[oxygen]] from the [[lungs]] to the rest of the body. In people with anemia, the blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of the body. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide, a waste product, from cells and carry it to the lungs to be exhaled.

Red blood cells also are called RBCs or erythrocytes (eh-RITH-roh-sites). Normal red blood cells are all about the same size and look like doughnuts without a hole in the center. They are produced by the spongy marrow inside the large [[bone]]s of the body. Healthy red blood cells have an average lifespan of 120 days. When they die, the iron from the hemoglobin is recycled to make new red blood cells.

There are many types of anemia. The three major causes of anemia are blood loss, decreased production of red blood cells, or increased destruction of red blood cells. White blood cells and platelets are the two other kinds of blood cells. White blood cells help fight infection. Platelets help blood to clot. In some kinds of anemia, there are low amounts of all three types of blood cells. The most common symptom of all types of anemia is feeling tired because the body is not receiving enough oxygen.

== Iron-Deficiency Anemia ==

In iron-deficiency anemia, the body does not have enough iron to form hemoglobin, which means there is not enough hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the whole body. The body gets its iron from food. The main foods that contain iron are meat and shellfish as well as iron-fortified foods (that is, foods that have iron added). A steady supply of iron is needed to form hemoglobin and healthy red blood cells.

A person can have low iron levels for three reasons:

* Blood loss, either from disease or injury
* Not getting enough iron in the diet
* Not being able to absorb the iron in the diet

Iron-deficiency anemia also can develop when the body needs higher levels of iron, such as during pregnancy.

== Effects of Iron-Deficiency Anemia on the Body ==

Iron-deficiency anemia can range from mild to severe. A mild case usually causes no symptoms or problems. However, a severe case can cause extreme fatigue (tiredness) and weakness. Severe iron-deficiency anemia can lead to serious problems for young children and pregnant women, and it can affect the heart.

In young children, iron-deficiency anemia can cause a heart murmur and delays in growth and development. It puts a child at greater risk for [[lead poisoning]] and [[infection]]s, and it can cause behavior problems.

In pregnant women, iron-deficiency anemia can increase the risk of a premature delivery and a low-birth-weight baby.

The heart is affected when there is a lack of [[oxygen]] in the body. The heart has to work harder to get enough oxygen throughout the body. Over time, this stress on the heart can lead to a fast or irregular heartbeat, chest pain, an enlarged heart, and even [[heart failure]].

== Important General Information ==

A lack of iron in the body is the most common nutritional problem. Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common form of anemia. It is most often found in young children, pregnant women, and women of childbearing age. In fact, it affects half of all pregnant women and 1 out of 5 women of childbearing age.

== Outlook ==

Iron-deficiency anemia can be treated successfully. The causes of iron-deficiency anemia can most often be treated successfully as well. However, if not treated, it can lead to severe symptoms and serious problems.

== See also ==

*[[Vegetarianism]]

== Sources ==

* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Browse/Blood.html NIH Glossary]
[[category:medicine]]

Stephen Green

2011-02-08T03:21:10Z

WPoe: Added reent developments

'''Stephen Green''' is the leader of the [[UK]] [[evangelical]] [[Christian]] organisation [[Christian Voice]]. He is known for taking strong stances against blasphemy and for Christian values.

==Legal Sanctions==

In the course of his efforts to promote the Gospel, Green has, at times, been subject to legal sanctions. On September 2, 2006, he was arrested for passing out leaflets at a homosexual event. The arrest was made despite the fact that police admitted he was not behaving in a violent or aggressive manner; police further confirmed that he was arrested because his leaflets contained Biblical quotes about [[homosexuality]]. <ref>http://www.christiantoday.com/article/evangelical.alliance.welcomes.case.drop/7832.htm </ref> The case against him was later dismissed due to lack of evidence, a decision hailed as a vindication of free speech rights as per the [[first amendment]] <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/5388626.stm</ref>

More recently, Green's efforts to hold broadcasters accountable for the airing of blasphemous material have made headlines. On January 8, 2008, Green sought to prosecute Mark Thompson, Director General of the [[BBC]], and Jonathan Thoday, the producer of ''Jerry Springer: the Opera,'' for broadcasting material of a blasphemous nature. The courts denied him the right to pursue prosecution due to lack of prima facie evidence that a crime had been committed, and because any otherwise-actionable blasphemous content was protected by the 1968 Theatres Act. <ref>http://www.christianvoice.org.uk/Press/press028.html</ref> Following this decision, the court ruled that Green would be held liable for costs totalling 180,000 Pounds... a sum which Green says will bankrupt him, and have a chilling effect on future attempts to hold broadcasters accountable.

Green's trial were heard on April 27, 2009. On May 7, 2009, a federal jury convicted Green of rape and murder, for which he could have received the death penalty. However, on May 21, 2009, Green was spared the death penalty when the jury of nine men and three women could not come to unanimous agreement on a penalty; as a result, he will receive life without parole. Formal sentencing took place on September 4, 2009.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Dale_Green Stephen Dale Green], Wikipedia</ref>

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

[[category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British Politics]]

Barrels Per Day Equivalent

2011-02-08T03:14:17Z

WPoe: exposed liberal stances

A unit of measure that tells how much [[oil]] would have to be burned to produce the same amount of [[energy]]. A barrel describes large drum with a volume of 158,987,294,928 ml.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_%28unit%29 Barrel(unit)], wikipedia</ref> [[Liberal]]s often want to pass '''federal''' legistrations to lower the BPD-equivalent used in '''states''', an example of an encroaching [[big government]].<ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2008/2008-11-21-02.html Democrats in Control: Energy to top agenda]</ref><ref>[http://www.hattiesburgamerican.com/article/20110118/OPINION03/101180315/Don-t-let-Sharia-law-creep-into-system When freedom is eroded]</ref>

An example of usage: California's hydroelectric generation in 1983 was 58,000 '''barrels per day equivalent'''.<ref>http://www.energy.ca.gov/glossary/glossary-b.html#b</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:energy]]

Historical apologism

2011-02-08T03:01:16Z

WPoe:

'''Historical apologism''' is a tendency of some, typically [[liberal]], [[historians]] to attempt to apologise for actions in the past, judged by standards of the present. For example, apologising "on behalf of the white race" for [[slavery]] in the [[United States]], despite the fact that both the slave-owners and slaves are long since dead, and supporting "compensation" to [[African-American]]s, by virtue of the crimes of another generation.

Historical apologism can be said to violate the principle of [[justice]] that a person cannot be tried for the crimes of their ancestors. Leading [[law]] expert Richard Carter described such an idea as "setting an absurd precedent; should the [[Italians]] apologise for the actions of the [[Romans]], the [[Mexicans]] for the [[Aztecs]]?" {{Citation needed}}

==See also==
*[[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Revisionism]]
*[[affirmative action]]

Historical apologism

2011-02-08T02:58:34Z

WPoe: added links

'''Historical apologism''' is a tendency of some, typically [[liberal]], [[historians]] to attempt to apologise for actions in the past, judged by standards of the present. For example, apologising "on behalf of the white race" for [[slavery]] in the [[United States]], despite the fact that both the slave-owners and slaves are long since dead, and supporting "compensation" to [[African-American]]s, by virtue of the crimes of another generation.

Historical apologism can be said to violate the principle of [[justice]] that a person cannot be tried for the crimes of their ancestors. Leading [[law]] expert Richard Carter described such an idea as "setting an absurd precedent; should the [[Italians]] apologise for the actions of the [[Romans]], the [[Mexicans]] for the [[Aztecs]]?"

==See also==
*[[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Revisionism]]
*[[affirmative action]]

Matthew effect

2011-02-06T03:18:26Z

WPoe: revised wording

The '''Matthew Effect''' is a sociological phenomena referring to Christ's commandment that "For to all those who have, more will be given, and they will have an abundance; but from those who have nothing, even what they have will be taken away." (Matthew 25:29) This is an example of [[biblical scientific foreknowledge]], foretelling [[conservative]] [[libertarian]] [[economics]] over 2000 years ago. This scriptural commandment was used by [[Glenn Beck]] to justify eliminating [[progressive taxation]] in the [[United States]] (see [[tea party]]), and was quoted by [[liberal]] [[atheists]] as saying Jesus was responsible for the poverty gap in America.

Crude oil

2011-02-06T03:07:58Z

WPoe: Added origins of oil

'''Oil''' is a [[viscosity|viscous]] [[liquid]] that is not [[solubility|soluble]] in [[water]] and which is used for mainly for lubrication and [[fuel]].

There are two main types of oil. One is derived from plants, such as [[olive]]s, and the other, [[petroleum]], is obtained from geological sources. The latter is not formed by decayed matter, as that contradicts the Creationist worldview, but instead during a “theobaric” process (meaning made by God). This oil existed in pristine state before the Flood, and moved during the Flood into the reservoirs where Noah emerged from the Ark, and where we now find it.<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/origin-of-oil Origin of Oil], Answers in Genesis</ref> Consequently much of the oil is found in the Middle East.

Whilst many [[liberal]]s and [[environmentalist]]s argue for investment in less efficient and more expensive sources of energy with the claim that petroleum sources will one day run out, recent research in to [[Abiotic oil]] has shown that this may not be the case.<ref>http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=59991</ref>

== Uses ==
Uses of oil include the following:
* [[Heat]]ing, by [[burn]]ing the oil
* Illumination, in oil lamps
* Generation of [[electricity]], by burning the oil to turn water to steam used to run generators
* Lubrication
* Anointing
* Manufacture of perfumes
* [[Cooking]], to add [[flavor]], and to improve [[heat transfer]]

== Where does Oil Come From? ==

The common secular models has been rejected, and a Creationist model is now in favor. This ''theobaric'' process is briefly described here. During the Creation Week, God created a mature earth, and in the Garden of Eden, everything was ready for its first occupants. There must have been mature plants and trees to supply food for immediate consumption, and oil for various uses (e.g., anointing, lubrication - see [[oil#uses]]). It remained relatively undisturbed until the Noachian Flood.

This oil, created in deep primordial repositories during the Creation Week migrated upwards into present-day reservoirs during the Noachian Flood. During the Flood, intense geological activity occurred whilst the “fountains of the great deep” described in Genesis were active, though after day 150 of the Flood God said that the fountains were closed, so we would expect a sharp cut-off in hydraulic activity. During the Flood, the primordial repositories containing the hydrocarbons will have been breached and fluids released.<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/origin-of-oil Origin of Oil], Answers in Genesis</ref>

== Oil in the Bible ==

Oil, probably usually referring to olive oil, appears over two hundred times in the [[Bible]].
* Oil, particularly olive oil, is used in drink offerings to God, but not in sin offerings.<ref>{{Bible ref|Genesis|28|18}}, {{Bible ref|Genesis|35|14}}, {{Bible ref|Leviticus|2}}, {{Bible ref|Leviticus|14}}, {{Bible ref|Numbers|7}}</ref>
* Oil is used for anointing the priests of God by pouring it on their heads. This sanctifies them and makes them holy<ref>{{Bible ref|Exodus|29|2,7,21}}, {{Bible ref|Exodus|30|25}}, {{Bible ref|Leviticus|8}}</ref>. It was also used for anointing the kings of Israel.<ref>{{Bible ref|I_Samuel|10|1}}, {{Bible ref|I_Kings|1|39}}</ref>
* Oil is used for lighting lamps.<ref>{{Bible ref|Exodus|27|20}}</ref>
* In a miracle, [[Elisha]] caused a poor widow's little bit of oil to be enough to fill all her jars, and her neighbor's jars, with oil that she could sell it to pay her debts.<ref>{{Bible ref|II_Kings|4|1-7}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Petroleum]]
* [[Gasoline]]
*[[Fossil fuel]]
*[[Peak oil]]
*[[Abiotic oil]]

== References ==

<references />

[[category:geology]]
[[category:food and Drink]]

Crude oil

2011-02-06T02:56:06Z

WPoe: Added theobaric model of oil

Peer review

2011-02-06T02:46:54Z

WPoe: Provided theological basis for peer review

'''Peer review''' in general refers to submitting scientific work to the scrutiny of other scientists, especially before making announcements to the general public. It has been found to be rooted in the Biblical tradition and is a proper Christian conduct.<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/theology-peer-review Theology of Peer Review], Answer: Research Journal</ref>

In common practice, peer review is synonymous with [[anonymous peer review]], a largely secretive process whereby referees review a scientific paper in strict confidence before an editor accepts the paper for publication. Ordinarily, this process will catch subtle errors in scientific work. When the stakes are high, however, it is easy to abuse the process.

Normally, a journal editor receives an article submission and then sends it out to some readers (referees) who have some expertise regarding the article’s subject. These are usually selected from a pool of people who already published in that journal, and sometimes journals ask authors for suggestions for referees. In '''anonymous peer review''' the journal editor removes the names of reviewers from their comments before passing them to the authors.

After receiving comments, the author may respond, change the article to clarify things, or retract the article. When enough referees approve the publication the paper is published.

There are numerous criteria which the scientific journals may ask the referees to check. One of the most important questions is if the referee believes that the topic of the article fits into the journal. If that would not be the case, the referee will usually suggest another journal to publish the article in. The next important thing is that the article should be coherent. This means it should not contradict itself, and if parts (e.g. measurement results) are ambiguous, this should be pointed out. The next criteria is obviously that the article should present sufficiently new material, and that the new material should be clearly distinguished from material cited. The next step is originality of the article. Even if new data are consistently presented, they may not fit into a given Journal. Last but not least, the style guidelines of the Journal should be followed quite exactly, and also a minimum standard in the language used must be adhered to. One should point out that Peer review is not very efficient against scientific misbehavior or plagiarism.

A controversial form of peer review is when physicians on the staff of a hospital pass judgment on a fellow physician, and recommend that he be excluded from the medical staff. This has potential for abuse to eliminate competitors, which is known as [[sham peer review]].

==Theology of Peer Review==

In a landmark paper, the process of peer review has been established by many scholars <ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/theology-peer-review Theology of Peer Review], Answer: Research Journal</ref> as rooted in several [[Christian]] [[virtue]]s, such as:
* reflecting [[Christ]]
* being [[honest]]
* seeking [[wisdom]]
* humbly submitting
* showing Christian [[love]]
* correcting error, and
* being accountable

In accordance to this, several peer reviewed [[creationist]] journals such as [[Answers Research Journal]], Creation Research Society Quarterly, Journal of Creation, Occasional Papers of the BSG, Proceedings of the National Creationist Institute, and Origins have been created despite the scorn and ridicule from [[liberal]] [[professors]].

==Abuses by the IPCC==

:"...the climate reconstruction of {{Lhs|Michael|Mann}} passed both peer review rounds of the IPCC without anyone ever really having checked it." [http://www.grassrootinstitute.org/system/old/GrassrootPerspective/HockeyStickScandal.shtml]

:[[Hendrik Tennekes]] wrote: 'The IPCC review process is fatally flawed....' [http://www.grassrootinstitute.org/system/old/GrassrootPerspective/HockeyStickScandal.shtml]

==Limitations of peer review==

[[Richard Lindzen]] wrote:
:The combination of increased scale and diminished emphasis on unique talent is, from a certain point of view, a devastating combination which greatly increases the potential for the political direction of science, and the creation of dependent constituencies. With these new constituencies, such obvious controls as peer review and detailed accountability begin to fail and even serve to perpetuate the defects of the system. Miller (2007) specifically addresses how the system especially favors dogmatism and conformity.<ref> [http://ecoworld.com/features/2008/10/30/climate-science-is-it-currently-designed-to-answer-questions/ Climate Science: Is It Designed To Answer Questions?]</ref>

==Peer review and [[due diligence]]==

[[Steve McIntyre]] wrote:
:[[IPCC]] proponents place great emphasis on the merit of articles that have been 'peer reviewed' by a journal. However, as a form of [[due diligence]], journal peer review in the multiproxy climate field is remarkably cursory, as compared with the due diligence of business processes. Peer review for climate publications, even by eminent journals like ''Nature'' or ''Science'', is typically a quick unpaid read by two (or sometimes three) knowledgeable persons, usually close colleagues of the author.
:It is unheard of for a peer reviewer to actually check the data and calculations. In 2004, I was asked by a journal (''Climatic Change'') to peer review an article. I asked to see the source code and supporting calculations. The editor said that no one had ever asked for such things in 28 years of his editing the journal. [http://www.climateaudit.org/index.php?p=66]

==Time taken for Peer Review==
The time taken for the peer review varies with the subject and the paper, but it not usually very long and some magazines aim for an ''average'' of 28 days from submission to decision. <ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T7H-4HHWW4J-3&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a7c00b5c0df5183cb9c02d162a4828ee 28 days from submission to decision.]</ref> The actual time taken by the reviewer is much ''shorter'' and varies from five hours <ref>[http://www.publishingresearch.org.uk/documents/PRCPeerReviewSummaryReport-final-e-version.pdf Five hour Peer Review]</ref> to one and a half hours. <ref>[http://www.ama-assn.org/public/peer/7_13_94/pv3110x.htm One-and-a-half hour Peer Review ]</ref>. Obviously more important papers will tend to be reviewed first.

==See also==
[[Richard Lenski]]

==External links==

*[http://www.climateaudit.org/index.php?p=66 Some Thoughts on Disclosure and Due Diligence in Climate Science] - Steve McIntyre
* Kulikovsky, Andrew, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5613 Creationism, Science and Peer Review] 2nd February 2008 (Creation Ministries International) (Documents some problems with and limitations of peer review).

==References==
<references/>

[[category:science]]
[[category:peer review]]

Matthew effect

2011-02-06T02:25:30Z

WPoe: Started article

Bacteria

2011-02-06T02:07:56Z

WPoe: added citation to answers in genesis

[[Image:Bacterial cell.png|right|200px]]
'''Bacteria''' are single-celled microorganisms. Modern [[pathology]] and [[medicine]] are based on the findings of [[Louis Pasteur]] and later [[Robert Koch]] and [[Charles Laveran]] that bacteria cause many ailments, but most microbes, in agreement with the benevolent nature of the [[Creator]], are actually beneficial to man and nature.<ref name="AiG Bacteria">[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/microbes-days-of-creation Microbes and the Days of Creation], Answers: Research Journal.</ref> Bible scholars have dated their creation between Day 3 and 6 during Creation Week.<ref name="AiG Bacteria">[http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/microbes-days-of-creation Microbes and the Days of Creation], Answers: Research Journal.</ref>

Bacterial [[disease]] was a source of fear for humankind for most of [[history]]. This fear was largely abated by the development of [[antibiotic]] drugs in the last half of the 1900s. The general impression was that most bacterial diseases could be cured, relatively quickly and easily. But bacteria gain resistance to certain types of antibiotics, making their continued treatment in a recurrent infection difficult at times.<ref>[http://www.chemheritage.org/educationalservices/pharm/antibiot/readings/evolve.htm antibiot-readings]</ref> However, this is not [[evolution]], since the bacteria do not change from one type to another, they only gain or lose a few genes involved in the antibiotic and no new information is created. Bacterial disease is becoming a more serious medical problem, particularly in hospitals which tend to harbor a population of drug-resistant bacteria.

Bacteria are tiny one-celled organisms present throughout the environment that require a microscope to be seen. The vast majority of bacteria are not harmful to human beings. Many of them are normally found on or in the human body, and not only do not cause disease, but provide some benefit. For example, the human gut normally contain a complement of ''intestinal flora'' which assist digestion.

Some food products involve bacteria in their production. [[Sour cream]], [[buttermilk]], [[yogurt]], and some kinds of [[cheese]] contain living cultures of live bacteria when eaten. Vinegar is traditionally produced by the growth of the ''Acetobacter'' bacterium in wine. ([[Wine]] itself is produced, not by bacteria, but by [[yeast]], which is also a [[microorganism]] that is classified as a [[fungi]].)

While not all bacteria are harmful, some cause disease. The technical term for these is ''pathogenic'' bacteria (''pathogenic'' being nothing more than a combination of the Greek roots for "disease" and "causing").

Examples of bacterial disease include diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, ''Haemophilus influenza'' and pneumococcus (pneumonia).

==See also==
*[[Drug resistance]]
*[[Lactobacillus]]

== References ==
<references/>
[[Category:microbiology]]

Great Calcutta Killing

2011-02-06T01:57:51Z

WPoe: fixed date

The Great Calcutta Killing was an armed conflict between Hindus and Muslims in [[India]] in 1946. It resulted in the deaths of 6000 people.

[[category:Indian History]]

Cao Cao

2011-02-06T01:54:56Z

WPoe: added pronunciation

'''Cao Cao''' (操操, pronounced "Tsao Tsao") was a [[Chinese]] [[warlord]] during the 1st century AD. He tried but failed at reuniting [[China]] during the [[civil war]] that was documented by several people and later written about by Luo Guanzhong. Though he failed at reuniting the country but he did conquer a huge area that became the kingdom of [[Wei]].

== Romance of the Three Kingdoms ==
In the [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]] Cao Cao is shown at times to be extremely cruel but at other times very merciful and forgiving. He is meant to be viewed as the moral opposite of another warlord [[Liu Bei]] who until his death was always merciful. Cao Cao is also shown to be very intelligent and also had great skill in resource management, battle strategy, and politics.
== Quotes ==
"I'd rather betray the world than let the world betray me."
*''Yelled at Chen Gong (成功) after killing his own uncle under false pretense.''

"What is at a peak is certain to decline. He who shows his hand will surely be defeated. He who can prevail in battle by taking advantage of his enemy's doubts is invincible."

[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:Chinese Warlords]]

Supramolecular chemistry

2011-02-06T01:50:40Z

WPoe: Began article

'''Supramolecular chemistry''' is different from [[organic chemistry]] or [[inorganic chemistry]] (i.e., [[physical chemistry]]<ref>http://www.conservapedia.com/Inorganic_chemistry</ref>) in that it does not focus only on the strong but also the weak.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry</ref> As with other fields in modern [[chemistry]], it owes enormous gratitude to the work and writings of Robert [[Boyle]] — a [[creation scientist]] whose love of [[God]]’s [[truth]] led him to overcome the chief errors of alchemical theory which were hindering the development of truly scientific chemistry.<ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v12/i1/chemistry.asp</ref> By studying the weak as well as the strong, and reporting their works through the peer-reviewed process,<ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v1/n1/theology-peer-review</ref> these modern scholars follows the code outlined in Ephesians 4:1–16 ("I, therefore, beseech you to walk worthy of the calling with which you were called, ''with all lowliness and gentleness, with long suffering'', bearing with one another in love, endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace") and are probably a truer reflection of [[Christ]], functioning as part of the body of Christ, which carries out the work that pleases Him.

The chemists who pioneered the field, Lehn (whose father was a [[church]] [[organ]]ist), Cram (who sang in the [[choir]] and in a barbershop quartet), and Pedersen (who studied in University of Dayton because it was run by the Society of [[Mary]]) was awarded with a [[Nobel prize]] in 1987.<ref>http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1987/#</ref>

<references/>

Physical chemistry

2011-02-06T01:13:08Z

WPoe: Added stub based on existing entry on inorganic chemistry

Physical chemistry is the study of molecules and reactions that do not involve the special field of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Another name for physical chemistry is '''[[inorganic chemistry]]'''. It tends to concern more insights of [[physics]] and less of the spatial aspects of [[organic chemistry]].

Often students who are good in [[organic chemistry]] will struggle in physical chemistry, and vice-versa. <ref>http://www.conservapedia.com/Inorganic_chemistry</ref>

<references />

Inorganic chemistry

2011-02-06T01:09:56Z

WPoe:

'''Inorganic chemistry''' is the study of [[molecule]]s and reactions that do not involve the special field of [[carbon]]-[[hydrogen]] bonds. Another name for '''inorganic chemistry''' is '''[[physical chemistry]]'''. It tends to concern more insights of [[physics]] and less of the spatial aspects of [[organic chemistry]].

Often students who are good in [[organic chemistry]] will struggle in '''inorganic chemistry''', and vice-versa.
[[category:chemistry]]

Inorganic chemistry

2011-02-06T01:09:26Z

WPoe: Added link to physical chemistry

'''Inorganic chemistry''' is the study of [[molecule]]s and reactions that do not involve the special field of [[carbon]]-[[hydrogen]] bonds. Another name for '''inorganic chemistry''' is [['''physical chemistry''']]. It tends to concern more insights of [[physics]] and less of the spatial aspects of [[organic chemistry]].

Often students who are good in [[organic chemistry]] will struggle in '''inorganic chemistry''', and vice-versa.
[[category:chemistry]]

Fungi

2011-02-06T01:07:38Z

WPoe:

'''Fungi''' is the plural of '''fungus''', a kingdom of multicellular [[heterotroph]]s. They feed primarily on decomposing plant material, aided by their ability to produce cellulose. They reproduce using [[spore]]s.

The [[fruit]]ing bodies of fungi are known as [[mushroom]]s, and are used for culinary purposes or intoxication depending on variety, although many contain deadly [[toxin]]s. The scientific study of fungi is known as [[mycology]].

In the biblical [[creation]] worldview, fungi were created by God during the [[Creation Week]] approximately 6,000 years ago. The [[Bible]] suggests that the mycorrhizal, endophytic, and land-dwelling, saprophytic fungi were likely created on Day 3 along with [[plant]]s, while other fungi (that is, [[animal]]-associated Candida spp. and the aquatic Chytridiomycetes) were created on Days 5 and 6. <ref name="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v2/n1/fungi-from-a-biblical-perspective">[http://www.example.org Fungi from the Biblical Perspective], Answers: a Research Journal.</ref>

<references/>
[[category:Biology]]

Fungi

2011-02-06T01:06:37Z

WPoe:

'''Fungi''' is the plural of '''fungus''', a kingdom of multicellular [[heterotroph]]s. They feed primarily on decomposing plant material, aided by their ability to produce cellulose. They reproduce using [[spore]]s.

The [[fruit]]ing bodies of fungi are known as [[mushroom]]s, and are used for culinary purposes or intoxication depending on variety, although many contain deadly [[toxin]]s. The scientific study of fungi is known as [[mycology]].

In the biblical [[creation]] worldview, fungi were created by God during the [[Creation Week]] approximately 6,000 years ago. The [[Bible]] suggests that the mycorrhizal, endophytic, and land-dwelling, saprophytic fungi were likely created on Day 3 along with [[plant]]s, while other fungi (that is, [[animal]]-associated Candida spp. and the aquatic Chytridiomycetes) were created on Days 5 and 6. <ref name="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v2/n1/fungi-from-a-biblical-perspective">[http://www.example.org Fungi from the Biblical Perspective], Answers in Genesis.</ref>

<references/>
[[category:Biology]]

Fungi

2011-02-06T01:05:27Z

WPoe: added cutting edge research

'''Fungi''' is the plural of '''fungus''', a kingdom of multicellular [[heterotroph]]s. They feed primarily on decomposing plant material, aided by their ability to produce cellulose. They reproduce using [[spore]]s.

The fruiting bodies of fungi are known as [[mushroom]]s, and are used for culinary purposes or intoxication depending on variety, although many contain deadly [[toxin]]s. The scientific study of fungi is known as [[mycology]].

In the biblical creation worldview, fungi were created by God during the [[Creation Week]] approximately 6,000 years ago. The Bible suggests that the mycorrhizal, endophytic, and land-dwelling, saprophytic fungi were likely created on Day 3 along with plants, while other fungi (that is, animal-associated Candida spp. and the aquatic Chytridiomycetes) were created on Days 5 and 6. <ref name="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/arj/v2/n1/fungi-from-a-biblical-perspective">[http://www.example.org Fungi from the Biblical Perspective], Answers in Genesis.</ref><ref></ref>

<references/>
[[category:Biology]]

Magnificat

2011-02-06T00:57:38Z

WPoe: /* Text */

The '''Magnificat''', the words of [[Virgin Mary|Mary]] in Luke i. 47 starting with “''My soul doth magnify the Lord''”, is a [[canticle]] sung with an [[antiphon]] during the Vespers. There were many [[polyphony|polyphonic]] settings starting from the 14th century and the text continued as part of the Vespers in many notable instances into the 18th century by which time it had also reached its full development as a stand-alone piece (with the inevitable major participation of [[J. S. Bach]]).

The Magnificat transferred to the [[Classical period (music)|classical period]] with a setting by C. P. E. Bach using his father's technique but in a classical form, and this reached full height in [[Mozart]]’s setting in his K339 Vespers of 1780.

Settings almost disappeared during the 19th century, but various 20th century masters have been inspired by the text and many modern, and even contemporary, major settings exist.

==Text==

Germanic Latin text in bold, followed by [http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Texts/BWV243-Eng3.htm English translation].

'''Magnificat anima mea Dominum.'''
My soul proclaims the greatness of the Lord.

'''Et exsultavit spiritus meus in Deo salutari meo'''
and my spirit has exulted in God my saviour.

'''Quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae;'''
because he has regarded the lowly state of his slavegirl;

'''ecce enim ex hoc beatam me dicent'''
for look! from now on (they) will say that I am blessed

'''Omnes generationes.'''
(In) every generation.

'''Quia fecit mihi magna qui potens est, et sanctum nomen eius.'''
because he who is mighty has done great things for me, and holy is his name.

'''Et misericordia a progenie in progenies timentibus eum.'''
and his mercy is passed from generation to generation for those who fear him.

'''Fecit potentiam in brachio suo, dispersit superbos mente cordis sui.'''
He has made known the power of his arm, scattered those who are arrogant in the thoughts of their heart.

'''Deposuit potentes de sede et exaltavit humiles.'''
He has put down the mighty from their seats (of power) and raised up those who are lowly.

'''Esurientes implevit bonis et divites dimisit inanes.'''
The hungry he has filled with good things, and the rich he has sent away empty

'''Suscepit Israel puerum suum recordatus misericordiae suae.'''
He has taken under his protection Israel his boy, and remembered his mercy.

'''Sicut locutus est ad Patres nostros,'''
in accordance with what he said to our fathers,

'''Abraham et semini eius in saecula.'''
to Abraham and to his seed for ever.

'''Gloria Patri, gloria Filio,'''
Glory to the Father, glory to the Son

'''gloria et Spiritui Sancto!'''
glory also to the Holy Spirit!

'''Sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper'''
As it was in the beginning and is now and will be always

'''et in saecula saeculorum.'''
and throughout ages of ages.

'''Amen.'''
Amen.

[[Category: Sacred Music]]

Magnificat

2011-02-06T00:56:09Z

WPoe: /* Text */ added website

The '''Magnificat''', the words of [[Virgin Mary|Mary]] in Luke i. 47 starting with “''My soul doth magnify the Lord''”, is a [[canticle]] sung with an [[antiphon]] during the Vespers. There were many [[polyphony|polyphonic]] settings starting from the 14th century and the text continued as part of the Vespers in many notable instances into the 18th century by which time it had also reached its full development as a stand-alone piece (with the inevitable major participation of [[J. S. Bach]]).

The Magnificat transferred to the [[Classical period (music)|classical period]] with a setting by C. P. E. Bach using his father's technique but in a classical form, and this reached full height in [[Mozart]]’s setting in his K339 Vespers of 1780.

Settings almost disappeared during the 19th century, but various 20th century masters have been inspired by the text and many modern, and even contemporary, major settings exist.

==Text==

Germanic Latin text in bold, followed by English translation.<ref>http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Texts/BWV243-Eng3.htm</ref>

'''Magnificat anima mea Dominum.'''
My soul proclaims the greatness of the Lord.

'''Et exsultavit spiritus meus in Deo salutari meo'''
and my spirit has exulted in God my saviour.

'''Quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae;'''
because he has regarded the lowly state of his slavegirl;

'''ecce enim ex hoc beatam me dicent'''
for look! from now on (they) will say that I am blessed

'''Omnes generationes.'''
(In) every generation.

'''Quia fecit mihi magna qui potens est, et sanctum nomen eius.'''
because he who is mighty has done great things for me, and holy is his name.

'''Et misericordia a progenie in progenies timentibus eum.'''
and his mercy is passed from generation to generation for those who fear him.

'''Fecit potentiam in brachio suo, dispersit superbos mente cordis sui.'''
He has made known the power of his arm, scattered those who are arrogant in the thoughts of their heart.

'''Deposuit potentes de sede et exaltavit humiles.'''
He has put down the mighty from their seats (of power) and raised up those who are lowly.

'''Esurientes implevit bonis et divites dimisit inanes.'''
The hungry he has filled with good things, and the rich he has sent away empty

'''Suscepit Israel puerum suum recordatus misericordiae suae.'''
He has taken under his protection Israel his boy, and remembered his mercy.

'''Sicut locutus est ad Patres nostros,'''
in accordance with what he said to our fathers,

'''Abraham et semini eius in saecula.'''
to Abraham and to his seed for ever.

'''Gloria Patri, gloria Filio,'''
Glory to the Father, glory to the Son

'''gloria et Spiritui Sancto!'''
glory also to the Holy Spirit!

'''Sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper'''
As it was in the beginning and is now and will be always

'''et in saecula saeculorum.'''
and throughout ages of ages.

'''Amen.'''
Amen.

[[Category: Sacred Music]]

Magnificat

2011-02-06T00:54:41Z

WPoe: Added lyrics

The '''Magnificat''', the words of [[Virgin Mary|Mary]] in Luke i. 47 starting with “''My soul doth magnify the Lord''”, is a [[canticle]] sung with an [[antiphon]] during the Vespers. There were many [[polyphony|polyphonic]] settings starting from the 14th century and the text continued as part of the Vespers in many notable instances into the 18th century by which time it had also reached its full development as a stand-alone piece (with the inevitable major participation of [[J. S. Bach]]).

The Magnificat transferred to the [[Classical period (music)|classical period]] with a setting by C. P. E. Bach using his father's technique but in a classical form, and this reached full height in [[Mozart]]’s setting in his K339 Vespers of 1780.

Settings almost disappeared during the 19th century, but various 20th century masters have been inspired by the text and many modern, and even contemporary, major settings exist.

==Text==

Germanic Latin text in bold, followed by English translation.

'''Magnificat anima mea Dominum.'''
My soul proclaims the greatness of the Lord.

'''Et exsultavit spiritus meus in Deo salutari meo'''
and my spirit has exulted in God my saviour.

'''Quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae;'''
because he has regarded the lowly state of his slavegirl;

'''ecce enim ex hoc beatam me dicent'''
for look! from now on (they) will say that I am blessed

'''Omnes generationes.'''
(In) every generation.

'''Quia fecit mihi magna qui potens est, et sanctum nomen eius.'''
because he who is mighty has done great things for me, and holy is his name.

'''Et misericordia a progenie in progenies timentibus eum.'''
and his mercy is passed from generation to generation for those who fear him.

'''Fecit potentiam in brachio suo, dispersit superbos mente cordis sui.'''
He has made known the power of his arm, scattered those who are arrogant in the thoughts of their heart.

'''Deposuit potentes de sede et exaltavit humiles.'''
He has put down the mighty from their seats (of power) and raised up those who are lowly.

'''Esurientes implevit bonis et divites dimisit inanes.'''
The hungry he has filled with good things, and the rich he has sent away empty

'''Suscepit Israel puerum suum recordatus misericordiae suae.'''
He has taken under his protection Israel his boy, and remembered his mercy.

'''Sicut locutus est ad Patres nostros,'''
in accordance with what he said to our fathers,

'''Abraham et semini eius in saecula.'''
to Abraham and to his seed for ever.

'''Gloria Patri, gloria Filio,'''
Glory to the Father, glory to the Son

'''gloria et Spiritui Sancto!'''
glory also to the Holy Spirit!

'''Sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper'''
As it was in the beginning and is now and will be always

'''et in saecula saeculorum.'''
and throughout ages of ages.

'''Amen.'''
Amen.

[[Category: Sacred Music]]