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El Niño

2007-08-19T17:53:11Z

Vistatan: grammar

{{two other uses|the global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon|the [[golfer]] known as "El Niño"|Sergio García|the [[Liverpool FC]] [[striker]] nicknamed "El Nino"|Fernando Torres}}
'''El Niño-Southern Oscillation''' ('''ENSO''') is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The Pacific ocean signatures, '''El Niño''' and '''La Niña''' (also spelled '''''El Nino''''' and '''''La Nina''''', when original spelling is impossible or otherwise not desired) are important temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical [[Pacific Ocean|Eastern Pacific Ocean]]. The name El Niño, from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "the little boy", refers to the [[Christ child]], because the phenomenon is usually noticed around [[Christmas]] time in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of [[South America]].<ref>[http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/elnino.html California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region: El Niño Information]</ref> La Niña means "the little girl".<ref> [http://library.advanced.org/20901/la_nina.htm]</ref> Their effect on climate in the southern hemisphere is profound. These effects were first described in 1923 by [[Gilbert Walker|Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker]] from whom the [[Walker circulation]], an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon, takes its name. The atmospheric signature, the '''Southern Oscillation''' ('''SO''') reflects the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between [[Tahiti]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]. The most recent occurrence of El Niño started in [[September 2006]]<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WEATHER/09/13/weather.nino.reut/index.html El Nino forms in Pacific Ocean], [[CNN]]</ref> and lasted until early 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/28/tech/main2523483.shtml |title=There Goes El Nino, Here Comes La Nina |publisher=The Associated Press / CBS News |date=2007-02-28 |accessdate=2007-03-02}}</ref>. From Summer 2007 on, data indicated a weak La Nina event.

ENSO is a set of interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and [[atmospheric circulation]]. ENSO is the most prominent known source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world (~3 to 8 years), though not all areas are affected. ENSO has [[signature (climate)|signature]]s in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. El Niño causes weather patterns which causes it to rain in specific places but not in others, this is one of many causes for the drought.

In the Pacific, during major warm events, El Niño warming extends over much of the tropical Pacific and becomes clearly linked to the SO intensity. While ENSO events are basically in phase between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, ENSO events in the Atlantic Ocean lag behind those in the Pacific by 12 to 18 months. Many of the countries most affected by ENSO events are developing countries within main continents (South America, Africa...), with economies that are largely dependent upon their agricultural and fishery sectors as a major source of food supply, employment, and foreign exchange. New capabilities to predict the onset of ENSO events in the three oceans can have global socio-economic impacts. While ENSO is a global and natural part of the Earth's climate, whether its intensity or frequency may change as a result of [[global warming]] is an important concern. Low-frequency variability has been evidenced: the quasi-decadal oscillation (QDO). Inter-decadal (ID) modulation of ENSO (from PDO or IPO) might exist. This could explain the so-called protracted ENSO of the early 90s.

==El Niño and La Niña==
[[Image:Enso normal.png|right|thumb|256px|Normal Pacific pattern. Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward west. Cold water upwells along South American coast. ([[NOAA]] / PMEL / TAO)]]
[[Image:Enso elnino.png|right|thumb|256px|El Niño Conditions. Warm water pool approaches South American coast. Absence of cold upwelling increases warming.]]
[[Image:Enso lanina.png|right|thumb|256px|La Niña Conditions. Warm water is further west than usual.]]

El Niño and La Niña are officially defined as sustained sea [[surface temperature]] anomalies of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] greater than 0.5°C across the central tropical Pacific Ocean. When the condition is met for a period of less than five months, it is classified as El Niño or La Niña conditions; if the anomaly persists for five months or longer, it is classified as an El Niño or La Niña episode. Historically, it has occurred at irregular intervals of 2-7 years and has usually lasted one or two years.

The first signs of an El Niño are:
#Rise in air [[pressure]] over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia
#Fall in air pressure over Tahiti and the rest of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean
#[[Trade wind]]s in the south Pacific weaken or head east
#Warm air rises near Peru, causing rain in the deserts there
#Warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing rainfall in normally dry areas and extensive drought in eastern areas.

El Niño's warm current of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the [[Humboldt Current]], also known as the Peru Current, which support great populations of food fish. In most years the warming lasts only a few weeks or a month, after which the weather patterns return to normal and fishing improves. However, when El Niño conditions last for many months, more extensive ocean warming occurs and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious.

During non-El Niño conditions, the [[Walker circulation]] is seen at the surface as easterly trade winds which move water and air warmed by the sun towards the west. This also creates ocean [[upwelling]] off the coasts of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] and brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks. The western side of the equatorial [[Pacific]] is characterized by warm, wet low pressure weather as the collected moisture is dumped in the form of [[typhoons]] and [[thunderstorms]]. The ocean is some 60 cm higher in the western Pacific as the result of this motion.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Pidwirny
| first =Michael
| authorlink =Michael Pidwirny
| title = Chapter 7: Introduction to the Atmosphere
| work = Fundamentals of Physical Geography
| publisher =physicalgeography.net
| date =[[2006-02-02]]
| url =http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7z.html
| accessdate = 2006-12-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title =Envisat watches for La Nina
| publisher =BNSC
| date =2006-03-03
| url =http://www.bnsc.gov.uk/content.aspx?nid=5989
| accessdate =2007-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title =The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Array: Gathering Data to Predict El Niño
| work =Celebrating 200 Years
| publisher =NOAA
| date =2007-01-08
| url =http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/datasets/tropical/welcome.html
| accessdate =2007-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title =Ocean Surface Topography
| work =Oceanography 101
| publisher =JPL
| date =2006-07-05
| url =http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/presentations/oceanography-101/ocean101-slide14.html
| accessdate =2007-07-26 }}{{cite web
| title =ANNUAL SEA LEVEL DATA SUMMARY REPORT JULY 2005 - JUNE 2006
| work =THE AUSTRALIAN BASELINE SEA LEVEL MONITORING PROJECT
| publisher =Bureau of Meteorology
| url =http://www.bom.gov.au/fwo/IDO60202/IDO60202.2006.pdf
| format =pdf
| accessdate =2007-07-26 }}</ref>

In the Pacific, La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, compared to El Niño, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the same area. Atlantic [[tropical cyclone]] activity is generally enhanced during La Niña. The La Niña condition often follows the El Niño, especially when the latter is strong.

[[Image:El Nino regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of warm ENSO episodes (El Niño).]]
[[Image:La Nina regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of cold ENSO episodes. (La Niña)]]

El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) - A shift in the normal relationship between the [[atmosphere]] and [[ocean]] in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Normally, strong winds (called [[trade winds]] because they aided sailing ships transporting goods) blow to the west in the Pacific, moving warmer surface water away from North and South America. Simultaneously, cold water from the ocean depths rises to the surface off the west coast of South America. This upwelling brings nutrients to the surface, supporting [[fisheries]] and [[ecosystems]] in the area. In an El Niño event, these trade winds die down, causing warmer surface water to accumulate off western North and South America. This leads to increased rainfall, storm activity, and flooding in the Americas (especially the southwestern United States and Peru) and drought conditions in Australia and other areas in the western Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Fisheries on the west coasts of North and South America are also seriously affected.

==Wider effects of El Niño conditions==
Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean.

The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet summers (December-February) along the coasts of northern [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]], causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March and April may become critical. Southern [[Brazil]] and northern [[Argentina]] also experience wetter than normal conditions but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central [[Chile]] receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the [[Peru]]vian-[[Bolivia]]n [[Altiplano]] is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the [[Amazon River]] Basin, [[Colombia]] and [[Central America]].

Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Northern Australia]], increasing [[bush fire]]s and worsening [[haze]] and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier than normal conditions are also generally observed in [[Queensland]], inland [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], inland [[New South Wales]] and eastern [[Tasmania]] from June to August.

West of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], the [[Ross Sea|Ross]], [[Bellingshausen Sea|Bellingshausen]], and [[Amundsen Sea]] sectors have more sea ice during El Niño. The latter two and the [[Weddell Sea]] also become warmer and have higher atmospheric pressure.

In [[North America]], typically, winters are warmer than normal in the upper Midwest states, the Northeast, and [[Canada]], while central and southern [[California]], northwest [[Mexico]] and the southwestern U.S., are wetter and cooler than normal. Summer is wetter in the intermountain regions of the U.S. The Pacific Northwest states, on the other hand, tend to experience dry but foggy winters and warm, sunny and precocious springs during an El Niño. During a La Niña, by contrast, the Midwestern U.S. tends to be drier than normal. El Niño is associated with decreased [[hurricane]] activity in the Atlantic, especially south of 25º N; this reduction is largely due to stronger [[wind shear]]tropics.

Finally, [[East Africa]], including [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and the [[White Nile]] basin experiences, in the long rains from March to May, wetter than normal conditions. There also are drier than normal conditions from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Botswana]].

=== Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ===
Study of climate records has found that about half of the summers after an El Niño have unusual warming in the '''[[Western Hemisphere Warm Pool]] (WHWP)'''. This affects weather in the area and seems to be related to the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]].

=== Atlantic effect ===
An effect similar to El Niño sometimes takes place in the Atlantic Ocean, where water along equatorial Africa's [[Gulf of Guinea]] becomes warmer and eastern Brazil becomes cooler and drier. This may be related to El Niño Walker circulation changes over South America.

Cases of double El Niño events have been linked to severe [[famine]]s related to the extended failure of [[monsoon]] rains, as in the book ''[[Late Victorian Holocausts]]''.

==Non-climate effects==
Along the west coast of [[South America]], El Niño reduces the [[upwelling]] of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large [[fish]] populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the [[fertilizer]] industry.
[[Image:East pacific fishing.jpg|thumb|left|350px|East Pacific fishing]]
The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events. The world's largest fishery collapsed due to overfishing during the 1972 El Niño [[Peruvian anchoveta]] reduction. During the 1982-83 event, [[mackerel|jack mackerel]] and anchoveta populations were reduced, [[scallop]]s increased in warmer water, but [[hake]] followed cooler water down the continental slope, while [[shrimp]] and [[sardines]] moved southward so some catches decreased while others increased. [[mackerel|Horse mackerel]] have increased in the region during warm events.

Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions provide challenges for fishing industries. Peruvian [[sardine]]s have moved during El Niño events to [[Chile]]an areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for self-employed fishermen and industrial fleets.

The ENSO variability may contribute to the great success of small fast-growing species along the Peruvian coast, as periods of low population removes predators in the area. Similar effects benefit [[migratory]] birds which travel each spring from predator-rich tropical areas to distant winter-stressed nesting areas. There is some evidence that El Niño activity is correlated with incidence of [[red tide]]s off of the Pacific coast of California.

It has been postulated that a strong El Niño led to the demise of the [[Moche]] and other pre-Columbian [[Cultural periods of Peru|Peruvian cultures]].

A recent study of [[El Niño]] patterns suggests that the [[French Revolution]] was caused in part by the poor crop yields of 1788-89 in Europe, resulting from an unusually strong El-Niño effect between 1789-93.<ref>Richard H. Grove, “Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño,” Nature393 (1998), 318-319.</ref>

== ENSO and global warming ==
A few years ago, attribution of recent changes (if any) in ENSO or predictions of future changes were very weak.<ref>{{cite web
| title = 9.3.5.2 Interannual variability ENSO
| work =Climate change 2001
| publisher =[[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
| date =2001
| url =http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/361.htm
| accessdate = 2006-12-30 }}</ref> More recent results<ref>Collins et al., 2005, El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change?, ''Climate Dynamics'', '''24''', 89-104</ref> tend to suggest that the projected tropical warming may follow a somewhat El Niño-like spatial pattern, without necessarily altering the variability about this pattern, while the ENSO cycle may be minimally shortened<ref>Merryfield, 2006, [http://www.ocgy.ubc.ca/~yzq/books/paper5_IPCC_revised/Merryfield2006.pdf Changes to ENSO under CO2 Doubling in a Multimodel Ensemble], ''Journal of Climate'', '''19''', 4009-4027
</ref>.

==Causes of El Niño==
The mechanisms which might cause an El Niño event are still being investigated. It is difficult to find patterns which may show causes or allow forecasts.

Major theories:
* [[Jacob Bjerknes]] in 1969 suggested that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the [[Walker circulation]] and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west. The result is increasingly warm water toward the east.
* Wyrtki in 1975 proposed that increased trade winds could build up the western bulge of warm water, and any sudden weakening in the winds would allow that warm water to surge eastward. However, there was no such buildup preceding the 1982-83 event.
* ''[[Relaxation oscillator|Recharge oscillator]]:'' Several mechanisms have been proposed where warmth builds up in the equatorial area, then is dispersed to higher latitudes by an El Niño event. The cooler area then has to "recharge" warmth for several years before another event can take place.
* ''Western Pacific oscillator:'' In the western Pacific, several weather conditions can cause westerly wind anomalies. For example, cyclones north and south of the equator force west-to-east winds between. Such wind may counteract the typical easterly flows across the Pacific and create a tendency toward continuing the eastward motion. A weakening in the westward currents at such a time may be the final trigger needed to shift into an El Nino.
* Equatorial Pacific Ocean may tend to be near El Niño conditions, with several random variations affecting behavior. Weather patterns from outside the area or volcanic events may be some such factors.
* The [[Madden-Julian Oscillation]] (MJO) is an important source of variability that can contribute to a more rapid evolution toward El Niño conditions through related fluctuations in low-level winds and precipitation over the western and central equatorial Pacific. Eastward-propagating oceanic [[Kelvin wave]]s can be produced by MJO activity. The MJO may in turn be influenced by a developing El Nino, leading to a [[positive feedback]]<ref>Eisenman, Yu, Tziperman, 2005. [http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2FJCLI3588.1 Westerly Wind Bursts: ENSO's tail rather than the dog?] ''Journal of Climate'', '''18''', 5224-5238</ref>.
* Adams, Mann and Ammann showed in 2003, using statistical analysis of paleoclimatic records, that a volcanic event in the tropics tends to trigger a three year El Niño followed by three years of La Niña.

==History of the theory==
The first mention of the term "El Niño" to refer to climate occurs in 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in [[Lima]] that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. However even before then the phenomenon was of interest because of its effects on biological productivity, with its effects on the [[guano]] industry.

Normal conditions along the west Peruvian coast are a cold southerly current (the Peru current) with upwelling water; the upwelling nutrients lead to great oceanic productivity; the cold currents leads to very dry conditions on land. Similar conditions exist elsewhere (California current; Benguela current off South Africa). Thus the replacement of this with warmer northerly water leads to lower biological productivity in the ocean, and more rainfall - often flooding - on land; the connection with flooding was reported in 1895 by Pezet and Eguiguren.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was much interest in forecasting climate anomalies (for food production) in India and Australia. [[Charles Todd]], in 1893, suggested that droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time; Norman Lockyer noted the same in 1904. In 1924 [[Gilbert Walker]] (for whom the [[Walker circulation]] is named) first coined the term "Southern Oscillation".

For most of the twentieth century, El Niño was thought of as a largely local phenomenon.

The major 1982-3 El Niño lead to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community.

The 1998 El Nino event caused an estimated 16% of the world’s reef systems to die. Since then, mass coral bleaching has become common worldwide, with all regions having suffered ‘severe bleaching’. <ref>{{cite book
| coauthors =Marshall, Paul; Schuttenberg, Heidi.
| title =A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching
| publisher = [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority]],
| date = 2006
| location =Townsville, Australia
| pages =
| url =http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching
| doi =
| id = 1 876945 40 0 }}</ref>

==History of the phenomenon==
ENSO conditions seem to have occurred at every two to seven years for at least the past 300 years, but most of them have been weak.

'''Major ENSO events''' have occurred in the years 1790-93, 1828, 1876-78, 1891, 1925-26, 1982-83, and 1997-98.<ref name="Major ENSOs">{{cite book
| last = Davis
| first = Mike
| authorlink = Mike Davis (scholar)
| year = 2001
| title = Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World
| publisher = Verso
| location = London
| id = ISBN 1859847390
| pages = 271
}}</ref>

'''Recent El Niños''' have occurred in 1986-1987, 1991-1992, 1993, 1994, 1997-1998, 2002-2003, and 2006-2007.

The El Niño of 1997 - 1998 was particularly strong <ref>SJ Mason, L Goddard, NE Graham, E Yulaeva, L Sun, PA Arkin, 1999. The IRI Seasonal Climate Prediction System and the 1997/98 El Niño Event, ''Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society'', '''80''', (1999), 1853-1873 [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1941004]</ref> and brought the phenomenon to worldwide attention. The event temporarilly warmed air temperature by 0.2°C, compared to the usual increase of 0.2°C associated with El Niño events<ref>Trenberth, KE, Caron, JM, Stepaniak, DP and Worley S. 2002. Evolution of El Niño–Southern Oscillation and global atmospheric surface temperatures. ''Journal of Geophysical Research'', '''107''', DOI: 10.1029/2000JD000298. [http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002/2000JD000298.shtml]</ref>. The period from 1990-1994 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession (but were generally weak). There is some debate as to whether [[global warming]] increases the intensity and/or frequency of El Niño episodes. (see also the ENSO and Global Warming section above).

==Southern Oscillation Index==
The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is calculated from the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin.

Sustained negative values of the SOI often indicate El Niño episodes. These negative values are usually accompanied by sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, a decrease in the strength of the Pacific Trade Winds, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. The most recent strong El Niño was in 1997/98.

Positive values of the SOI are associated with stronger Pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures to the north of Australia, popularly known as a La Niña episode. Waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become cooler during this time. Together these give an increased probability that eastern and northern Australia will be wetter than normal.

The most recent strong La Niña was in 1988/89; a moderate La Niña event occurred in 1998/99, which weakened back to neutral conditions before reforming for a shorter period in 1999/2000. This last event finished in Autumn 2000.

== Related images ==
<gallery>
Image:Mean sst equatorial pacific.gif|Average equatorial Pacific temperatures.
Image:El nino north american weather.png|El Niño effects upon North American weather and atmospheric circulation.
Image:Enso-index-map.png|Map showing Nino3.4 and other index regions
</gallery>

== References ==
* Collins, M., and The CMIP Modelling Groups, 2005: El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change? Clim. Dyn., 24, 89-104. 19
==Further reading==
*César N. Caviedes, 2001. ''El Niño in History : Storming Through the Ages'' ([http://www.upf.com University Press of Florida])
*[[Brian M. Fagan]] , 1999. ''Floods, Famines, and Emperors : El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations'' (Basic Books), ISBN 0-7126-6478-5
*Michael H. Glantz, 2001. ''Currents of change'', ISBN 052178672X
*Mike Davis, ''[[Late Victorian Holocausts]]: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World'' (2001), ISBN 1859847390
*[[Kevin E. Trenberth]], 1997. ''The definition of El Niño'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Scociety, Vol. 78, No. 12, p. 2771–2777. {{doi|id=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078%3C2771:TDOENO%3E2.0.CO;2|label=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2771:TDOENO>2.0.CO;2}} {{PDFlink|[http://ccsm.ucar.edu/cas/trenberth.papers/defnBAMS.pdf]|130 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}
*S. George Philander, 1990. ''El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation'' (Academic Press Inc.), ISBN 0125532350

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Madden-Julian oscillation]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|ENSO}}
* [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino-home-low.html The El Niño Theme Page] Explains El Niño and La Niña, provides real time data, forecasts, animations, FAQ, impacts and more.
* [http://www.elnino.noaa.gov NOAA El Niño Page]
* [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html The El Niño Story]
* [http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml ENSO events 1951 - present]
* [http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2004/s2317.htm NOAA announces 2004 El Niño]
* [http://www.ericjlyman.com/elnino.html El Niño and La Niña from the 1999 International Red Cross World Disasters Report] by Eric J. Lyman
* [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/glossary/soid.htm Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)]

{{Global warming}}

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Tropical meteorology]]
[[Category:Physical oceanography]]
[[Category:Natural history of the Americas]]
[[Category:Natural history of Oceania]]
[[Category:Effects of global warming]]
[[Category:Climate pattern]]
[[Category:Weather hazards]]

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Karma

2007-08-19T17:51:43Z

Vistatan: Spelling issue

{{Unreliable|date=July 2007}}
{{Hinduism_small}}{{Buddhism}}{{Sikhi}}{{Jainism}}{{otheruses}}
'''Karma''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{Audio|Karma.ogg|''kárma''}}, ''{{IAST|[[:wikt:karman|kárman]]-}}'' "act, action, performance"<ref>a neuter ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|kárma}}'' {{lang|sa|कर्म}}; from the root ''{{IAST|kṛ}}'', means "to do, make, perform, accomplish, cause, effect, prepare, undertake"</ref>; [[Pāli]]: ''kamma'') is the concept of "action" or "deed" in [[Dharmic religions]] understood as denoting the entire cycle of [[causality|cause and effect]] described in [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Jain]], [[Sikh]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] philosophies.

==Concept==
The explanation of karma can differ per tradition. Usually it is believed to be a sum of all that an individual has done, is currently doing and will do. The results or "fruits" of actions are called ''{{IAST|karma-phala}}.
Karma is not about retribution, vengeance, punishment or reward; karma simply deals with what is. The effects of all deeds actively create past, present and future experiences, thus making one responsible for one's own life, and the pain and joy it brings to others. In religions that incorporate [[reincarnation]], karma extends through one's present life and all past and future lives as well. It is cumulative.

==Views==
Throughout this process, many believe God plays some kind of role, for example, as the dispenser of the fruits of karma.<ref>[http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_3/bs_3-2-08.html]</ref> Other Hindus consider the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.<ref>Pratima Bowes, ''The Hindu Religious Tradition'' 54–80 (Allied Pub. 1976) ISBN 0710086687</ref><ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II'', at 217–225 (18th reprint 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref><ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 154–56 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref> Another view holds that a [[Satguru|Sadguru]], acting on God's behalf, can mitigate or work out some of the karma of the disciple.<ref>Yogananda, Paramahansa, ''Autobiography of a Yogi'', Chapter 21 ISBN 1-56589-212-7</ref><ref>[http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/ans/ans_57.html Swami Krishnananda on the Guru mitigating the karma of the disciple]</ref><ref>[http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET0410/ET27-8734.html Swami B. V. Tripurari on grace of the Guru destroying karma]</ref>

==Law of Karma==
The "Law of Karma" is central in [[Dharmic religions]]. All living creatures are responsible for their karma — their actions and the effects of their actions — and for their release from [[samsara]]. The concept can be traced back to the early [[Upanishads]].

The [[Esoteric Christianity|esoteric Christian]] tradition, [[Essenes|Essenian]] and later [[Rosicrucian]] schools teach it as the "Law of Cause and Consequence/Effect"<ref>[[Max Heindel]], ''[[The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception|The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception or Mystic Christianity]]'' (Part I, Chapter IV: [http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcc/rcceng04.htm Rebirth and the Law of Consequence]), ISBN 0911274340 },1909.</ref> However, this western esoteric tradition adds that the essence of the teachings of [[Christ]] is that the law of sin and death may be overcome by [[Divine Grace|Love]], which will restore [[immortality]].

==Exceptions==
Actions do not create karma (good or bad) when performed by an individual in the state of [[Moksha]] or liberation. Such a person is called "Stithaprajna". The monist, [[Adi Sankara]] taught "Akarmaiva Moksha," which means "Moksha can be attained only by doing, not by a process of effort". All actions performed by one in the state of Moksha are called [[Dharma]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

===Fourth state===
Hindus believe that everything in the [[Universe]] is in a state of creation, maintenance or destruction. Similarly, the mind creates a thought, maintains (follows) it for some time and the thought ultimately dies down (perhaps to be replaced by another thought). In addition to the three states of consciousness, Hinduism puts forward a fourth state of being called [[Turiya]] or pure consciousness, where the mind is not engaged in thinking but just observes the thoughts. Actions in the Turiya state do not create karma. Meditation is a practice aimed at giving individuals the experience of being in this objective state. An individual who is constantly in the turiya state is said to have attained moksha where their actions happen as a response to events (and not because of thought process); such actions do not result in accumulation of karma as they have no karmic effect.

The process of release (moksha) from ego-consciousness ([[ahamkar]]) with its inherent [[hinduism|karma]] can be compared with the doctrine of [[soteriology|salvation]] in mainstream [[Christianity]]: [[Divine grace|Grace]] given by [[faith]] in the suffering, death and [[resurrection]] of [[Jesus]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

==In the Dharmic religions==
===Hinduism===
{{main|Karma in Hinduism}}
One of the first and most dramatic illustrations of karma can be found in the [[Epic poetry|epic]] [[Mahabharata]]. In this poem, Arjuna the protagonist is preparing for battle when he realizes that the enemy consists of members of his own family and decides not to fight. His charioteer, Krishna — one of the incarnations of God (Vishnu) — explains to Arjuna the concept of "duty" among other things and makes him see that it is his duty to fight. The whole of the [[Bhagavad Gita]] within the Mahabharata, is a dialogue between these two on aspects of life including morality and a host of other philosophical themes. The original Hindu concept of karma was later enhanced by several other movements within the religion, most notably [[Vedanta]], and [[Tantra]].

Karma literally means "deed" or "act" and more broadly names the universal principle of [[cause]] and [[effect]], action and reaction that governs all life. Karma is not fate, for man acts with [[Free will in theology|free will]] creating his own destiny. According to the Vedas, if we sow [[Good and evil|goodness]], we will reap goodness; if we sow [[evil]], we will reap evil. Karma refers to the totality of our actions and their concomitant reactions in this and previous lives, all of which determines our future. The conquest of karma lies in intelligent action and dispassionate response.

Karma is considered to be a spiritually originated law. Many Hindus see God's direct involvement in this process, while others consider the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.<ref>''E.g.'', ''Compare'' [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_3/bs_3-2-08.html] ''with'' Pratima Bowes, The Hindu Religious Tradition 54–80 (Allied Pub. 1976) ISBN 0710086687</ref><ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II, at 217–225 (18th reprint 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref><ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 154–56 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1.</ref> Karma is not punishment or retribution, but simply an extended expression or consequences, of natural acts. The effects experienced are also able to be mitigated by actions and are not necessarily fated. That is to say, a particular action now is not binding to some particular, pre-determined future experience or reaction; it is not a simple, one-to-one correspondence of reward or punishment.

Hindu scriptures divide karma into three kinds: ''[[Sanchita karma|Sanchita]]'' (accumulated), ''[[Prarabdha karma|Prarabdha]]'' (fruit-bearing) and ''[[kriyamana karma|Kriyamana]]'' (current) karma. All ''kriyamana karmas'' become ''sanchita karma'' upon completion. From this stock of ''sanchita karma'', a handful is taken out to serve one lifetime and this handful of actions, which has begun to bear fruit and which will be exhausted only on their fruit being enjoyed and not otherwise, is known as ''prarabdha karma''. In this way, so long as the stock of ''sanchita karma'' lasts, a part of it continues to be taken out as ''prarabdha karma'' for being enjoyed in one lifetime, leading to the cycle of birth and death. A [[being|jiva]] cannot attain moksha until the accumulated ''sanchita karmas'' are completely exhausted.<ref> Goyandaka J, ''The Secret of Karmayoga'', Gita Press, Gorakhpur</ref>

===Buddhism===
{{Main| Karma in Buddhism}}
In Buddhism, ''karma'' (Pāli ''kamma'') is strictly distinguished from '''''[[vipaka|vipāka]]''''', meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or groups of cause (Pāli ''hetu'') in the [[Twelve nidanas|chain]] of [[Pratitya-samutpada|cause and effect]], where it comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali ''sankhara'') and "action" (Pali ''bhava''). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in the mind that will sprout into the appropriate result (Pāli ''vipaka'') when they meet with the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one within the wheel of [[Samsara (Buddhism)|samsāra]]; others will liberate one to [[nirvana|nirvāna]].

Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but included in the motivation is also the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from a deluded mind can easily be "bad" in the sense that it creates unpleasant results for the "actor".

====Other Niyama Dharmas====
In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of anything that happens. The following are the five "Niyama Dharma" that cause effects.
* Karma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions
* Dhamma Niyama — Laws of nature
* Irthu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate
* Biija Niyama — Genetic inheritance
* Chitta Niyama — Will of mind

The last four cover "conditions" or "circumstances" in which karmic potential can ripen as result.

===Jainism===
{{Main| Karma in Jainism}}

[[Karma]] in [[Jainism]] conveys a totally different meaning as commonly understood in the [[Hindu]] philosophy and western civilization.<ref>Hermann Kuhn, Karma, the Mechanism, 2004 </ref> In [[Jainism]], karma is referred to as karmic dirt, as it consists of very subtle and microscopic particles i.e. pudgala that pervade the entire universe. <ref> Acharya Umasvati, Tattvartha Sutra, Ch VIII, Sutra 24 </ref> Karmas are attracted to the karmic field of a [[soul]] on account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech and body as well as on account of various mental dispositions. Hence the karmas are the subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul. When these two components i.e. consciousness and karma interact, we experience the life as we know it at present. Herman Kuhn quoting from [[Tattvarthasutra]] describes karmas as – ''a mechanism that makes us thoroughly experience the themes of our life until we gained optimal knowledge from them and until our emotional attachment to these themes falls off.'' <ref>Hermann Kuhn, Karma, the Mechanism, 2004 </ref>

According to Padmanabh Jaini "this emphasis on reaping the fruits only of one’s own karma was not restricted to the Jainas; both [[Hindus]] and Buddhist writers have produced doctrinal materials stressing the same point. Each of the latter traditions, however, developed practices in basic contradiction to such belief. In addition to ''shrardha'' (the ritual [[Hindu]] offerings by the son of deceased), we find among [[Hindu]] s widespread adherence to the notion of divine intervention in ones fate, while [[Buddhists]] eventually came to propound such theories like boon-granting bodhisattvas, transfer of merit and like. Only Jainas have been absolutely unwilling to allow such ideas to penetrate their community, despite the fact that there must have been tremendous amount of social pressure on them to do so." <ref>Padmanabh Jaini, Collected papers on Jaina Studies, Chapter 7, Pg 137</ref>

The key points where the theory of Karma in Jainism differs from the other religions, could be stated as follows:

#Karma in Jainism operates as a self-sustaining mechanism as natural universal law, without any need of an external entity to manage them. (absence of the exogenous "Divine Entity" in Jainism)
#Jainism advocates that a soul's karma changes even with the thoughts, and not just the actions. Thus, to even think evil of someone would endure a "karm-bandh" or an increment in bad karma. It is for this reason, that Jainism gives a very strong emphasis on "samyak dhyan" (Rationality in thoughts) and "samyak darshan" (Rationality in perception) and not just "samyak charitra" (rationality in conduct).
#Under Jain theology, a soul is released of worldly affairs as soon as it is able to emanicipate from the "karm-bandh". A famous illustration is that of Mata Marudevi, the mother of Shri Rishabh Dev, the first Tirthankar of present time cycle, who reached such emanicipation by elevating sequentially her thought processes, while she was visiting her Tirthankar son. This illustration explains how "Nirvana" and "Moksha" are different in Jainism, from other religions. In the presence of a Tirthankar, another soul achieved Keval Gyan and subsequently Nirvana, without any need of intervention by the Tirthankar.
#The karmic theory in Jainism operates endogenously. Tirthankars are not attributed "godhood" under Jainism. Thus, even the tirthankars themselves have to go through the stages of emanicipation, for attaining that state. While Buddhism does give a similar and to some extent a matching account for Shri Gautama Buddha, Hinduism maintains a totally different theory where "divine grace" is needed for emanicipation.
#Jainism treats all souls equally, in as much as it advocates that all souls have the same potential of attaining "nirvana". Only those who make effort, really attain it, but nonetheless, each soul is capable on its own to do so by gradually reducing its karma.

(from SANCHETI ASOO LAL, BHANDARI MANAK MAL, FIRST STEPS TO JAINISM (PART TWO): DOCTRINE OF KARMA, DOCTRINE OF ANEKANT AND OTHER ARTICLES WITH APPENDICES, Catalogued by Library of U.S. Congress, Washington, Card No. 90-232383)

==Analogs of karma==
If we accept the basic ethical purpose of karma is to behave responsibly, and the tenet of karma is essentially "if you do good things, good things will happen to you — if you do bad things, bad things will happen to you," then it is possible to identify analogs with other religions that do not rely on karma as a metaphysical assertion or doctrine.

Karma does not specifically concern itself with salvation as it implies a basic socio-ethical dynamic. As a mechanism, karma in Hinduism is judge of one's actions, much as the concept of God as judge is in relation to "good works" in western religions.

Similarly, the Egyptian goddess [[Ma'at]] (the divine judge) played a similar and impartial role meting out justice in a manner very similar to karma; Ma'at could not be appeased by faith or regret — an action done was done, with no space for the more recent theistic concept of [[Divine grace|grace]].

Parallels may also be found in the Greek goddess [[Ananke (mythology)|Ananke]] (Necessity, Inevitability, or Compulsion), who was the mother of the [[Moirae]] (Fates) and dealt out one's "heimarmene" (allotted portion) strictly according to one's actions both in this life and in previous incarnations, and in Germanic [[Wyrd]].

The [[Apostle Paul]] similarly states: "man reaps what he sows" [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=6&verse=7&version=31&context=verse].

== Western interpretation ==
An academic and religious definition was mentioned above. Millions of people believe in karma and it is a part of many cultures and the psyches of millions of people. Others without religious backgrounds, especially in western cultures or with Christian upbringings, become convinced of the existence of karma. For some, karma is a more reasonable concept than eternal damnation for the wicked. [[Spirituality]] or a belief that virtue is rewarded and sin creates suffering might lead to a belief in karma.

According to karma, performing positive actions results in a good condition in one's experience, whereas a negative action results in a bad effect. The effects may be seen immediately or delayed. Delay can be until later in the present life or in the next. Thus, meritorious acts may mean rebirth into a higher station, such as a superior human or a godlike being, while evil acts result in rebirth as a human living in less desirable circumstances, or as a lower animal. Some observers have compared the action of karma to [[Western world|Western]] notions of [[sin]] and judgment by [[God]] or gods, while others understand karma as an inherent principle of the universe without the intervention of any supernatural Being. In Hinduism, God does play a role and is seen as a dispenser of karma; see [[Karma in Hinduism]] for more details. The latter understanding, without intervention is the view of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].

Most teachings say that for common mortals, being involved with karma is an unavoidable part of daily living. However, in light of the Hindu philosophical school of [[Vedanta]], as well as [[Gautama Buddha]]'s teachings, one is advised to either avoid, control or become mindful of the effects of desires and aversions as a way to moderate or change one's karma (or, more accurately, one's karmic results or destiny).

===Spiritism===
{{main|Spiritist doctrine}}
In [[Spiritism]], karma known as "the law of cause and effect", plays a central role in determining how one's life needs to be. Spirits are encouraged to choose how (and when) to suffer retribution for the wrong they did in previous lives. Disabilities, physical or mental impairment or even an unlucky life are due to the choices a spirit makes before [[Incarnation|incarnating]] (that is, before being born to a new life).

What sets Spiritism apart from the more traditional religious views is that it understands karma as a condition inherent to the spirit, whether incarnated or not: the consequences of the crimes committed by the spirit last beyond the physical life and cause him (moral) pain in the afterlife. The choice of a life of hardships is, therefore, a way to get rid of the pain caused by moral guilt and to perfect qualities that are necessary for the spirit to progress to a higher form.

Because Spiritism always accepted the plurality of inhabited worlds, its concept of karma became considerably complex. There are worlds that are "primitive" (in the sense that they are home to spirits newly born and still very low on intellect and morals) and a succession of more and more advanced worlds to where spirits move as they are elevated. A spirit may choose to be born on a world inferior to his own as a [[penance]] or as a mission.

===New Age and Theosophy===
The idea of karma was popularized in the [[Western world]] through the work of the [[Theosophical Society]]. [[Spiritism|Kardecist]] and Western [[New Age]] reinterpretations of karma frequently cast it as a sort of luck associated with virtue: if one does good or spiritually valuable acts, one deserves and can expect good luck; conversely, if one does harmful things, one can expect bad luck or unfortunate happenings. In this conception, karma is affiliated with the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] ''law of return'' or ''Threefold Law,'' the idea that the beneficial or harmful effects one has on the world will return to oneself. Colloquially this may be summed up as 'what goes around comes around.'

There is also the metaphysical idea that, because karma is a force of nature and not a sentient creature capable of making value judgments, karma isn't about good and evil deeds, because applying those labels would be judgmental, but that it is about positive and negative ''energy'', where negative energy can include things not seen as "being bad" like sadness and fear, and positive energy can be caused by being creative and solving problems as well as by exuding love and doing virtuous acts.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}It is referred to as "omniverse karma" or "omni-karma"{{Fact|date=February 2007}} because it requires the existence of an [[omniverse]], that space that contains all possible universes. The omniverse idea includes concepts such as [[soul]]s, psychic energy, [[synchronicity]] (a concept originally from psychoanalyst [[Carl Jung]], which says that things that happen at the same time are related), and ideas from [[Quantum mechanics|quantum]] or theoretical physics.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Dharma]]
*[[Adrsta]]
*[[Samsara]]
*[[Karma in Buddhism]]
*[[Karma in Hinduism]]
*[[Karma in Jainism]]
*[[Edgar Cayce on Karma]]
*[[Ethic of reciprocity]]/"The Golden Rule"
*[[Consequentialism]]
*[[Destiny]]
*[[Amor fati]]
*[[Sin]]
*''[[My Name is Earl]]''

==External links==











*[http://Buddhism.2be.net/Karma Karma as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia] (buddhism.2be.net)
*[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dharma.htm Dharma — Karma — Samsara: The System Of Cosmic Justice] (veda.harekrsna.cz)
*[http://hinduism.iskcon.com/concepts/103.htm The Law of Karma] (Heart of Hinduism)
*[http://nariphaltan.virtualave.net/death.pdf Death, Karma and Reincarnation](2004)
*[http://www.photonics.cusat.edu/article2.html Karma and the laws of Quantam Mechanics] (photonics.cusat.edu)
*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/karma.html Karma article (2000)] (accesstoinsight.org)
*[http://education.vsnl.com/nimbkar/karma.html Human Thought, Karma and Human Bondage]
*[http://www.awgp.org/english/books/lawofkarma.pdf The Absolute Law of Karma pdf download]. [[Shriram Sharma Acharya]] (2003)
*[http://members.tripod.com/tathagata2000/enlightenment_what_is_karma.htm What is Karma ?]

[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Jain philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Reincarnation]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]

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Abstract nonsense

2007-08-19T17:49:51Z

Vistatan: Minor wording change

'''''Abstract nonsense''''' is a popular term used by [[mathematician]]s to describe certain kinds of arguments and concepts in [[category theory]]. This term is believed to have been coined by the mathematician [[Norman Steenrod]],<ref>Colin McLarty, ''The Uses and Abuses of the History of Topos Theory'', Brit. J. Phil. Sci, 41 (1990) p 355.
: "''[[Norman Steenrod|Steenrod]] jokingly tagged category theory 'abstract nonsense' and made it central to his axiomatics for homology''" </ref><ref>Joseph Rotman, ''Review of "An Introduction to Homological Algebra"'', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 33, (1995), p 475</ref> himself one of the developers of the categorical point of view. This term is used by practitioners as an indication of mathematical sophistication or [[Cool (aesthetic)|coolness]] rather than as a derogatory designation.<ref> Michael Monastyrsky, ''Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal.'' Can. Math. Soc. Notes, March and April 2001, Volume 33, nos. 2 and 3. Online version available at http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf.
:"''In algebra, the term “abstract nonsense” has a definite meaning without any pejorative connotation.''"</ref>

Certain ideas and constructions in mathematics display a uniformity throughout many domains. The unifying theme is category theory. Rather than enter an elaborate discussion on particulars of arguments, mathematicians will use the expression ''Such and such is true by abstract nonsense''. Typical instances are arguments involving [[diagram chasing]], application of the definition of [[universal property]], definition of [[natural transformation]]s between [[functor]]s, use of the [[Yoneda lemma]] and so on.

Other, possibly less flattering, characterizations of abstract reasoning have been recorded, although they have not acquired the status of [[mathematical jargon]]. For example, [[Paul Albert Gordan]] described a proof of [[David Hilbert]]'s in [[invariant theory]], saying "This is not [[mathematics]]; this is [[theology]]."<ref>Hermann Weyl, ''David Hilbert. 1862-1943'', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society (1944).
The proof in question was the (non-constructive) existence of a finite basis for invariants. This proof seemed to counter the sensibilities of Gordan, whom Weyl described in his Hilbert obituary as a great "algorithmician."</ref>

==Notes and references==

<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.math.harvard.edu/~elkies/M55a.05/nonsense.html Usage in mathematical exposition] from [http://www.math.harvard.edu/~elkies/ Noam Elkies' class notes]

[[Category:Mathematical terminology]][[Category:Category theory]]

[[fr:Abstract nonsense]]
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Patricians

2007-08-19T17:48:46Z

Vistatan: grammar

:''This article is about the social and political class in ancient Rome. For other uses of the term, see [[patrician (disambiguation)]].''

The term "'''patrician'''" originally referred to a group of [[elitism|elite]] families in [[ancient Rome]], including both their natural and adopted members. In the late Roman empire, the class was broadened to include high court officials.

The word "patrician" is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''patricius'' (plural ''patricii''), which comes from ''patrēs'', the plural of ''pater'' ("father"). ''Pater'' was the term applied to the original members of the [[Roman Senate]]. The word comes down in English as "patrician" from the [[Middle English]] ''patricion'', from the [[Old French]] ''patrician''. In modern English, the word ''patrician'' is generally used to denote a member of the upper class, often with connotations of inherited wealth, [[elitism]], and a sense of [[noblesse oblige]].

Patricians enjoyed special status as Roman citizens. They were better represented in the assemblies. The comitia centuriata, the main legislative body, was divided into 193 voting centuries. The first two classes (which contained largely the patricians) were divided into 98 centuries, a number which was enough to obtain a majority, despite the fact that they were fewer in number. That meant that if the patricians acted in concord, they could always determine the result of the voting of the peoples assembly. So, although it was not forbidden for plebeians to hold magistracies, the patricians dominated the political scene for centuries. Strangely, the founding father of the Roman Republic, Junius Brutus (ancestor of Julius Caesar's assassin) was a plebeian.

In the beginning of the Republic all priesthoods were closed to non-patricians. There was a belief that the Patricians communicated better with the Roman gods, so they only could perform the sacred rites and take the auspices. This view had political consequences, since in the beginning of the year or before a military campaign, Roman magistrates used to consult the gods. Livy reports that the first admission of plebeians into a priestly college happened in 300 B.C. (Liv. X.7.9) when the college of Augurs raised their number from four to nine. After that, plebeians were accepted into the other religious colleges, and by the end of the republic, only minor priesthoods with little political importance like the Salii, the Flamens and the Rex Sacrorum were exlusivey filled by patricians.

In the list of the names of the Romans who held magistracies (the Fasti), very few plebeian names appear before the 2nd century B.C. The turning point were two laws, the Licinian - Sextian law of 367 B.C. that ascertained the right of plebeians to hold the consulship, and the Genucian law of 342 B.C. that made it compulsory that one at least of the consuls be a plebeian.

Patrician gentes that were ancient and their members were part of the founding legends of Rome, disappeared as Rome started becoming an empire and new (plebeian) families rose to prominence, like the Decii and the Sempronii. Families such as the Horatii, Lucretii, Verginii and Menenii seem to vanish after the 2nd century B.C. Others, such as the Julii reappear only at the end of the Republic. There are some cases where the same gens name was shared by patrician and plebeian clans (for example the Appii Claudii were patricians and the Claudii Marcelli were plebeians).

==Patricians vs. Plebeians==
The distinction between patricians and [[plebeians]] in ancient Rome was not defined by a simple rule in the ancient historical sources. Modern writers often portray patricians as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, though most historians argue that this is an over-simplification. As civil rights for plebleians increased during the middle and late [[Roman Republic]], many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity.

Historian [[Adrian Richard]] states that patrician families were initially those who held positions within the [[flamen|priesthoods]], and that the ancient Senate, composed of patricians, was a religious advisory body. The Senate, acting as a council of religious elders, had political power because it was necessary to have their assent on new laws. The priestly class would confirm that the new laws were in keeping with ''[[mos maiorum]]'' and would give their ''[[auctoritas]]'' to the measures that could then be enacted.

==Patrician position==
Patrician status still carried a degree of prestige at the time of the early [[Roman Empire]], and Roman emperors routinely elevated their supporters to the patrician caste en masse. The prestige and meaning of the status gradually degraded, and by the end of the [[3rd century|3rd-century]] crisis, patrician status, as it had been known in the Republic, ceased to have meaning in everyday life. The Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] reintroduced the term, and ''Patrician'' became an honorific title bestowed to those who demonstrated faithful service to the Empire. There were often only a few patricians in the Empire at any given time, and sometimes only one.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

By the [[5th century]], the title generally denoted a man, commonly a general of the Roman army, who held the power behind the imperial throne. Patricians of this era included [[Stilicho]], [[Constantius III]], [[Flavius Aëtius|Aëtius]], [[Count Boniface|Boniface]], and [[Ricimer]]; Constantius III would later become co-emperor. The patrician title was occasionally used in Western Europe after the end of the Roman Empire; for instance, [[Pope Stephen II]] granted the title "Patrician of the Romans" to the Frankish ruler [[Pippin III]].
{{Cleanup|date=March 2007}}

In the Eastern Empire, where the emperors maintained their hold on power, the title retained its meaning as an honorific. The term fell out of use as the [[Greek language]] replaced Latin as the language of the court. A member of the plebeian class could be elevated by showing great support towards the Senate, by living a life of pure dedication, and having no criminal history with members of the groups. Patricians could be demoted to plebeian status if they failed to fulfill their duties as a husband, or by murdering another member of the patrician society.

== Use in fiction ==
In the satirical [[fantasy]] series ''[[Discworld]]'' by [[England|English]] author [[Terry Pratchett]], the city of [[Ankh-Morpork]] is run by a Presidential figure who is akin to the old Roman nobility. The ruler takes the title of Patrician, but is in all respects a [[tyrant]]. In most of the novels, the Patrician in office is named [[Havelock Vetinari]] and though he often puts up a democratic facade, he is a ''[[de facto]]'' [[dictator]], albeit a relatively benign one.

In the [[science fiction]] ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]'' trilogy of [[Isaac Asimov]], [[Ducem Barr]] is referred to as a Patrician of the [[Empire]] in the ''[[Foundation and Empire]]'' volume. Within the story, it is an inherited noble title, clearly derived of the Roman [[Roman Empire|Imperial]] definition, which was used as a model for [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]]'s [[Galactic Empire]].

==List of some patrician families==
===Definite===
*[[Aemilius|Aemilia]], [[Claudius (gens)|Claudia]], [[Cornelius (gens)|Cornelia]], [[Fabius|Fabia]], [[Furius|Furia]], [[Lucretius|Lucretia]], [[Menenius|Menenia]], [[Cloelius|Cloelia]]
*[[Julius|Julia]], [[Manlius|Manlia]], [[Nautius|Nautia]], [[Postumius|Postumia]]
*[[Quinctilius]], [[Quinctius]], [[Sergius|Sergia]], [[Servilius|Servilia]], [[Sulpicius|Sulpicia]]
*[[Valerius|Valeria]], [[Veturius|Veturia]], [[Verginius|Verginia]], [[Geganius|Gegania]]

===Possible===
*[[Livius_(gens)|Livia]]
*[[Junius_(gens)|Junia]] (later republic)
*[[Cassius_(gens)|Cassia]] (later republic)
*[[Domitius_(gens)|Domitia]]
*[[Gens Calpurnia|Calpurnia]]
*[[Caecilii|Caecilia]]
*[[Scribonius|Scribonia]]

===List of Patricii===
*[[Julius Constantius|Flavius Julius Constantius]]: [[335]]-[[337]]
*[[Flavius Stilicho]]: [[394]]-[[408]] (also [[magister militum]])
*[[Constantius III|Flavius Constantius]]: [[417]]-[[421]] (later [[Roman emperor|emperor]] February-September 421)
*[[Flavius Castinus]]: [[420s]]
*[[Bonifacius]]: [[432]]
*[[Flavius Aëtius]]: [[433]]-[[454]] (also magister militum)
*[[Petronius Maximus]]: [[445]]-[[455]] (later emperor March-April 455)
*[[Ricimer]]: [[456]]-[[472]] (also magister militum)
*[[Gundobad]]: [[472]]-[[473]] (also magister militum, and later [[King of Burgundy|King of the Burgundians]] [[473]]-[[516]])
*[[Odoacer]]: [[476]]-[[493]] (also [[List of barbarian kings of Italy|King of Italy]])
*[[al-Harith ibn Jabalah]]: [[529]]-[[569]] (also King of the [[Ghassanids]])
*[[Kubrat]] d. mid 7th C.

==See also==
* [[Patricianship]]

==References==
* Kurt Raaflaub, ed. ''Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders'' ([[Blackwell Publishing]], 2005)
* Gary Forsythe, 2005, A Critical History of Early Rome. University of California Press.
*Kenny Zeng, 2007, A History Of Ancient and Early Rome
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Social groups]]

[[bs:Patriciji]]
[[bg:Патриций]]
[[ca:Patricis]]
[[cs:Patricius]]
[[da:Patricier]]
[[de:Patrizier]]
[[es:Patricios]]
[[eo:Patricio]]
[[fr:Patricien]]
[[hr:Patricij]]
[[it:Patrizio (storia romana)]]
[[he:פטריקים]]
[[ku:Patrîsyan]]
[[lb:Patrizier]]
[[lt:Patricijai]]
[[hu:Patrícius]]
[[nl:Patriciër]]
[[ja:パトリキ]]
[[pl:Patrycjusze]]
[[pt:Patrício]]
[[ro:Patrician]]
[[ru:Патриции]]
[[simple:Patrician]]
[[sr:Патрицији]]
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[[sv:Patricier]]

Atheism

2007-08-19T17:46:14Z

Vistatan: Spelling Issue

{{featured article}}
{{redirect|Atheist|the heavy metal band|Atheist (band)}}
{{for|the 2005 documentary series|Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief}}

[[Image:Paul Heinrich Dietrich Baron d'Holbach.jpg|thumb|200px|The 18th-century French author [[Baron d'Holbach]] was one of the first self-described atheists. In ''[[The System of Nature]]'' (1770), he describes the universe in terms of philosophical [[materialism]], strict [[determinism]], and atheism. This and his ''Good Sense'' (1772) were condemned by the [[Parlement|Parlement of Paris]], and copies of the books were publicly burned.]]

'''Atheism''', as a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] view, is the position that either affirms the [[Existence of God|nonexistence]] of [[Deity|gods]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=William L. |last=Rowe |authorlink=William L. Rowe |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |title=Atheism |year=1998 |editor=Edward Craig |quote=Atheism is the position that affirms the nonexistence of God. It proposes positive disbelief rather than mere suspension of belief.}}</ref> or rejects [[theism]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Kai |last=Nielsen |authorlink=Kai Nielsen |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |title=Atheism |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109479/atheism |accessdate=2007-04-28}} "…a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for [reasons that depend] on how God is being conceived."</ref> When defined more broadly, atheism is the absence of belief in [[Deity|deities]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Eller|first=David |year=2004|title=Natural Atheism|pages=p. 12}}</ref> alternatively called [[nontheism|''nontheism'']].<ref>[[religioustolerance.org]]'s short article on [http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist4.htm Definitions of the term "Atheism"] suggests that there is no consensus on the definition of the term. [[Simon Blackburn]] summarizes the situation in [[The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy]]: "Atheism. Either the lack of belief in a god, or the belief that there is none." Most dictionaries (see the [[OneLook]] query for [http://www.onelook.com/?w=atheism&ls=a "atheism"]) first list one of the more narrow definitions.</ref> Although atheists are commonly assumed to be [[irreligion|irreligious]], some [[religion]]s have been characterized as atheistic because of their lack of belief in a [[personal god]].

Many [[self-identity|self-described]] [[list of atheists|atheists]] are [[Skepticism|skeptical]] of all supernatural beings and cite a lack of [[empiricism|empirical]] evidence for the existence of deities. Others argue for atheism on philosophical, social or historical grounds. Although many self-described atheists tend toward [[secularism|secular]] philosophies such as [[humanism]]<ref>Honderich, Ted (Ed.) (1995). "Humanism". ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''. Oxford University Press. p 376. ISBN 0198661320.</ref> and [[naturalism]],<ref>Fales, Evan. "Naturalism and Physicalism", in {{harvnb|Martin|2007|pp=122–131}}.</ref> there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|pp=3–4}}.</ref>

The term ''atheism'' originated as a [[pejorative]] [[epithet]] applied to any person or belief in conflict with established religion.<ref name=drachmann>{{cite book | last = Drachmann | first = A. B. | title = Atheism in Pagan Antiquity | publisher = Chicago: Ares Publishers | year = 1977 ("an unchanged reprint of the 1922 edition") | id = ISBN 0-89005-201-8 | quote = Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said ''{{transl|grc|atheos}}'' and ''{{transl|grc|atheotēs}}''; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, ''{{transl|grc|atheos}}'' was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. }}</ref> With the spread of [[freethought]], [[scientific skepticism]], and [[criticism of religion]], the term began to gather a more specific meaning and was sometimes used as a self-description by atheists.

==Etymology==
[[Image:Ephesians 2,12 - Greek atheos.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Greek word {{lang|grc|αθεοι}} (''atheoi''), as it appears in the [[Epistle to the Ephesians]] ({{bibleverse-nb||Ephesians|2:12}}) on the early 3rd-century [[Papyrus 46]]. It is usually translated into English as "[those who are] without God".<ref>The word {{lang|grc|αθεοι}}—in any of its forms—appears nowhere else in the [[Septuagint]] or the [[New Testament]]. {{cite book |last=Robertson |first=A.T. |title=Word Pictures in the New Testament |origyear=1932 |accessdate=2007-04-12 |date=1960 |publisher=Broadman Press |chapter=Ephesians: Chapter 2 |chapterurl=http://www.ccel.org/r/robertson_at/wordpictures/htm/EPH2.RWP.html |quote=Old Greek word, not in LXX, only here in N.T. Atheists in the original sense of being without God and also in the sense of hostility to God from failure to worship him. See Paul's words in Ro 1:18–32.}}</ref>]]

In early [[Ancient Greek]], the adjective ''{{transl|grc|atheos}}'' ({{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἄθεος|ἄθεος]]}}, from the [[privative a|privative {{lang|grc|ἀ}}-]] + {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:θεός|θεός]]}} "god") meant "godless". The word began to indicate more-intentional, active godlessness in the [[5th century BCE]], acquiring definitions of "severing relations with the gods" or "denying the gods, ungodly" instead of the earlier meaning of [[:wikt:ἀσεβής|ἀσεβής]] (''{{transl|grc|asebēs}}'') or "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes render ''{{transl|grc|atheos}}'' as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἀθεότης|ἀθεότης]]}} (''{{transl|grc|atheotēs}}''), "atheism". [[Cicero]] transliterated the Greek word into the [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|[[:wikt:atheos#Latin|atheos]]}}''. The term found frequent use in the debate between [[early Christianity|early Christians]] and pagans, with each side attributing it, in the pejorative sense, to the other.<ref name=drachmann/>

In [[English language|English]], the term ''atheism'' was derived from the [[French language|French]] ''{{lang|fr|[[wikt:athéisme|athéisme]]}}'' in about 1587.<ref>Rendered as ''Athisme'': {{cite book | last = Golding | first = Arthur | coauthors = [[Philip Sidney]] | authorlink = Arthur Golding | title = [[Philippe de Mornay|Mornay's]] Woorke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion, written in French; Against Atheists, Epicures, Paynims, Iewes, Mahumetists, and other infidels | publisher = London | year = 1587 |pages= xx. 310 |quote= Athisme, that is to say, vtter godlesnes. }} Translation of ''De la verite de la religion chrestienne'' (1581). </ref> The term ''atheist'' (from Fr. ''{{lang|fr|[[wikt:athée|athée]]}}''), in the sense of "one who denies or disbelieves the existence of God",<ref>{{OED|[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50014052 atheist]}}</ref> predates ''atheism'' in English, being first attested in about 1571.<ref>Rendered as ''Atheistes'': {{cite book | last = Golding | first = Arthur | authorlink = Arthur Golding | title = The Psalmes of David and others, with [[John Calvin|J. Calvin]]'s commentaries | year = 1571 |pages= Ep. Ded. 3 |quote= The Atheistes which say..there is no God. }} Translated from French.</ref> ''Atheist'' as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hanmer | first = Meredith | title = The auncient ecclesiasticall histories of the first six hundred years after Christ, written by Eusebius, Socrates, and Evagrius | publisher = London | year = 1577 |pages= 63 |oclc= 55193813 |quote= The opinion which they conceaue of you, to be Atheists, or godlesse men. }}</ref> Related words emerged later: ''deist'' in 1621,<ref>{{cite book | last = Burton | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Burton (scholar) |title = [[The Anatomy of Melancholy]] | year = 1621 |pages= III. iv. II. i |quote= Cosen-germans to these men are many of our great Philosophers and Deists. }}</ref> ''theist'' in 1662;<ref>{{cite book | last = Martin | first = Edward | authorlink = |title = His opinion concerning the difference between the Church of England and Geneva [etc.] |publisher = London | year = 1662 |chapter = Five Letters |pages= 45 |quote= To have said my office..twice a day..among Rebels, Theists, Atheists, Philologers, Wits, Masters of Reason, Puritanes [etc.]. }}</ref> ''[[theism]]'' in 1678;<ref>{{cite book | last = Cudworth | first = Ralph | authorlink = Ralph Cudworth |title = The true intellectual system of the universe |publisher = London | year = 1678 |pages= Preface |quote= Nor indeed out of a meer Partiall Regard to that Cause of Theism neither, which we were engaged in. }}</ref> and ''[[deism]]'' in 1682.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dryden | first = John | authorlink = John Dryden |title = Religio laici, or A laymans faith, a poem |publisher = London | year = 1682 |oclc = 11081103 |pages= Preface |quote=…namely, that Deism, or the principles of natural worship, are only the faint remnants or dying flames of revealed religion in the posterity of Noah… }}</ref> ''Deism'' and ''theism'' changed meanings slightly around 1700, due to the influence of ''atheism''; ''deism'' was originally used as a synonym for today's ''theism'', but came to denote a separate philosophical doctrine.<ref>The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' also records an earlier, irregular formation, ''atheonism'', dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words ''athean'' and ''atheal'' are dated to 1611 and 1612 respectively. {{cite book | title = [[Oxford English Dictionary|The Oxford English Dictionary]] | edition = Second Edition | year = 1989 | publisher = Oxford University Press, USA | id = ISBN 0-19-861186-2}}</ref>

[[Karen Armstrong]] writes that "During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for [[polemic]] … The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling ''himself'' an atheist."<ref>{{cite book | last = Armstrong | first = Karen | authorlink = Karen Armstrong | title = A History of God | year = 1999 | publisher = London: Vintage | id = ISBN 0-09-927367-5}}</ref> ''Atheism'' was first used to describe a self-avowed belief in late 18th-century Europe, specifically denoting disbelief in the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Judeo-Christian]] [[God]].<ref name="adevism">In part because of its wide use in monotheistic Western society, ''atheism'' is usually described as "disbelief in God," rather than more generally as "disbelief in deities." A clear distinction is rarely drawn in modern writings between these two definitions, but some archaic uses of ''atheism'' encompassed only disbelief in the singular God, not in [[polytheism|polytheistic]] deities. It is on this basis that the obsolete term ''[[adevism]]'' was coined in the late 19th century to describe an absence of belief in plural deities. {{cite journal | author = Britannica | title = Atheonism | journal = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | edition = 11th Edition | year = 1911}}</ref> In the 20th century, [[globalization]] contributed to the expansion of the term to refer to disbelief in all deities, though it remains common in Western society to describe atheism as simply "disbelief in God."<ref name="martin">Martin, Michael. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]''. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0521842700.</ref> Most recently, there has been a push in certain philosophical circles to redefine ''atheism'' negatively, as the "absence of belief in deities," rather than as a belief in its own right; this definition has become popular in atheist communities, though its mainstream usage has been limited.<ref name="martin"/><ref>{{cite web | last = Cline | first = Austin | title = What Is the Definition of Atheism? | url = http://atheism.about.com/od/definitionofatheism/a/definition.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[about.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Flew | first = Antony | authorlink = Antony Flew | title = God, Freedom, and Immortality: A Critical Analysis | publisher = Buffalo, NY: Prometheus | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-87975-127-4}}</ref>

==Definitions and distinctions==
[[Image:AtheismImplicitExplicit3.svg|thumb|right|230px|A chart showing the relationship between the definitions of weak/strong and implicit/explicit atheism. An implicit atheist has not thought about belief in gods; such an individual would be described as implicitly without a belief in gods. An explicit atheist has made an assertion regarding belief in gods; such an individual may eschew belief in gods (weak atheism), or affirm that gods do not exist (strong atheism).]]
Writers have disagreed on how best to define and classify ''atheism'',<ref name="eb911-atheism">{{cite web | date = 1911 | url = http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Atheism | title = "Atheism" | work = Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate = 2007-06-07}}</ref> contesting what supernatural entities it applies to, whether it is an assertion in its own right or merely the absence of one, and whether it requires a conscious, explicit rejection. A variety of categories have been proposed to try to distinguish the different forms of atheism, most of which treat atheism as "absence of belief in deities" in order to explore the varieties of this nontheism.

===Range===
Part of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining ''atheism'' arises from the similar ambiguity and controversy in defining words like ''deity'' and ''God''. The plurality of wildly different [[conceptions of God]] and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheism's applicability. In contexts where ''[[theism]]'' is defined as the belief in a [[monotheism|singular]] [[personal God]], for example, people who believe in a variety of other deities may be classified as atheists, including [[deism|deists]] and even [[polytheism|polytheists]]. In the 20th century, this view has fallen into disfavor as ''theism'' has come to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity.<ref name="mmartin">Martin, Michael. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]''. Cambridge University
Press. 2006. ISBN 0521842700.</ref>

With respect to the range of phenomena being rejected, atheism may counter anything from the existence of a god, to the existence of any spiritual, [[supernatural]], or [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendental]] concepts, such as those of Hinduism and Buddhism.<ref name="Britannica1992">{{cite journal | author = Britannica | title = Atheism as rejection of religious beliefs | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38265/atheism | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | journal = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | edition = 15th Edition | volume = 1 | pages = 666 | year = 1992 | id = 0852294735}}</ref>

===Implicit vs. explicit===
{{main|Implicit and explicit atheism}}
Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist. Minimally, atheism may be seen as the absence of belief in one or more gods. It has been contended that this broad definition includes newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas. As far back as 1772, [[d'Holbach]] said that "All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God".<ref>{{cite book | last = d'Holbach | first = P. H. T. | authorlink = Baron d'Holbach | title = Good Sense | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | year = 1772}}</ref> [[George H. Smith]] (1979) suggested that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist."<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=14}}.</ref> Smith coined the term ''implicit atheism'' to refer to "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it" and ''explicit atheism'' to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief.

The view that children are born atheist is relatively recent. Prior to the 18th century, the existence of God was so universally accepted in the western world that even the possibility of true atheism was questioned. This is called ''theistic [[innatism]]''—the notion that all people believe in God from birth; within this view was the connotation that atheists are simply in denial.<ref>{{cite book | last = Cudworth | first = Ralph | authorlink = Ralph Cudworth | title = The True Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated | year = 1678}}</ref> It is also asserted that atheists are quick to believe in God in times of crisis—that atheists make [[deathbed conversion]]s, or that "there are no [[atheists in foxholes]]." Atheists dispute this claim by citing examples of "atheists in foxholes";<ref>{{cite web | last=Lowder | first=Jeffery Jay | year=1997 | title=Atheism and Society | url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/society.html | accessdate=2007-01-10 }}</ref> also, atheist organizations of military personnel have been created in response.<ref>Two such organizations are [http://www.atheistfoxholes.org/ Atheists in Foxholes] and the [[Military Association of Atheists & Freethinkers]].</ref>

===Strong vs. weak===
{{main|Weak and strong atheism}}
Philosophers such as [[Antony Flew]]<ref name="presumption">Flew, Antony. "The Presumption of Atheism". ''The Presumption of Atheism and other Philosophical Essays on God, Freedom, and Immortality''. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976. pp 14ff.</ref> and [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]]<ref name="martin"/> have contrasted strong (positive) atheism with weak (negative) atheism. Strong atheism is the explicit affirmation that gods do not exist. Weak atheism includes all other forms of non-theism. According to this categorization, anyone who is not a theist is either a weak or a strong atheist.<ref>{{cite web | last = Cline | first = Austin | title = Strong Atheism vs. Weak Atheism: What's the Difference? | url = http://atheism.about.com/od/atheismquestions/a/strong_weak.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[about.com]]}}</ref> The terms ''weak'' and ''strong'' are relatively recent; however, the equivalent terms ''negative'' and ''positive'' atheism have been used in the philosophical literature<ref name="presumption"/> and (in a slightly different sense) in Catholic apologetics.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm |title=On the Meaning of Contemporary Atheism |journal=The Review of Politics |first=Jacques |last=Maritain |year=1949 |month=July |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=267–280}}</ref> Under this demarcation of atheism, most [[agnosticism|agnostics]] qualify as weak atheists.

While agnosticism can be seen as a form of weak atheism,<ref>{{cite journal |first=Anthony |last=Kenny |authorlink=Anthony Kenny |year=2006 |title=Worshipping an Unknown God |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-9329.2006.00339.x |journal=Ratio |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=442 |quote=Those who fail to believe in God because they think that the truth-value of ‘God exists’ is uncertain may be called agnostic negative atheists, or agnostics for short.}}</ref> most agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism, which they may consider no more justified than theism, or requires an equal conviction.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anthony |last=Kenny |authorlink=Anthony Kenny |title=What I believe |chapter=Why I Am Not an Atheist |publisher=Continuum |id=ISBN 0-8264-8971-0 |quote=The true default position is neither theism nor atheism, but agnosticism … a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated; ignorance need only be confessed.}}</ref> The supposed unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of God is sometimes seen as indication that atheism requires a [[leap of faith]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Atheists take bigger leap of faith than ‘believers’ |first=Ken |last=Freking |url=http://www.columbiatribune.com/2005/Jan/20050123Comm008.asp |accessdate=2007-05-30 |date=[[2005-01-23]] |work=Columbia Daily Tribune}}</ref> Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven ''[[faith#religious faith|religious]]'' propositions deserve as much disbelief as all ''other'' unproven propositions,<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|pp=30–34}}. "Who seriously claims we should say 'I neither believe nor disbelieve that the Pope is a robot', or 'As to whether or not eating this piece of chocolate will turn me into an elephant I am completely agnostic'. In the absence of any good reasons to believe these outlandish claims, we rightly disbelieve them, we don't just suspend judgement."</ref> and that the unprovability of God's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=22}}. "A lack of proof is no grounds for the suspension of belief. This is because when we have a lack of absolute proof we can still have overwhelming evidence or one explanation which is far superior to the alternatives."</ref> Scottish philosopher [[J. J. C. Smart]] even argues that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised [[philosophical scepticism]] which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic."<ref name="stanford">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ |title=Atheism and Agnosticism |first=J.C.C. |last=Smart |date=2004-03-09 |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |accessdate=2007-04-12}}</ref> Consequently, some popular atheist authors such as [[Richard Dawkins]] prefer distinguishing theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the [[Spectrum_of_theistic_probability|probability]] assigned to the statement "God exists".<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The God Delusion |id=ISBN 0-618-68000-4 |publisher=Bantam Books |year=2006 |pages=p. 50}}</ref>

==Rationale==
[[Image:Supreme Impiety, Atheist and Charlatan - Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau (1552).jpg|300px|thumb|right|"A child of the mob once asked an astronomer who the father was who brought him into this world. The scholar pointed to the sky, and to an old man sitting, and said: 'That one there is your body's father, and that your soul's.' To which the boy replied: 'WHAT IS ABOVE US IS OF NO CONCERN TO US, and I'm ashamed to be the child of such an aged man!' O WHAT SUPREME impiety, not to want to recognize your father, and not to think God is your maker!"<ref>Translation of Latin text from "[http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FANa100 Summa impietas]" (1552), ''Picta poesis'', by [[Barthélemy Aneau]]. Glasgow University Emblem Website. Retrieved on [[2007-03-26]].</ref> [[Emblem book|Emblem]] illustrating practical atheism and its historical association with immorality, titled "Supreme Impiety: Atheist and Charlatan", from ''Picta poesis'', by [[Barthélemy Aneau]], 1552.]]

The broadest demarcation with respect to atheistic rationale is between practical and theoretical atheism. The different forms of theoretical atheism each derive from a particular rationale or philosophical argument. In contrast, practical atheism requires no specific argument, and can include indifference to and ignorance of the idea of gods.

===Practical atheism===
In ''practical'', or ''[[pragmatism|pragmatic]]'', atheism, also known as [[apatheism]], individuals live as if there are no gods and explain natural phenomena without resorting to the divine. The existence of gods is not denied, but may be designated unnecessary or useless; gods neither provide purpose to life, nor influence everyday life, according to this view.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=20}}.</ref> A form of practical atheism with implications for the [[scientific community]] is [[methodological naturalism]]—the "tacit adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within [[scientific method]] with or without fully accepting or believing it."<ref name="neps">Schafersman, Steven D. "[http://www.freeinquiry.com/naturalism.html Naturalism is an Essential Part of Science and Critical Inquiry]". Conference on Naturalism, Theism and the Scientific Enterprise. Department of Philosophy, The University of Texas. February 1997. Revised May 2007. Retrieved on [[2007-04-09]].</ref>

Practical atheism can take various forms:
*Absence of religious motivation—belief in gods does not motivate moral action, religious action, or any other form of action;
*Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action;
*Indifference—the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion; or
*Ignorance—lacking any idea of gods.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=21}}.</ref>

Historically, practical atheism has been associated with moral failure, willful ignorance and impiety. Those considered practical atheists were said to behave as though God, ethics and social responsibility did not exist; they abandoned duty and embraced [[hedonism]]. According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne, "Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law."<ref>{{cite book | last = Borne | first = Étienne
| title = Atheism | year = 1961 | publisher = New York: Hawthorn Books | id = ISBN 0-415-04727-7}}</ref>

===Theoretical atheism===
{{Further|[[Existence of God]]}}

Theoretical, or contemplative, atheism explicitly posits arguments against the existence of gods, responding to common [[existence of God#Arguments for the existence of God|theistic arguments]] such as the [[argument from design]] or [[Pascal's Wager]]. The theoretical reasons for rejecting gods assume various psychological, sociological, metaphysical, and epistemological forms.

====Epistemological arguments====
{{Further|[[Agnostic atheism]], [[Theological noncognitivism]]}}
Epistemological atheism argues that people cannot know God or determine the existence of God. The foundation of epistemological atheism is [[agnosticism]], which takes a variety of forms. In the philosophy of [[immanence]], divinity is inseparable from the world itself, including a person's mind, and each person's [[consciousness]] is locked in the [[Subject (philosophy)|subject]]. According to this form of agnosticism, this limitation in perspective prevents any objective inference from belief in a god to assertions of its existence. The [[Rationalism|rationalistic]] agnosticism of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle, and therefore cannot be known to exist. [[Philosophical skepticism|Skepticism]], based on the ideas of [[David Hume|Hume]], asserts that certainty about anything is impossible, so one can never know the existence of God. The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed; it can also be regarded as an independent, basic world-view.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=20}}.</ref>

Other forms of atheistic argumentation that may qualify as epistemological, including [[logical positivism]] and [[ignosticism]], assert the meaninglessness or unintelligibility of basic terms such as "God" and statements such as "God is all-powerful". [[Theological noncognitivism]] holds that the statement "God exists" does not express a proposition, but is nonsensical or cognitively meaningless. It has been argued both ways as to whether such individuals classify into some form of atheism or agnosticism. Philosophers [[Alfred Ayer|A. J. Ayer]] and [[Theodore M. Drange]] reject both categories, stating that both camps accept "God exists" as a proposition; they instead place noncognitivism in its own category.<ref>[[Theodore Drange|Drange, Theodore M.]] (1998). "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/definition.html Atheism, Agnosticism, Noncognitivism]". [[Internet Infidels]], ''Secular Web Library''. Retrieved on [[2007-04-07]].</ref><ref>[[Alfred Ayer|Ayer, A. J.]] (1946). ''Language, Truth and Logic''. Dover. pp. 115–116. In a footnote, Ayer attributes this view to "Professor H. H. Price".</ref>

====Metaphysical arguments====
{{Further|[[Monism]], [[Physicalism]]}}
Metaphysical atheism is based on metaphysical [[monism]]—the view that reality is homogeneous and indivisible. Absolute metaphysical atheists subscribe to some form of [[physicalism]], hence they explicitly deny the existence of non-physical beings. Relative metaphysical atheists maintain an implicit denial of a particular concept of God based on the incongruity between their individual philosophies and attributes commonly applied to God, such as [[transcendence]], a [[Personal God|personal aspect]], or unity. Examples of relative metaphysical atheism include [[pantheism]], [[panentheism]], and [[deism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=19}}.</ref>

[[Image:Epicurus bust.jpg|thumb|left|[[Epicurus]] is credited with first expounding the [[problem of evil]]. [[David Hume]] in his ''[[Dialogues concerning Natural Religion]]'' (1779) cited Epicurus in stating the argument as a series of questions: "Is [God] willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he
malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?"]]

====Psychological, sociological and economical arguments====

{{Further|[[Psychology of religion]], [[Neurotheology]]}}
Philosophers such as [[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]] and [[Sigmund Freud]] argued that God and other religious beliefs are human inventions, created to fulfill various psychological and emotional wants or needs. This is also the Buddhist view.<ref>Walpola Rahula, ''What the Buddha Taught.'' Grove Press, 1974. Pages 51–52.</ref> [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], influenced by the work of Feuerbach, argued that belief in God and religion are social functions, used by those in power to oppress the working class. According to [[Mikhail Bakunin]], "the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty, and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind, in theory and practice." He reversed [[Voltaire]]'s famous aphorism that if God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him, writing instead that "if God really existed, it would be necessary to abolish Him."<ref>[[Michael Bakunin|Bakunin, Michael]] (1916). ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html God and the State]''. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved on [[2007-04-12]].</ref> The view of theism as a political fiction dates at least as far back as [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], who wrote in 1st-century Rome that "Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by rulers as useful".<ref name="OCRT-quotes">{{cite web | url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/quotes5.htm | title = "Interesting quotes: On topics from: Peace to Religion" | work = ReligiousTolerance.org | publisher = Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance | accessdate = 2007-06-07}}</ref>

====Logical and evidential arguments====
{{further|[[Existence of God#Deductive arguments (against)|Deductive arguments against the existence of God]], [[Problem of evil]], [[Argument from nonbelief|Divine hiddenness]]}}
Logical atheism holds that the various [[conceptions of God|conceptions of gods]], such as the [[personal God]] of Christianity, are ascribed logically inconsistent qualities. Such atheists present [[existence of God#Deductive arguments (against)|deductive arguments]] against the existence of God, which assert the incompatibility between certain traits, such as perfection, creator-status, [[immutability]], [[omniscience]], [[omnipresence]], [[omnibenevolence]], [[transcendence]], personhood (a personal being), nonphysicality, [[justice]] and [[mercy]].<ref>Various authors. "Logical Arguments for Atheism". [[Internet Infidels]], ''The Secular Web Library''. Retrieved on [[2007-04-09]].</ref>

[[Theodicy|Theodicean]] atheists believe that the world as they experience it cannot be reconciled with the qualities commonly ascribed to God and gods by theologians. They argue that an [[omniscience|omniscient]], [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], and [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] God is not compatible with a world where there is [[problem of evil|evil]] and [[suffering]], and where divine love is [[Divine hiddenness|hidden]] from many people.<ref>[[Theodore Drange|Drange, Theodore M.]] (1996). "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/aeanb.html The Arguments From Evil and Nonbelief]". [[Internet Infidels]], ''Secular Web Library''. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> A similar argument is attributed to [[Siddhartha Gautama]], the founder of [[Buddhism]].<ref>V.A. Gunasekara, [http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm The Buddhist Attitude to God.] In the Bhuridatta Jataka, "The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha."</ref>

====Anthropocentric arguments====
{{Further|[[Philosophical anthropology]], [[Humanism (life stance)|Humanism]]}}
[[Axiological]], or constructive, atheism rejects the existence of gods in favor of a "higher absolute," such as [[Human nature|humanity]]. This form of atheism favors humanity as the absolute source of ethics and values, and permits individuals to resolve moral problems without resorting to God. Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Sartre all used this argument to convey messages of liberation, [[Übermensch|full-development]], and unfettered happiness.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=20}}.</ref>

One of the most common [[criticism of atheism|criticisms of atheism]] has been to the contrary—that denying the existence of a just God leads to [[moral relativism]], leaving one with no moral or ethical foundation,<ref name="misconceptions">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=12346 |title=Common Misconceptions About Atheists and Atheism |accessdate=2006-10-21 |last=Gleeson |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=''American Chronicle''}}</ref> or renders life [[meaning of life (religious)|meaningless]] and miserable.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=275}}. "Perhaps the most common criticism of atheism is the claim that it leads inevitably to moral bankruptcy."</ref> [[Blaise Pascal]] argued this view in 1669.<ref>[[Blaise Pascal|Pascal, Blaise]] (1669). ''[[Pensées]]'', II: "The Misery of Man Without God".</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of atheism}}

Although the term ''atheism'' originated in 16th-century [[France]], ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic are documented from [[classical antiquity]] and the [[Vedic period]].

===Early Indic religion===
{{main|Atheism in Hinduism}}
[[Atheism in Hinduism|Atheistic schools]] are found in [[Hinduism]], which is otherwise a very theistic religion. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical [[Carvaka]] School that originated in [[India]] around [[6th century BCE]] is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India. This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as a [[nastika|heterodox]] system and is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism, but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy''. (Princeton University Press: 1957, Twelfth Princeton Paperback printing 1989) pp. 227–249. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.</ref> Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and that it is not a living tradition:

<blockquote>
"Though materialism in some form or other has always been present in India, and occasional references are found in the Vedas, the Buddhistic literature, the Epics, as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism, nor any organised school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess. But almost every work of the other schools states, for reputation, the materialistic views. Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these."<ref>Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy''. Eighth Reprint Edition. (University of Calcutta: 1984). p. 55.</ref>
</blockquote>

Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include [[Samkhya|Classical Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa|Purva Mimamsa]]. The rejection of a personal creator God is also seen in [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] in India.<ref name="Joshi">{{cite journal |last=Joshi |first=L.R. |year=1966 |title= A New Interpretation of Indian Atheism |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=16 |issue=3/4 |pages=189–206 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8221(196607%2F10)16%3A3%2F4%3C189%3AANIOIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S }}</ref>

===Classical antiquity===
[[Image:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|right|In [[Plato|Plato's]] ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', [[Socrates]] (pictured) was accused by [[Meletus]] of not believing in gods at all.]]
Western atheism has its roots in [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] [[Greek philosophy]], but did not emerge as a distinct world-view until the late [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|pp=73–74}}. "Atheism had its origins in Ancient Greece but did not emerge as an overt and avowed belief system until late in the Enlightenment."</ref> The 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher [[Diagoras]] is known as the "first atheist,"<ref>Solmsen, Friedrich (1942). ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=0blEqYn0npw5h4r_qPHc_fk&id=rLASAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Plato's Theology]''. Cornell University Press. p 25.</ref> and strongly criticized religion and mysticism. [[Critias]] viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order.<ref>"[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-38045 religion, study of]". (2007). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved on [[April 2, 2007]].</ref> [[Atomism|Atomists]] such as [[Democritus]] attempted to explain the world in a purely [[materialistic]] way, without reference to the spiritual or mystical. Other pre-Socratic philosophers who probably had atheistic views included [[Prodicus]], [[Protagoras]], and [[Theodorus of Cyrene|Theodorus]].

[[Socrates]] was accused of being an atheist for [[impiety]] (see [[Euthyphro dilemma]]) on the basis that he inspired questioning of the [[state religion|state gods]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/at/atheism.html |title=Atheism |accessdate=2007-04-12 |year=2005 |work=The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Although he disputed the accusation that he was a "complete atheist,"<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas C. |last=Brickhouse |coauthors=Nicholas D. Smith |title=Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Plato and the Trial of Socrates |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |id=ISBN 0415156815 |pages=p. 112}} In particular, he argues that the claim he is a complete atheist contradicts the other part of the indictment, that he introduced "new divinities".</ref> he was ultimately [[Trial of Socrates|sentenced to death]].

Another atomic materialist, [[Epicurus]], disputed many religious doctrines, including the existence of an [[afterlife]] or a [[personal God|personal deity]]; he considered the [[soul]] purely material and mortal. While [[Epicureanism]] did not rule out the existence of gods, he believed that if they did exist, they were unconcerned with humanity.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web | author=BBC |authorlink = BBC |title = Ethics and Religion—Atheism | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/ | accessdate = 2007-04-12 | publisher = [[bbc.co.uk]]}}</ref>

The Roman poet [[Lucretius]] agreed that, if there were gods, they were unconcerned with humanity and unable to affect the natural world. For this reason, he believed humanity should have no fear of the supernatural. In ''[[De rerum natura]]'' ("On the nature of things"), he expounds his Epicurean views of the cosmos, atoms, the soul, mortality, and religion.<ref>{{gutenberg|no=785|name=On the Nature of Things by Lucretius}} Book I, "Substance is Eternal". Translated by W.E. Leonard. 1997. Retrieved on [[2007-04-12]].</ref>

The Roman philosopher [[Sextus Empiricus]] held that one should suspend judgment about virtually all beliefs—a form of skepticism known as [[Pyrrhonism]]—that nothing was inherently evil, and that [[ataraxia]] ("peace of mind") is attainable by withholding one's judgment. His relatively large volume of surviving works had a lasting influence on later philosophers.<ref name="gordonstein">Stein, Gordon (Ed.) (1980). "[http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c25.htm The History of Freethought and Atheism]". ''An Anthology of Atheism and Rationalism''. New York: Prometheus. Retrieved on [[2007-04-03]].</ref>

The meaning of "atheist" changed over the course of classical antiquity. The early Christians were labeled atheists by non-Christians because of their disbelief in pagan gods.<ref name="cathencyc-atheism">{{cite web | last = Aveling | first = Francis | date = 1907 | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02040a.htm | title = "Atheism" | work = Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II | publisher = NewAdvent.org | accessdate = 2007-06-08}}</ref> During the [[Roman Empire]], Christians were executed for their rejection of the [[List of Roman deities|Roman gods]] in general and Emperor-worship in particular. When Christianity became the state religion of Rome under Theodosius in 381, [[Christian heresy|heresy]] became a punishable offense.<ref>Maycock, A. L. and Ronald Knox (2003). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DmL8CljbqDwC Inquisition from Its Establishment to the Great Schism: An Introductory Study]''. ISBN 0766172902.</ref>

===Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance===

[[Image:Occam.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[William of Ockham]]'s principle of [[parsimony]], [[Occam's razor]], is used in debates about God to this day.<ref>Mathew (1997). "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/mathew/arguments.html#occam Atheism:Common arguments]". [[Internet Infidels]], ''Secular Web Library''. Retrieved on [[2007-04-25]].</ref>]]

The espousal of atheistic views was rare in Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]] and [[Middle Ages]] (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]); metaphysics, religion and theology were the dominant interests.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=4}}</ref> There were, however, movements within this period that forwarded heterodox conceptions of the Christian God, including differing views of the nature, transcendence, and knowability of God. Individuals and groups such as [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]], [[David of Dinant]], [[Amalric of Bena]], and the [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] maintained Christian viewpoints with [[pantheism|pantheistic]] tendencies. [[Nicholas of Cusa]] held to a form of [[fideism]] he called ''[[De Docta Ignorantia|docta ignorantia]]'' ("learned ignorance"), asserting that God is beyond human categorization, and our knowledge of God is limited to conjecture. [[William of Ockham]] inspired anti-metaphysical tendencies with his [[nominalism|nominalistic]] limitation of human knowledge to singular objects, and asserted that the divine [[essence]] could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect. Followers of Ockham, such as [[John of Mirecourt]] and [[Nicholas of Autrecourt]] furthered this view. The resulting division between faith and reason influenced later theologians such as [[John Wycliffe]], [[Jan Hus]], and [[Martin Luther]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=4}}.</ref>

The [[Renaissance]] did much to expand the scope of freethought and skeptical inquiry. Individuals such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] sought experimentation as a means of explanation, and opposed [[Appeal to authority|arguments from religious authority]]. Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Bonaventure des Périers]], and [[François Rabelais]].<ref name="gordonstein"/>

===Early Modern Period===
The [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]] eras witnessed a resurgence in religious fervor, as evidenced by the proliferation of new religious orders, confraternities, and popular devotions in the Catholic world, and the appearance of increasingly austere Protestant sects such as the [[Calvinists]]. This era of interconfessional rivalry permitted an even wider scope of theological and philosophical speculation, much of which would later be used to advance a religiously skeptical world-view.

[[Criticism of Christianity]] became increasingly frequent in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in France and England, where there appears to have been a religious malaise, according to contemporary sources. Some Protestant thinkers, such as [[Thomas Hobbes]], espoused a materialist philosophy and skepticism toward supernatural occurrences. In the late 17th century, [[Deism]] came to be openly espoused by intellectuals such as [[John Toland (Irish Philosopher)|John Toland]], and practically all the ''[[philosophe]]s'' of 18th-century France and England held to some form of Deism. Despite their ridicule of Christianity, many Deists held atheism in scorn. The first openly atheistic thinkers, such as [[Baron d'Holbach]], appeared in the late 18th century, when expressing disbelief in God became a less dangerous position.<ref>{{cite book | last = d'Holbach | first = P. H. T. | authorlink = Baron d'Holbach | title = The system of nature | url = http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~freethought/holbach/system/0syscontents.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | year = 1770}}</ref> [[David Hume]] was the most systematic exponent of Enlightenment thought, developing a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism, undermining the metaphysical basis of natural theology.

[[Image:Feuerbach Ludwig.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]]'s ''[[The Essence of Christianity]]'' (1841) would greatly influence philosophers such as [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[David Strauss]], and [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. He considered God to be a human invention and religious activities to be wish-fulfillment.]]

The [[French Revolution]] took atheism outside the salons and into the public sphere. Attempts to enforce the [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] led to anti-clerical violence and the expulsion of many clergy from France. The chaotic political events in revolutionary Paris eventually enabled the more radical [[Jacobin Club|Jacobins]] to seize power in 1793, ushering in the [[Reign of Terror]]. At its climax, the more militant atheists attempted to forcibly de-Christianize France, replacing religion with a [[Cult of Reason]]. These persecutions ended with the [[Thermidorian Reaction]], but some of the secularizing measures of this period remained a permanent legacy of French politics.

The [[Napoleonic era]] institutionalized the secularization of French society, and exported the revolution to northern Italy, in the hopes of creating pliable republics. In the nineteenth century, many atheists and other anti-religious thinkers devoted their efforts to political and social revolution, facilitating the [[Revolutions of 1848|upheavals of 1848]], the [[Italian unification|Risorgimento]] in Italy, and the growth of an international [[socialism|socialist]] movement.

In the latter half of the 19th century, atheism rose to prominence under the influence of [[rationalism|rationalistic]] and [[freethought|freethinking]] philosophers. Many prominent German philosophers of this era denied the existence of deities and were critical of religion, including [[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[Karl Marx]], and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=BKz2FcDrFy0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=nietzsche+schopenhauer+marx+feuerbach&ots=Uj5_B0kDbS&sig=1lXbokGVRbwxqAIbmcOwL033N88 |title=Subjectivity and Irreligion: Atheism and Agnosticism in Kant, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |accessdate=2007-04-12 |last=Ray |first=Matthew Alun |date=[[2003]]}}</ref>
 

===The 20th Century===
Atheism in the 20th century, particularly in the form of practical atheism, advanced in many societies. Atheistic thought found recognition in a wide variety of other, broader philosophies, such as [[existentialism]], [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]], [[secular humanism]], [[nihilism]], [[logical positivism]], [[Marxism]], [[feminism]],<ref>Overall, Christine. "Feminism and Atheism," in {{harvnb|Martin|2007|pp=233–246}}.</ref> and the general scientific and [[rationalist movement]].

Logical positivism and [[scientism]] paved the way for [[neopositivism]], [[analytical philosophy]], [[structuralism]], and [[naturalism]]. Neopositivism and analytical philosophy discarded classical rationalism and metaphysics in favor of strict empiricism and epistemological [[nominalism]]. Proponents such as [[Bertrand Russell]] emphatically rejected the existence of God. In his early work, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] attempted to separate metaphysical and supernatural language from rational discourse. [[A. J. Ayer]] asserted the unverifiability and meaninglessness of religious statements, citing his adherence to the empirical sciences. Relatedly the applied [[structuralism]] of [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] sourced religious language to the human subconscious in denying its transcendental meaning. [[John Niemeyer Findlay|J. N. Findlay]] and [[J. J. C. Smart]] argued that the existence of God is not logically necessary. Naturalists and materialistic monists such as [[John Dewey]] considered the natural world to be the basis of everything, denying the existence of God or immortality.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=16}}.</ref><ref name="stanford"/>

The 20th century also saw the political advancement of atheism, spurred on by interpretation of the works of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]]. After the 1917 revolution in Russia, increased religious freedom for minority religions lasted for a few years, before the policies of Stalinism turned towards repression of religion. The [[Soviet Union]] and other [[communist state]]s promoted [[state atheism]] and opposed religion, often by violent means.<ref>{{cite book| last=Solzhenitsyn |first= Aleksandr I.| title=The Gulag Archipelago| publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics|id=ISBN 0-06-000776-1}}</ref>
Other leaders like [[E. V. Ramasami Naicker]] (Periyar), a prominent atheist leader of India, fought against [[Hinduism]] and [[Brahmins]] for discriminating and dividing people in the name of [[caste]] and religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Michael |first=S. M. |year=1999 |chapter=Dalit Visions of a Just Society |editor= S. M. Michael (ed.) |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |title=Untouchable: Dalits in Modern India |id=ISBN 1555876978 |pages=pp. 31–33}}</ref> This was highlighted in 1956 when he made the Hindu god [[Rama]] wear a garland made of slippers and made [[antitheism|antitheistic]] statements.<ref>"He who created god was a fool, he who spreads his name is a scoundrel, and he who worships him is a barbarian." [[Finngeir Hiorth|Hiorth, Finngeir]] (1996). "[http://www.iheu.org/node/548 Atheism in South India]". [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]], ''International Humanist News''. Retrieved on [[2007-05-30]].</ref>

In 1966, ''[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']]'' magazine asked "Is God Dead?"<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19660408,00.html ''TIME Magazine'' cover] online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> in response to the [[God is dead#Death of God theological movement|Death of God theological movement]], citing the estimation that nearly one in two people in the world lived under an anti-religious power and millions more in Africa, Asia, and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian God.<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,835309,00.html Toward a Hidden God]". ''TIME Magazine'' online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> The following year, the [[Albania]]n government under [[Enver Hoxha]] announced the closure of all religious institutions in the country, declaring [[Albania]] the world's first atheist state.<ref>Majeska, George P. (1976). "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-6752(197622)1%3A20%3A2%3C204%3ARAAITU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G Religion and Atheism in the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe, Review]". ''The Slavic and East European Journal''. '''20'''(2). pp. 204–206.</ref> These regimes enhanced the negative associations of atheism, especially where anti-communist sentiment was strong in the United States, despite the fact that some prominent atheists were anti-communist.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Rafford |first=R.L. |year=1987 |title=Atheophobia—an introduction |journal= Religious Humanism|volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=32–37 }}</ref> Since the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the number of actively anti-religious regimes has reduced considerably. In 2006, Timothy Shah of the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]] noted "a worldwide trend across all major religious groups, in which God-based and faith-based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis-à-vis secular movements and ideologies."<ref>"[http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=119 Timothy Samuel Shah Explains 'Why God is Winning']". 2006-07-18. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> [[Gregory S. Paul]] and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is more complex and nuanced.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Gregory |last=Paul |authorlink=Gregory S. Paul |coauthors=Phil Zuckerman |title=Why the Gods Are Not Winning |journal=Edge |volume=209 |year=2007 |url=http://www.edge.org/documents/archive/edge209.html#gp |accessdate=2007-05-16}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of atheism}}

It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world. Respondents to religious-belief polls may define "atheism" differently or draw different distinctions between ''atheism'', non-religious beliefs, and non-theistic religious and spiritual beliefs. In addition, people in some regions of the world refrain from reporting themselves as atheists to avoid social stigma, [[Discrimination of atheists|discrimination]], and [[persecution of atheists|persecution]]. A 2005 survey published in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' found that the non-religious make up about 11.9% of the world's population, and atheists about 2.3%. This figure does not include those who follow atheistic religions, such as some Buddhists.<ref name="Britannica demographics">{{cite web
|url=http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620
|title=Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2005
|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica
|date=2005
|accessdate=2007-04-15}}
* 2.3% Atheists: Persons professing atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion, including the militantly antireligious (opposed to all religion).
* 11.9% Nonreligious: Persons professing no religion, nonbelievers, agnostics, freethinkers, uninterested, or dereligionized secularists indifferent to all religion but not militantly so.
</ref> A November–December 2006 poll published in the ''[[Financial Times]]'' gives rates for the United States and five European countries. It found that Americans are more likely than Europeans to believe in any form of God or Supreme Being (73%). Of the European adults surveyed, Italians are the most likely to express this belief (62%) and the French the least likely (27%). In France, 32% declared themselves atheists, and an additional 32% declared themselves [[agnostic]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131
|title=Religious Views and Beliefs Vary Greatly by Country, According to the Latest Financial Times/Harris Poll
|publisher=Financial Times/Harris Interactive
|date=[[2006-12-20]]
|accessdate=2007-01-17}}</ref> An official [[European Union]] survey provides corresponding figures: 18% of the EU population do not believe in a god; 27% accept the existence of some supernatural "spiritual life force", while 52% affirm belief in a specific god. The proportion of believers rises to 65% among those who had left school by the age of fifteen; survey respondents who considered themselves to be from a strict family background were more likely to believe in god than those who felt their upbringing lacked firm rules.<ref>{{cite book
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =Social values, Science and Technology
| publisher =Directorate General Research, European Union
| date =2005
| location =
| pages = pp 7–11
| url =http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}</ref>

A letter published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1998 reported a survey suggesting that belief in a personal God or [[afterlife]] was at an all-time low among the members of the U.S. [[National Academy of Science]], only 7.0% of whom believed in a personal God as compared to more than 85% of the general U.S. population.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Correspondence: Leading scientists still reject God |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |coauthors=Larry Witham |year=1998 |journal=Nature |volume=394 |issue= 6691 |pages=313}} Available at [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html StephenJayGould.org], Stephen Jay Gould archive. Retrieved on [[2006-12-17]]</ref> In the same year [[Frank Sulloway]] of [[MIT]] and [[Michael Shermer]] of [[California State University]] conducted a study which found in their polling sample of "credentialed" U.S. adults (12% had Ph.Ds and 62% were college graduates) 64% believed in God, and there was a [[correlation]] indicating that religious conviction diminished with education level.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Shermer
| first =Michael
| authorlink =Michael Shermer
| coauthors =
| title =How We Believe: Science, Skepticism, and the Search for God
| publisher =William H Freeman
| date =1999
| location =New York
| pages = pp76–79
| url =
| doi =
| id =ISBN 071673561X }}</ref>
Such an inverse [[correlation]] between [[religiosity and intelligence]] has been found by 39 studies carried out between 1927 and 2002, according to an article in ''Mensa Magazine''.<ref>According to Dawkins (2006), p. 103. Dawkins cites Bell, Paul. "Would you believe it?" ''Mensa Magazine'', UK Edition, Feb. 2002, pp. 12–13. Analyzing 43 studies carried out since 1927, Bell found that all but four reported such a connection, and he concluded that "the higher one's intelligence or education level, the less one is likely to be religious or hold 'beliefs' of any kind."</ref> These findings broadly concur with a 1958 statistical [[meta-analysis]] from Professor [[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Michael Argyle]] of [[Oxford University]]. He analyzed seven research studies that had investigated correlation between attitude to religion and [[Intelligence quotient|measured intelligence]] among school and college students from the U.S. Although a clear negative correlation was found, the analysis did not identify causality but noted that factors such as authoritarian family background and social class may also have played a part.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Argyle
| first =Michael
| authorlink =Michael Argyle
| coauthors =
| title =Religious Behaviour
| publisher =Routledge and Kegan Paul
| date =1958
| location =London
| pages = pp 93–96
| url =
| doi =
| id = ISBN 0-415-17589-5 }}</ref>

However, evidence on the relationship between religious belief and educational achievement is mixed. Some research in the United States has found that religiosity in general is correlated with greater educational attainment and scholastic performance. The effect of religion on education can differ depending on what type of religion a student professes. [[Fundamentalist]] Christians, especially women, tend to acquire fewer years of education than others do.<ref>Lehrer, E.L. (2004). "Religiosity as a Determinant of Educational Attainment." ''Review of Economics of the Household'' 2:205.</ref><ref>Sherkat, D.E. ''[http://religion.ssrc.org/reforum/Sherkat/ Religion and Higher Education: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]''. Social Science Research Council: 6 Feb. 2006. Retrieved 16 June 2007.</ref>

==Atheism, religion and morality==
{{main|Atheism and religion|Secular ethics}}
[[Image:Lightmatter buddha3.jpg|thumb|left|Because of [[God in Buddhism|its lack]] of a [[personal God]], [[Buddhism]] is commonly described as atheistic.]]

Although people who self-identify as atheists are usually assumed to be [[irreligion|irreligious]], some sects within major religions have atheistic beliefs, and even reject the existence of a personal, creator God.<ref name="winston2">{{cite book | last = Winston | first = Robert (Ed.) | title = Human | publisher = New York: DK Publishing, Inc | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7566-1901-7 | pages = p. 299 | quote=Nonbelief has existed for centuries. For example, Buddhism and Jainism have been called atheistic religions because they do not advocate belief in gods.}}</ref> In recent years, certain religious denominations have accumulated a number of openly atheistic followers, such as [[atheist Jew|atheistic]] or [[humanistic Judaism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/subdivisions/humanistic.shtml |title=Humanistic Judaism |date=[[2006-07-20]] |accessdate=2006-10-25 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Levin | first = S. | year = 1995 | month = May | title = Jewish Atheism | journal = New Humanist | volume = 110 | issue = 2 | pages = 13–15}}</ref> and [[Agnostic theism|Christian atheist]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/types/christianatheism.shtml |title=Christian Atheism |date=[[2006-05-17]] |accessdate=2006-10-25 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Altizer | first = Thomas J. J. | authorlink = Thomas J. J. Altizer | title = The Gospel of Christian Atheism | url = http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=523 | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | year = 1967 | publisher = London: Collins | pages = 102–103}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Lyas | first = Colin | year = 1970 | month = January | title = On the Coherence of Christian Atheism | journal = Philosophy: The Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy | volume = 45 | issue = 171 | pages = 1–19}}</ref>

As the strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in God, atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs. For the same reason, atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs, ranging from the [[moral universalism]] of [[humanism]], which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans, to [[moral nihilism]], which holds that morality is meaningless.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|pp=21–22}}.</ref>

Throughout its history, however, atheism has commonly been equated with immorality, based on the belief that morality is directly derived from God, and thus cannot be attained without appealing to God.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=275}}. "Among the many myths associated with religion, none is more widespread—or more disastrous in its effects—than the myth that moral values cannot be divorced from the belief in a god."</ref><ref>In [[Dostoevsky]]'s ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' (Book Eleven: ''Brother Ivan Fyodorovich'', Chapter 4) there is the famous argument that ''If there is no God, all things are permitted.'': "'But what will become of men then?' I asked him, 'without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?'"</ref><ref name = "Kant CPR A811"> For [[Kant]], the presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams… ." (''Critique of Pure Reason'', A811).</ref> Moral precepts such as "murder is wrong" are seen as [[divine law]]s, requiring a divine lawmaker and judge. However, many atheists argue that treating morality legalistically involves a [[false analogy]], and that morality does not depend upon a lawmaker in the same way that laws do,<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=38}}.</ref> based on the [[Euthyphro dilemma]], which either renders God unnecessary or morality arbitrary.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=39}}.</ref>

Philosopher [[Julian Baggini]] asserts that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience.<ref> {{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=40}}.</ref> He argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics, claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves—to be able to discern, for example, that "thou shalt steal" is immoral even if one's religion instructs it—and that atheists, therefore, have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=43}}.</ref>

Atheists such as [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]] have argued that Western religions' reliance on divine authority lends itself to [[authoritarianism]] and [[dogma]]tism.<ref>{{cite web | last = Harris | first = Sam | authorlink = Sam Harris (author) | title = The Myth of Secular Moral Chaos | url = http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=sharris_26_3 | accessdate = 2006-10-29 | publisher = [[Free Inquiry]] | year = 2006a}}</ref> Indeed, [[religious fundamentalism]] and [[psychology of religion|extrinsic religion]] (when religion is held because it serves other, more ultimate interests<ref name=Moreira-almeida2006>{{cite journal | author = Moreira-almeida, A. | coauthors = Lotufo Neto, F.; Koenig, H.G. | year = 2006 | title = Religiousness and mental health: a review | journal = Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria | volume = 28 | pages = 242–250 | url = http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-44462006000300018&script=sci_arttext | accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref>) have been correlated with authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.<ref>See for example: Kahoe, R.D. (June 1977). "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294(197706)16%3A2%3C179%3AIRAAAD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship]". ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion''. '''16'''(2). pp. 179–182. Also see: Altemeyer, Bob and Bruce Hunsberger (1992). "[http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5?journalCode=ijpr Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice]". ''International Journal for the Psychology of Religion''. '''2'''(2). pp. 113–133.</ref> This argument, combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion, such as the [[Crusade]]s, [[inquisition]]s, and [[witch trial]]s, are often used by [[antireligion|antireligious]] atheists to justify their views.<ref>{{cite web | last = Harris | first = Sam | authorlink = Sam Harris (author) | title = An Atheist Manifesto | url = http://www.truthdig.com/dig/item/200512_an_atheist_manifesto/ | accessdate = 2006-10-29 | publisher = [[Truthdig]] | year = 2005 | quote = In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree.}}</ref> Theists have made very similar arguments, however, against atheists based on the [[state atheism]] of [[communist state]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last = McGrath | first = Alister | authorlink = Alister McGrath | title = The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World | year = 2005 | url = http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/march/21.36.html | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | id = ISBN 0-385-50062-9}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of atheists]]
*[[Criticism of atheism]]
*[[Discrimination against atheists]]
*[[Persecution of atheists]]
*[[State atheism]]
*[[Nontheism]]

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book
| last = Berman
| first = David
| title = A History of Atheism in Britain: From Hobbes to Russell
| year = 1990
| publisher = London: Routledge
| id = ISBN 0-415-04727-7}}
*{{cite book
| last = Buckley
| first = M. J.
| title = At the Origins of Modern Atheism
| year = 1990
| id = ISBN 0300048971
| publisher = New Haven, CT: Yale University Press}}
*{{cite book
| last = Dawkins
| first = Richard
| authorlink = Richard Dawkins
| title = [[The God Delusion]]
| year = 2006
| publisher = Bantam Press
| id = ISBN 0593055489 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Flew
| first = Antony
| authorlink = Antony Flew
| title = God and Philosophy
| publisher = Prometheus Books
| id = ISBN 1591023300
| year = 2005}}
*Flynn, Tom, ed. (2007). ''The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief''. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1591023912.
*{{citation
| editor = Gaskin, J.C.A.
| title = Varieties of Unbelief: From Epicurus to Sartre
| publisher = New York: Macmillan
| year = 1989
| id = ISBN 0-02-340681-X}}
*{{cite book
| last = Harbour
| first = Daniel
| title = [[An Intelligent Person's Guide to Atheism]]
| publisher = London: Duckworth
| id = ISBN 0-7156-3229-9}}
*{{cite book
| last = Harris
| first = Sam
| authorlink = Sam Harris (author)
| title = [[Letter to a Christian Nation]]
| publisher = Knopf (September 19, 2006)
| id = ISBN 978-0307265777}}
*{{cite book
| last = Hitchens
| first = Christopher
| authorlink = Christopher Hitchens
| title = [[God is not Great|God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything]]
| publisher = Twelve (May 1, 2007)
| id = ISBN 978-0446579803}}
*{{cite book
| last = Jacoby
| first = Susan
| title = Freethinkers: A History of American Secularism
| year = 2004
| publisher = Metropolitan Books
| id = ISBN 978-0805074420}}
*{{cite book
| last = Krueger
| first = D. E.
| title = What is Atheism?: A Short Introduction
| publisher = New York: Prometheus
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 1-57392-214-5}}
*{{cite book
| last = Le Poidevin
| first = R.
| title = Arguing for Atheism: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion
| publisher = London: Routledge
| year = 1996
| id = ISBN 0-415-09338-4}}
*[[J. L. Mackie|Mackie, J. L.]] (1982). ''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God.'' Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 019824682X
*{{cite book
| last = Maritain
| first = Jacques
| title = The Range of Reason
| publisher = London: Geoffrey Bles
| year = 1953
| id = ISBN B0007DKP00
| url = http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-27}}
*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Michael
| authorlink = Michael Martin (philosopher)
| title = Atheism: A Philosophical Justification
| publisher = Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press
| year = 1990
| id = ISBN 0-87722-943-0}}
*Martin, Michael, ed. (2007). ''The Cambridge Companion to Atheism.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521603676
*Martin, Michael & Monnier, R., eds. (2003). ''The Impossibility of God.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591021200
*Martin, Michael & Monnier, R., eds. (2006). ''The Improbability of God.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591023815
*McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1930). ''Some Dogmas of Religion.'' London: Edward Arnold & Co., new edition. [First published 1906]
*{{cite book
| last = Nielsen
| first = Kai
| authorlink = Kai Nielsen
| title = Philosophy and Atheism
| year = 1985
| publisher = New York: Prometheus
| id = ISBN ISBN 0-87975-289-0}}
*{{cite book
| last = Nielsen
| first = Kai
| authorlink = Kai Nielsen
| title = Naturalism and Religion
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 1573928534
| publisher = New York: Prometheus}}
*{{Cite book
| last = Oppy
| first = Graham
| authorlink = Graham Oppy
| year = 2006
| title = Arguing about Gods
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| id = ISBN 0521863864}}
*{{cite book
| last = Robinson
| first = Richard
| title = An Atheist's Values
| url = http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/athval0.htm
| id = ISBN 0198241917
| publisher = Oxford: Clarendon Press
| year = 1964}}
*{{cite book
| last = Sharpe
| first = R.A.
| title = The Moral Case Against Religious Belief
| publisher = London: SCM Press
| year = 1997
| id = ISBN 0-334-02680-6}}
*[[George H. Smith|Smith, George]] ''Atheism: The Case Against God'', (1974).
*Stenger, Victor J. (2007). ''God: The Failed Hypothesis. How Science Shows that God Does Not Exist.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591024811
*{{cite book
| last = Thrower
| first = James
| title = A Short History of Western Atheism
| publisher = London: Pemberton
| year = 1971
| id = ISBN 0-301-71101-1}}

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

*{{citation
| last = Baggini
| first = Julian
| authorlink = Julian Baggini
| title = Atheism: A Very Short Introduction
| year = 2003
| publisher = Oxford: Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-280424-3}}
*{{citation
| editor-last = Martin
| editor-first = Michael
| editor-link = Michael Martin (philosopher)
| title = The Cambridge Companion to Atheism
| publisher = Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
| year = 2007
| id = ISBN 0-521-60367-6}}
*{{citation
| last = Smith
| first = George H.
| authorlink = George H. Smith
| title = Atheism: The Case Against God
| year = 1979
| publisher = Buffalo, New York: Prometheus
| id = ISBN 0-87975-124-X}}
*{{citation
| last = Zdybicka
| first = Zofia J.
| authorlink = Zofia Zdybicka
| year = 2005
| contribution = Atheism
| contribution-url = http://www.kul.lublin.pl/efk/angielski/hasla/a/atheism.pdf
| editor-first = Andrzej
| editor-last = Maryniarczyk
| title = Universal Encyclopedia of Philosophy
| volume = 1
| publisher = Polish Thomas Aquinas Association
| accessdate = 2007-04-07}}

==External links==

{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{Commonscat}}

* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Atheism/|Atheism}}— includes links to organizations and websites.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/ Religion & Ethics—Atheism] at [[bbc.co.uk]].
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/ Secular Web library]—library of both historical and modern writings, probably the most comprehensive online resource for freely available material on atheism.
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/tochist.htm Positive atheism: Great Historical Writings]—historical writing sorted by authors, contains a few items not in the Secular web library.
* [http://publicliterature.org/books/necessity_of_atheism/xaa.php ''The Necessity of Atheism''] - complete work by Dr. D.M. Brooks.
* [http://www.infography.com/content/409959553931.html Infography about Atheism]
* [http://atheism.about.com/ About Atheism]—part of the About.com family of websites
* [http://ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation]-foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.

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