Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Angola

2022-02-04T23:13:48Z

United States:

{{Country
|name =''República de Angola''
|map =Angola rel90.jpg
|map2 =Location of Angola.png
|flag =Flag of Angola.jpg
|arms =Arms of Angola.png
|capital =Luanda
|capital-raw =
|government =Multi-party republic
|government-raw =
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =João Lourenço
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =481,354 sq mi
|pop =35,000,000 (2022)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$65,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =2005
|gdp-pc =$1,958 (2020)
|currency =Kwanza
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Angola''' is a country in southwestern [[Africa]]. It borders [[Namibia]], [[Zambia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (adjacent to the [[Cabinda]] enclave). The capital of Angola is Luanda.

==Geography==
Angola is located on the South Atlantic Coast of West Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and east and Zambia to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The upper reaches of the Zambezi River pass through Angola, and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Baja California. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October when overnight temperatures can fall to freezing. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.
*Area: 1,246,700 km2. (481,354 sq. mi), about twice the size of Texas.
*Cities: Capital—Luanda (est. pop. 5.0 million); Huambo (750,000); Benguela (600,000).
*Terrain: A narrow, dry coastal strip extending from the far north (Luanda) to Namibia in the south; well watered agricultural highlands; savanna in the far east and south; and rain forest in the north and the enclave of Cabinda.
*Climate: Tropical and tropical highland.

==People==
Estimates of Angola's population vary widely, as there has been no census since 1970, but it is estimated at no less than 15.5 million. Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, and Bakongo 13%. Other groups include Chokwe, Lunda, Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). Portuguese is both the official and predominant language.
*Population (2005 est.): 15,500,000.
*Annual population growth rate (2004): 2.8%.
*Ethnic groups: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mixed racial 2%, European 1%.
*Religions (2001 official est.): Roman Catholic 68%, various Protestant 20%; indigenous beliefs 12%.
*Languages: Portuguese (official), Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, Bakongo, and others.
*Education: Years compulsory—8. Enrollment (combined gross enrollment for primary, secondary, and tertiary schools, 2004 est.)--26%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2004 est.)--67.4% (female 54.2%, male 82.9%).
*Health: Life expectancy (2004 est.)--total population 40.7 years. Infant mortality rate (2004 est.)--154/1,000.
*Work force (2003 est. 5.6 million): Agriculture—85%; industry and commerce—15%; services—6%.
===Religion===
The majority of the 16 million population is Christian, and of those, Roman Catholics are the largest religious group. The Catholic Church estimates that 55 percent of the population is Catholic, but this figure cannot be verified. Data from the National Institute for Religious Affairs (INAR) indicates African Christian denominations make up 25 percent of the population; 10 percent of the population follows a major Protestant tradition, such as Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist (United Church of Christ), and Assembly of God; and 5 percent belongs to various Brazilian Evangelical churches. A small portion of the rural population practices animism or traditional indigenous religions. There is also a small Muslim community, estimated at 80,000-90,000 adherents, composed largely of migrants from West Africa and families of Lebanese origin.

Governmental agencies, church groups, and civil society organizations continued campaigns against traditional religions that involve shamans, employ animal sacrifices, or were identified as practicing witchcraft. The goal of these campaigns was to discourage abusive practices that can sometimes stem from the practice of traditional indigenous beliefs, in particular violence associated with exorcism. Church-related organizations focused on the doctrinal issues related to such practices as animal sacrifices or the use of shamans. There were periodic reports of child and elder abuse stemming from accusations of witchcraft, generally in rural areas and smaller cities. In some instances these accusations led to exorcism rituals that included willful neglect and physical abuse. In some cases deaths have been reported<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108352.htm 2008 State Department Report on Religious Freedom in Angola]</ref>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Angola changed from a one-party Marxist–Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.

Few opportunities exist for opposition parties to challenge MPLA dominance. President dos Santos, following a recommendation of the Council of the Republic, has said legislative elections are being planned for 2008, with presidential elections to follow in 2009. A multi-party constitutional reform process will resume following elections.

Angola is governed by a president who is assisted by a prime minister and 31 cabinet ministers, all appointed by the president. Political power is concentrated in the presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the president (head of state and government), the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. The president, the Council of Ministers, and individual ministers in their areas of competence have the ability to legislate by decree.

Of the 220 deputies in the National Assembly, 130 are elected at large, and 5 are elected to represent each of the 18 provinces. The Electoral Law also calls for the election of three additional deputies to represent citizens living abroad; however, those positions were not filled in the 1992 elections. The ruling MPLA controls 59% of the seats.

The central government administers the country through 18 provinces. Governors of the provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president.

The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only a fraction of the 164 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Recently, the Supreme Court has acted as a Constitutional Court.

The 27-year-long civil war ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The government estimates that 4.7 million people were internally displaced by the civil war. In March 2007, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and Angola jointly celebrated the end of a 5-year organized voluntary repatriation program that returned home more than 400,000 Angolan refugees. The Angolan Government estimates as many as 100,000 refugees remain outside Angola, and it is working to help those who wish to return. Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the inadequate administrative infrastructure as well as weak social institutions. Government support for social institutions is often inadequate. Many hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[João Lourenço]]
*Vice President—Bornito de Sousa
*President of the National Assembly—Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos

===Foreign Relations===
From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. In 1997, Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops fought in support of the Laurent and Joseph Kabila governments. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of President Sassou-Nguesso. Angola has also engaged in a more robust economic relationship with the People's Republic of China. The P.R.C. has extended a U.S. $2 billion credit line to Angola.

Multilaterally, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and a means of expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil. During the peace process, the government fully cooperated with the UN Mission in Angola (UNMA), which concluded its mandate in mid-February 2003. Angola concluded a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in December 2004. In June 2007, it began a 3-year term on the Human Rights Council.

==Defense==
The Angolan Armed Forces, known by its Portuguese acronym FAA, are headed by a chief of staff who reports to the civilian minister of defense. There are three services—the army, navy, and air force. Total manpower is about 140,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 130,000 personnel. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes, Bell helicopters, and Italian trainers. The "Casa Militar," or presidential guard, answers directly to the Office of the President and is separate from FAA command and control structures.

==Economy==
Angola has a fast-growing economy largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10% of most socioeconomic indicators. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects that Angola's real GDP will increase by 31.4% in 2007, although the Angolan Government in July reduced its own projection for 2007 real GDP growth to 19.8%. Aside from the oil sector and diamonds, Angola is recovering from 27 years of nearly continuous warfare, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Despite abundant natural resources, and rising per capita GDP, it was ranked 161 out of 177 countries on the 2006 UN Development Program's (UNDP) Human Development Index. Subsistence agriculture sustains one-third of the population.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding petroleum industry—now producing approximately 1.7 million barrels per day (bpd), behind only Nigeria in Africa—accounts for 51.7% of GNP, 95% of exports, and 80% of government revenues. Production is expected to reach 1.8 million barrels per day by the end of 2007. Angola also produces 40,000 bpd of locally refined oil. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy, though a local content initiative promulgated by the Angolan Government is pressuring oil companies to source from local businesses.

Block 15, located offshore of the enclave of Cabinda, currently provides 40% of Angola's crude oil production. ExxonMobil, through its subsidiary Esso, is the operator with a 40% share. In 2005, Block 15's second major sub-field, Kizomba B, came online producing at about 250,000 bpd. BP, ENI-Agip, and Statoil are partners in the concession. Chevron operates Block 0, also in offshore Cabinda, which provides one-quarter of Angola's crude oil production. Its partners in Block 0 are Sonangol (the Angolan state oil company), TotalFinaElf, and ENI-Agip. In 2006, Block 0 had a total production of 400,000 bpd, and drilling activity continues at a high level. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000 and produced 105,000 bpd in 2006.

TotalFinaElf brought the first Kwanza Basin deepwater blocks on-line with production from its Block 17 concession that began in February 2002. Inauguration of the Dalia oilfield in December 2006 combined with the Girassol field already in operation brought Block 17's total production to approximately 500,000 bpd as of July 2007. Exploration is ongoing in ultra-deep water concessions and in deepwater and shallow concessions in the Namibe Basin. BP made the first significant ultra-deepwater find in its Block 31 concession in 2002 and had reached nine significant discoveries by the end of 2005. BP expects to ship its first crude from the Plutonio oilfied in Block 18 in September 2007 and expects Plutonio to average 200,000 bpd in full production. Marathon also drilled a successful well in its Block 32 ultra-deep water concession. TotalFinaElf operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with Sonangol; plans for a second refinery in Lobito with projected production of 200,000 bpd are moving forward. There are plans to increase capacity of the Luanda refinery from 40,000 bpd to 100,000 bpd. Chevron, Sonangol, BP, Total, and Eni are developing a $4–5 billion liquefied natural gas plant at Soyo.

Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, particularly China. In late 2004, China's state oil company Sinopec bought into Block 18, securing the deal by offering a $2 billion signing bonus to Sonangol, the national oil company. Sinopec has also formed a partnership with Sonangol to operate Block 3/05 (formerly Block 3/80), whose operation was transferred from Total to Sonangol. Sonangol will seek to expand its operation of onshore and shallow water blocks. This includes the northern block of Cabinda's onshore concessions, which since the reduction in hostilities with separatist forces is now open to exploration. Sonangol and Sinopec will also be eyeing future concession rounds, particularly for 23 blocks in the Kwanza Basin onshore area and the relinquished parts of Blocks 15, 17, and 18, currently operated by Exxon, Total, and BP. During 2006, Angola was the leading source country in terms of dollar value for the crude oil China imported, importing U.S. $10.928 billion, up 16.5% year on year.

Diamonds make up most of Angola's remaining exports, with yearly production at 6 million carats. Diamond sales reached approximately $1.1 billion in 2006. Despite increased corporate ownership of diamond fields, much production is currently in the hands of small-scale prospectors, often operating illegally. Only eight formal sector mines are operating out of a total of 145 concessions. In June 2005, De Beers signed a $10 million prospecting contract with the government's diamond parastatal, ending a 4-year investment dispute between De Beers and the government. The government is making an increased effort to register and license prospectors. Legal sales of rough diamonds may occur only through the government's diamond-buying parastatal, although many producers continue to bypass the system to obtain higher prices. The government has established an export certification scheme consistent with the "Kimberley Process" to identify legitimate production and sales. Other mineral resources, including gold, remain largely undeveloped, though granite and marble quarrying have begun.

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African agricultural exporter. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive laying of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities were brought to a near standstill, and the country now imports about half of its food. Small-scale agricultural production has increased dramatically over the last 3 years as internally displaced persons (IDPs) are returning to the land. Some efforts at commercial agricultural recovery have gone forward, notably in fisheries and tropical fruits, but most of the country's vast potential remains untapped. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Recently passed land reform laws will attempt to reconcile overlapping traditional land use rights, colonial-era land claims, and recent land grants to facilitate significant commercial agricultural development.

An economic reform effort launched in 1998 was only marginally successful in addressing persistent fiscal mismanagement and corruption. In April 2000, Angola started an IMF staff-monitored program (SMP). The program lapsed in June 2001 over IMF concerns about lack of adequate Angolan progress. Under the program, the Government of Angola did succeed in unifying exchange rates and moving fuel, electricity, and water prices closer to market rates. In March 2007, the government announced it was not interested in a formally-structured IMF program, but would continue to participate in Article IV consultations and other technical assistance on an ad hoc basis.

In December 2002 President dos Santos named a new economic team to oversee homegrown reform efforts. The new team succeeded in decreasing overall government spending, rationalizing the Kwanza exchange rate, closing regulatory loopholes allowing off-budget expenditures, and capturing all revenues in the state budget. New procedures were implemented to track the flow of funds between the Treasury, Banco Nacional de Angola (the central bank), and the state-owned Banco de Poupanca e Credito, which operates the budget. The Angolan Government adopted a new investment code. Concerns remain about quasi-fiscal operations by the state oil company Sonangol, continued oil-backed commercial borrowing by the Angolan Government, and inadequate transparency and oversight in the management of public accounts. The Angolan commercial code, financial sector law, and telecommunications law all require substantial revision.

Angola is the second-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. U.S. exports to Angola primarily consist of industrial goods and services—such as oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food. On December 30, 2003, President Bush approved the designation of Angola as eligible for tariff preferences under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).
*GDP (2006 est. using purchasing power parity): $53.9 billion.
*Annual real GDP growth rate (2006 est.): 15.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006 est. using purchasing power parity): $3,399.
*Avg. inflation rate (2006): 12.3%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, bauxite, uranium, gold, granite, copper, feldspar.
*Agriculture: Products—bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fisheries products.
*Industry: Types—petroleum drilling and refining, mining, cement, basic metal products, fish processing, food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar refining, textiles.
*Trade: Exports (2007 projected)--petroleum $35.6 billion. 2006 exports consisted of petroleum and derivatives (94%), diamonds (3.5%), other (2.2%), coffee, sisal, timber, cotton, fish, scrap metal. Major markets (2004)--U.S. (37.70%), China (35.6%), France (6.4%), South Korea (2.95%). Imports (2006)--$10.7 billion: machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts, medicines, food, textiles. Major sources (2006)--Portugal (17.1%), U.S. (9.8%), South Africa (8.0%), China (8.5%), Brazil (8.6%).

==History==
In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of 50,000 people. South of this kingdom were various important states, of which the Kingdom of Ndongo, ruled by the ngola (king), was most significant. Modern Angola derives its name from the king of Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641 to 1648, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648, Brazilian-based Portuguese forces re-took Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Congo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery. The slaving system began early in the 16th century with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil, but also for the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the 19th century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal, under the Salazar and Caetano dictatorships, rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country and links to the People's Republic of China and apartheid South Africa.

From the early 1960s, elements of these movements fought against the Portuguese. A 1974 coup d'état in Portugal established a military government that promptly ceased the war and agreed, in the Alvor Accords, to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA's importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon Neto's death from cancer in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos ascended to the presidency.

The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, internal divisions, and abandonment by international supporters. An internationalized conventional civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained in support of the MPLA, often fighting South Africans on the front lines. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. When UNITA's Jonas Savimbi failed to win the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (he won 40% to dos Santos's 49%, which required a runoff), he called the election fraudulent and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.

On April 4, 2002, the Angolan Government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which formalized the de facto cease-fire that prevailed following Savimbi's death. In accordance with the MOU, UNITA recommitted to the peace framework in the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, returned all remaining territory to Angolan Government control, quartered all military personnel in predetermined locations, and relinquished all arms. In August 2002, UNITA demobilized all military personnel and in September 2002, together with the government, reconstituted the UN-sponsored Joint Commission to resolve all outstanding political issues under the Lusaka Protocol. On November 21, 2002, UNITA and the government declared all outstanding issues resolved and the Lusaka Protocol fully implemented. UN Security Council sanctions on UNITA were lifted on December 9, 2002. UNITA and the MPLA held their first post-war party congresses in June and December 2003, respectively. The UNITA Congress saw the democratic transfer of power from interim leader General Paulo Lukumba "Gato" to former UNITA representative in Paris Isaias Henriqué Samakuva, while the MPLA Congress reaffirmed President dos Santos' leadership of party structures. Samakuva was reelected to a second 4-year term as UNITA party president at a UNITA party congress in July 2007, and will serve as UNITA's leader for the next 4 years.

The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda on August 1, 2006, is seen as a step toward ending conflict in Cabinda and in bringing about greater representation for the people of Cabinda. It follows a successful counterinsurgency campaign by the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA), who still maintain a strong troop presence there. The MOU rejects the notion of Cabindan independence, calls for the demobilization and reintegration of former Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) fighters into various governmental positions, and creates a special political and economic status for the province of Cabinda. Many FLEC military combatants have now been integrated into the Angolan Armed Forces, including some command positions. In addition, Cabindans will be given designated numbers of vice ministerial and other positions in the Angolan Government. Some FLEC members, who did not sign onto the peace memorandum, continue their independence efforts through public outreach and infrequent low-level attacks against FAA convoys and outposts.

==See also==
* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[Nanny state]], leads to [[Police state]]

==References==
<references/>
[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - Angola]

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6619.htm]}}

{{African Countries}}

[[Category:Angola]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:Communist States]]
[[Category:Police State]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

User:United States/United States vs All of Conservapedia

2022-02-04T23:11:35Z

United States: In one year, the ratio decreased

Edits:
*United States: 1,650
*Conservapedia: 1,826,790
*Ratio: 1:1,107

User:United States

2022-01-12T03:38:51Z

United States:

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States, a right-wing American patriot living in the year 2022! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

Note: I will be somewhat active, but in a lesser rate/scale. :)

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

If you are a conservative and wish to edit Wikipedia, don't behave like a conservative does there. Just act like you don't have any political beliefs, or act like a liberal, if there is an emergency/last warning.

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Houston

2021-01-02T23:11:24Z

United States: adding Houston will become the 3rd largest city in America in 2030! And, guess what? I live in the Houston metro area!

{{City
|picture =
|picture2 =
|map =
|country =United States
|state =Texas
|region =
|settled =1836
|charter =
|population =2,350,000 (2020)
|area =637.5 sq mi
|density =3,750/sq mi
|mayor =[[Sylvester Turner]]
|demonym =Houstonian
|co-ordinates =29.8° N., 95.4° W
}}
'''Houston''' is the largest city in the state of [[Texas]] and the fourth largest city in the [[United States]] of America. Houston is the county seat of Harris County, with a population of approximately 2.35 million. Some refer to Houston as the "Bayou (pronounced buy-yoo) City."

Houston is known for its thriving energy industry and the largest medical center in the country, as well as the second-largest performing arts district in the nation.

Unlike most other big cities, Houston is growing<ref>http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/morning_call/2014/05/houston-the-second-fastest-growing-city-in-the-u-s.html</ref> and has affordable housing relatively close to its downtown. It has benefited from no zoning, in contrast, which liberal cities are very expensive. Houston is also the largest city in a red state.

In 2030, Houston is projected to overtake [[Chicago]] as the third-largest city in America, meeting around the 2.67 million mark.<ref>https://www.click2houston.com/features/2020/01/24/ask-2-when-will-houston-overtake-chicago-as-the-third-most-populous-city/</ref>

Houston's current mayor is liberal, pro-China [[Democrat]] [[Sylvester Turner]], who replaced fellow Democrat [[Annice Parker]] after she stepped down due to term limits.

==History==
The city of Houston was founded on August 30, 1836. The founders were two brothers named Augustus C. and John K. Allen. They bought 6,642 acres of land near the Buffalo Bayou.

The Republican Party in [[Texas]] was founded on the 4th of July 1867 in [[Houston, Texas]] by 150 [[African American]]s and 20 [[white]]s.

==Notable Houston residents==
*[[Lloyd Bentsen]] - former United States Senator from Texas.
*[[George Herbert Walker Bush]] - former U.S. President.
*[[Michael Dell]] - Born February 23, 1965, he is an entrepreneur who founded Dell Computer Systems.
*[[Albert Bel Fay]] - businessman and Republican politician.
*[[John Fellers]] - [[United Methodist]] clergyman.
*[[Beyonce Knowles]] - singer and actress.
*[[Dan Rather]] - Born October 31, 1931, Rather was for twenty-four years a journalist and news anchor for ''The CBS Evening News''.
*[[John Tower]] - former U.S. Senator from Texas, born in Houston in 1925.

==Sports Franchises==
*Houston Astros ([[Major League Baseball]])
*Houston Texans ([[National Football League]])
*Houston Rockets ([[National Basketball Association]])

==Media==
===AM Radio===

===FM Radio===

===Television===
*2.1 - KPRC ([[NBC]])
*8.1 - KUHT ([[PBS]])
*11.1 - KHOU ([[CBS]])
*13.1 - KTRK ([[ABC]])
*20.1 - KTXH ([[Independent station|Independent]])
*26.1 - KRIV ([[Fox Network|Fox]])
*39.1 - KIAH ([[The CW]])
*45.1 - KXLN (Univision; Spanish)
*47.1 - KTMD (Telemundo; Spanish)
*51.1 - KYAZ (Azteca America; Spanish)
*57.1 - KUBE (Independent)
*61.1 - KZJL (Estrella TV; Spanish)
*67.1 - KFTH (UniMás; Spanish)

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Texas Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:The South]]

User:United States

2021-01-02T23:08:33Z

United States: proofreading!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States, a right-wing American patriot! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

Note: I will be somewhat active, but in a lesser rate/scale. :)

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

If you are a conservative and wish to edit Wikipedia, don't behave like a conservative does there. Just act like you don't have any political beliefs, or act like a liberal, if there is an emergency/last warning.

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Chicago

2021-01-02T23:07:36Z

United States: Adding Chicago to fall to 4th place.

{{City
|picture =
|picture2 =
|map =
|country =United States
|state =Illinois
|region =
|settled =1830
|charter =
|population =2,700,000 (2020)
|area =227.3 sq mi
|density =11,900/sq mi
|mayor =[[Lori Lightfoot]]
|demonym =Chicagoan
|co-ordinates =41.8° N., 87.7° W
}}
[[File:Chicago downtown.jpg|thumb|260px|left|The Sears Tower (now named Willis Tower) is in the distance.]]
'''Chicago''' is a city located in the northeastern corner of the state of [[Illinois]] on the shore of the southwestern tip of [[Lake Michigan]]. Chicago is a relatively young city, first incorporated in 1833 and completely rebuilt after a city-wide fire in 1871. It is located mostly within [[Cook County]], but a corner of its O'Hare Airport is in DuPage County. It is the largest city in Illinois and the third-largest city in the [[United States]], with 2.8 million residents, after New York City and Los Angeles.<ref>http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/17/1714000.html</ref> The Chicago metropolitan area, which extends from southern [[Wisconsin]] to northeastern [[Indiana]] and is often called "Chicagoland", contains 9.3 million people.<ref>https://www.census.gov/population/estimates/metro_general/2006/CSA-EST2006-alldata.csv</ref> It is the dominant city of the Midwest for transportation, trade, finance and high culture, and only reluctantly gave up the "second city" title to [[Los Angeles]] in the 1970s.

The name "Chicago" originated in 1630, when the Miami-Illinois Indians arrived in the region, and called it after a type of wild garlic that grew in the area.

Chicago is home to the [[Sears Tower|Willis Tower]], which at 1,450 feet is the tallest building in the United States, and was once the tallest building in the world. The building, more commonly known locally and internationally as the "Sears Tower", was originally the headquarters of Sears when constructed. In the late 2000s, London-based Willis Insurance bought the naming rights to the tower upon leasing a significant amount of space.<ref>http://www.thesearstower.com/buildinginfo.axis?type=n&name=Property Profile</ref> The world-renowned ''Art Institute of Chicago'' houses both a museum and a school.<ref>[http://www.artic.edu/ The Art Institute of Chicago]</ref>

The City of Chicago has high gun violence levels, and the strict [[gun control]] laws of the city and of Illinois have not had any effect in reducing violence.<ref>Schallhorn, Kaitlyn (August 9, 2018). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2018/08/09/chicago-shootings-put-spotlight-on-illinois-gun-laws.html Chicago shootings put spotlight on Illinois gun laws]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved August 9, 2018.</ref> Chicago is very [[liberal]], and as of 2019, it has more members of the [[Democratic Socialists of America]] in its city council than Republicans.<ref>Richardson, Valerie (April 5, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/5/socialists-outnumber-republicans-chicago-city-coun/ Left-wing wave: More socialists than Republicans to hold seats on Chicago City Council]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved April 5, 2019.</ref> Chicago's last [[Republican]] mayor was elected in 1927.

Chicago is projected to fall to the fourth-largest city in 2030, as [[Houston]] surpasses its population by then.<ref>https://www.click2houston.com/features/2020/01/24/ask-2-when-will-houston-overtake-chicago-as-the-third-most-populous-city/</ref>

==Demography==
Although originally settled by Yankees, the railroads, stockyards, and other heavy industry of the late 19th century attracted a variety of skilled workers from Europe, especially Germans, English, Swedish and Dutch, as well as unskilled Irish Catholics. From 1890-1914 migrations swelled, attracting especially unskilled workers from Eastern and Southern Europe, including Poles, Lithuanians, Croatians, Czechs, Greeks, Italians and Jews among others. World War I cut off immigrations from Europe, and restrictions in the 1920s slowed the European influx to a trickle, apart from refugees after World War II. During both world wars poor Americans arrived from the South—whites from Appalachia and blacks from the cotton fields due south. The near south side was the first Black area, and it continued to expand, as did the black neighborhoods on the near west side. These were segregated areas (few blacks were tolerated in white neighborhoods), and after 1950 public housing high rises anchored poor black neighborhoods south and west of the Loop.

Old stock Americans who relocated to Chicago after 1900 preferred the outlying areas and suburbs, making Oak Park and Evanston enclaves of the upper middle class. The lakefront north of the Loop saw construction of high-rise luxury apartments starting in the 1910s, and continuing into the 21st century. The high-rises had wealthy residents but few children, since the city had an abysmal public school system, a large parochial system of middling quality for the Catholics, and few upscale private schools. The northern and western suburbs boasted some of the best public schools in the nation. The suburban trend accelerated after 1945, with middle class Chicagoans headed to the outlying areas of the city, and then pouring into the Cook County and Dupage County suburbs. Jews and Irish in particular rose sharply in status, leaving slums and heading north. Well educated migrants from around the country moved to the far suburbs.

Beginning in the 1940s waves of [[Latino]] (or "Hispanic") immigrants began to arrive, with the largest numbers from Mexico and Puerto Rico, as well as Cuba and (by the 1980s), other Hispanic lands. After 1965 large numbers of Asian immigrants came, the largest proportion were well educated Indians and Chinese. By the 1970s gentrification began, turning old inner city slums into upscale neighborhoods, which proved attractive to singles and gays.

==Geography==
===Loop===
The "Loop" was named in 1901 when the new elevated rail line (the "L") looped around the main downtown business section. It remains a world class locus for banking, finance, law, business and high culture. It has numerous colleges and universities and a large upscale population in condominiums. The main department and specialty stores, however, have moved a mile or two north to the "Miracle Mile" (North Michigan Avenue).

===Neighborhoods===
Chicagoans define themselves by neighborhood (or for Catholics, by their parish).
====Home ownership====
Concentrating the family resources to achieve home ownerships was a common strategy in the ethnic neighborhoods. It meant sacrificing current consumption, and pulling children out of school as soon as they could earn a wage. By 1900 working-class ethnics immigrants owned homes at higher rates than native-born people. After borrowing from friends and building associations, immigrants kept boarders, grew market gardens, and even opened home-based commercial laundries, eroding home-work distinctions while sending out women and children to work to repay loans. They sought not middle class upward mobility but the security of home ownership. Many social workers wanted them to pursue upward job mobility (which required more education), but realtors asserted that houses were better than a bank for a poor man. With [[hindsight]], and considering uninsured banks' precariousness, this appears to have been true. Chicago's workers made immense sacrifices for home ownership, contributing to Chicago's sprawling suburban geography and to modern myths about the American dream. The Jewish community, by contrast, rented apartments and maximized education and upward mobility for the next generation.<ref>Elaine Lewinnek, "Better than a Bank for a Poor Man? Home Financing Strategies in Early Chicago." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2006 32(2): 274-301. Issn: 0096-1442 Fulltext: [[Sage]]; see also Joseph C. Bigott, ''From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Classes in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869-1929'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Cottage-Bungalow-Metropolitan-1869-1929-Architecture/dp/0226048756/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670620&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>

===Suburbs===
Keating (2004) studied the origins of 233 settlements that by 1900 had become suburbs or city neighborhoods of Chicago. The settlements began as farm centers (41%), industrial towns (30%), residential railroad suburbs (15%), and recreational/institutional centers (13%).

===Environment and planning===
Danish immigrant Jens Jensen arrived in 1886 and soon became a highly successful and celebrated landscape designer. Jensen's work was characterized by a democratic approach to landscaping, informed by his interest in social justice and conservationism and his rejection of antidemocratic formalism. Among Jensen's creations were four Chicago city parks, most famously Columbus Park. His work also included garden design for some of the region's most influential people, including the Ford and Rosenwald families.
The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal was first proposed in 1885 by civil engineer Lyman Edgar Cooley, who envisioned a deep waterway that would dilute and divert the city's sewage by funneling water from Lake Michigan into a canal, which would drain into the Mississippi River via the Illinois River. Beyond presenting a solution for Chicago's sewage problem, Cooley's proposal appealed to the economic need to link the Midwest with America's central waterways to compete with East Coast shipping and railroad industries. Strong regional support for the project led the Illinois legislature to circumvent the federal government and complete the canal with state funding. The opening in January 1900 met with controversy and a lawsuit against Chicago's appropriation of water from Lake Michigan. By the 1920s the lawsuit was divided between the states of the Mississippi River Valley, who supported the development of deep waterways linking the Great Lakes with the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes states, who feared sinking water levels might harm shipping in the lakes. In 1929 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in support of Chicago's use of the canal to promote commerce, but ordered the city to discontinue its use for sewage disposal.<ref>Lorien Foote, "Bring the Sea to Us: the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal and the Industrialization of the Midwest, 1885-1929." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 1999 2(1): 39-56. Issn: 1522-0532</ref>

One of the largest municipal public works projects in US history lies inconspicuously 150 to 300 feet below the streets of Chicago, a city plagued from its inception by pollution and flooding related to Lake Michigan's basin. Engineering techniques pioneered specifically for the project have created mammoth overflow sewers commonly known as the Deep Tunnel and more officially as the Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP). Construction began in 1976 after nearly fifty years of financial, engineering, and political maneuvering by local, state, and federal officials. While the project's long-promised rewards were materializing as of 2001, critics asserted that the city approached the problem of flood overflow in its usual grandiose manner, employing large-scale solutions when simpler, less-costly alternatives to TARP, such as curbing wasteful water use and creating green belts, should have been explored.<ref>Timothy B. Neary, "Chicago-style Environmental Politics: Origins of the Deep Tunnel Project." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(2): 83-102. Issn: 1522-0532</ref>

===Museums===
[[Image:Chicago Science Museum.jpg|thumb|Museum of Science and Industry.]]
The Chicago Historical Society has probably the finest local history collection in the world, with an equally strong library to support research.<ref>See Catherine M. Lewis, ''The Changing Face of Public History: The Chicago Historical Society and the Transformation of an American Museum.'' (2005). 172 pp.</ref>
Following his 1924 retirement as chairman of the board of Sears, Roebuck & Company, [[Julius Rosenwald]] embarked on a campaign to found a science and industry museum in Chicago similar to the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany, which he had visited in 1911. Although a city bond issue provided some funds, Rosenwald and his estate spent over $11 million through the mid-1940s. Portions of the Museum of Science and Industry opened in 1933, one year after Rosenwald's death, and the entire museum opened in 1938.<ref>Ascoli (2006)</ref>

==History==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, a Frenchman West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the War of 1812 it was captured by Indians and the residents massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators created a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to ship.

As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

====Newspapers====
Late-19th century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540</ref>

===1900-1945===
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
====Business====
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the [[New Deal]]; he was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

====Labor====
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their antiunion efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

====Disasters====
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
On 7 December 1903 the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref>Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540</ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref>George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995).</ref>

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref>Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224</ref>

====Crime====
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref>Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref>Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003</ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532</ref>

====Black migration====
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: Project Muse</ref>

====Polonia====
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907–25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921–39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806</ref>

====Great Depression====
===Since 1940===
====Politics====
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] when Richard J. Daley was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, [[Richard M. Daley]]. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref>Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446</ref>

====Public housing====
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref>D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002).</ref>
=====Japanese=====
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref>Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]</ref>

=====Hispanic immigrants=====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán, the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción, the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref>Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

====2020 Antifa riots====
[[File:Chi-riot.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chicago Police pelted with rocks by Democrat protesters in Grant Park, July 22, 2020.<ref>https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8546473/Almost-50-Chicago-cops-injured-protesters-throw-fireworks-frozen-bottles.html</ref>]]
:{{See also|2020 Antifa riots}}
In 2018, Chicago recorded 561 murders, more than the two biggest US cities - New York and Los Angeles - combined.

On May 31, 2020 Chicago saw its deadliest day in at least 60 years (records only go back to 1961), with 18 killings in a 24-hour period. Over the [[Memorial Day]] holiday - 85 people were shot and 24 killed, according to the University of Chicago Crime Lab.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52984535</ref> Mayor [[Lori Lightfoot]] said that day the city's 911 emergency call centre received 65,000 calls - 50,000 more than on an average day. White rioters assaulted a police woman.<ref>https://twitter.com/silver_report/status/1266551798057316364</ref> Mayor Lori Lightfoot acknowledged “an organized effort”. ''Chicago Business reported Lightfoot as saying,
{{quotebox-float|“There is no doubt. This was an organized effort last night,” she said. “There were clearly efforts to subvert the peaceful process and make it into something violent.”<ref>https://www.chicagobusiness.com/greg-hinz-politics/there-no-doubt-was-organized-effort</ref>}}
A racist black woman objected to [[Arab]]s defending their [[property]] with [[AK-47]]s "if we decided to loot it".<ref>https://www.redstate.com/elizabeth-vaughn/2020/06/09/chicago-woman-goes-ballistic-because-shop-owners-with-guns-prevent-her-from-looting/</ref> An Alderman asked Lightfoot, “Once they’re done looting and rioting, and whatever’s going to happen tonight, God help us, what happens when they start going after residents? Going into the neighborhoods? Once they start trying to break down people’s doors if they think they’ve got something," noting that there were “gang-bangers with AK-47s walking around right now, just waiting to settle some scores." When Lightfoot did not respond the Alderman added, “It’s not something you ignore. This is a question that I have.” The mayor responded, “I think you’re 100% full of sh**, is what I think.” The Alderman shot back, “No offense — F*** you, then. Who are you to tell me I’m full of sh**? Maybe you should come out and see what’s going on.”<ref>https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2020/06/08/chicago-mayor-lori-lightfoot-in-expletive-filled-fight-with-alderman-over-black-lives-matter-riots/</ref> The call was recorded. One alderman could be heard weeping while others angrily decried what was going on in the city. “My ward is a sh** show,” one alderman says. “They are shooting at the police.”<ref>https://news.wttw.com/2020/06/05/what-are-we-going-have-left-our-community-aldermen-react-panic-sorrow-unrest</ref> [[President Trump]] offered assistance to Gov. Pritzker and Mayor Lightfoot in dealing with the [[systemic racism]] that has plagued Democrat-run Chicago for decades:
{{quotebox|"I recently read an article from the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' on June 8, 2020, “18 murders in 24 hours: Inside the most violent day in 60 years in Chicago,” which discussed the severe crime and lack of law and order in our Nation’s third largest city. The article details how “85 people were shot and 24 killed the previous weekend, the most in modern history in Chicago.” Your lack of leadership on this important issue continues to fail the people you have sworn to protect. I am concerned it is another example of your lack of commitment to the vulnerable citizens who are victims of this violence and a lack of respect for the men and women in [[law enforcement]]. ...
[[Violence]] and [[death]], which are disproportionately harming young [[African American]]s, are tragic and unacceptable, particularly on such a shocking scale. According to the ''Chicago Sun Times'', “shootings across the City increased by 71 percent last month,” and just this past weekend 102 people were shot in the city’s most violent weekend of the year. A 3-year old toddler was killed. More Americans have been killed in Chicago than in combat zones of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]] combined since [[September 11, 2001]], a deadly trend that has continued under your tenure....

Unlike previous Administrations of both parties, I am willing to tackle unsolved challenges. If you are willing to put partisanship aside, we can revitalize distressed neighborhoods in Chicago, together. But to succeed, you must establish law and order. The combination of crime, high State and local taxes, and onerous State and local government regulations have caused thousands of Illinoisans to flee to other States. Between 2010 and 2019, Illinois lost more of its population than any other state in the Nation. If you are interested, I am willing to ask members of my Cabinet to meet with you and help devise a plan to make Chicago safe, since a successful formula has escaped both you and your predecessors. My Administration would also welcome the opportunity to engage with you and your colleagues as you develop bipartisan policy recommendations to improve policing and make our great cities safer for all."<ref>https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/president-donald-j-trumps-letter-governor-illinois-mayor-chicago/</ref>}}
On July 17, 2020, BLM and Antifa rioters assaulted police with bricks, rocks, sticks, bottles, and fireworks. The police, most of whom had no helmets, were defending a monument.<ref>https://www.redstate.com/nick-arama/2020/07/17/dozens-of-blm-and-antifa-full-on-attack-police-in-chicago-police-reinforcements-make-them-regret-it/</ref>

Dozens of Antifa and Black Lives Matter rioters attempted to pull down a statue of Christopher Columbus at Grant Park in Chicago and viciously attacked police officers who attempted to defend the statue by using various projectiles and fireworks against the officers, but the rioters soon paid for their criminal actions when police reinforcements arrived and, with that backup, the police turned the tables and beat down the punks with batons and pepper-sprayed them.<ref>[https://www.redstate.com/nick-arama/2020/07/17/dozens-of-blm-and-antifa-full-on-attack-police-in-chicago-police-reinforcements-make-them-regret-it/ Dozens of BLM and Antifa Full On Attack Police in Chicago, Police Reinforcements Make Them Regret It] at Red State</ref> Several of the hoodlums were arrested while the other punks, showing themselves as the cowardly crybullies they are, ran away when the tide turned against them.

In the month of July 2020 alone there were 105 homicides in Chicago compared to 44 the previous July.<ref>https://apnews.com/5a4b1f1cde30f26bd1a9dcd6f2390d83</ref>

===Biden Putsch===
[[File:Benford's Law Chicago.png|right|300px|thumb|[[Benford's Law]] says [[Joe Biden]]'s vote in the [[2020 presidential election]] is a statistical impossibility.<ref>https://theredelephants.com/there-is-undeniable-mathematical-evidence-the-election-is-being-stolen/</ref>]]
:{{See also|Democrat voter fraud|Biden Putsch}}
Former Illinois governor [[Rod Blagojevich]] explained that there is no question that [[voter fraud]] was happening in [[Chicago]], [[Philadelphia]], [[Milwaukee]], [[Detroit]], and other cities.
{{quotebox-float|“In big cities where they control the political apparatus and they control the apparatus that counts the votes, and they control the polling places and the ones who count the votes, it’s widespread and it’s deep.”<ref>https://theredelephants.com/there-is-undeniable-mathematical-evidence-the-election-is-being-stolen/</ref>}}

===Schools===
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city.<ref>John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983–87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref>Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schoold were so beset by violence, teacher shortages and inadequate financing that few Few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 nonteaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995.<ref>See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==Reputation==
[[File:USCellular1.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. Cellular Field. Home of Chicago White Sox.]]
Journalists, novelists and poets shaped Chicago's national and international reputation. Images and representations are important means by which the city is known and negotiated. During the years of rapid urbanization 1890-1930 the numerous daily newspapers presented the most important and pervasive word versions of the city. Among the significant innovations of Chicago's newspapers in these years that shaped the idea of the city was the emergence of the local color columnist. Groeninger (2005) examines the role of columnists in Chicago newspapers in creating a "city of the mind." After a review of the literature on images of cities, the relationship of newspapers to modern city life in the thought of Robert Park, and the world of Chicago's newspapers at the turn-of-the-century, detailed studies of a number of the most important columnists of the era follow. [[George Ade]]'s column of the 1890s in the ''Daily News'', "Stories of the Streets and of the Town," presented a view of Chicago from the perspective of migrants from the small towns of the Midwest. In the same decade [[Finley Peter Dunne]]'s column in the ''Evening Post'', featuring the fictional Irish barkeeper, Mr. Dooley, offered readers a literary version of the Irish working-class neighborhood of Bridgeport. [[Ring Lardner]]'s ''Tribune'' sports column of the teens, "In the Wake of the News," satirized not only Chicagoans obsession with sports, but also the middle-class culture of opera, musical theater, and the newspaper itself. Several columns in the black newspaper, ''The Whip'', offered images of Bronzeville in the 1920s that both reflected and helped shape the experience of African-Americans on the South Side of Chicago. [[Ben Hecht]]'s "1001 Afternoons in Chicago" column in the ''Daily News'' expressed a new, anti-Victorian sensibility in the post-war era, but his most enduring contributions to the image of Chicago were on the stage and in the new medium of film. The columnists who wrote about everyday life in the city were the most distinctive and powerful newspaper voices in shaping the idea of Chicago and the civic personality of the city itself.<ref>David V. Groeninger, "Chicago Imagined: The Role of Newspaper Columnists in Creating a City of the Mind, 1890-1930." PhD dissertation Loyola U., Chicago 2005. 280 pp. DAI 2005 66(5): 1925-A. DA3175764 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Sarah Susan Marcus, "Up from the Prairie: Depictions of Chicago and the Middle West in Popular Culture, 1865-1983." PhD dissertation U. of Wisconsin, Madison 2001. 445 pp. DAI 2001 62(4): 1554-1555-A. DA3012550 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref> Often referred to as the "Windy City", many people mistake that saying for the weather. It actually refers to the chatter of deal-making among Chicago politicians, the wind being talk. Chicago was the United States' bid city for the 2016 Olympics, which ultimately were awarded to [[Rio de Janeiro]].

The city was also rather notorious for several dirty elements in politics, including a quote attributed to Richard J. Daley called "Vote early, vote often", alluding to stuffing the ballot box to ensure a win in an election cycle, as well as a joke on how Chicago was the place where "people come back from the grave to vote", in reference to ghost voters, which is a variant of ballot box stuffing which included names of people who had in fact died before the election.

==See also==
* [[Art cities]]
* [[Chicago School of Economics]]
* [[Hull House]]
* [[Jane Addams]]
* [[Gun control]]—Chicago, along with [[San Francisco values|San Francisco]], [[Washington D.C.]], [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles]], is known to be one of the 5 top [[American]] cities with the most [[left-wing]] [[Second Amendment|Anti-Second Amendment]] laws. See "[[Vote with your feet]]" [[strategic relocation]] to [[Free States Movement|free states]] with low [[population density]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/ The Field Museum]
*[http://www.nationalmuseumofmexicanart.org/ National Museum of Mexican Art]
*[http://egov.cityofchicago.org/city/webportal/portalEntityHomeAction.do?entityname=Tourism%2526amp%253BentityNameEnumValue%253D41 City of Chicago - Tourism]
* [http://chicago.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm summary of 2000 census for city]
* [http://www.luc.edu/depts/sociology/johnson/ChicagoCensus(2004).html Kenneth M. Johnson, "Demographic Trends in the Chicago Metropolitan Area" (2006)]

==Bibliography==
the best source to study all aspects of Chicago is [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, and Janice L. Reiff, eds.. ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago'' University of Chicago Press, (2005) ISBN 0-226-31015-9; (online version)]
* Szucs, Loretto Dennis. ''Chicago and Cook County: A Guide to Research'' (1996), 517pp; bibliographies for genealogy and local history [https://www.amazon.com/Chicago-Cook-County-Guide-Research/dp/0916489620/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product excerpt and text search]

===Current===
* ''Frommer's Chicago 2007'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Chicago-2007-Complete/dp/0470040785/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198575167&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

===History===
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005) (online version)], the place to start

====Surveys====
* Longstreet, Stephen. ''Chicago: An Intimate Portrait of People, Pleasures, and Power, 1860-1919.'' (1973). 547 pp. popular
* Miller, Donald L. ''City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America'' (1997), popular epic; [https://www.amazon.com/City-Century-Chicago-Making-America/dp/0684831384/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Pierce, Bessie Louise. ''A History of Chicago, Volume I: The Beginning of a City 1673-1848'' (1937; reprint 2007); ''Volume II: From Town to City 1848-1871'' (reprint 2007); ''Volume III: The Rise of a Modern City, 1871-1893'' (reprint 2007)
* Spinney, Robert G. ''City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago'' (2000), popular epic; [https://www.amazon.com/City-Big-Shoulders-History-Chicago/dp/0875805833/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

====Geography, region, housing====
* Barrett, Paul. ''The Automobile and Urban Transit: The Formation of Public Policy in Chicago, 1900-1930.'' (1983). 295 pp.
* Betancur, John J. "The Settlement Experience of Latinos in Chicago: Segregation, Speculation, and the Ecology Model." ''Social Forces'' 1996 74(4): 1299-1324. Issn: 0037-7732 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732(199606)74%3A4%3C1299%3ATSEOLI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L Jstor]
* Bigott, Joseph C. ''From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Classes in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869-1929'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Cottage-Bungalow-Metropolitan-1869-1929-Architecture/dp/0226048756/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670620&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bronsky, Eric, Neal Samors and Jennifer Samors. ''Downtown Chicago in Transition'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Downtown-Chicago-Transition-Bronsky-Samors/dp/0979789206/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198575167&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Cronon, William. ''Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West.'' (1991). 530 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Natures-Metropolis-Chicago-Great-West/dp/0393308731/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592196&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Garb, Margaret. ''City of American Dreams: A History of Home Ownership and Housing Reform in Chicago, 1871-1919.'' (2005). 261 pp.
* Keating, Ann Durkin. ''Building Chicago: Suburban Developers and the Creation of a Divided Metropolis.'' (1988). 230 pp.
* Keating, Ann Durkin. "Chicagoland: More than the Sum of its Parts." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2004 30(2): 213-230. Issn: 0096-1442 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Mayer, Harold M., and Richard C. Wade. ''Chicago: Growth of a Metropolis'' (1969) 510pp
* Pacyga, Dominic A. and Skerrett, Ellen. ''Chicago: City of Neighborhoods. Histories and Tours.'' (1986). 582 pp.
* Randall, Gregory C. ''America's Original G.I. Town: Park Forest, Illinois.'' 2000. 236 pp.
* Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002), 360pp, on Robert Taylor Homes, a high rise public housing project with a negative reputation [https://www.amazon.com/American-Project-Rise-Modern-Ghetto/dp/0674008308/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670359&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* WPA. ''Illinois: A Descriptive and Historical Guide'' (1939)

====Pre 1871====
* Fehrenbacher, Don E. ''Chicago Giant: A Biography of "Long John" Wentworth.'' (1957). 278 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/4005584 online edition]
* Karamanski, Theodore J. ''Rally 'Round the Flag: Chicago and the Civil War.'' (1993). 292 pp.
*Pierce, Bessie Louise. ''A History of Chicago, Volume I: The Beginning of a City 1673-1848'' (1937; reprint 2007); ''Volume II: From Town to City 1848-1871'' (reprint 2007)
* Quaife, Milo Milton. ''Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835.'' (1913, reprint 2001). 480 pp.

====Politics====
* Allswang, John. ''A House For All Peoples: Ethnic Politics In Chicago, 1890-1936.'' (1973). 213 pp.
* Barnard, Harry. ''"Eagle Forgotten": The Life of John Peter Altgeld'' (1938)
* Beito, David T. ''Taxpayers in Revolt: Tax Resistance during the Great Depression.'' (1989). 216 pp.
* Biles, Roger. ''Richard J. Daley: Politics, Race, and the Governing of Chicago.'' (1995). 292 pp.
* Biles, Roger. ''Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago.'' (1984). 219 pp.
* Bukowski, Douglas. ''Big Bill Thompson, Chicago, and the Politics of Image.'' (1998). 273 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Bill-Thompson-Chicago-Politics-Image/dp/0252066685/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592309&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Cohen, Adam, and Elizabeth Taylor. ''American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley - His Battle for Chicago and the Nation.'' (2001). 614pp ISBN 0-316-83489-0 [https://www.amazon.com/American-Pharaoh-Richard-Battle-Chicago/dp/B000FDFWIW/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610306&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Flanagan, Maureen A. ''Charter Reform in Chicago.'' (1987). 207 pp.
* Fuchs, Ester R. ''Mayors and Money: Fiscal Policy in New York and Chicago.'' (1992). 361 pp.
* Green, Paul M. and Holli, Melvin G., eds. ''The Mayors: The Chicago Political Tradition'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-mayors-the-chicago-political-tradition-by-paul-m-green-melvin-g-holli.jsp online edition]
* Green, Paul M. and Holli, Melvin G., eds. ''Restoration 1989: Chicago Elects a New Daley.'' (1991). 212 pp.
* Gosnell, Harold F. ''Machine Politics: Chicago Model'' (1937), classic statistical study [http://www.questia.com/library/book/machine-politics-chicago-model-by-harold-f-gosnell.jsp online edition]
* Guterbock, Thomas M. ''Machine Politics in Transition: Party and Community in Chicago.'' (1980). 324 pp.
* Hartley, Robert E. ''Big Jim Thompson of Illinois'' (1979), governor 1980s
* Hogan, David John. ''Class and Reform: School and Society in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1985). 328 pp.
* Kantowicz, Edward R. ''Polish-American Politics in Chicago, 1888-1940.'' (1975). 260 pp.
* Kleppner, Paul. ''Chicago Divided: The Making of a Black Mayor.'' (1985). 313 pp.
* Littlewood, Thomas B. ''Horner of Illinois'' (1969), governor 1933-40
* Merriam, Charles Edward. ''Chicago: A More Intimate View of Urban Politics'' (1929) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chicago-a-more-intimate-view-of-urban-politics-by-charles-edward-merriam.jsp online edition]
* Miller, Kristie. ''Ruth Hanna Mccormick: A Life in Politics, 1880-1944'' (1992)
* Morton, Richard Allen. ''Justice and Humanity: Edward F. Dunne, Illinois Progressive'' (1997), 174pp Democrfatic mayor 1905-7 and governor 1913-17.
* Peterson, Paul E. ''The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940.'' (1985). 241 pp.
* Pinderhughes, Dianne M. ''Race and Ethnicity in Chicago Politics: A Reexamination of Pluralist Theory.'' (1987). 318 pp.
* Rivlin, Gary. ''Fire on the Prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the Politics of Race.'' (1992). 426 pp.
* Schmidt, John R. ''"The Mayor Who Cleaned Up Chicago": A Political Biography of William E. Dever.'' (1989). 239 pp.
* Schneirov, Richard. ''Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97.'' (1998). 390 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Labor-Urban-Politics-Conflict-Liberalism/dp/0252066766/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198678418&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Simpson, Dick. ''Rogues, Rebels, and Rubber Stamps: The Politics of the Chicago City Council from 1863 to the Present'' (2001) 356pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100296105 online edition]
* Smith, Joan K. ''Ella Flagg Young: Portrait of a Leader.'' (1979). 272 pp.
* Tarr, Joel Arthur. ''A Study in Boss Politics: William Lorimer of Chicago.'' (1971). 376 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/58538592 online edition]
* Wendt, Lloyd, Herman Kogan, and Bette Jore. ''Big Bill of Chicago.'' (2005) ISBN 0-8101-2319-3, popular vio of mayor in 1920s

====Crime, law and disaster ====
* Adler, Jeffrey S. ''First in Violence, Deepest in Dirt: Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920.'' (2006). 357 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/First-Violence-Deepest-Dirt-Homicide/dp/0674021495/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Adler, Jeffrey S. "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2003 34(1): 27-48. Issn: 0022-1953 Fulltext: Project Muse
* Avrich, Paul. ''The Haymarket Tragedy'' (1984) [https://www.amazon.com/Haymarket-Tragedy-Paul-Avrich/dp/0691006008/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198669133&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bales, Richard F. ''The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow.'' (2002). 338 pp.
* Hilton, George W. ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). 364 pp. The cruise ship capsized at its pier on a calm day in 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was topheavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifboats.
* Brandt, Nat. ''Chicago Death Trap: The Iroquois Theatre Fire of 1903.'' (2003). 180 pp.
* Bruno, Robert. ''Reforming the Chicago Teamsters: The Story of Local 705.'' (2003). 203 pp.
* Cahan, Richard. ''A Court that Shaped America: Chicago's Federal District Court from Abe Lincoln to Abbie Hoffman.'' (2002). 273 pp.
* Chicago Commission on Race Relations. ''The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot'' (1922) - 672 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=3kErAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=intitle:chicago+date:1920-1923&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Cohen, Andrew Wender. ''The Racketeer's Progress: Chicago and the Struggle for the Modern American Economy, 1900-1940.'' (2004). 333 pp.
* Getis, Victoria. ''The Juvenile Court and the Progressives.'' (2000). 216 pp.
* Farber, David. ''Chicago '68.'' (1988). 304 pp.
* Heinz, John P. and Laumann, Edward O. ''Chicago Lawyers: The Social Structure of the Bar.'' (1983). 496 pp.
* Higdon, Hal. ''Leopold and Loeb: The Crime of the Century.'' (1975). 380 pp.
* Hoffman, Dennis E. ''Scarface Al and the Crime Crusaders: Chicago's Private War against Capone.'' (1993). 192 pp.
* Lindberg, Richard Carl. ''To Serve and Collect: Chicago Politics and Police Corruption from the Lager Beer Riot to the Summerdale Scandal: 1855-1960.'' 1991. ISBN 0-275-93415-2 [http://www.questia.com/read/24258677 online edition]
* Merriner, James L. ''Grafters and Goo Goos: Corruption and Reform in Chicago, 1833-(2003).'' (2004). 302 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/109814452 online edition]
* Miller, Ross. ''The Great Chicago Fire'' (2000); 1st ed was ''American Apocalypse: The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Chicago'' 287 pp.
* Mumford, Kevin J. ''Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century.'' (1997). 238 pp.
* Sawislak, Karen. ''Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874.'' (1995). 408 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Wendt, Lloyd, and Herman Kogan. ''Lords of the Levee.'' (1967), popular stories from early 20th century.
* Willrich, Michael. ''City of Courts: Socializing Justice in Progressive Era Chicago.'' (2003). 332 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/City-Courts-Socializing-Progressive-Historical/dp/052179403X/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wolcott, David B. ''Cops and Kids: Policing Juvenile Delinquency in Urban America, 1890-1940.'' (2005). 264 pp.

====Labor====
* Bae, Youngsoo. ''Labor in Retreat: Class and Community among Men's Clothing Workers of Chicago, 1871-1929.'' (2001). 295 pp.
* Barrett, James. ''Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894--1922'' (1987), [https://www.amazon.com/Work-Community-Jungle-Packinghouse-1894-1922/dp/0252061365/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198680212&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Cohen, Lizabeth. ''Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939.'' (1990). 526 pp.
* Cummings, John. "The Chicago Teamsters’ Strike: A study in industrial democracy." ''Journal of Political Economy'' (1905) 13: 536–73. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(190509)13%3A4%3C536%3ATCTSSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 in jstor]
* Fine, Lisa M. ''The Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930.'' (1990). 249 pp.
* Green, James. ''Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement and the Bombing that Divided Gilded Age America.'' (2006). 383 pp.
* Halpern, Rick. ''Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954.'' (1997). 309 pp.
* Meyerowitz, Joanne J. ''Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1988). 224 pp.
* Newell, Barbara Wayne. ''Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s'' (1961)
* Papke, David Ray. ''The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America.'' (1999). 118 pp. legal aspects
* Schneirov, Richard; Stromquist, Shelton; and Salvatore, Nick, eds. ''The Pullman Strike and the Crisis of the 1890s: Essays on Labor and Politics.'' (1999). 258 pp.
* Schneirov, Richard and Suhrbur, Thomas J. ''Union Brotherhood, Union Town: A History of the Carpenters' Union of Chicago, 1863-1987.'' (1988). 211 pp.

====Business and economics====
* Ascoli, Peter Max. ''Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the American South'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Julius-Rosenwald-Education-Philanthropic-Nonprofit/dp/0253347416/ref=sr_1_31?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198677606&sr=1-31 excerpt and text search]
* Emmet, Boris, and John E. Jeuck. ''Catalogues and Counters: A History of Sears, Roebuck & Company'' (1965), the standard corporate history
* Ferris, William G. ''The Grain Traders: The Story of the Chicago Board of Trade.'' (1988). 221 pp.
* Franch, John. ''Robber Baron: The Life of Charles Tyson Yerkes.'' (2006). 374 pp.
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Insull: The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon'' (2004)
* Rast, Joel. ''Remaking Chicago: The Political Origins of Urban Industrial Change.'' (1999). 220 pp. redevelopment of area near downtown
* Smith, Raymond D., and William P. Darrow. "Strategic Management and Entrepreneurial Opportunity: The Rise of Sears, Inc.," ''Journal of Business & Entrepreneurship'' (1999) 11#1
* Young, David M. ''The Iron Horse and the Windy City: How Railroads Shaped Chicago.'' (2005). 270 pp. popular
* Young, David M. ''Chicago Aviation: An Illustrated History.'' (2003). 254 pp. popular
* Young, David M. ''Chicago Transit: An Illustrated History.'' (1998). 213 pp. popular

====Environment====
* Cain, Louis P. ''Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago.'' (1978). 141 pp.
* Capano, Daniel E. "Chicago's War with Water." ''American Heritage of Invention & Technology'' 2003 18(4): 50-58. Issn: 8756-7296 [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2003/4/2003_4_50.shtml full text online]
* O'Connell, James C. ''Chicago's Quest for Pure Water.'' (1976).
* Pellow, David Naguib. ''Garbage Wars: The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Chicago.'' (2002). 234 pp.
* Platt, Harold L. ''Shock Cities: The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and Chicago.'' (2005). 628 pp.
* Platt, Harold L. ''The Electric City: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880-1930.'' (1991). 318 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Electric-City-Energy-Chicago-1880-1930/dp/0226670759/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]

====High culture, architecture, science====
* Bolotin, Norman and Laing, Christine. ''The World's Columbian Exposition: The Chicago World's Fair of 1893.'' (1992). 166 pp.
* Bonner, Thomas Neville. ''Medicine in Chicago, 1850-1950: A Chapter in the Social and Scientific Development of a City.'' ( 1957, 2d ed. 1991). 335 pp.
* Bruegmann, Robert. ''The Architects and the City: Holabird & Roche of Chicago, 1880-1918.'' (1997). 544 pp.
* Cappetti, Carla. ''Writing Chicago: Modernism, Ethnography, and the Novel.'' (1993). 274 pp.
* Christiansen, Richard. ''A Theater of Our Own: A History and a Memoir of 1,001 Nights in Chicago.'' (2004). 317 pp.
* Clarke, Jane H.; Saliga, Pauline A.; and Zukowsky, John. ''The Sky's the Limit: A Century of Chicago Skyscrapers.'' (1990). 304 pp.
* Condit, Carl W. ''Chicago, 1910-29: Building, Planning, and Urban Technology.'' (1973). 354 pp.
* Condit, Carl W. ''Chicago, 1930-70: Building, Planning, and Urban Technology.'' (1974). 351 pp.
* Garvey, Timothy J. ''Public Sculptor: Lorado Taft and the Beautification of Chicago.'' (1988). 222 pp.
* Gray, Mary Lackritz. ''A Guide to Chicago's Murals.'' (2001). 488 pp.
* Greenhouse, Wendy and Weininger, Susan. ''Chicago Painting 1895-1945: The Bridges Collection.'' (2004). 251 pp.
* Hallwas, John E. ed., ''Illinois Literature: The Nineteenth Century'' (1986)
* Harris, Neil. ''Chicago Apartments: A Century of Lakefront Luxury.'' (2004). 352 pp.
* Hines, Thomas S. ''Burnham of Chicago: Architect and Planner.'' (1974). 445 pp.
* Longstreth, Richard, ed. ''The Charnley House: Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and the Making of Chicago's Gold Coast.'' (2004). 249 pp.
* Lowe, David Garrard. ''Lost Chicago'' (2000), architectural landmarks that were torn down. [https://www.amazon.com/Lost-Chicago-David-Garrard-Lowe/dp/0823028712/ref=pd_bbs_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* McCarthy, Kathleen D. ''Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929.'' (1982). 230 pp.
* Moudry, Roberta, ed. ''The American Skyscraper: Cultural Histories.'' (2005). 281 pp.
* Saum, Lewis O. ''Eugene Field and His Age.'' (2001). 324 pp.
* Schaffer, Kristen. ''Daniel H. Burnham: Visionary Architect and Planner.'' (2003). 223 pp.
* Siry, Joseph M. ''The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City.'' (2002). 550 pp.
* Siry, Joseph. ''Carson Pirie Scott: Louis Sullivan and the Chicago Department Store.'' (1989). 290 pp.
* Waldheim, Charles and Ray, Katerina Rüedi, eds. ''Chicago Architecture: Histories, Revisions, Alternatives.'' (2005). 488 pp.
* Wright, Gwendolyn. ''Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago, 1873-1913.'' (1980). 382 pp.
* Zukowsky, John, ed. ''Chicago Architecture and Design, 1923-1993: Reconfiguration of an American Metropolis.'' (1993). 479 pp.

====Black Chicago====
* Best, Wallace D. ''Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952.'' (2005). 251 pp.
* Black, Timuel D., Jr. ''Bridges of Memory: Chicago's First Wave of Black Migration.'' (2003). 600 pp.
* Blakely, Robert J. ''Earl B. Dickerson: A Voice for Freedom and Equality.'' (2006). 270 pp.
* Chicago Commission on Race Relations. ''The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot'' (1922) - 672 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=3kErAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=intitle:chicago+date:1920-1923&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Drake, St. Clair, and Horace R. Cayton. ''Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City'' (4th ed. 1945), classic sociological study
* Grimshaw, William J. ''Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931-1991.'' (1992). 248 pp.
* Grossman, James R. ''Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration.'' (1989). 384 pp.
* Hirsch, Arnold R. ''Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-60.'' (1983). 362 pp.
* Knupfer, Anne Meis. ''The Chicago Black Renaissance and Women's Activism.'' (2006). 244 pp.
* Lemann, Nicholas. ''The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America.'' (1991). 401 pp.
* Philpott, Thomas Lee. ''The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1978). 437 pp.
* Pinderhughes, Dianne M. ''Race and Ethnicity in Chicago Politics: A Reexamination of Pluralist Theory.'' (1987). 318 pp.
* Reed, Christopher Robert. ''Black Chicago's First Century. Vol. 1: 1833-1900.'' (2005). 582 pp.
* Reed, Christopher Robert. ''The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910-1966.'' (1997). 257 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/101542281 online edition]
* Rivlin, Gary. ''Fire on the Prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the Politics of Race.'' (1992). 426 pp.
* Spear, Allan. ''Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890--1920'' (1967),
* Strickland, Arvarh E. ''History of the Chicago Urban League.'' 1966, 2nd ed. (2001). 286 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002), 360pp, on Robert Taylor Homes, a high rise public housing project with a negative reputation [https://www.amazon.com/American-Project-Rise-Modern-Ghetto/dp/0674008308/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670359&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wellman, James K., Jr. ''The Gold Coast Church and the Ghetto: Christ and Culture in Mainline Protestantism.'' (1999). 241 pp.

====Social, religious, and ethnic====
* Anderson, Philip J. and Blanck, Dag, eds. ''Swedish-American Life in Chicago: Cultural and Urban Aspects of an Immigrant People, 1850-1930.'' (1992). 394 pp.
* Avella, Steven M. ''This Confident Church: Catholic Leadership and Life in Chicago, 1940-1965.'' (1992). 410 pp.
* Barrett, James. ''Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894--1922'' (1987), [https://www.amazon.com/Work-Community-Jungle-Packinghouse-1894-1922/dp/0252061365/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198680212&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Beijbom, Ulf. ''Swedes in Chicago: A Demographic and Social Study of the 1846-1880 Immigration.'' (1971). 381 pp
* Betancur, John J. "The Settlement Experience of Latinos in Chicago: Segregation, Speculation, and the Ecology Model." ''Social Forces'' 1996 74(4): 1299-1324. Issn: 0037-7732 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732(199606)74%3A4%3C1299%3ATSEOLI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L Jstor]
* Bowly Jr., Devereux ''The Poorhouse: Subsidized Housing in Chicago, 1895-1976'' (1978) [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=Devereux Bowly Jr.&dcontributors=Devereux+Bowly+Jr. online edition]
* Candeloro, Dominic. ''Italians in Chicago.'' (1999). 128 pp.
* Cutler, Irving. ''The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb.'' (1996). 316 pp.
* Dahm, Charles and Ghelardi, Robert. ''Power and Authority in the Catholic Church: Cardinal Cody in Chicago.'' (1982). 334 pp.
* DeGenova, Nicholas. ''Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and "Illegality" in Mexican Chicago.'' (2005). 329 pp.
* Duis, Perry R. ''Challenging Chicago: Coping with Everyday Life, 1837-1920.'' (1998). 430 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=23567921015495 online review]
* Duis, Perry R. ''The Saloon: Public Drinking in Chicago and Boston, 1880-1920'' (1983).
* Erdmans, Mary Patrice. ''Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990.'' (1998). 267 pp.
* Fuerst, J. S. and Hunt, D. Bradford, eds. ''When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago.'' (2003) 228 pp.
* Green, Paul M., and Melvin G. Holli. ''Chicago, World War II'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Chicago-World-War-Images-America/dp/0738532096/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592033&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Greene, Victor. ''For God and Country: The Rise of Polish and Lithuanian Ethnic Consciousness in America, 1860-1910.'' (1975). 202 pp.
* Guglielmo, Thomas A. ''White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945.'' (2003). 296 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/104280928 online edition]
* Harden, Jacalyn D. ''Double Cross: Japanese Americans in Black and White Chicago.'' (2003). 232 pp.
* Holli, Melvin G. and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Ethnic Chicago: A Multicultural Portrait.'' (4th ed. 1995). 648 pp. essays by scholars on each major ethnic group
* Hoy, Suellen. ''Good Hearts: Catholic Sisters in Chicago's Past.'' (2006). 242 pp.
* Jaher, Frederic Cople. ''The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles.'' (1982). 777 pp.
* Kantowicz, Edward R. ''Corporation Sole: Cardinal Mundelein and Chicago Catholicism.'' (1983). 295 pp.
* Keil, Hartmut, ed. ''German Workers' Culture in the United States, 1850 to 1920.'' (1988). 330 pp.
* Keil, Hartmut and Jentz, John B., eds. ''German Workers in Industrial Chicago, 1850-1910: A Comparative Perspective.'' (1983). 252 pp.
* Lovoll, Odd S. ''A Century of Urban Life: The Norwegians in Chicago before 1930.'' (1988). 367 pp.
* McCaffrey, Lawrence J.; Skerrett, Ellen; Funchion, Michael F.; and Fanning, Charles. ''The Irish in Chicago.'' (1987). 171 pp.
* Nelli, Humbert S. ''The Italians in Chicago: A Study in Ethnic Mobility, 1880-1930.'' (1970). 300 pp.
* Pacyga, Dominic A. ''Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago: Workers on the South Side, 1880-1920.'' (1991). 322 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Polish-Immigrants-Industrial-Chicago-1880-1922/dp/0226644243/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198664960&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Padilla, Felix M. ''Puerto Rican Chicago.'' (1987). 277 pp.
* Parot, Joseph John. ''Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850-1920: A Religious History.'' (1982) 298 pp.
* Philpott, Thomas Lee. ''The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1978). 437 pp.
* Posadas, Barbara M. "Crossed Boundaries in Interracial Chicago: Filipino American Families since 1925," in ''Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History'', ed. Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois (1994), 319+.
* Rangaswamy, Padma. ''Namasté America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis.'' 2000. 366 pp.
* Robertson, Darrel M. ''The Chicago Revival, 1876: Society and Revivalism in a Nineteenth century City.'' (1989). 225 pp.
* Sanders, James W. ''The Education of an Urban Minority: Catholics in Chicago, 1833-1965.'' (1977). 278 pp.
* Shanabruch, Charles. ''Chicago's Catholics: The Evolution of an American Identity.'' (1981). 296 pp.
* Shaw, Stephen J. ''The Catholic Parish as a Way-Station of Ethnicity and Americanization: Chicago's Germans and Italians, 1903-1939.''(1991). 206 pp.
* Swierenga, Robert P. ''Dutch Chicago: A History of the Hollanders in the Windy City.'' (2002). 825 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Chicago-Hollanders-Historical-Reformed/dp/0802813119/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592252&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Tischauser, Leslie V. ''The Burden of Ethnicity: The German Question in Chicago, 1914-1941.'' (1990). 282 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Wade, Louise Carroll. ''Chicago's Pride: The Stockyards, Packingtown, and Environs in the Nineteenth Century.'' (1987). 423 pp.
* Walch, Timothy. ''The Diverse Origins of American Catholic Education: Chicago, Milwaukee, and the Nation.'' (1988). 235 pp.
* Wellman, James K., Jr. ''The Gold Coast Church and the Ghetto: Christ and Culture in Mainline Protestantism.'' (1999). 241 pp.

====Sports, entertainment, music, newspapers====
* Kenney, William Howland. ''Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904-1930.'' (1993). 233 pp.
* Kinsley, Philip. ''The Chicago Tribune: Its First Hundred Years'' (1943) [http://www.questia.com/read/55479945 online edition]
* Sengstock, Charles A., Jr. ''That Toddlin' Town: Chicago's White Dance Bands and Orchestras, 1900-1950.'' (2004). 244 pp.
* Smith, Richard Norton. ''The Colonel: The Life and Legend of Robert R. McCormick, 1880-1955.'' (1997). 597 pp.
* Spirou, Costas and Bennett, Larry. ''It's Hardly Sportin': Stadiums, Neighborhoods, and the New Chicago.'' (2003). 212 pp.
* Vaillant, Derek. ''Sounds of Reform: Progressivism & Music in Chicago, 1873-1935.'' (2003). 401 pp.
* Ziemba, Joe. ''When Football Was Football: The Chicago Cardinals and the Birth of the NFL.'' (1999). 408 pp.

====Reputation, images, visions, planning====
* Fairfield, John D. ''The Mysteries of the Great City: The Politics of Urban Design, 1877-1937.'' (1993). 320 pp.
* Flanagan, Maureen A. ''Seeing with Their Hearts: Chicago Women and the Vision of the Good City, 1871-1933.'' (2002). 319 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Seeing-Their-Hearts-Chicago-1871-1933/dp/0691095396/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hines, Thomas S. ''Burnham of Chicago: Architect and Planner.'' (1974). 445 pp.
* Miller, Ross. ''American Apocalypse: The Great Fire and the Myth of Chicago.'' 1990. 287 pp.
* Ciccone, F. Richard ''Royko: A Life in Print'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/100247911 online edition]
* Smith, Carl S. ''Chicago and the American Literary Imagination, 1880-1920.'' (1984). 232 pp.
* Spears, Timothy B. ''Chicago Dreaming: Midwesterners and the City, 1871-1919.'' (2005). 322 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. ''A Storyteller and a City: Sherwood Anderson's Chicago.'' (1988). 314 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. and Duffy, Bernard, eds. ''Chicago's Public Wits: A Chapter in the American Comic Spirit.'' (1983). 289 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. ''Prairie Voices: A Literary History of Chicago from the Frontier to 1893.'' (1980). 529 pp.

====Primary sources====
* Byrne, Jane. ''My Chicago.'' (1992), mayor in 1980s
* Despres, Leon M. and Heise, Kenan. ''Challenging the Daley Machine: A Chicago Alderman's Memoir.'' (2005). 168 pp.
* Fanning, Charles, ed. ''Mr. Dooley and the Chicago Irish: An Anthology.'' (1976).
* Keil, Hartmut and Jentz, John B., eds. ''German Workers in Chicago: A Documentary History of Working-Class Culture from 1850 to World War I.'' (1988). 427 pp.
* Pierce, Bessue Louise, ed. ''As Others See Chicago: Impressions of Visitors, 1673-1933.'' (1937, reprinted 2004). 548 pp
* Royko, Mike. ''For the Love of Mike: More of the Best of Mike Royko.'' (2001). 270 pp.
* Sandburg, Carl. ''Chicago Poems'' (1916) [http://www.questia.com/read/3789090 online edition]
* Thomas, William, and Florian Znaniecki. ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America.'' 2 vol 1920, ISBN 0252010922 (1984 printing). ; famous classic [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC11633316&id=zaUMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR7&lpg=RA1-PR7&dq=Thomas+and+Florian+Znaniecki++Polish online edition]

====Notes====
<references/>

{{Election Fraud}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Illinois Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Anti Second Amendment]]
[[Category:Gun Control]]
[[Category:Most Liberal American Cities]]

User:United States/United States vs All of Conservapedia

2021-01-02T22:35:54Z

United States: Ratio increased from 1:1,062 to 1:1,034!

Edits:
*United States: 1,650
*Conservapedia: 1,706,059
*Ratio: 1:1,034

User:United States

2021-01-02T22:27:42Z

United States: 2021!!!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

Note: I will be somewhat active, but in a lesser rate/scale. :)

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

If you are a conservative and wish to edit Wikipedia, don't behave like a conservative does there. Just act like you don't have any political beliefs, or act like a liberal, if there is an emergency/last warning.

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

User:United States

2020-12-21T13:55:11Z

United States: i am coming back later... in a few months. feel free to message me, i will be back later. don't block me, however :)

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

I am coming back sometime... possibly by winter 2020/spring 2021.

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

If you are a conservative and wish to edit Wikipedia, don't behave like a conservative does there. Just act like you don't have any political beliefs, or act like a liberal, if there is an emergency/last warning.

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

User:United States

2020-12-12T16:04:12Z

United States: adding how you need to behave in Wikipedia!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

If you are a conservative and wish to edit Wikipedia, don't behave like a conservative does there. Just act like you don't have any political beliefs, or act like a liberal, if there is an emergency/last warning.

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

User:United States

2020-12-12T15:59:52Z

United States: my Wikipedia account was made!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

Go find me in Wikipedia here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Conservative_United_States!

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

User:United States/Coronavirus Vaccine

2020-12-12T15:57:38Z

United States: new!

Thank you, hardworking American doctors and scientists, for supplying us with our COVID-19 vaccine. We will get the vaccine in March, then this awful Chinese virus will go away. Please follow all the COVID guidelines to avoid getting coronavirus. Thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 10:57, 12 December 2020 (EST)

User talk:United States

2020-12-12T15:50:09Z

United States: adding!

== "United States" page ==

"United States of America" is the proper name of the country. While "United States" is the common name of the USA, this name could apply to any united group of states, anywhere in the world. Therefore, I don't think it is appropriate to move the page to this less accurate title. If we are going to make the move, though, we need to preserve the edit history of the original page, "United States of America". Whether or not to move it can be discussed [[Talk:United_States_of_America|here]]. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 16:37, 2 December 2020 (EST)

:Okay, I see. I didn't really quite understand it. Thanks for telling me! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 16:38, 2 December 2020 (EST)

::Thanks. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 16:41, 2 December 2020 (EST)

== "RationalWiki" page ==

There is a plan for such a page, but at this time we're not posting it due to the nature of the subject. If you are still thinking of writing it, work on it off-site, and submit the final to ASchlafly via email. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] ([[User talk:Karajou|talk]]) 14:12, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:Thanks for telling me! What's the plan and what's the nature of such a subject? --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 14:15, 3 December 2020 (EST)

== Please don't feed trolls. ==

Trolls and vandals only cause damage to wikis because they want a reaction. If you give them that reaction, that is positive feedback that causes them to create more sockpuppets. Jim Graye in particular is a long-term vandal. They do it because they hate the website and have no life. The best strategy is to revert their vandalism, have a sysop block them, and ignore them after. Don't post anything on their talk page or user page, just revert, block, ignore. This stops vandals from having fun while damaging the site. The majority of vandals are socks of him or the juvenile delinquent, who makes accounts with names attacking users. Thanks. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 16:40, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:Okay, I didn't know that was feeding trolls, thanks for reminding me! I reverted their vandalism, when I saw them vandalizing, then put a speedy deletion request on their pages. Also, at first, when I saw Jim Graye create his account, I didn't know that he was a troll, and I just told him what will he do for Conservapedia, in a desire to get more users to help Conservapedia. Thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 16:44, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::Asking that on people's talk page is not necessarily a bad thing, but wait for 30 minutes and make sure they aren't an obvious vandal before asking that. You're good at reverting vandalism, keep doing that. Telling someone to stop disruptively editing only works if they are editing in good faith, which the long-term vandals are not. Thanks for understanding! [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 16:58, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::I was afraid, that if I wait 30 minutes, they may not come back and reply, as in the case of many accounts who didn't even edit Conservapedia. --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 17:01, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::The accounts that don't edit wouldn't edit if you put that on the talk page. They are created because people think they need an account to view CP. Waiting 30 minutes or until they make an edit that is not vandalism is a good idea because editors who wish to contribute in good faith will respond while vandals will be blocked. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 17:08, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::In some instances, they were IP hopping. Read my Juvenile Delinquent and my Troll IP userpages. Thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 17:11, 3 December 2020 (EST)

== I will improve my grammar ==

Sorry about my terrible grammar. --[[User:Yeschayi|Yeschayi]] ([[User talk:Yeschayi|talk]]) 20:15, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:No problem, you don't need to say "terrible", but you are improving, thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 20:17, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::Thank you for understanding, I will improve over time :)
--[[User:Yeschayi|Yeschayi]] ([[User talk:Yeschayi|talk]]) 20:25, 3 December 2020 (EST)

== Please make sure a page doesn't already exist before creating it ==

This is for you and User:Yeschayi. I just want to make sure you are checking first. Thanks. - [[User:Yeschayi]]
:What page? --United States 22:13, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::IQ and the election fraud one. Just do a quick search first. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:13, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::Okay, thanks! If you have any message, post it in my talk page! --United States 22:15, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::Also, try to add sources to your articles. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:21, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::Which articles? These are data sources, especially in GDP, and the IMF has all countries' data. Thanks!
::::::I assume you run the [[User:Yeschayi]] account, those ones are the unsourced ones. It's not a big deal if you do, but the behavior is almost identical. Sockpuppets are only bad if used maliciously. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:24, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::::I don't. If the admins check-user both accounts, it would be different IPs. Plus, I am American, and he is British. --United States 22:25, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::::::If you do, it's fine. You were blocked from WP for it, so with a near identical pattern of editing I assume it's a sock or a friend. I think WPs sock policy is ridiculous, and I see no malicious activity on any of the 3 accounts ([[User:Yeschayi]]), you, and [[User:Punish China]] [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:28, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::::::Okay, Punish China is my old account. I shut it down to change my username. But, Yeschayi can't be me, as I have to tell him to fix his grammar. And Wikipedia blocked me, since I was being anti-Communist. --United States 22:30, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::::::::If so, you can tell him on his talk page to add sources to his contribs. When I see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_sockpuppets_of_World_Population_7,800,000,000 this], I assume that it's a sock. If it is, no big deal, though. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:32, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::::::::Well, Wikipedia can't be trusted, they strike back against anti-China users, and said my "Punish China" username was "inappropriate". --United States 22:33, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::::::::::I'm sure '[[User:Liberaltears]]' would also be banned under WP's policies. It's ridiculous. - [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]])

== Tables ==

I have no clue how to make tables. Can you help me and format the list of TSEs on [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy]] into a table? I would like the name of the disease, the abbreviation, then the species, and then the method of transmission, all is listed. Thanks~ [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:42, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:I added the table! Take a look at it! --United States 22:54, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::I can modify it now to fix a few errors. Thanks for adding it. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 22:58, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::You welcome! Use it as a sample on how to learn to make tables, so that you can do it in the future. (An easy way is just copy-paste the wiki source). --United States 22:59, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::Will do. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 23:00, 3 December 2020 (EST)
:::::How about the [[Kuru]]? I put blank in the table. Is it right? --United States 23:02, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::::I forgot to add it, so I fixed it. I modified the table a little bit too. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 23:04, 3 December 2020 (EST)

== Basically, I like you ==
Welcome to Conservapedia! I look forward to our mutual growth.--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:32, 4 December 2020 (EST)
:I am intermediate, with over 1,000 edits and with some special SkipCaptcha rights. Stay active! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 23:33, 4 December 2020 (EST)
::I certainly intend to. I just noticed that there isn't a page for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, which my very conservative grandfather and I donate to. Would you like to co-author an article?--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:37, 4 December 2020 (EST)
:::Yes, but you write the article first. Thanks for the offering! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 23:42, 4 December 2020 (EST)
::::I'm pretty good at putting up and sourcing pages, as you can see from my history. Let's flesh it out together. I'll get cracking on it right away, see you in an hour or so.--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:45, 4 December 2020 (EST)
:::::We got this!--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:59, 4 December 2020 (EST)
::::::Great! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 10:51, 5 December 2020 (EST)

== Wikipedia has accused me of inserting racial slurs and tried to dox me. ==

They tried to get me fired, contact my school, get me banned from CP, and dox my Reddit account as well as IP address. They also accused me of inserting [[Triple parentheses]] and the N-word (and oversighted the revisions so no one can prove otherwise). All because I tried to call RW far-left and add information about prion diseases. Now I understand why you were so mad with them... [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 19:55, 10 December 2020 (EST)
:Also, I am now unbanned. How can I stay unbanned in Wikipedia? --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 10:50, 12 December 2020 (EST)

Switzerland

2020-12-08T16:59:00Z

United States: adding GDP.

{{Country
|name =''Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German) Confédération suisse (French) Confederazione Svizzera (Italian) Confederaziun svizra (Romansch)''
|map =Switzerland rel 2000.jpg
|map2 =Switzerland location.png
|flag =Flag of Switzerland.png
|arms =Arms of Switzerland.png
|capital =Bern
|capital-raw =
|government-raw =[[Federal|Federal State]], [[Direct democracy]]
|language =[[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Romansh]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Alain Berset (2018)
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =41,285 sq mi
|pop =8,700,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$700,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$80,460 (2020)
|currency =Swiss franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Switzerland''' is a country located in [[Central Europe]] between [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[France]], and [[Austria]]. Its capital is [[Bern]], and its largest city is [[Zurich]]. Four languages have been designated as official: [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Romansh language|Romansh]] (a dialect spoken by a small minority, closely related to [[Latin]]). Switzerland was traditionally founded on August 1, 1291, and it gained independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1499. It is a confederation of 26 cantons with elements of direct democracy in that all laws passed by Parliament can be overturned by arranging a [[referendum]]. Switzerland is also well known for having strict [[Political neutrality|neutrality]].

==People==
Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures, which have heavily influenced the country's languages and cultural practices. Switzerland has four official languages—German, French, Italian, and Romansch (based on Latin and spoken by a small minority in the Canton Graubunden). The [[German]] spoken is predominantly a Swiss dialect, but newspapers and some broadcasts use [[High German]]. Many Swiss speak more than one language. [[English]] is widely known, especially among professionals.
[[File:Alphorn players in Vals Switzerland.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Alphorn players in Vals.]]
More than 75% of the population lives in the central plain, which stretches between the [[Alps]] and the [[Jura]] Mountains and from [[Geneva]] in the southwest to the [[Rhine]] River and [[Lake Constance]] in the northeast. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population.

According to the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics, the population in Switzerland increased to an estimated 7,523,934 by July 2006. Three-quarters of this growth was attributed to migration. Switzerland naturalized 22% more people in 2006 compared to 2005, totaling 46,700 persons. By the end of 2006, there were 850,000 foreigners working legally in Switzerland. The rise of German immigrants, as confirmed in earlier reports, increased by 10.6% (+10,000). Portuguese workers also increased by 7.4% (+7000). On the other hand, the number of the Italians continued to drop by –3.2% (-5000). The major ethnic groups are: German 65%, French 10%, and Italians 6%.

Almost all Swiss are literate. Switzerland's 13 university institutes enrolled 111,100 students in the academic year of 2004-05. About 25% of the adult population holds a diploma of higher learning.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of worship, and the different religious communities co-exist peacefully. While the majority of the Swiss population is still nominally Christian, like much of Europe, the country is quickly becoming secular. Despite this trend, [[Evangelical Christianity]] has seen rapid growth in Switzerland recently.<ref>Kumar, Anugrah (December 5, 2011). [http://www.christianpost.com/news/evangelical-churches-growing-fast-in-switzerland-63962/ Evangelical Churches Growing Fast in Switzerland]. ''The Christian Post''. Retrieved October 6, 2016.</ref>

Switzerland consistently ranks high on quality of life indices, including highest per capita income, one of the highest concentrations of computer and Internet usage per capita, highest insurance coverage per individual, and high health care rates. For these and many other reasons, it serves as an excellent [[test market]] for businesses hoping to introduce new products into Europe.

==Government==
[[File:Swiss Federal Palace (Bundeshaus) in Berne.jpg|thumb|The Swiss Federal Palace (''Bundeshaus'') in Bern.]]
Switzerland is a federal state composed of 26 [[canton]]s (20 are "full" cantons and six "half" cantons for purposes of representation in the federal legislature) that retain many attributes of [[sovereignty]], such as fiscal autonomy and the right to manage internal cantonal affairs. The 1874 Constitution began, "Together, the peoples of the 23 sovereign Cantons of Switzerland united by the present alliance..." Similarly, under the current 2000 Constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. Switzerland's federal institutions are:
*A bicameral legislature—the Federal Assembly;
*A collegial executive of seven members—the Federal Council; and
*A judiciary consisting of a regular court in [[Lausanne]]—the Federal Tribunal—and special military and administrative courts.
**The Federal Insurance Tribunal is an independent division of the Federal Tribunal that handles social security questions; its seat is in [[Lucerne (city)|Lucerne]].
**The Federal Criminal Court, located in [[Bellinzona]], is the [[court of first instance]] for all criminal cases under federal jurisdiction.
*The Constitution provides for separation of the three branches of government.

===Federal Assembly===
The Federal Assembly is the primary seat of power, although in practice the executive branch has been increasing its power at the expense of the legislative branch. The Federal Assembly has two houses—the Council of States and the National Council. These two houses have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Legislation cannot be vetoed by the executive nor reviewed for constitutionality by the judiciary, but all laws (except the budget) can be reviewed by popular referendum before taking effect. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from each half canton) are directly elected in each canton by majority voting. The 200 members of the National Council are directly elected in each canton under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years.

The Federal Assembly meets quarterly for 3-week plenary sessions. The parliamentary committees of the two houses, which are often key in shaping legislation, meet behind closed doors, but both majority and minority positions are presented during the plenary sessions. The Federal Assembly is a militia parliament, and members commonly retain their traditional professions. Individual members of parliament have no personal staff.

The Assembly can be legally dissolved only after the adoption of a popular initiative calling for a complete revision of the Constitution. All citizens 18 or older have the right to vote and run for office in national, cantonal, and communal elections unless individually disqualified by the relevant legislature.

===Federal Council===
The top executive body is the seven-member cabinet called the Federal Council. The Federal Assembly individually elects the seven Federal Councilors in a joint session of both houses at the opening of a new legislature. Federal Councilors are elected for 4-year terms; there are no term limits and no provision to recall the cabinet or individual members during the legislature. Each year, the Federal Assembly elects from among the seven Federal Councilors a president and vice president, following the principle of seniority. The member who is vice president one year traditionally is elected president the next. Although the Constitution provides that the Federal Assembly chooses and supervises the cabinet, the latter has gradually assumed a preeminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws.

Under an arrangement between the four major parties called the "magic formula" which was introduced in 1959 but ended in December 2003, two Federal Councilors (ministers) were elected each from the Christian Democrats (CVP), the Social Democrats (SP), and the Free Democrats (FDP) and one from the Swiss People's Party (SVP). Under the new magic formula starting January 1, 2004, the new party composition of the cabinet changed to the following composition: 1 Christian Democrat, 2 Social Democrats, 2 Free Democrats, and 2 representatives of the Swiss People's Party. This arrangement was shaken up in the aftermath of the 2008 federal elections: a leftist coalition of Social Democrats, Greens and Christian Democrats formed a parliamentary majority to oust Councilor [[Christoph Blocher]], the iconic leader of the [[Swiss People's Party]], from office even though his party had just achieved a decisive electoral victory. He was replaced by party colleague Evelin Widmer-Schlumpf, who was subsequently banned from the party for conspiring against Blocher, along with fellow Councilor Samuel Schmid. Both Widmer-Schlumpf and Schmid were much more moderate on the political spectrum, as opposed to the conservative Blocher. The two went on to form a new breakaway party, the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP). The Swiss People's Party has since returned as a participant in the national government following the demission of Schmid in 2008, who was replaced by Ueli Maurer, and following the resignation of Widmer-Schlumpf in 2015 after a record election for the SVP and a poor election for the BDP, being replaced by Guy Parmelin of the SVP.<ref>Mombelli, Armando (December 10, 2015). [http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/cabinet-elections_how-will-new-ingredients-change--magic-formula--/41825058 People’s Party gains second seat in cabinet]. ''Swissinfo''. Retrieved August 10, 2016.</ref>

The Constitution requires that Federal Councilors act collectively in all matters, not as individual ministers or as representatives of their parties. Each Councilor heads one of seven federal departments and is responsible for preparing legislation pertaining to matters under its jurisdiction. The president, who remains responsible for the department he heads, has limited prerogatives and is first among equals (there is no formal prime minister).

====Federal Council Membership====
The Swiss Federal Council, as of 2020:

*Finance — Ueli Maurer (SVP)
*Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications — Simonetta Sommaruga (SP) — President for 2020
*Home Affairs — Alain Berset (SP)
*Economic Affairs, Education and Research — Guy Parmelin (SVP) — Vice President for 2020
*Foreign affairs — Ignazio Cassis (FDP)
*Defence, Civil Protection and Sports — Viola Amherd (CVP)
*Justice and Police — Karin Keller-Sutter (FDP)

*Federal Chancellor — Walter Thurnherr (Ex Officio, CVP)

===Judiciary===
[[File:Lausanne, Switzerland.jpg|thumb|The Federal Tribunal of Switzerland is based in Lausanne (pictured), in the Canton of Vaud.]]
The administration of justice is primarily a cantonal function. The Federal Tribunal is limited in its jurisdiction. Its principal function is to hear appeals of civil and criminal cases. It also hears complaints of violations of the constitutional rights of citizens and has authority to review cantonal court decisions involving federal law as well as certain administrative rulings of federal departments. However, it has no power to review federal legislation for constitutionality. The Tribunal's 30 full-time and 30 part-time judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms. The Federal Criminal Court is the court of first instance for criminal cases involving organized and white-collar crime, money laundering, and corruption, which are under federal jurisdiction. The Court's 11 judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms.

===Local Government===
[[File:Landsgemeinde Glarus 2006.jpg|thumb|The Landsgemeinde, an old form of direct democracy where the citizens publicly vote in the town square once a year. As of 2016, only two cantons, Glarus and Appenzell Innerrhoden, still use this system.]]
The cantons regulate local government. The basic unit of local government, which administers a village, town, or city, is the commune or municipality. Citizenship is derived from membership in a commune and can be conferred on non-Swiss by a commune. Cantons are subordinate to federal authority but keep autonomy in implementing federal law.

===[[Referendum|Referenda]]===
A strong emphasis on ballot votes arises out of the traditional Swiss belief that the will of the people is the final national authority. Every constitutional amendment adopted by parliament is automatically brought to the ballot and has to carry a double majority of votes and cantons in order to become effective. The voters themselves may actively seek changes to the Constitution by means of the popular [[initiative]]: 100,000 voters may with their signatures request a national vote on a proposed [[constitutional amendment]]. New federal legislation also is subject to popular review, under the so-called referendum: 50,000 signatures suffice to call a ballot vote on any federal law adopted by parliament. The Assembly can declare an act to be too urgent to allow time for popular consideration, but this is rare. At any rate, an act passed urgently must have a time limit and is later subject to the same constitutional provisions on popular review as other legislation. This device provides a useful channel for linking laws closely to the will of the people and reducing the influence of elites. A stunning example of this process occurred in November 2009, when Swiss voters turned out at the polls in huge numbers to approve of an amendment to the constitution banning the construction of [[minaret]]s.<ref>http://www.admin.ch/ch/d//pore/va/20091129/det547.html Official voting results (in German)</ref> This decision of a vast majority of voters to take a stand against political Islam came after a campaign in which the establishment elites had presented a unified front against the measure: all political parties except the [[Swiss People's Party]] had strongly opposed the suggested amendment, and most of the media openly mocked its supporters as racist and foolish.

Swiss citizens are capable of not taking proposals personally: for instance, proposals for longer vacations, or for basic (government funded) income for every citizen have been rejected by public referenda.

===Political Conditions===
Although it has a diverse society, Switzerland has a stable government. Most voters support the government in the armed neutrality underlying its foreign and defense policies. Domestic policy poses no major problems, but the changing international environment has generated a significant reexamination of Swiss policy in key areas such as defense, neutrality, and immigration. Quadrennial national elections typically produce only marginal changes in party representation.

In recent years, Switzerland has seen a gradual shift in the party landscape. The rightist Swiss People's Party (SVP), traditionally the junior partner in the four-party coalition government, more than doubled its voting share from 11% in 1987 to 22.5% in 1999, and finally to 26.6% in 2003, thus overtaking its three coalition partners. This shift in voting shares ended the 44-year old "magic formula," the power-broking agreement of the four coalition parties, and gave a second seat in the 7-person Swiss cabinet to the Swiss People's Party at the expense of the Christian Democrats, now the weakest of the four major parties. For the first time in Swiss history, the SVP has two seats in the government, reflecting its new status as Switzerland's most popular party. As of the 2015 federal elections, the SVP received 29.4% of the popular vote and has 65 seats in the national council, records for the party.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-immigration party wins Swiss election in 'slide to the Right'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/switzerland/11939953/Anti-immigration-party-wins-Swiss-election-in-slide-to-the-Right.html|accessdate=19 October 2015|work=The Daily Telegraph|agency=Reuters|date=19 October 2015}}</ref>

On December 10, 2003, [[Christoph Blocher]]—a self-made industrialist and main figure of the right-populist Swiss People's Party known for his strong opinions on asylum and migration and law and order issues—was elected to the cabinet by parliament, replacing the incumbent Christian Democrat Justice and Police Minister Ruth Metzler. The parliament also elected the Free Democrat Hans-Rudolf Merz to replace retiring Finance Minister Kaspar Villiger. Both Blocher and Merz were strong advocates of drastic public spending cuts in order to reduce the country's mounting $102 billion francs state deficit and staunch opponents to Switzerland's entering the European Union. On June 14, 2006, the Federal Council elected Doris Leuthard of the Christian Democratic Party. Leuthard replaced the retiring Joseph Deiss and has assumed the Economics and Trade portfolio that Deiss managed. Leuthard's election and Deiss’ resignation did not change the dynamics of the Federal Council. Blocher was not re-elected in 2007.

The Constitution limits federal influence in the formulation of domestic policy and emphasizes the roles of private enterprise and cantonal government. However, the Confederation has been compelled to enlarge its policymaking powers in recent years to cope with national problems such as education, agriculture, energy, environment, organized crime, and narcotics.

====EU relations and politics====
Because every country surrounding Switzerland, with the exception of [[Lichtenstein]], is a member of the [[European Union]], matters related to the EU are prominent in Swiss politics. In 1992, the Swiss government applied for membership in the European Economic Area (EEA), but on a referendum on December 6, 1992, at a "historically high" turnout of 78.7%, the Swiss population narrowly rejected membership in the organization, even though the liberal elites strongly supported membership.<ref name="Arm's length">Miserez, Marc-Andre (December 2, 2012). [http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/20-years-on_switzerland-poised-to-keep-eu-at-arm-s-length/34083578 Switzerland poised to keep EU at arm's length]. ''Swissinfo''. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref><ref name="CH&EU">[https://www.eda.admin.ch/dam/eda/en/documents/publications/EuropaeischeAngelegenheiten/Schweiz-und-EU_en.pdf Switzerland and the European Union] (PDF) (2nd ed.). ''Federal Department of Foreign Affairs''. 2016. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref> After that, starting in 1993, several bilateral agreements were adopted between the Swiss Government and the EU, which allowed Switzerland to integrate with the EU without joining the EU or EEA.<ref name="Arm's length"/> In 2001, immediate membership negotiations with the EU were overwhelmingly rejected by the Swiss people, with 76.8% voting against, in a referendum held on March 4.<ref name="CH&EU"/><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1201133.stm Swiss say 'no' to EU]. ''BBC News''. March 4, 2001. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref> Despite these victories for EU-sceptics, Swiss voters approved other referendums advocating for increased integration with the EU, including accepting several bilateral agreements and joining the Schengen Area, which removed all border controls, and Swiss voters also rejected several referendums advocating for reversing integration.<ref name="CH&EU"/> Despite this, on February 9, 2014, Swiss voters narrowly approved a referendum proposed by the right-wing and anti-EU [[Swiss People's Party]] that intends to limit immigration through quotas (which violates the EU principle of the free movement of people), requires businesses to give Swiss citizens priority when hiring, and restricts immigrants accessibility to benefits.<ref>Dacey, Jessica & Geiser, Urs (February 9, 2014). [http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/quotas-and-questions_swiss-agree-to-curb-immigration-and-rethink-eu-deal/37877780 Swiss agree to curb immigration and rethink EU deal]. ''Swissinfo''. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref> Additionally, in 2016, Switzerland withdrew<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/content/dam/dea/fr/documents/bundesrat/160727-Lettre-retrait-adhesion-CH_fr.pdf|date=2016-07-27|accessdate=2016-09-13|publisher=[[Swiss Federal Council]]|title=Retrait de la demande d'adhesion de la Suisse a l'UE}}</ref> its frozen application for EU membership, which had been dormant since 1992, accepting a motion introduced by SVP parliamentarian Lukas Reimann.<ref>Goulard, Hortense (June 15, 2016). [https://www.politico.eu/article/switzerland-withdraws-application-to-join-the-eu/ Switzerland withdraws application to join the EU]. ''POLITICO''. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/european-policy_swiss-to-withdraw-dormant-eu-bid/42229112 Swiss to withdraw dormant EU bid]. ''Swissinfo''. June 15, 2016. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref><ref>[https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3644697/Switzerland-WITHDRAWS-application-European-Union-member-state-one-week-Brexit-vote.html 'Only a few lunatics want to join the EU now': Switzerland WITHDRAWS application to become a European Union member state one week before the Brexit vote]. ''The Daily Mail''. June 16, 2016. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref>

Despite not being a member of the EU, Switzerland contributes to the EU budget.<ref>[https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/cohesion-fund_swiss-government-wants-to-pledge-more-funding-to-eu-budget/44006944 Swiss government wants to pledge more funding to EU budget]. ''Swissinfo''. March 28, 2018. Retrieved April 21, 2018.</ref> Switzerland continued [[War on Sovereignty|surrendering its sovereignty]] and caving to the EU when it approved stricter [[gun control]] laws to align with the EU's [[open borders]] [[Schengen Area]].<ref>Multiple references:
*Hawkins, Awr (May 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/19/swiss-voters-trade-rich-gun-history-eu-gun-controls/ Swiss Voters Trade Rich Gun History for EU Gun Controls]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
*Keaten, Jamey (May 19, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/e957c16f13524bb5aef7769f536c2420 Swiss voters approve tighter gun laws, lining up with the EU]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-eu-guns/swiss-voters-approve-tighter-gun-control-avoid-eu-clash-idUSKCN1SP0AA Swiss voters approve tighter gun control, avoid EU clash]. ''Reuters''. May 19, 2019. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
See also:
*Wolverton, Joe (May 14, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/32347-swiss-referendum-requires-voters-to-decide-between-guns-or-globalism Swiss Referendum Requires Voters to Decide Between Guns or Globalism]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 19, 2019.</ref>

====Gun politics====
Compared to the rest of the world in general, Switzerland has relatively expansive [[gun rights]] and one of the highest levels of gun-ownership in the world, much due to its system of military conscription.

In 2015 and 2016, gun sales in the country rose dramatically due to concerns about defense against [[terrorism]] and crime, along with fears that EU regulations (that Switzerland is forced to adopt due to the [[Globalism#Developments towards a one world government|globalistic]] [[Schengen Area]]) would reduce citizens' ability to purchase a weapon.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/self-defence-_gun-permits-continue-to-rise/42809528 Strong demand seen for gun permits among Swiss]. ''Swissinfo''. January 4, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref> Predictably, leftists voiced worries of this trend, even though they forget that the gun surge is a direct result to their failed policies concerning terrorism, crime, and European integration.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/arms-boom-_alarm-over-rising-gun-sales/42813194 Alarm over rising gun sales]. ''Swissinfo''. January 5, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref>

==Foreign Relations==
Traditionally, Switzerland has avoided [[alliance]]s that might entail military, political, or direct economic action. Since its forces suffered a major military defeat in the [[Battle of Marignano]] in 1515, it has stayed strictly [[Political neutrality|neutral]]. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and has no major dispute in its bilateral relations. Historically, it has served as a neutral intermediary between hostile powers and host to major international treaty conferences. After [[World War I]], it hosted the [[League of Nations]] headquarters; during [[World War II]] it represented German interests in America and American and British interests in Germany. Since 1980, Switzerland has represented American interests in [[Iran]]. It also played a key role in brokering a truce agreement between the Sudanese Government and Sudan's Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) for the Nuba Mountain region, signed after a week's negotiations taking place near [[Lucerne]] in January 2002.

The Swiss Constitution declares the preservation of Switzerland's independence and welfare as the supreme objective of Swiss [[foreign policy]]. Below this overarching goal, the Constitution sets five specific foreign policy objectives: to further the peaceful coexistence of nations; promote respect for [[human rights]], [[democracy]], and the [[rule of law]]; promote Swiss economic interests abroad, alleviate need and poverty in the world; and preserve natural resources.

The Swiss feel a moral obligation to undertake social, economic, and humanitarian activities that contribute to world peace and prosperity. This is manifested by Swiss bilateral and multilateral diplomatic activity, assistance to developing countries, and support for the extension of international law, particularly humanitarian law. Switzerland (mainly Geneva) is home to many international governmental and nongovernmental organizations, including the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (whose flag is essentially the Swiss flag with colors reversed—the Red Cross historically being a Swiss organization). One of the first international organizations, the [[Universal Postal Union]], is located in Bern.

===International Organizations===
In recent years, the Swiss have broadened the scope of activities in which they feel able to participate without compromising their neutrality. Swiss voters first rejected [[United Nations]] membership by a 3-to-1 margin in 1986 but in March 2002 adopted it, albeit in a very close election, making Switzerland the first country to join the UN based on a popular referendum decision. In similar fashion, the electorate rejected a government proposition to deploy Swiss troops as UN peacekeepers (Blue Helmets) in 1994, but Switzerland joined NATO's Partnership for Peace and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1996 and 1997, respectively, and deployed Yellow Berets to support the OSCE in Bosnia. In June 2001, Swiss voters approved new legislation providing for the deployment of armed Swiss troops for international peacekeeping missions under UN or OSCE auspices as well as closer international cooperation in military training.

On September 10, 2002, Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations. Switzerland had previously been involved as party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice and member of most UN specialized agencies, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency. Switzerland has long participated in many UN activities, including the Economic Commission for Europe, UN Environment Program, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UN Conference for Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, and the Universal Postal Union (UPU). Prior to its formal accession, Switzerland had maintained a permanent observer mission at UN Headquarters since 1948.

Switzerland also is a member of the following international organizations: World Trade Organization, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, European Free Trade Association, Bank for International Settlements, Council of Europe, and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). In 1992, Swiss voters approved membership in the Bretton Woods organizations but later that year rejected the European Economic Area agreement, which the government viewed as a first step toward EU membership.

Switzerland has furnished military observers and medical teams to several UN operations. Switzerland is an active participant in the OSCE, its foreign minister serving as Chairman-in-Office for 1996. Switzerland also is an active participant in the major nonproliferation and export control regimes.

===[[War on Terror]]===
The Swiss Government on June 25, 2003, eased most of the sanctions against the Republic of [[Iraq]] in accord with UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1483. The government lifted the trade embargo, flight restrictions, and financial sanctions in place since August 1990. The weapons embargo and the asset freeze, the scope of which was extended, remain in force, and restrictions on the trade in Iraqi cultural goods were newly imposed. Though not a member at the time, Switzerland had joined UN sanctions against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait. Switzerland in recent years joined UN and EU economic sanctions imposed on Sierra Leone, UNITA (Angola), Liberia, Serbia and Montenegro, Burma, Zimbabwe, Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Côte d'Ivoire. On October 15, 2003, the Federal Council ended the import restrictions on raw diamonds from Sierra Leone and lifted sanctions against Libya.

Switzerland in October 2000 implemented an ordinance to enforce UN sanctions against the Taliban (UNSCR 1267), which it subsequently amended in April 2001 in accord with tighter UN regulations (UNSCR 1333). On May 2, 2002, the Swiss Government eased the sanctions regime in accord with UNSCR 1388 and 1390, lifting the ban on the sale of acetic acid (used in drug production), Afghani Airlines, and Afghani diplomatic representations. The weapons embargo, travel restrictions, and financial sanctions remain in force. The Swiss Government in November 2001 issued an ordinance declaring illegal the terrorist organization [[al Qaeda]] as well as possible successor or supporting organizations. More than 200 individuals or companies linked to international terrorism have been blacklisted to have their assets frozen. Thus far, Swiss authorities have blocked about 72 accounts totaling 34 million francs.

In August 2017, Switzerland suspended funds to a Palestinian NGO due to its ties to terrorism.<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/jerusalem/2017/08/23/report-switzerland-halts-funding-palestinian-ngo-alleged-terror-ties/ Report: Switzerland Halts Funding to Palestinian NGO over Alleged Terror Ties]. ''Breitbart News''. August 23, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.</ref>

==Defense==
[[File:Swiss Army. Leopard 2-2A4 tank-Steel Parade 2006.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Swiss Leopard 2-2A4 tank in a 2006 parade in the city of Thun.]]
On May 18, 2003, Swiss voters approved the military reform project "Army XXI" that drastically reduced the size of the Swiss Army. In January 2004, the 524,000-strong militia started paring down to 220,000 conscripts, including 80,000 reservists. The defense budget of SF 4.3 billion ($3.1 billion) would be trimmed by SF 300 million, and some 2,000 jobs were expected to be shed between 2004 and 2011. The mandatory time of service was curtailed from 300 to 260 days. All able-bodied Swiss males aged 20 to 30 must either serve in the military or in a special civil service. Thereafter, most military personnel are assigned to civil protection duties until the age of 37. Each Swiss militaman is required to keep his Sig 550 service rifle at home, properly maintained and in working order. Up until 2007, soldiers also received a sealed box of 50 bullets: they were meant to be used in the journey from home to the reporting station in case of invasion. This requirement has since been abolished and ammunition returned.

[[File:Switzerland - Air Force McDonnell Douglas FA-18C Hornet - cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|A Swiss McDonnell Douglas FA-18C Hornet in 2011.]]
A new category of soldiers called "single-term conscripts" will discharge the total time of service of about 300 days of active duty in one go. Recruiting is on a voluntary basis and should not exceed 20% of a year's draft. The armed forces have a small nucleus of about 3,600 professional staff, half of whom are either instructors or staff officers, with the remainder mostly being fortification guards. The army has virtually no full-time active combat units but is capable of full mobilization within 72 hours. Women may volunteer to serve in the armed forces and may now join all units, including combat troops. About 2,000 women already serve in the army but, so far, have not been allowed to use weapons for purposes other than self-defense.
The armed forces are organized in four army corps and an air force and are equipped with modern, sophisticated, and well-maintained gear. In 1993, the Swiss Government procured 34 [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18 fighters]] from the United States.

Switzerland has a rich history of providing mercenaries to the battlefield of Europe, ever since the Middle Ages up until the Napoleonic period. Nowadays Swiss citizens are forbidden to join foreign armies, with the notable exception of the Pontificial Swiss Guard (''Guardia Svizzera Pontificia'') which constitutes the tiny armed forces of [[Vatican City|the State of the Vatican City]]. In order to join, Swiss male citizens must have a proven Catholic faith and a certificate of good conduct from the Army, besides meeting physical criteria.

During the [[Cold War]], Switzerland had plans to build [[nuclear weapon]]s. Detailed plans were produced, and Switzerland had a storage of [[uranium]] and unsuccessfully tried to purchase [[plutonium]]. However, the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]], signed in 1969 and ratified in 1977, seemed to be a better alternative, and the program wound down until it was dissolved in 1988.<ref>Edwards, Rob (May 25, 1996). [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15020310-500-swiss-planned-a-nuclear-bomb/ Swiss planned a nuclear bomb]. ''New Scientist''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref>[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq7-4.html 7.4 States Formerly Possessing or Pursuing Nuclear Weapons]. ''nuclearweaponarchive.org''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref>[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Library/Swissdoc.html Swiss Nuclear Program]. ''nuclearweaponarchive.org''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref>

==Economy==
Despite a dearth of [[natural resources]], the Swiss economy is among the world's most advanced and prosperous. Per capita income is virtually the highest in the world, as are wages. Trade has been the key to prosperity in Switzerland. The country is dependent upon [[export]] markets to generate income while dependent upon imports for raw materials and to expand the range of goods and services available in the country. Switzerland has liberal investment and trade policies, notwithstanding agriculture, and a conservative fiscal policy. The Swiss legal system is highly developed, commercial law is well defined, and solid laws and policies protect investments. The Swiss franc is one of the world's soundest currencies, and the country is known for its high standard of banking and financial services. Switzerland is a member of a number of international economic organizations, including the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]], and the [[Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD).
[[File:Cathedral Lausanne Bessieres.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Lausanne, Cathedral, Bessieres Bridge and St-Martin Bridge.]]
Switzerland's machinery, metals, electronics, and chemicals sectors are world-renowned for precision and quality. Together they account for well over half of Swiss export revenues. In agriculture, Switzerland is about 60% self-sufficient. Only 7.5% of the remaining imports originated from the U.S. Swiss farmers are one of the most highly protected and subsidized producer group in the world. OECD estimates show that Switzerland is subsidizing more than 70% of its agriculture, compared to 35% in the EU. According to the newly adopted "2008-2011 Agricultural Program", Switzerland intends to reduce its subsidies from SF 14.1 billion (U.S. $11.6 billion) to SF 13.6 billion (U.S. $10.5 billion) over the next four years. In March 2007, the parliament increased the initial government bill by SF 150 million (U.S. $123 million) on the grounds that Swiss farm reforms were going too fast. The parliament also accepted international parallel imports for fertilizers and tractors. Swiss farmers will be allowed to import tractors produced in China or India and sold in the EU, and save up to $41 million (SF 50 million) annual in expenses. German [[fertilizer]] could save another $20 million (SF 25 million). A more general bill on parallel imports will be presented by the Justice Ministry to parliament by the end of 2007.

[[Tourism]], [[banking]], [[engineering]], and [[insurance]] are significant sectors of the economy and heavily influence the country's economic policies. Swiss trading companies have unique marketing expertise in many parts of the world, including Eastern Europe, the Far East, Africa, and the Middle East. Not only does Switzerland have a highly developed [[tourism]] infrastructure (making it a good market for tourism-related equipment and services), the Swiss also are intrepid travelers. Per capita, more Swiss visit the United States every year than from any other country. Tourism is the most important U.S. export to Switzerland (earning almost $1.5 billion). In 2004, more than 285,000 Swiss came to the United States as tourists.

In 2005, the dollar/Swiss franc exchange rate continued to be shaped by geopolitical tensions. The dollar depreciated further against the Swiss franc from SF 1.49 in October 2002 to SF 1.31 in 2003, to 1.28 in 2005 to 1.23 in July 2006, and 1.22 in January 2007. The strengthening of the Euro, however, helped Switzerland to minimize the pressure from a weakening dollar. The Swiss National Bank raised interest rates on June 15, 2006 to 1.5%, the third increase since January 2006. The Swiss National Bank also said it expected economic growth to be a robust 2.5% in 2006 and 2007.

While the number of bankruptcies in Switzerland had been on the rise for four years, reaching alarming levels in 2005 (10,800), the rate dropped by 4.7% in 2006. Compared to other European countries, Switzerland's bankruptcy rates ranks fourth (1.35%) among the hardest hit countries, after Luxemburg (2.39%), Austria (1.9%) and France (1.49%).

The Swiss economy expanded by 2.7% in 2006, the fastest rate in six years, thus confirming sustained growth over the last four years. GDP growth was primarily due to the positive evolution of private consumption and expansion of investment in fixed assets and software. For once, all export industries benefited from increased demand from foreign markets. With a surplus of $9.6 billion (SF 11.7 billion), the Swiss trade balance reached unprecedented levels. On the inflation side, import prices increased more rapidly than exports.

Switzerland was ranked as the most competitive economy in the World Economic Forum's 2006 Global Competitiveness Report for the first time, reflecting the country's sound institutional environment, excellent infrastructure, efficient markets, competent macroeconomic management, world-class educational attainment, and high levels of technological innovation, which boost Switzerland's competitiveness in the global economy. The country has a well-developed infrastructure for scientific research, companies spend generously on research and development, and intellectual property protection is strong. Business activity benefits from a well-developed institutional framework, characterized by the rule of law, an efficient judicial system, and high levels of transparency and accountability within public institutions. Higher education and training are rapidly growing in importance as engines of productivity growth.

While Switzerland is famous for its banking secrecy, the level of secrecy has significantly declined, and it has ended in several areas, because of international pressure.<ref>Shields, Michael (October 5, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-secrecy/era-of-bank-secrecy-ends-as-swiss-start-sharing-account-data-idUSKCN1MF13O Era of bank secrecy ends as Swiss start sharing account data]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 5, 2018.</ref>

*GDP (nominal): $700 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $80,460 (2020)

===Global Economic Crisis===
[[File:Aerial view of Zurich.JPG|thumb|200px|A view of Zürich from the air.]]
Being a nation that depends upon exports for economic growth, and due to the fact that it is so closely linked to the economies of Western Europe and the United States, Switzerland was not able to escape recent slowdowns experienced in these countries. During most of the 1990s, the Swiss economy was Western Europe's weakest, with annual GDP growth averaging 0% between 1991 and 1997. Beginning in late 1997, the economy steadily gained momentum until peaking in 2000 with 3% growth in real terms. The economy returned to lackluster growth during 2001-2003, but has been growing at or above potential since 2004–2.5% per annum. The Swiss Economic Ministry reports that strong global demand, particularly in the U.S. and Asia, and better Euro zone growth has helped Switzerland's economic recovery. Long-run economic growth, however, is predicated on structural reforms. In order to maximize its economic potential, Switzerland will need to push through difficult agrarian and competition policy reforms. These are essential if the government is to reduce its budget deficits and meet its 3% growth target.

The recent economic upswing had some positive impact on the labor market. Unemployment decreased from 4.1% in December 2003 to 3.1% in March 2007. Swiss in the 15-25 age bracket continue to fight unemployment numbers with a rate of 5.4%, and hotel and restaurant industry workers with 10.4%. One-fourth of the country's full-time workers are unionized. In general, labor/management relations are good, mostly characterized by a willingness on both sides to settle disputes by negotiations rather than by labor action. About 600 collective bargaining agreements exist today in Switzerland and are regularly renewed without major problems. However, the mood is changing. The massive layoffs that resulted from both the global economic slowdown and major management scandals have strained the traditional Swiss "labor peace." Swiss trade unions encouraged strikes against several companies, including the national airline SWISS, Coca-Cola, and Orange (the French telecom operator), but total days lost to strikes remain among the lowest in the OECD. Uncertainties concerning the proper management of pension funds, and the prospect of a potential hike in the retirement age from 65 to 67 have stirred heated political debate.

===Trade with the EU===
[[File:Gotthard-basistunnel02-hannes-ortlieb.jpg|thumb|left|A view inside the [[Gotthard Base Tunnel]], which opened in 2016 and is the longest tunnel in the world.]]
The Swiss economy earns roughly half of its corporate earnings from the export industry, and 62% of Swiss exports are destined for the [[EU]] market. The EU is Switzerland's largest trading partner, and economic and trade barriers between them are minimal. In the wake of the Swiss voters' rejection of the European Economic Area Agreement in 1992, the Swiss Government set its sights on negotiating bilateral sectoral agreements with the EU. After more than 4 years of negotiations, an agreement covering seven sectors (research, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, agriculture, civil aviation, land transport, and the free movement of persons) was achieved at the end of 1998. Parliament officially endorsed the so-called "Bilaterals I" in 1999, and the Swiss people approved them in a referendum in May 2000. The agreements, which had to be ratified by the European Parliament as well as legislatures in all 15 EU member states, entered into force on June 1, 2002. Switzerland has so far attempted to mitigate possible adverse effects of non-membership by conforming many of its regulations, standards, and practices to EU directives and norms. Full access to the Swiss market for the original 15 EU member states entered into force in June 2004, ending as a result the “national preference”. The Swiss agreed to extend these preferences to the 10 new EU members on September 25, 2005.

The Swiss Government embarked in July 2001 on a second round of bilateral negotiations with the EU known as “Bilaterals II”. Talks focused on customs fraud, environment, statistics, trade in processed agricultural goods, media, the taxation of savings, and police/judicial cooperation (dubbed the Schengen-Dublin accords). Amid a fierce political debate over the essence of Swiss-EU relations and populist warnings against EU workers and criminals entering Switzerland, the Schengen-Dublin package was approved on June 5, 2005 by a referendum of 54.6%. Fears of cheap labor coming from new EU member states have prompted the government to provide for tripartite surveillance committees to ensure that decent wages are enforced. The EU has still to ratify the extension of Schengen to Switzerland, and implement the bilateral agreements on research and development and media cooperation.

As part of the bilateral agreement on the taxation of savings signed in June 2003, Swiss banks will levy a withholding tax on EU citizens' savings income. The tax, which started on July 1, 2005, will increase gradually to 35% by 2011, with 75% of the funds being transferred to the EU.

On November 26, 2006, the Swiss electorate approved a government bill to contribute 1 billion Swiss francs (about $800 million) to the 10 new EU member states. In a nationwide referendum, 53.4% of voters accepted the “Eastern Europe Cooperation Act,” which entitles the government to spend 1 billion Swiss francs on projects in primarily [[Central Europe]]an states over the next 10 years. Switzerland had pledged this contribution to share the burden of the EU's eastern expansion in order to facilitate the conclusion of the second set of bilateral negotiations with the EU. The right-populist Swiss People's Party (SVP), which prompted the referendum, was disappointed, but pleased that it mobilized a 47% opposition. The Eastern Europe Cooperation Act gives a new legal basis for Swiss aid to countries in Eastern Europe. The act has a 10-year term and replaces the former federal Law on Aid to Eastern Europe, which came into force in 1995. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Switzerland has spent SF 3.5 billion on about 1,000 aid projects in East-[[Central Europe]] to help countries in the region transform into market economies. Sixty percent of the SF 1 billion is to come from the budget of the departments of foreign and economic affairs, mainly from cuts in aid programs to other parts of the world. The remaining 40% will be taken from the regular budget of the federal administration. The funds are to be used on projects chosen by Switzerland and focused on education, trade promotion, environment, and internal security. The money is paid directly to the projects and does not go the EU cohesion fund in Brussels. Switzerland has no formal agreement with the European Union concerning these contributions. Instead, there is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that sets out the general conditions of the Swiss commitment to the ten new EU member states. Under the MOU, almost half of the funding will go to Poland. Hungary's benefit will be SF 131 million, while the Czech Republic will receive SF 110 million.

The Swiss federal government remains deeply divided over whether to eventually join the EU, and in a March 2001 referendum more than 70% of Swiss voters rejected rapid steps toward EU membership. The issue of EU membership is likely to be shelved for several years, if not a decade. In May 2005, the government said it could sign a framework agreement with the European Union, as an alternative to joining the organization, to encourage dialogue and create a platform for closer cooperation.

Switzerland nevertheless expressed interest in reaching a third layer of bilateral agreements that would involve energy, the Galileo satellite navigation system, health, and agriculture. But recent harsh criticism by the European Commission against preferential cantonal tax treatment for foreign holdings cooled the political climate surrounding the EU. Unilateral trade retaliation—as threatened by the EU if the Swiss cantons do not change their cantonal tax regimes—has not occurred, but the political damage is done, including greater anti-EU feelings among the population. The pressure to negotiate with the EU could turn sour as the EU has already asked Switzerland to pay another SF 300-350 million ($240–280 million, on top of the SF 1 billion cohesion fund) to provide further financial aid to Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU on January 1, 2007. Unlike the November 2006 referendum, the newly enacted Eastern Europe Cooperation Act does not provide for an automatic referendum on further payments. The parliament will decide on the additional aid request.

The government also decided in November 2006 to once more consider adoption of the EU “Cassis-de-Dijon” principle for trade after a first setback in 2004. If adopted, EU products could be imported in Switzerland without having to go through the burdensome Swiss certification and Swiss language requirement process. Currently, Swiss retail prices are on average 20-40% higher than in the EU. If parallel imports are allowed under adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijion principle, prices could drop by 10%. Possible exceptions have been reduced from 129 products to 40, but hurdles remain on the labeling of alcohol contained in Alcopops, the Swiss ban of phosphates in washing machine powders, the real origin of “EU meat”, and on the stringent Swiss generic food production requirements. The “Cassis de Dijon principle” will not apply to the many farming and industrial products already covered by mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) under the EU-Swiss Bilaterals I and II; nor will it apply to other products such as pesticides, motor engines, and weapons that require an authorization. The impact, as a result, may not be as large as expected. Another issue is that Swiss and EU MRAs concluded with third countries may also benefit from adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijon principle (these goods would also have to receive WTO most favored nation status).

The government has reaffirmed its wish to strengthen ties with other non-EU trading partners in Asia and America. Exploratory talks on a Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Switzerland failed to result in negotiations, due to Swiss problems with free trade in agriculture, but the two sides did agree to a new framework for economic, trade, and investment discussions. This new agreement is the Swiss-U.S. Trade and Investment Cooperation Forum (the “Forum”) and is currently assessing areas where the two governments could facilitate greater trade and investment flows.

Switzerland ranks 17th among the main trading partners of the U.S. worldwide. The United States is the second-largest importer (11.5%) of Swiss goods after Germany (20%). The U.S. exports more to Switzerland each year than to all the countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe combined, and Switzerland imports more U.S. products and services than does Spain. In addition, the United States is the largest foreign investor in Switzerland, and conversely, the primary destination of Swiss foreign investment. It is estimated that 200,000 American jobs depend on Swiss foreign investments. Total U.S.-Swiss bilateral trade increased from $15.33 billion during 2003 to $16 billion in 2004.

In 2016, the [[Gotthard Base Tunnel]], the longest tunnel in the world at 35 miles (57 km) was opened.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36423250 Gotthard tunnel: World's longest and deepest rail tunnel opens in Switzerland]. ''BBC''. June 1, 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> The Gotthard Base Tunnel was a part of the [[AlpTransit]] program, which sought to improve rail travel speeds from the north to south and advance European integration.<ref>[https://www.alptransit-portal.ch/en/overview/ AlpTransit: Overview]. ''alptransit-portal.ch''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref>Barrow, Keith (June 15, 2016). [http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/europe/gotthard-base-tunnel-the-final-straight.html Gotthard Base Tunnel: the final straight]. ''railjournal.com''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref>

==History==
[[File:Roman column - Nyon, Vaud, Switzerland.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Roman ruins in Nyon, Switzerland, along the shores of Lake Geneva.]]
Originally inhabited by the Helvetians, or Helvetic [[Celt]]s, the territory comprising modern Switzerland came under Roman rule during the Gallic wars in the 1st century BC and remained a Roman province until the 4th century AD. Under Roman influence, the population reached a high level of civilization and enjoyed a flourishing commerce. Important cities, such as [[Geneva]], [[Basel]], and [[Zurich]], were linked by military roads that also served as trade arteries between Rome and the northern tribes.

After the decline of the [[Roman Empire]], Switzerland was invaded by [[Germanic tribe]]s from the north and west. Some tribes, such as the Alemanni in central and northeastern Switzerland, and the [[Burgundian]]s, who ruled western Switzerland, settled there. In 800, the country became part of [[Charlemagne]]'s empire. It later passed under the dominion of the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman emperors]] in the form of small ecclesiastic and temporal holdings subject to imperial sovereignty.

With the opening of a new important north-south trade route across the [[Alps]] in the early 13th century, the Empire's rulers began to attach more importance to the remote Swiss mountain valleys, which were granted some degree of autonomy under direct imperial rule. Fearful of the popular disturbances flaring up following the death of the Holy Roman Emperor in 1291, the ruling families from Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed a charter to keep public peace and pledging mutual support in upholding autonomous administrative and judicial rule. The anniversary of the charter's signature (August 1, 1291) today is celebrated as Switzerland's National Day.

[[File:D aigle Castle Switzerland.jpg|thumb|300px|D'aigle Castle.]]
Between 1315 and 1388 the Swiss Confederates inflicted three crushing defeats on the [[Habsburgs]], whose aspiration to regional dominion clashed with Swiss self-determination. During that period, five other localities (cantons in modern-day parlance) joined the original three in the Swiss Confederation. Buoyed by their feats, the Swiss Confederates continuously expanded their borders by military means and gained formal independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1499. Routed by the [[France|French]] and [[Venice|Venetians]] near [[Milan]] in 1515, they renounced expansionist policies. By then the Swiss Confederation had become a union of 13 localities with a regularly convening diet administering the subject territories. Swiss mercenaries continued for centuries to serve in other armies; the Swiss Guard of the Pope is a vestige of this tradition.

The [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] led to a division between the [[Protestant]] followers of [[Ulrich Zwingli|Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin|Calvin]] in the German and French parts of the country respectively, and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. Despite two centuries of civil strife, the common interest in the joint subject territories kept the Swiss Confederation from falling apart. The traffic in mercenaries as well as the alienation between the predominantly Protestant Swiss and their Catholic neighbors kept the Swiss Confederation out of the wars of the European powers, which formally recognized Swiss neutrality in the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in 1648. The Swiss remained neutral during the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, but [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], nonetheless, invaded and took control of the country in 1797-98, replacing the loose confederation with a centrally governed unitary [[Satellite nation|satellite state]] under French influence. The Swiss people highly disliked the massive changes that were occurring under Napoleon, and there were at least four coups d'état that occurred between 1800 and 1802.<ref name="Geschichte">[http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/swiss-revolution-helvetic-republic-1798.html Swiss Revolution and the Helvetic Republic (1798)]. ''geschichte-schweiz.ch''. 2004. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> Napoleon was forced to withdraw his troops in 1802, and after a civil war broke out, the Act of Mediation was signed on February 18, 1803, which restored much of the independence and autonomy of the Swiss Cantons.<ref name="Geschichte"/><ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-celebrate-napoleon-s-historic-act/3174096 Swiss celebrate Napoleon's historic act]. ''Swissinfo''. February 20, 2003. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref>

The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 removed all remaining French control and re-established the old confederation of sovereign states and enshrined Switzerland's status of permanent armed neutrality in international law. In 1848, after a brief civil war between Protestant liberals seeking a centralized national state and Catholic conservatives clinging on to the old order, the majority of Swiss Cantons opted for a Federal State, modeled in part on the [[U.S. Constitution]]. The Swiss Constitution established a range of civic liberties and made far-reaching provisions to maintain cantonal autonomy to placate the vanquished Catholic minority. The Swiss amended their Constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, as well as introducing direct democracy by popular referendum. To this day, cantonal autonomy and referendum democracy remain trademarks of the Swiss polity.

Switzerland [[Industrial revolution|industrialized]] rapidly during the 19th century and by 1850 had become the second most industrialized country in Europe after [[Great Britain]]. During [[World War I]] serious tension developed between the German, French, and Italian-speaking parts of the country, and Switzerland came close to violating its neutrality but managed to stay out of hostilities. Labor unrest culminating in a general strike in 1918 marked the interwar period, but in 1937 employers and the largest trade union concluded a formal agreement to settle disputes peacefully, which governs workplace relations to the present day. During [[World War II]], Switzerland came under heavy pressure from the [[Fascism|fascist]] powers, which after the fall of France in 1940 completely surrounded the country. Some political and economic leaders displayed a mood of appeasement, but a combination of tactical accommodation and demonstrative readiness to defend the country helped Switzerland survive unscathed.

The [[Cold War]] enhanced the role of neutral Switzerland and offered the country a way out of its diplomatic isolation after World War II. Economically, Switzerland integrated itself into the [[United States|American]]-led Western postwar order, but it remained reluctant to enter supranational bodies. Switzerland did not join the [[United Nations]], even though [[Geneva]] became host to the UN's European headquarters, and the country played an active role in many of the UN's specialized agencies. Switzerland also remained aloof in the face of European integration efforts, waiting until 1963 to join the [[Council of Europe]]. It still remains outside the [[European Union]]. Instead, Switzerland in 1960 helped form the European Free Trade Area, which did not strive for political union. Following the Cold War, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods institutions in 1992 and became a member of the United Nations in 2002.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3431.htm]

==See also==

*[[Aar]] (river)
*[[Campaign for an Independent and Neutral Switzerland]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Switzerland]]

Saudi Arabia

2020-12-08T16:56:33Z

United States: /* Economy */: adding GDP

{{Country
|name ='''المملكة العربية السعودية''' '''al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiyya as-Su’ūdiyya'''
|map =Saudi arabia rel 2003.jpg
|flag =Flag of Saudi Arabia.png
|arms =Arms of Saudi Arabia.png
|capital =Riyadh
|capital-raw =[[Riyadh|ar-Riyād]]
|government =Absolute Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =829,996 sq mi
|pop =35,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$800,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$22,857 (2020)
|currency =Riyal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia''' (''al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya'', '''المملكة العربية السعودية''', also '''Saudi Arabia''' or '''KSA''') is a large country on the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Ruled by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the country is one of the few absolute monarchies left in the world. [[Shari'a]] (Islamic jurisprudence) is the official law of the Kingdom. The Kingdom was first declared on 8 January 1926 by [[Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud]], and was brought together on 22 September 1932.

[[Barack Obama]] pandered to this tyrannical regime while he was president, even deeply bowing to its dictator in a subservient gesture that offended many [[American|Americans]].

Despite homosexuality being illegal in Saudi Arabia, there is a large amount of men who are secretly gay.<ref>https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/05/the-kingdom-in-the-closet/305774/</ref>
==People==
[[File:Young Saudi Arabian woman.jpg|left|170px]]
Saudi Arabia's 2007 population was estimated to be about 27.6 million, including about 5.6 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or seminomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometer (2,600 per sq. mi). Saudi Arabia has undergone a population boom of sorts in the last few decades.

Saudi Arabia is known as the birthplace of [[Islam]], which in the century following [[Muhammad]]'s death in 632 A.D. spread west to [[Spain]] and east to [[India]]. Islam obliges all Muslims to make the [[Hajj]], or pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], at least once during their lifetime if they are able to do so. The cultural environment in Saudi Arabia is highly conservative; the country adheres to a strict interpretation of Islamic religious law (Shari'a). Cultural presentations must conform to narrowly defined standards of ethics. Men and women are not permitted to attend public events together and are segregated in the work place.

Most Saudis are ethnically [[Arab]]. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Indonesians, Indians, Africans, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are less than 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia.

==Government==
The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of King Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy [[Qur'an]] is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no political parties or national elections; however, the country held its first municipal elections in 2005. The king's powers are limited because he must observe the Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the numerous Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema.
[[File:Alwaleed bintalal cp 5515065.jpg|thumb|Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud.]]
Saudi kings gradually have developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations.

Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers and the Shura Council, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a. Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions.

The kingdom is divided into 13 provinces governed by princes or close relatives of the royal family. All governors are appointed by the King.

In March 1992, [[King Fahd]] issued several decrees outlining the basic statutes of government and codifying for the first time procedures concerning the royal succession. The King's political reform program also provided for the establishment of a national Consultative Council, with appointed members having advisory powers to review and give advice on issues of public interest. It also outlined a framework for councils at the provincial or emirate level.

In September 1993, King Fahd issued additional reform decrees, appointing the members of the national Consultative Council and spelling out procedures for the new council's operations. He announced reforms regarding the Council of Ministers, including term limitations of 4 years and regulations to prohibit conflict of interest for ministers and other high-level officials. The members of 13 provincial councils and the councils' operating regulations also were announced in September 1993. In February, March, and April 2005, Saudis voted in the country's first municipal elections in more than 50 years. Women, and male members of the military, were not permitted to vote.

In July 1997, the membership of the Consultative Council was expanded from 60 to 90 members, and again in May 2001 from 90 to 120 members. In 2005, membership was expanded to 150 members. Membership has changed significantly during expansions of the council as many members have not been reappointed. The role of the council is gradually expanding as it gains experience.

In November 2006, [[King Abdallah]] announced the formation of an Allegiance Committee which, in the future, will select the Crown Prince.

===Principal Government Officials===
*King, Prime Minister, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques—King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Prince Saud Al Faysal bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:King Abdullah with Dick Cheney George H.W. Bush, August 2005.jpg|thumb|280px|Deceased King Abdullah with Dick Cheney, George H.W. Bush, and Colin Powell, 2005.]]
Saudi foreign policy objectives are to maintain its security and its paramount position on the Arabian Peninsula, defend general Arab and Islamic interests, promote solidarity among Islamic governments, and maintain cooperative relations with other oil-producing and major oil-consuming countries.

Saudi Arabia signed the UN Charter in 1945. The country plays a prominent and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and Arab and Islamic financial and development assistance institutions. One of the largest aid donors in the world, it still gives some aid to a number of Arab, African, and Asian countries. Jeddah is the headquarters of the Secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, founded in 1969.

Membership in the 11-member OPEC and in the technically and economically oriented Arab producer group—the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries—facilitates coordination of Saudi oil policies with other oil-exporting governments. As the world's leading exporter of petroleum, Saudi Arabia has a special interest in preserving a stable and long-term market for its vast oil resources by allying itself with healthy Western economies which can protect the value of Saudi financial assets. It generally has acted to stabilize the world oil market and tried to moderate sharp price movements.

The Saudi Government frequently helps mediate regional crises and support the Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. A charter member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the position that Israel must withdraw from the territories which it occupied in June 1967, as according to United Nations Resolution 242. Saudi Arabia supports a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict but rejected the Camp David accords, claiming that they would be unable to achieve a comprehensive political solution that would ensure Palestinian rights and adequately address the status of Jerusalem. Although Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with and suspended aid to Egypt in the wake of Camp David, the two countries renewed formal ties in 1987. In March 2002, Crown Prince Abdallah offered a Middle East peace plan, now known as the Arab Peace Initiative, at the annual summit of the Arab League in which Arab governments would offer "normal relations and the security of Israel in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Arab lands, recognition of an independent Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital, and the return of Palestinian refugees." In March 2007 the Arab League reiterated its support for the Arab Peace Initiative by endorsing it as the foundation for a broad Arab-Israeli peace.

In 1990-91, Saudi Arabia played an important role in the Gulf War, developing new allies and improving existing relationships between Saudi Arabia and some other countries. Saudi Arabia provided water, food, shelter, and fuel for coalition forces in the region. Saudi Arabia's combined costs in payments, foregone revenues, and donated supplies were $55 billion. More than $15 billion went toward reimbursing the United States alone. However, there also were diplomatic and financial costs. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya deteriorated. Each country had remained silent following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait but called for an end to violence once the deployment of coalition troops began. Relations between these countries and Saudi Arabia have returned to their pre-war status. Saudi Arabia's relations with those countries which expressed support for Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait—Yemen, Jordan, and Sudan—were severely strained during and immediately after the war. For example, several hundred thousand Yemenis were expelled from Saudi Arabia after the Government of Yemen announced its position, thus exacerbating an existing border dispute. Saudi-Yemeni relations, especially in the wake of the 1994 Yemen civil war, remained fragile and of significant concern to the Saudi Government. Relations have slowly warmed over time and the Yemeni-Saudi border was finally demarcated in 2000. The Palestine Liberation Organization's support for Iraq cost it financial aid as well as good relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states. Recently, though, Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority have improved, with the Saudi Government providing assistance for the Palestinian Authority.

As it had during the 1990-91 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia provided important support to Coalition efforts in Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 2006, Saudi Arabia hosted a conference to promote sectarian reconciliation within Iraq, and has pledged substantial debt relief to aid the elected government. Saudi Arabia is an important player in promoting stability and security in the Gulf region, and provided critical reconstruction support to Lebanon following the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel. Saudi Arabia has also taken a more prominent leadership role within the Organization of the Islamic Conference. In addition to promoting its Arab Peace initiative in 2007, in February it brokered an agreement between Palestinian factions known as the "Mecca Agreement," and in May 2007 King Abdullah brokered a reconciliation agreement between Chad and Sudan.

===Relations with the United States===
Saudi Arabia's unique role in the Arab and Islamic worlds, its possession of the world's largest reserves of oil, and its strategic location make its friendship important to the United States. Diplomatic relations were established in 1933; the U.S. embassy opened in Jeddah in 1944 and moved to Riyadh in 1984. The Jeddah embassy became a U.S. consulate. Meanwhile, a U.S. consulate opened in Dhahran in 1944.

The United States and Saudi Arabia share a common concern about regional security, oil exports and imports, and sustainable development. Close consultations between the U.S. and Saudi Arabia have developed on international, economic, and development issues such as the Middle East peace process and shared interests in the Gulf. The continued availability of reliable sources of oil, particularly from Saudi Arabia, remains important to the prosperity of the United States as well as to Europe and Japan. Saudi Arabia is one of the leading sources of imported oil for the United States, providing more than one million barrels/day of oil to the U.S. The U.S. is Saudi Arabia's largest trading partner, and Saudi Arabia is the largest U.S. export market in the Middle East.
[[File:Geore W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.jpg|left|Geore W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.]]
In addition to economic ties, a longstanding security relationship continues to be important in U.S.-Saudi relations. A U.S. military training mission established at Dhahran in 1953 provides training and support in the use of weapons and other security-related services to the Saudi armed forces. The United States has sold Saudi Arabia military aircraft (F-15s, AWACS, and UH-60 Blackhawks), air defense weaponry (Patriot and Hawk missiles), armored vehicles (M1A2 Abrams tanks and M-2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles), and other equipment. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has had a long-term role in military and civilian construction activities in the Kingdom.

The Gulf War and Operation Iraqi Freedom demonstrated U.S.-Saudi cooperation in the areas of cultural accommodation, as well as in military operations. For example, the U.S. military issued general orders prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and setting guidelines for off-duty behavior and attire. Saudi Arabia accommodated U.S. culture and its military procedures by allowing U.S. servicewomen to serve in their varied roles throughout the kingdom—a major step for a highly patriarchal society. In August 2003, following the U.S.-led war in Iraq in March and April 2003, the United States withdrew its troops stationed in Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were strained after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in which 15 of the hijackers were Saudi citizens. On May 12, 2003 suicide bombers killed 35 people, including nine Americans, in attacks at three housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh. On November 8, 2003 terrorists attacked another compound housing foreign workers from mainly Arab countries. At least 18 people, including 5 children died in this attack, and more than 100 were injured. When [[NATO]] forces raided the offices of the Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina; police found before-and-after images of the twin towers, US Embassy in Tanzania, US Embassy in Kenya, the USS Cole; detailed blueprints of buildings in DC, Anti-American propaganda, Anti-Semetic propaganda, and equipment for creating fake US government identifications badges.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jc2VW8GUqAwC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=saudi+high+commission+for+relief+of+bosnia+&+herzegovina+forging&source=bl&ots=FNjtuqvB24&sig=IsH8G43wYDnq-fV2lyzbNdvT04A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMscXG6t7TAhXD6yYKHcimCRgQ6AEIXDAI#v=onepage&q=saudi%20high%20commission%20for%20relief%20of%20bosnia%20&%20herzegovina%20forging&f=false|title=Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed-- and how to Stop it|last=Ehrenfeld|first=Rachel|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Bonus Books, Inc.|isbn=9781566252317|language=en}}</ref>

[[Image:Obamabow.jpg|thumb|right|250px|President Obama bowing to King Abdullah; King Abdullah is personally responsible for numerous human rights violations in the Kingdom.<ref name="gulfnews">{{cite news | first= Habib| last= Moumi| title= Mystery about controversial Saudi columnist's location deepens| date=2017-02-09| work= [[Gulf News]]| url= http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/mystery-about-controversial-saudi-columnist-s-location-deepens-1.978517| accessdate=2017-05-07 | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/65MO0ZfQN| archivedate=2012-02-10 }}</ref>]]
On May 1, 2004 terrorists killed two Americans in the Yanbu oil facility in the western part of the country. On May 29, 2004 terrorists killed one American and wounded several others in attacks on an official building and housing compound in al-Khobar in the Eastern Province. On June 6, terrorists shot and killed a BBC journalist. On June 9 and June 12, 2004 terrorists killed Americans Robert Jacobs and Kenneth Scroggs. On June 18, 2004 terrorists kidnapped and beheaded American Paul Johnson. On December 6, 2004 terrorists attacked the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, killing five consulate employees. Terrorists also targeted and killed other foreign nationalities during this time. In February 2007, four French nationals were killed in western Saudi Arabia in a suspected terrorist attack.

Currently, Saudi Arabia is an important partner in the campaign against terrorism, providing assistance in the military, diplomatic, and financial arenas. Counterterrorism cooperation between Saudi Arabia and the United States increased significantly after the May 12, 2003 bombings in Riyadh and continues today. In February 2005, the Saudi government sponsored the first ever Counter-Terrorism International Conference in Riyadh.

==Human Rights issues==
Despite close cooperation on security issues, the United States remains concerned about [[human rights]] conditions in Saudi Arabia. Principal human rights problems include abuse of prisoners and incommunicado detention; prohibitions or severe restrictions on the freedoms of speech, press, peaceful assembly and association, and religion; denial of the right of citizens to change their government; systematic discrimination against women and ethnic and religious minorities; and suppression of workers' rights.

They have strict laws that are punishable by beheading, such as sodomy convictions. If the criminal was convicted of lewd offenses, occasionally the Saudis will crucify the victim in addition to head separation, in public. In 2008, 102 people were beheaded.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,523364,00.html?test=latestnews Saudis Behead, Crucify Convicted Child Molester, Murderer] AP, May 30, 2009</ref>

===Religion===
As an [[Islam]]ic country under strict [[Shari'a]] law (Islamic law), Saudi Arabia has little of the religious freedom common in the West. Bringing a [[Bible]] or religious symbols such as a cross or a [[Star of David]] into the country, even for personal use only, will risk confiscation. Although Christianity is permitted, preaching to Muslims or attempting to convert them in public or private is a criminal offense, as is the production or distribution of Bibles.<ref>''Christian Examiner'', Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 20</ref>

[[File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg|center|800px|thumb|Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], Saudi Arabia, the site of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] tomb.]]

===Women===
Saudi Arabia has had strict gender segregation laws prohibiting women from holding jobs, meeting men other than their relatives, or living independently of a family of husband. These laws were enforced by an Islamic department of the police force, justified as measures to protect Islamic culture and morality.
The strict segregation of women in Saudi Arabia, although a consequence of tradition and [[Wahhabi]] conservatism, continued to be implemented even as urbanization has progressed and the authority of the state has grown.

A female sphere of activities has developed, encouraged by the state, but Saudi women have appopriated this segregated organization and developed it on their own terms, such that their activities and discourses are by and for women. However, autonomy for these organizations is limited, as they are subject to decisions from above, from all-men's institutions, and from state rules and laws that demand adherence.<ref>Amélie Lerenard, “'Only for Women': Women, the State, and Reform in Saudi Arabia,” ‘’Middle East Journal’‘ 2008 62(4): 610-629</ref>

In the second decade of the 21st Century, some of the restrictions were relaxed - in part due to a reform-minded crown prince.
* In 2017, the ''New York Times'' reported, "Increasing numbers of women are working in a growing number of professions, and in 2015, women were allowed to vote and to run for seats on the kingdom’s local councils."<ref name=end-driving-ban> [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/26/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-drive.html Saudi Arabia Agrees to Let Women Drive] - Ben Hubbard - Sept. 26, 2017</ref>

It was announced in September 2017 that the ban of women driving would end in June 2018.<ref name=end-driving-ban />

==Economy==
[[File:Abraj-al-Bait-Towers.JPG|thumb|[[Abraj Al Bait Towers|Abraj-al-Bait-Towers]].]]
Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia by U.S. geologists in the 1930s, although large scale production did not begin until after [[World War II]]. Oil wealth has made possible rapid economic development, which began in earnest in the 1960s and accelerated spectacularly in the 1970s, transforming the kingdom.

<blockquote>
It is impossible to say exactly when the search for oil in Arabia began. But if one date had to be chosen, it might well be January 15, 1902, the day that 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd al-Rahman Al Sa'ud recaptured Riyadh and began the march to Arabian statehood.<ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199901/prelude.to.discovery.htm Prelude to Discovery]</ref>
</blockquote>

Saudi oil reserves are the largest in the world, and Saudi Arabia is the world's leading oil producer and exporter. Oil accounts for more than 90% of the country's exports and nearly 75% of government revenues. Proven reserves are estimated to be 263 billion barrels, about one-quarter of world oil reserves.

More than 95% of all Saudi oil is produced on behalf of the Saudi Government by the parastatal giant Saudi ARAMCO. In June 1993, Saudi ARAMCO absorbed the state marketing and refining company (SAMAREC), becoming the world's largest fully integrated oil company. Most Saudi oil exports move by tanker from Gulf terminals at Ras Tanura and Ju'aymah. The remaining oil exports are transported via the east-west pipeline across the kingdom to the Red Sea port of Yanbu.

Due to a sharp rise in petroleum revenues in 1974 following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia became one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It enjoyed a substantial surplus in its overall trade with other countries; imports increased rapidly; and ample government revenues were available for development, defense, and aid to other Arab and Islamic countries.
[[File:Saudi Aramco.jpg|left]]
But higher oil prices led to both reduced consumption and development of more oil fields around the world. The result, beginning in the mid-1980s, was a worldwide oil glut, which introduced an element of planning uncertainty for the first time in a decade. Saudi oil production, which had increased to almost 10 million barrels per day (b/d) during 1980-81, dropped to about 2 million b/d in 1985. Budgetary deficits developed, and the government drew down its foreign assets. Responding to financial pressures, Saudi Arabia gave up its role as the "swing producer" within OPEC in the summer of 1985 and accepted a production quota. Since then, Saudi oil policy has been guided by a desire to maintain market and quota shares and to support stability in the international oil market. The stability has been further threatened by technology, such as hydraulic fracturing (or "fracing" as it is commonly known) which has allowed reduction in the cost to produce oil as well as redevelopment of older oil fields (such as the Permian Basin in west Texas).

Saudi Arabia was a key player in coordinating the successful 1999 campaign of OPEC and other oil-producing countries to raise the price of oil to its highest level since the Gulf War by managing production and supply of petroleum. That same year, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and better coordinate economic development policies in order to accelerate institutional and industrial reform.

In response to increasing international demand for oil, Saudi ARAMCO is engaged in an expansion of its oil production capacity, and plans to raise its capacity from the current 9.5-10 million barrels/day (mb/d) to 12 mb/d within the next several years. Saudi ARAMCO is also increasing production of associated and non-associated natural gas to feed the expanding petrochemical sector. Notably, Saudi Arabia has awarded contracts to foreign companies to conduct gas exploration in selected regions of the country—the first such foreign participation in the petroleum sector upstream since the nationalization of ARAMCO in the 1970s.

Saudi Arabia continues to pursue rapid industrial expansion, led by the petrochemical sector. The Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), a parastatal petrochemical company, is now one of the world's leading petrochemical producers, and the government promotes private sector involvement in petrochemicals. The government also plans new investments in the mining sector and in refining,

After Saudi Arabia announced its intention to join the World Trade Organization (WTO), negotiations focused on increasing market access to foreign goods and services and the timeframe for becoming fully compliant with WTO obligations. In April 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the country. Saudi Arabia signed a Trade Investment Framework Agreement with the U.S. in July 2003, and joined the WTO in December 2005.

Through 5-year development plans, the government has sought to allocate its petroleum income to transform its relatively undeveloped, oil-based economy into that of a modern industrial state while maintaining the kingdom's traditional Islamic values and customs. Although economic planners have not achieved all their goals, the economy has progressed rapidly. Oil wealth has increased the standard of living of most Saudis. However, significant population growth has strained the government's ability to finance further improvements in the country's standard of living. Heavy dependence on petroleum revenue continues, but industry and agriculture now account for a larger share of economic activity. The mismatch between the job skills of Saudi graduates and the needs of the private job market at all levels remains the principal obstacle to economic diversification and development; about 4.6 million non-Saudis are employed in the economy.
[[File:Saudi Aramco Exhibit.jpg|thumb|300px|Saudi Aramco Exhibit.]]
Saudi Arabia's first two development plans, covering the 1970s, emphasized infrastructure. The results were impressive—the total length of paved highways tripled, power generation increased by a multiple of 28, and the capacity of the seaports grew tenfold. For the third plan (1980–85), the emphasis changed. Spending on infrastructure declined, but it rose markedly on education, health, and social services. The share for diversifying and expanding productive sectors of the economy (primarily industry) did not rise as planned, but the two industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu—built around the use of the country's oil and gas to produce steel, petrochemicals, fertilizer, and refined oil products—were largely completed.

In the fourth plan (1985–90), the country's basic infrastructure was viewed as largely complete, but education and training remained areas of concern. Private enterprise was encouraged, and foreign investment in the form of joint ventures with Saudi public and private companies was welcomed. The private sector became more important, rising to 70% of non-oil GDP by 1987. While still concentrated in trade and commerce, private investment increased in industry, agriculture, banking, and construction companies. These private investments were supported by generous government financing and incentive programs. The objective was for the private sector to have 70% to 80% ownership in most joint venture enterprises.

The fifth plan (1990–95) emphasized consolidation of the country's defenses; improved and more efficient government social services; regional development; and, most importantly, creating greater private-sector employment opportunities for Saudis by reducing the number of foreign workers.

The sixth plan (1996-2000) focused on lowering the cost of government services without cutting them and sought to expand educational training programs. The plan called for reducing the kingdom's dependence on the petroleum sector by diversifying economic activity, particularly in the private sector, with special emphasis on industry and agriculture. It also continued the effort to "Saudiize" the labor force.

The seventh plan (2000-2004) focused more on economic diversification and a greater role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. For the period 2000-2004, the Saudi Government aimed at an average GDP growth rate of 3.16% each year, with projected growths of 5.04% for the private sector and 4.01% for the non-oil sector. The government also set a target of creating 817,300 new jobs for Saudi nationals.

The eighth plan (2005-2010) again focuses on economic diversification in addition to education and inclusion of women in society. The plan calls for establishing new universities and new colleges with technical specializations. Privatization as well as emphases on a knowledge-based economy and tourism will help promote the goal of economic diversification.

*GDP: $800 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $22,857 (2020)

==History==
[[Image:Bcdf.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Masjid Nabawi, Medina, Saudi Arabia]]
Except for a few major cities and oases, the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement of the Arabian Peninsula. People of various cultures have lived in the peninsula over a span of more than 5,000 years. The Dilmun culture, along the Gulf coast, was contemporaneous with the Sumerians and ancient Egyptians, and most of the empires of the ancient world traded with the states of the peninsula.
===Origins===
The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A local ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the [[Ottoman Empire]], and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula.
===Wahhabi===
[[Wahhabi]] fundamentalism originated with [[Syria]]n jurist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92), but was hounded by the more moderate leaders of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the early 19th century, alarmed by the increasing influence of Wahhabism in Saudi-controlled Arabia, the Ottoman Empire urged its Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) to mount an armed attack on the movement, which was considered anti-Turkish. Muhammad Ali began operations in 1811, and bitter fighting ensued on and off, with several cease-fires and impermanent peace agreements being tried until Egypt finally seemed to have succeeded (with the help of some Bedouin tribes that also objected to the stern religious views of Wahhabism) in subduing Arabia by 1818. However, Egypt had to concentrate on insurrections at home, and the Saudi Wahhabists eventually recovered their strength in the 1830s. The were confined to Arabia but Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (1876-1953), the founder of modern Saudi Arabia in 1924, was faithful to the Wahhabi sect, as are his hundreds of sons and grandsons who still rule the country. Once they gained oil money they used it to spread the sect. Wahhabism's explosive growth outside Arabia began in the 1970s when Saudi charities started funding Wahhabi schools (madrassas) and mosques from Pakistan to California.

===Modern state===
The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al Saud (known internationally as Ibn Saud). In 1902, Abdul Aziz recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
[[File:King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.jpg|thumb|left|320px|King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.]]
Boundaries with Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two "neutral zones"—one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait—created. The Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone was administratively partitioned in 1971, with each state continuing to share the petroleum resources of the former zone equally. Tentative agreement on the partition of the Saudi-Iraqi neutral zone was reached in 1981, and partition was finalized by 1983. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Taif, which ended a brief border war between the two states. A June 2000 treaty further delineated portions of the boundary with Yemen. The location and status of Saudi Arabia's boundary with the [[United Arab Emirates]] is not final; a de facto boundary reflects a 1974 agreement. The border between Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]] was resolved in March 2001. The border with [[Oman]] also is not demarcated.

King Abdul Aziz died in 1953 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud, who reigned for 11 years. In 1964, Saud abdicated in favor of his half-brother, Faisal, who had served as Foreign Minister. Because of fiscal difficulties, King Saud had been persuaded in 1958 to delegate direct conduct of Saudi Government affairs to Faisal as Prime Minister; Saud briefly regained control of the government in 1960-62. In October 1962, Faisal outlined a broad reform program, stressing economic development. Proclaimed King in 1964 by senior royal family members and religious leaders, Faisal also continued to serve as Prime Minister. This practice has been followed by subsequent kings.

The mid-1960s saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over [[Yemen]]. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen.
[[File:Saudi Arabia map.jpg|thumb|230px|Saudi Arabia road map.]]
Saudi forces did not participate in the [[Six Day War|Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War]] of June 1967, but the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies. During the [[1973 Arab-Israeli war]], Saudi Arabia participated in the post war Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political

In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew, who was executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid as King and Prime Minister; their half-brother Prince Fahd was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under King Khalid, and the kingdom assumed a more influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters.

In June 1982, King Khalid died, and Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, Prince Abdullah, Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining global oil prices. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Gulf during periods of the [[Iran-Iraq war]] and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire between Iraq and Iran and in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development.

In 1990-91, King Fahd played a key role before and during the [[Gulf war]]. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against [[Iraq]] and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to reestablish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [[Kuwait]]. Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as nonaligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques to persuade other Arab and Islamic nations to join the coalition.

King Fahd suffered a stroke in November 1995. From 1997, Crown Prince Abdullah took on much of the day-to-day responsibilities of running the government. Upon King Fahd's death on August 1, 2005, Abdullah assumed the throne as King. Prince Sultan, Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister.

In January 2015 King Abdullah died at the age of 90. His half-brother Prince Salman was appointed as successor.<ref>https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/powerful-saudi-arabia-king-abdullah-dies-age-90</ref>

==Notable Saudi Arabians==
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]: former leader of Al-Qaeda; died in 2011
*[[Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud]]: ranked 11th richest person in the world by USAToday in 2002.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/02/28/forbes.htm</ref>
*[[Raif Badawi]]: Imprisoned blogger, winner of the Sakharov Prize in 2015 and nominated for Nobel Peace Prize.<ref name="Nobel">{{cite web|url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/02/150847/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-nominated-nobel-peace-prize-2015/|title=Saudi Blogger Raif Badawi Nominated for Nobel Peace Prize 2015|website=Morocco World News|date=2 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EUparl">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34667260|title=Saudi blogger Raif Badawi awarded Sakharov human rights prize|website=BBC News|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>
*[[Hamza Kashgari]]: Arrested for tweets critical of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="emirates247_arrested">{{cite news | title= Sacrilegious Saudi writer arrested in Malaysia| date=2012-02-09| work= [[Emirates 24/7]]| url= http://www.emirates247.com/news/region/sacrilegious-saudi-writer-arrested-in-malaysia-2012-02-09-1.442198| accessdate=2017-05-07 | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/65MOcflmZ| archivedate=2012-02-10 }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Mecca]]
* [[Wahhabi]]
*[[St. John Philby]]
*[[Libyan uprising 2011]]
*[[1979 Grand Mosque Siege]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.saudiaramco.com/irj/portal/anonymous?favlnk=%2FSaudiAramcoPublic%2Fdocs%2FAt+A+Glance%2FSaudi+Arabia+Profile&ln=en The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]

==Further reading==
* Commins, David. ''The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia'' (2006) 276p.
* Niblock, Tim. ''Saudi Arabia: Power, Legitimacy, and Survival''(2006)
* Cordesman, Anthony, and Nawaf Obaid. ''National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges'' (2005).

==References==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm]

{{Asian Countries}}
{{Deep State}}
[[Category:Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Threats]]

Saudi Arabia

2020-12-08T16:55:50Z

United States: adding!

{{Country
|name ='''المملكة العربية السعودية''' '''al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiyya as-Su’ūdiyya'''
|map =Saudi arabia rel 2003.jpg
|flag =Flag of Saudi Arabia.png
|arms =Arms of Saudi Arabia.png
|capital =Riyadh
|capital-raw =[[Riyadh|ar-Riyād]]
|government =Absolute Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =829,996 sq mi
|pop =35,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$800,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$22,857 (2020)
|currency =Riyal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia''' (''al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya'', '''المملكة العربية السعودية''', also '''Saudi Arabia''' or '''KSA''') is a large country on the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Ruled by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the country is one of the few absolute monarchies left in the world. [[Shari'a]] (Islamic jurisprudence) is the official law of the Kingdom. The Kingdom was first declared on 8 January 1926 by [[Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud]], and was brought together on 22 September 1932.

[[Barack Obama]] pandered to this tyrannical regime while he was president, even deeply bowing to its dictator in a subservient gesture that offended many [[American|Americans]].

Despite homosexuality being illegal in Saudi Arabia, there is a large amount of men who are secretly gay.<ref>https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/05/the-kingdom-in-the-closet/305774/</ref>
==People==
[[File:Young Saudi Arabian woman.jpg|left|170px]]
Saudi Arabia's 2007 population was estimated to be about 27.6 million, including about 5.6 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or seminomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometer (2,600 per sq. mi). Saudi Arabia has undergone a population boom of sorts in the last few decades.

Saudi Arabia is known as the birthplace of [[Islam]], which in the century following [[Muhammad]]'s death in 632 A.D. spread west to [[Spain]] and east to [[India]]. Islam obliges all Muslims to make the [[Hajj]], or pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], at least once during their lifetime if they are able to do so. The cultural environment in Saudi Arabia is highly conservative; the country adheres to a strict interpretation of Islamic religious law (Shari'a). Cultural presentations must conform to narrowly defined standards of ethics. Men and women are not permitted to attend public events together and are segregated in the work place.

Most Saudis are ethnically [[Arab]]. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Indonesians, Indians, Africans, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are less than 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia.

==Government==
The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of King Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy [[Qur'an]] is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no political parties or national elections; however, the country held its first municipal elections in 2005. The king's powers are limited because he must observe the Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the numerous Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema.
[[File:Alwaleed bintalal cp 5515065.jpg|thumb|Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud.]]
Saudi kings gradually have developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations.

Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers and the Shura Council, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a. Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions.

The kingdom is divided into 13 provinces governed by princes or close relatives of the royal family. All governors are appointed by the King.

In March 1992, [[King Fahd]] issued several decrees outlining the basic statutes of government and codifying for the first time procedures concerning the royal succession. The King's political reform program also provided for the establishment of a national Consultative Council, with appointed members having advisory powers to review and give advice on issues of public interest. It also outlined a framework for councils at the provincial or emirate level.

In September 1993, King Fahd issued additional reform decrees, appointing the members of the national Consultative Council and spelling out procedures for the new council's operations. He announced reforms regarding the Council of Ministers, including term limitations of 4 years and regulations to prohibit conflict of interest for ministers and other high-level officials. The members of 13 provincial councils and the councils' operating regulations also were announced in September 1993. In February, March, and April 2005, Saudis voted in the country's first municipal elections in more than 50 years. Women, and male members of the military, were not permitted to vote.

In July 1997, the membership of the Consultative Council was expanded from 60 to 90 members, and again in May 2001 from 90 to 120 members. In 2005, membership was expanded to 150 members. Membership has changed significantly during expansions of the council as many members have not been reappointed. The role of the council is gradually expanding as it gains experience.

In November 2006, [[King Abdallah]] announced the formation of an Allegiance Committee which, in the future, will select the Crown Prince.

===Principal Government Officials===
*King, Prime Minister, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques—King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Prince Saud Al Faysal bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:King Abdullah with Dick Cheney George H.W. Bush, August 2005.jpg|thumb|280px|Deceased King Abdullah with Dick Cheney, George H.W. Bush, and Colin Powell, 2005.]]
Saudi foreign policy objectives are to maintain its security and its paramount position on the Arabian Peninsula, defend general Arab and Islamic interests, promote solidarity among Islamic governments, and maintain cooperative relations with other oil-producing and major oil-consuming countries.

Saudi Arabia signed the UN Charter in 1945. The country plays a prominent and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and Arab and Islamic financial and development assistance institutions. One of the largest aid donors in the world, it still gives some aid to a number of Arab, African, and Asian countries. Jeddah is the headquarters of the Secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, founded in 1969.

Membership in the 11-member OPEC and in the technically and economically oriented Arab producer group—the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries—facilitates coordination of Saudi oil policies with other oil-exporting governments. As the world's leading exporter of petroleum, Saudi Arabia has a special interest in preserving a stable and long-term market for its vast oil resources by allying itself with healthy Western economies which can protect the value of Saudi financial assets. It generally has acted to stabilize the world oil market and tried to moderate sharp price movements.

The Saudi Government frequently helps mediate regional crises and support the Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. A charter member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the position that Israel must withdraw from the territories which it occupied in June 1967, as according to United Nations Resolution 242. Saudi Arabia supports a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict but rejected the Camp David accords, claiming that they would be unable to achieve a comprehensive political solution that would ensure Palestinian rights and adequately address the status of Jerusalem. Although Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with and suspended aid to Egypt in the wake of Camp David, the two countries renewed formal ties in 1987. In March 2002, Crown Prince Abdallah offered a Middle East peace plan, now known as the Arab Peace Initiative, at the annual summit of the Arab League in which Arab governments would offer "normal relations and the security of Israel in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Arab lands, recognition of an independent Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital, and the return of Palestinian refugees." In March 2007 the Arab League reiterated its support for the Arab Peace Initiative by endorsing it as the foundation for a broad Arab-Israeli peace.

In 1990-91, Saudi Arabia played an important role in the Gulf War, developing new allies and improving existing relationships between Saudi Arabia and some other countries. Saudi Arabia provided water, food, shelter, and fuel for coalition forces in the region. Saudi Arabia's combined costs in payments, foregone revenues, and donated supplies were $55 billion. More than $15 billion went toward reimbursing the United States alone. However, there also were diplomatic and financial costs. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya deteriorated. Each country had remained silent following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait but called for an end to violence once the deployment of coalition troops began. Relations between these countries and Saudi Arabia have returned to their pre-war status. Saudi Arabia's relations with those countries which expressed support for Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait—Yemen, Jordan, and Sudan—were severely strained during and immediately after the war. For example, several hundred thousand Yemenis were expelled from Saudi Arabia after the Government of Yemen announced its position, thus exacerbating an existing border dispute. Saudi-Yemeni relations, especially in the wake of the 1994 Yemen civil war, remained fragile and of significant concern to the Saudi Government. Relations have slowly warmed over time and the Yemeni-Saudi border was finally demarcated in 2000. The Palestine Liberation Organization's support for Iraq cost it financial aid as well as good relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states. Recently, though, Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority have improved, with the Saudi Government providing assistance for the Palestinian Authority.

As it had during the 1990-91 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia provided important support to Coalition efforts in Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 2006, Saudi Arabia hosted a conference to promote sectarian reconciliation within Iraq, and has pledged substantial debt relief to aid the elected government. Saudi Arabia is an important player in promoting stability and security in the Gulf region, and provided critical reconstruction support to Lebanon following the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel. Saudi Arabia has also taken a more prominent leadership role within the Organization of the Islamic Conference. In addition to promoting its Arab Peace initiative in 2007, in February it brokered an agreement between Palestinian factions known as the "Mecca Agreement," and in May 2007 King Abdullah brokered a reconciliation agreement between Chad and Sudan.

===Relations with the United States===
Saudi Arabia's unique role in the Arab and Islamic worlds, its possession of the world's largest reserves of oil, and its strategic location make its friendship important to the United States. Diplomatic relations were established in 1933; the U.S. embassy opened in Jeddah in 1944 and moved to Riyadh in 1984. The Jeddah embassy became a U.S. consulate. Meanwhile, a U.S. consulate opened in Dhahran in 1944.

The United States and Saudi Arabia share a common concern about regional security, oil exports and imports, and sustainable development. Close consultations between the U.S. and Saudi Arabia have developed on international, economic, and development issues such as the Middle East peace process and shared interests in the Gulf. The continued availability of reliable sources of oil, particularly from Saudi Arabia, remains important to the prosperity of the United States as well as to Europe and Japan. Saudi Arabia is one of the leading sources of imported oil for the United States, providing more than one million barrels/day of oil to the U.S. The U.S. is Saudi Arabia's largest trading partner, and Saudi Arabia is the largest U.S. export market in the Middle East.
[[File:Geore W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.jpg|left|Geore W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.]]
In addition to economic ties, a longstanding security relationship continues to be important in U.S.-Saudi relations. A U.S. military training mission established at Dhahran in 1953 provides training and support in the use of weapons and other security-related services to the Saudi armed forces. The United States has sold Saudi Arabia military aircraft (F-15s, AWACS, and UH-60 Blackhawks), air defense weaponry (Patriot and Hawk missiles), armored vehicles (M1A2 Abrams tanks and M-2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles), and other equipment. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has had a long-term role in military and civilian construction activities in the Kingdom.

The Gulf War and Operation Iraqi Freedom demonstrated U.S.-Saudi cooperation in the areas of cultural accommodation, as well as in military operations. For example, the U.S. military issued general orders prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and setting guidelines for off-duty behavior and attire. Saudi Arabia accommodated U.S. culture and its military procedures by allowing U.S. servicewomen to serve in their varied roles throughout the kingdom—a major step for a highly patriarchal society. In August 2003, following the U.S.-led war in Iraq in March and April 2003, the United States withdrew its troops stationed in Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were strained after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in which 15 of the hijackers were Saudi citizens. On May 12, 2003 suicide bombers killed 35 people, including nine Americans, in attacks at three housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh. On November 8, 2003 terrorists attacked another compound housing foreign workers from mainly Arab countries. At least 18 people, including 5 children died in this attack, and more than 100 were injured. When [[NATO]] forces raided the offices of the Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina; police found before-and-after images of the twin towers, US Embassy in Tanzania, US Embassy in Kenya, the USS Cole; detailed blueprints of buildings in DC, Anti-American propaganda, Anti-Semetic propaganda, and equipment for creating fake US government identifications badges.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jc2VW8GUqAwC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=saudi+high+commission+for+relief+of+bosnia+&+herzegovina+forging&source=bl&ots=FNjtuqvB24&sig=IsH8G43wYDnq-fV2lyzbNdvT04A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMscXG6t7TAhXD6yYKHcimCRgQ6AEIXDAI#v=onepage&q=saudi%20high%20commission%20for%20relief%20of%20bosnia%20&%20herzegovina%20forging&f=false|title=Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed-- and how to Stop it|last=Ehrenfeld|first=Rachel|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Bonus Books, Inc.|isbn=9781566252317|language=en}}</ref>

[[Image:Obamabow.jpg|thumb|right|250px|President Obama bowing to King Abdullah; King Abdullah is personally responsible for numerous human rights violations in the Kingdom.<ref name="gulfnews">{{cite news | first= Habib| last= Moumi| title= Mystery about controversial Saudi columnist's location deepens| date=2017-02-09| work= [[Gulf News]]| url= http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/mystery-about-controversial-saudi-columnist-s-location-deepens-1.978517| accessdate=2017-05-07 | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/65MO0ZfQN| archivedate=2012-02-10 }}</ref>]]
On May 1, 2004 terrorists killed two Americans in the Yanbu oil facility in the western part of the country. On May 29, 2004 terrorists killed one American and wounded several others in attacks on an official building and housing compound in al-Khobar in the Eastern Province. On June 6, terrorists shot and killed a BBC journalist. On June 9 and June 12, 2004 terrorists killed Americans Robert Jacobs and Kenneth Scroggs. On June 18, 2004 terrorists kidnapped and beheaded American Paul Johnson. On December 6, 2004 terrorists attacked the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, killing five consulate employees. Terrorists also targeted and killed other foreign nationalities during this time. In February 2007, four French nationals were killed in western Saudi Arabia in a suspected terrorist attack.

Currently, Saudi Arabia is an important partner in the campaign against terrorism, providing assistance in the military, diplomatic, and financial arenas. Counterterrorism cooperation between Saudi Arabia and the United States increased significantly after the May 12, 2003 bombings in Riyadh and continues today. In February 2005, the Saudi government sponsored the first ever Counter-Terrorism International Conference in Riyadh.

==Human Rights issues==
Despite close cooperation on security issues, the United States remains concerned about [[human rights]] conditions in Saudi Arabia. Principal human rights problems include abuse of prisoners and incommunicado detention; prohibitions or severe restrictions on the freedoms of speech, press, peaceful assembly and association, and religion; denial of the right of citizens to change their government; systematic discrimination against women and ethnic and religious minorities; and suppression of workers' rights.

They have strict laws that are punishable by beheading, such as sodomy convictions. If the criminal was convicted of lewd offenses, occasionally the Saudis will crucify the victim in addition to head separation, in public. In 2008, 102 people were beheaded.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,523364,00.html?test=latestnews Saudis Behead, Crucify Convicted Child Molester, Murderer] AP, May 30, 2009</ref>

===Religion===
As an [[Islam]]ic country under strict [[Shari'a]] law (Islamic law), Saudi Arabia has little of the religious freedom common in the West. Bringing a [[Bible]] or religious symbols such as a cross or a [[Star of David]] into the country, even for personal use only, will risk confiscation. Although Christianity is permitted, preaching to Muslims or attempting to convert them in public or private is a criminal offense, as is the production or distribution of Bibles.<ref>''Christian Examiner'', Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 20</ref>

[[File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg|center|800px|thumb|Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], Saudi Arabia, the site of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] tomb.]]

===Women===
Saudi Arabia has had strict gender segregation laws prohibiting women from holding jobs, meeting men other than their relatives, or living independently of a family of husband. These laws were enforced by an Islamic department of the police force, justified as measures to protect Islamic culture and morality.
The strict segregation of women in Saudi Arabia, although a consequence of tradition and [[Wahhabi]] conservatism, continued to be implemented even as urbanization has progressed and the authority of the state has grown.

A female sphere of activities has developed, encouraged by the state, but Saudi women have appopriated this segregated organization and developed it on their own terms, such that their activities and discourses are by and for women. However, autonomy for these organizations is limited, as they are subject to decisions from above, from all-men's institutions, and from state rules and laws that demand adherence.<ref>Amélie Lerenard, “'Only for Women': Women, the State, and Reform in Saudi Arabia,” ‘’Middle East Journal’‘ 2008 62(4): 610-629</ref>

In the second decade of the 21st Century, some of the restrictions were relaxed - in part due to a reform-minded crown prince.
* In 2017, the ''New York Times'' reported, "Increasing numbers of women are working in a growing number of professions, and in 2015, women were allowed to vote and to run for seats on the kingdom’s local councils."<ref name=end-driving-ban> [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/26/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-drive.html Saudi Arabia Agrees to Let Women Drive] - Ben Hubbard - Sept. 26, 2017</ref>

It was announced in September 2017 that the ban of women driving would end in June 2018.<ref name=end-driving-ban />

==Economy==
[[File:Abraj-al-Bait-Towers.JPG|thumb|[[Abraj Al Bait Towers|Abraj-al-Bait-Towers]].]]
Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia by U.S. geologists in the 1930s, although large scale production did not begin until after [[World War II]]. Oil wealth has made possible rapid economic development, which began in earnest in the 1960s and accelerated spectacularly in the 1970s, transforming the kingdom.

<blockquote>
It is impossible to say exactly when the search for oil in Arabia began. But if one date had to be chosen, it might well be January 15, 1902, the day that 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd al-Rahman Al Sa'ud recaptured Riyadh and began the march to Arabian statehood.<ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199901/prelude.to.discovery.htm Prelude to Discovery]</ref>
</blockquote>

Saudi oil reserves are the largest in the world, and Saudi Arabia is the world's leading oil producer and exporter. Oil accounts for more than 90% of the country's exports and nearly 75% of government revenues. Proven reserves are estimated to be 263 billion barrels, about one-quarter of world oil reserves.

More than 95% of all Saudi oil is produced on behalf of the Saudi Government by the parastatal giant Saudi ARAMCO. In June 1993, Saudi ARAMCO absorbed the state marketing and refining company (SAMAREC), becoming the world's largest fully integrated oil company. Most Saudi oil exports move by tanker from Gulf terminals at Ras Tanura and Ju'aymah. The remaining oil exports are transported via the east-west pipeline across the kingdom to the Red Sea port of Yanbu.

Due to a sharp rise in petroleum revenues in 1974 following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia became one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It enjoyed a substantial surplus in its overall trade with other countries; imports increased rapidly; and ample government revenues were available for development, defense, and aid to other Arab and Islamic countries.
[[File:Saudi Aramco.jpg|left]]
But higher oil prices led to both reduced consumption and development of more oil fields around the world. The result, beginning in the mid-1980s, was a worldwide oil glut, which introduced an element of planning uncertainty for the first time in a decade. Saudi oil production, which had increased to almost 10 million barrels per day (b/d) during 1980-81, dropped to about 2 million b/d in 1985. Budgetary deficits developed, and the government drew down its foreign assets. Responding to financial pressures, Saudi Arabia gave up its role as the "swing producer" within OPEC in the summer of 1985 and accepted a production quota. Since then, Saudi oil policy has been guided by a desire to maintain market and quota shares and to support stability in the international oil market. The stability has been further threatened by technology, such as hydraulic fracturing (or "fracing" as it is commonly known) which has allowed reduction in the cost to produce oil as well as redevelopment of older oil fields (such as the Permian Basin in west Texas).

Saudi Arabia was a key player in coordinating the successful 1999 campaign of OPEC and other oil-producing countries to raise the price of oil to its highest level since the Gulf War by managing production and supply of petroleum. That same year, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and better coordinate economic development policies in order to accelerate institutional and industrial reform.

In response to increasing international demand for oil, Saudi ARAMCO is engaged in an expansion of its oil production capacity, and plans to raise its capacity from the current 9.5-10 million barrels/day (mb/d) to 12 mb/d within the next several years. Saudi ARAMCO is also increasing production of associated and non-associated natural gas to feed the expanding petrochemical sector. Notably, Saudi Arabia has awarded contracts to foreign companies to conduct gas exploration in selected regions of the country—the first such foreign participation in the petroleum sector upstream since the nationalization of ARAMCO in the 1970s.

Saudi Arabia continues to pursue rapid industrial expansion, led by the petrochemical sector. The Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), a parastatal petrochemical company, is now one of the world's leading petrochemical producers, and the government promotes private sector involvement in petrochemicals. The government also plans new investments in the mining sector and in refining,

After Saudi Arabia announced its intention to join the World Trade Organization (WTO), negotiations focused on increasing market access to foreign goods and services and the timeframe for becoming fully compliant with WTO obligations. In April 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the country. Saudi Arabia signed a Trade Investment Framework Agreement with the U.S. in July 2003, and joined the WTO in December 2005.

Through 5-year development plans, the government has sought to allocate its petroleum income to transform its relatively undeveloped, oil-based economy into that of a modern industrial state while maintaining the kingdom's traditional Islamic values and customs. Although economic planners have not achieved all their goals, the economy has progressed rapidly. Oil wealth has increased the standard of living of most Saudis. However, significant population growth has strained the government's ability to finance further improvements in the country's standard of living. Heavy dependence on petroleum revenue continues, but industry and agriculture now account for a larger share of economic activity. The mismatch between the job skills of Saudi graduates and the needs of the private job market at all levels remains the principal obstacle to economic diversification and development; about 4.6 million non-Saudis are employed in the economy.
[[File:Saudi Aramco Exhibit.jpg|thumb|300px|Saudi Aramco Exhibit.]]
Saudi Arabia's first two development plans, covering the 1970s, emphasized infrastructure. The results were impressive—the total length of paved highways tripled, power generation increased by a multiple of 28, and the capacity of the seaports grew tenfold. For the third plan (1980–85), the emphasis changed. Spending on infrastructure declined, but it rose markedly on education, health, and social services. The share for diversifying and expanding productive sectors of the economy (primarily industry) did not rise as planned, but the two industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu—built around the use of the country's oil and gas to produce steel, petrochemicals, fertilizer, and refined oil products—were largely completed.

In the fourth plan (1985–90), the country's basic infrastructure was viewed as largely complete, but education and training remained areas of concern. Private enterprise was encouraged, and foreign investment in the form of joint ventures with Saudi public and private companies was welcomed. The private sector became more important, rising to 70% of non-oil GDP by 1987. While still concentrated in trade and commerce, private investment increased in industry, agriculture, banking, and construction companies. These private investments were supported by generous government financing and incentive programs. The objective was for the private sector to have 70% to 80% ownership in most joint venture enterprises.

The fifth plan (1990–95) emphasized consolidation of the country's defenses; improved and more efficient government social services; regional development; and, most importantly, creating greater private-sector employment opportunities for Saudis by reducing the number of foreign workers.

The sixth plan (1996-2000) focused on lowering the cost of government services without cutting them and sought to expand educational training programs. The plan called for reducing the kingdom's dependence on the petroleum sector by diversifying economic activity, particularly in the private sector, with special emphasis on industry and agriculture. It also continued the effort to "Saudiize" the labor force.

The seventh plan (2000-2004) focused more on economic diversification and a greater role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. For the period 2000-2004, the Saudi Government aimed at an average GDP growth rate of 3.16% each year, with projected growths of 5.04% for the private sector and 4.01% for the non-oil sector. The government also set a target of creating 817,300 new jobs for Saudi nationals.

The eighth plan (2005-2010) again focuses on economic diversification in addition to education and inclusion of women in society. The plan calls for establishing new universities and new colleges with technical specializations. Privatization as well as emphases on a knowledge-based economy and tourism will help promote the goal of economic diversification.

==History==
[[Image:Bcdf.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Masjid Nabawi, Medina, Saudi Arabia]]
Except for a few major cities and oases, the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement of the Arabian Peninsula. People of various cultures have lived in the peninsula over a span of more than 5,000 years. The Dilmun culture, along the Gulf coast, was contemporaneous with the Sumerians and ancient Egyptians, and most of the empires of the ancient world traded with the states of the peninsula.
===Origins===
The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A local ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the [[Ottoman Empire]], and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula.
===Wahhabi===
[[Wahhabi]] fundamentalism originated with [[Syria]]n jurist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92), but was hounded by the more moderate leaders of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the early 19th century, alarmed by the increasing influence of Wahhabism in Saudi-controlled Arabia, the Ottoman Empire urged its Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) to mount an armed attack on the movement, which was considered anti-Turkish. Muhammad Ali began operations in 1811, and bitter fighting ensued on and off, with several cease-fires and impermanent peace agreements being tried until Egypt finally seemed to have succeeded (with the help of some Bedouin tribes that also objected to the stern religious views of Wahhabism) in subduing Arabia by 1818. However, Egypt had to concentrate on insurrections at home, and the Saudi Wahhabists eventually recovered their strength in the 1830s. The were confined to Arabia but Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (1876-1953), the founder of modern Saudi Arabia in 1924, was faithful to the Wahhabi sect, as are his hundreds of sons and grandsons who still rule the country. Once they gained oil money they used it to spread the sect. Wahhabism's explosive growth outside Arabia began in the 1970s when Saudi charities started funding Wahhabi schools (madrassas) and mosques from Pakistan to California.

===Modern state===
The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al Saud (known internationally as Ibn Saud). In 1902, Abdul Aziz recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
[[File:King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.jpg|thumb|left|320px|King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.]]
Boundaries with Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two "neutral zones"—one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait—created. The Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone was administratively partitioned in 1971, with each state continuing to share the petroleum resources of the former zone equally. Tentative agreement on the partition of the Saudi-Iraqi neutral zone was reached in 1981, and partition was finalized by 1983. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Taif, which ended a brief border war between the two states. A June 2000 treaty further delineated portions of the boundary with Yemen. The location and status of Saudi Arabia's boundary with the [[United Arab Emirates]] is not final; a de facto boundary reflects a 1974 agreement. The border between Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]] was resolved in March 2001. The border with [[Oman]] also is not demarcated.

King Abdul Aziz died in 1953 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud, who reigned for 11 years. In 1964, Saud abdicated in favor of his half-brother, Faisal, who had served as Foreign Minister. Because of fiscal difficulties, King Saud had been persuaded in 1958 to delegate direct conduct of Saudi Government affairs to Faisal as Prime Minister; Saud briefly regained control of the government in 1960-62. In October 1962, Faisal outlined a broad reform program, stressing economic development. Proclaimed King in 1964 by senior royal family members and religious leaders, Faisal also continued to serve as Prime Minister. This practice has been followed by subsequent kings.

The mid-1960s saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over [[Yemen]]. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen.
[[File:Saudi Arabia map.jpg|thumb|230px|Saudi Arabia road map.]]
Saudi forces did not participate in the [[Six Day War|Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War]] of June 1967, but the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies. During the [[1973 Arab-Israeli war]], Saudi Arabia participated in the post war Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political

In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew, who was executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid as King and Prime Minister; their half-brother Prince Fahd was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under King Khalid, and the kingdom assumed a more influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters.

In June 1982, King Khalid died, and Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, Prince Abdullah, Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining global oil prices. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Gulf during periods of the [[Iran-Iraq war]] and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire between Iraq and Iran and in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development.

In 1990-91, King Fahd played a key role before and during the [[Gulf war]]. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against [[Iraq]] and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to reestablish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [[Kuwait]]. Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as nonaligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques to persuade other Arab and Islamic nations to join the coalition.

King Fahd suffered a stroke in November 1995. From 1997, Crown Prince Abdullah took on much of the day-to-day responsibilities of running the government. Upon King Fahd's death on August 1, 2005, Abdullah assumed the throne as King. Prince Sultan, Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister.

In January 2015 King Abdullah died at the age of 90. His half-brother Prince Salman was appointed as successor.<ref>https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/powerful-saudi-arabia-king-abdullah-dies-age-90</ref>

==Notable Saudi Arabians==
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]: former leader of Al-Qaeda; died in 2011
*[[Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud]]: ranked 11th richest person in the world by USAToday in 2002.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/02/28/forbes.htm</ref>
*[[Raif Badawi]]: Imprisoned blogger, winner of the Sakharov Prize in 2015 and nominated for Nobel Peace Prize.<ref name="Nobel">{{cite web|url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/02/150847/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-nominated-nobel-peace-prize-2015/|title=Saudi Blogger Raif Badawi Nominated for Nobel Peace Prize 2015|website=Morocco World News|date=2 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EUparl">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34667260|title=Saudi blogger Raif Badawi awarded Sakharov human rights prize|website=BBC News|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>
*[[Hamza Kashgari]]: Arrested for tweets critical of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="emirates247_arrested">{{cite news | title= Sacrilegious Saudi writer arrested in Malaysia| date=2012-02-09| work= [[Emirates 24/7]]| url= http://www.emirates247.com/news/region/sacrilegious-saudi-writer-arrested-in-malaysia-2012-02-09-1.442198| accessdate=2017-05-07 | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/65MOcflmZ| archivedate=2012-02-10 }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Mecca]]
* [[Wahhabi]]
*[[St. John Philby]]
*[[Libyan uprising 2011]]
*[[1979 Grand Mosque Siege]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.saudiaramco.com/irj/portal/anonymous?favlnk=%2FSaudiAramcoPublic%2Fdocs%2FAt+A+Glance%2FSaudi+Arabia+Profile&ln=en The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]

==Further reading==
* Commins, David. ''The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia'' (2006) 276p.
* Niblock, Tim. ''Saudi Arabia: Power, Legitimacy, and Survival''(2006)
* Cordesman, Anthony, and Nawaf Obaid. ''National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges'' (2005).

==References==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm]

{{Asian Countries}}
{{Deep State}}
[[Category:Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Threats]]

Turkiye

2020-12-08T16:54:58Z

United States: 16 year update in Economy!

For the animal with the same name see [[Turkey (bird)]]

{{Country
|name =''Türkiye Cumhuriyeti''
|map =Turkey rel 2006.jpg
|flag =Flag of Turkey.png
|arms =Emblem of Turkey.svg.png
|capital =Ankara
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Turkish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =302,535 sq mi
|pop =85,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$750,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$8,824 (2020)
|currency =Turkish lira
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Turkey''' is a transcontinental country occupying the Anatolian Peninsula of [[Western Asia]], as well as a small section of Southeastern [[Europe]] at the Bosporus Strait. 89.5% of its people are [[Muslim]]s.<ref>[https://t24.com.tr/haber/optimar-dan-din-inanc-anketi-yuzde-89-allah-in-varligina-ve-birligine-inaniyor,821459 Optimar'dan din-inanç anketi: Yüzde 89 Allah'ın varlığına ve birliğine inanıyor]</ref> Although, [[atheism]] and [[deism]] are increasing in Turkey, there is a growing amount of [[Islamism]], largely due to [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/04/turkey-why-so-many-turks-are-losing-faith-in-islam.html|title=Why so many Turks are losing faith in Islam|last=Akyol|first=Mustafa|date=2018-04-16|work=Al-Monitor|access-date=2018-04-21|language=en-us}}</ref><ref>[https://www.dw.com/en/atheism-grows-in-turkey-as-recep-tayyip-erdogan-urges-islam/a-47018029 Atheism grows in Turkey as Recep Tayyip Erdogan urges Islam]</ref><ref>[http://asianews.it/news-en/The-number-of-atheists-increasing-in-Turkey-45956.html The number of atheists increasing in Turkey]</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745 The young Turks rejecting Islam]</ref><ref>https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/turkeys-pan-islamist-foreign-policy/</ref> Turkey is virulently [[Anti-Christian sentiment|anti-Christian]].<ref>https://www.jihadwatch.org/2020/03/turkey-muslims-screaming-allahu-akbar-disrupt-christian-funeral-desecrate-christian-graves</ref>

==History==
[[Image:St. Sophie Turkey.jpg|right|280px|thumb|Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.]]
[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Pasha]], celebrated by the Turkish State as a Turkish [[World War I]] hero and later known as Atatürk ("Father-Turk"), led the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 after the collapse of the 600-year-old [[Ottoman Empire]] and a three-year war of independence. The empire, which at its peak controlled vast stretches of Northern Africa, Southeastern Europe, and Western Asia, had failed to keep pace with European social and technological developments. The rise of national consciousness impelled several national groups within the Empire to seek independence as nation-states, leading to the empire's fragmentation. This process culminated in the disastrous Ottoman participation in World War I as a German ally. Defeated, shorn of much of its former territory, and partly occupied by forces of the victorious European states, the Ottoman structure was repudiated by Turkish nationalists brought together under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. The nationalists expelled invading Greek, Armenian, French, British, and Italian forces from Anatolia and Turkish Thrace in a bitter war—and with a diplomatic struggle. After the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey the temporal and religious ruling institutions of the old empire (the sultanate and caliphate) were abolished.

The leaders of the new republic concentrated on consolidating their power and modernizing and Westernizing what had been the empire's core—Asian Anatolia and a part of European Thrace. Social, political, linguistic, and economic reforms and attitudes decreed by Atatürk from 1924-1934 continue to be referred to as the ideological base of modern Turkey. In the post-Atatürk era, and especially after the military coup of 1960, this ideology came to be known as "Kemalism" and his reforms began to be referred to as "revolutions." Kemalism comprises a Turkish form of secularism, strong nationalism, statism, and to a degree a western orientation. The continued validity and applicability of Kemalism are the subject of lively debate in Turkey's political life. The current ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) comes from a tradition that challenges many of the Kemalist precepts and is driven in its reform efforts by a desire to achieve EU accession.

Turkey entered [[World War II]] on the Allied side until shortly before the war ended, becoming a charter member of the [[United Nations]]. Difficulties faced by [[Greece]] after World War II in quelling a communist rebellion and demands by the [[Soviet Union]] for military bases in the Turkish Straits prompted the United States to declare the [[Truman Doctrine]] in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece and resulted in large scale U.S. military and economic aid under the [[Marshall Plan]]. After participating with United Nations forces in the [[Korean War|Korean conflict]], Turkey in 1952 joined the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO). Turkey is currently a [[European Union]] candidate, although this has been clouded by their refusal to acknowledge the [[Armenian genocide]].

[[File:Ankara panorama Turkey.jpg|thumb|center|700px|The capital Ankara.]]

==People==
[[File:Istiklal Caddesi 06 24 09 0068.jpg|thumb|right|A busy day on İstiklal Avenue, Istanbul.]]
Modern Turkey encompasses bustling [[cosmopolitan]] centers, pastoral farming villages, barren wastelands, peaceful Aegean coastlines, and steep mountain regions. More than half of Turkey's population lives in urban areas that juxtapose Western lifestyles with more traditional ways of life.

Turkey is officially a [[secular state|secular]] country with no official religion since the constitutional amendment in 1928 and later strengthened by Atatürk's Reforms and the appliance of laicism by the country's founder and first president [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] on February 5, 1937. Due to oppression of [[Christianity]], Turkey's population is nearly entirely (at least cultural) [[Muslim]]. Most Turkish Muslims follow the [[Sunni]] traditions of Islam, although a significant number follow Alevi and [[Shiite]] traditions. Questions regarding role of religion in society and government, the role of linguistic and ethnic identity, and the public's expectation to live in security dominate public discourse. Turkish citizens who assert a [[Kurds|Kurdish]] identity constitute an ethnic and linguistic group that is estimated at up to 12 million in number.
[[File:Iskenderun church.jpg|thumb|right|St. Nicholas Orthodox Church in İskenderun, Hatay.]]
*Population (2018): 82 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2017 est.): 1.24%.
*Ethnic groups: Turkish, Kurdish, other.
*Religions: Muslim (majority), Christian, [[Baha'i Faith|Baha'i]], and Jewish.
*Languages: Turkish (official and majority), Kurdish, Zaza, Arabic, Armenian, Greek.
*Education: Years compulsory—8. Attendance—97.6%. Literacy—86.5%. ''(it's not current data)''
*Health: Infant mortality rate—39.4/1,000. Life expectancy—68.5 yrs. ''(it's not current data)''
*Work force (23 million): Agriculture—35.6%; industry—17.5%; services—47.2%. ''(it's not current data)''

==Government and political conditions==
The 1982 Constitution, drafted by the military in the wake of a 1980 military coup, proclaims Turkey's system of government as [[democracy|democratic]], [[secular state|secular]], and [[Parliamentary Republic|parliamentary]]. A [[Presidential Government|presidential system]] was adopted with a referendum in 2017; the new system came into effect with the presidential election in 2018 and gives the President complete control of the executive, including the power to issue decrees, appoint his own cabinet, draw up the budget, dissolve parliament by calling early elections, and pack the bureaucracy and the courts with political appointees. The office of Prime Minister has been abolished and its powers (together with those of the Cabinet) have been transferred to the President, who is the head of state and is elected for a five-year term by direct elections. [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] is the first president elected by direct voting. Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state.

Executive power is exercized by the President, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary is nominally independent from the executive and the legislature, but the constitutional changes that came into effect with the referendums in 2007, 2010 and 2017 gave larger powers to the President and the ruling party for appointing or dismissing judges and prosecutors. The Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for all others.
[[File:Turkish Parliament in Ankara.jpg|thumb|300px|The Parliament in Ankara.]]

Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933 and before most countries, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote. There are 600 members of parliament who are elected for a five-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold is 10 percent of the votes.

Supporters of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]]'s reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from [[Islamism|Islamists]], representing the two diverging views regarding the role of religion in legislation, education and public life. The Kemalist view supports a form of democracy with a laicist [[constitution]] and Westernized secular lifestyle, while maintaining the necessity of state intervention in the economy, education and other public services. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism. However, since the 1980s, issues such as income inequality and class distinction have given rise to Islamic [[populism]], a movement that supports a larger role for religion in government policies, and in theory supports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice; though what that entails in practice is often contested. Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the [[Justice and Development Party]] has been described as becoming increasingly authoritarian. Prior to the constitutional referendum in 2017 the Council of Europe saw Turkey drifting towards an autocracy, warning of a "dramatic regression of its democratic order". Many elements in the constitutional reform package that was approved with the referendum in 2017 have increased concerns in the European Union regarding democracy and the separation of powers in Turkey.

As of 2017 the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index rates Turkey at 4.88 (on a 0–10 scale), classifying Turkey as a Hybrid Regime. In 2018, Freedom House rated Turkey at 32 (on a 0–100 scale) as Not Free.

Human-right abuses, especially against [[Christians]] remains a problem
<ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78844.htm</ref> and the frequency of violent attacks on Christian ministers and priests is still high.<ref>http://washingtontimes.com/upi/20070418-030533-9552</ref><ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5139408.stm</ref>
{{Clear}}
===Principal government officials===
*President of the Republic — Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
*Vice President of the Republic — Fuat Oktay

===Foreign relations===
[[File:Turkish girls laughing in calimanesti.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Turkish dancers in a festival in [[Romania]].]]
Turkey's primary political, economic, and security ties are with the West, although some voices call for a more "Eurasian" orientation.

Turkey entered NATO in 1952 and serves as the organization's vital eastern anchor, controlling the straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and sharing a border with Syria, Iraq, and Iran. A NATO headquarters is located in Izmir. Besides its relationships with NATO and the EU, Turkey is a member of the OECD, the Council of Europe, and OSCE. Turkey also is a member of the UN and the Islamic Conference Organization (OIC). In December 1999, Turkey became a candidate for EU membership. On December 17, 2004, the EU decided to begin formal accession negotiations with Turkey in October 2005.

Turkey and the EU formed a customs union beginning January 1, 1996. The agreement covers industrial and processed agricultural goods. Turkey is harmonizing its laws and regulations with EU standards. Turkey adopted the EU's Common External Tariff regime, effectively lowering Turkey's tariffs for third countries, including the United States.

On October 3, 2005, Turkey and the EU reached agreement for Turkey to begin negotiations on accession to the European Union. Turkey and EU officials have begun the process of screening Turkey's laws and policies in order to begin negotiating the individual chapters required for ultimate EU accession. However, this admission request has not been without criticism,<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2420697.stm</ref> including:
*Serious human rights violations<ref>http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20070419-0809-italy-turkey-eu.html</ref>
*Refusal to admit genocide of [[Armenia]]<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6043730.stm</ref>
*Refusal to recognize [[Cyprus]]<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6153186.stm</ref>
*Only 3% of Turkey is in [[Europe]]
*Threat of increasing [[Islamic]] fundamentalism<ref>http://www.freemuslims.org/news/article.php?article=1761</ref>

Turkey opened and provisionally closed in 2006 one EU negotiating chapter on science and technology. Another chapter on statistics was opened in February 2007, and two more are expected to be opened by July 1, 2007. Eight chapters, mostly related to trade, were suspended by the European Council in December 2006 after Turkey declined to open its ports and airports to Cypriot vessels—a commitment Turkey made as part of the Ankara Protocol and its EU Customs Union membership.

Turkey is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It has signed free trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Israel, and many other countries. In 1992 Turkey and 10 other regional nations formed the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) Council to expand regional trade and economic cooperation. Turkey chaired BSEC in 2007 and hosted in Istanbul the 15th BSEC Summit in June 2007.

===Relations with the United States===
U.S.-Turkish friendship dates to the late 18th century and was officially sealed by a treaty in 1830. The present close relationship began with the agreement of July 12, 1947, which implemented the Truman Doctrine. As part of the cooperative effort to further Turkish economic and military self-reliance, the United States has loaned and granted Turkey more than $12.5 billion in economic aid and more than $14 billion in military assistance.

U.S.-Turkish relations focus on areas such as strategic energy cooperation, trade and investment, security ties, regional stability, the global war on terrorism, and human rights progress. Relations were strained when Turkey refused in March 2003 to allow U.S. troops to deploy through its territory to Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom, but regained momentum steadily thereafter and mutual interests remain strong across a wide spectrum of issues. On July 5, 2006, Secretary Rice and then-Foreign Minister Gül signed a Shared Vision Statement to highlight the common values and goals between our two countries and to lay out a framework for increased strategic dialogue.

The U.S. and Turkey have had a Joint Economic Commission and a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement, which last met in Washington in April 2007, for several years. In 2002, the two countries indicated their joint intent to upgrade bilateral economic relations by launching an Economic Partnership Commission, which last convened in Ankara in February 2007. In 2006, Turkish exports to the U.S. totaled about $5.4 billion, and U.S. exports to Turkey totaled $5.7 billion.

[[Condoleezza Rice]] ones described Turkey as “a vital and strategic partner of the United States”. But since the tenure of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan these times are over.<ref>https://www.nationalreview.com/article/348422/erdo%C4%9Fan%E2%80%99s-agenda</ref> For example, he equated [[Zionism]] with [[Fascism]], [[John Kerry]] criticized him for this statement.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2013/03/01/official-kerry-to-rap-turkey-pm-for-remark/</ref>

==Economy==
[[Image:Framed medallion Turkey.jpg|300px|thumb|Framed medallion.]]
Turkey is a large, middle-income country with relatively few natural resources. Its economy is currently in transition from a high degree of reliance on agriculture and heavy industrial economy to a more diversified economy with an increasingly large and globalized services sector. Coming out of a tradition of a state-directed economy that was relatively closed to the outside world, Prime Minister and then President Turgut Ozal began to open up the economy in the 1980s, leading to the signing of a Customs Union with the European Union in 1995. In the 1990s, Turkey's economy suffered from a series of coalition governments with weak economic policies, leading to high-inflation boom-and-bust cycles that culminated in a severe banking and economic crisis in 2001 and a deep economic downturn (GNP fell 9.5% in 2001) and increase in unemployment.

Turkey's economy has recovered strongly from the 2001 thanks to good monetary and fiscal policies and structural economic reforms made with the support of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The independence of the Central Bank has been firmly established, a floating exchange rate system has been put in place, and the government's overall budget deficit has been substantially reduced. In addition, there have been substantial reforms in the financial, energy, and telecommunications sectors that have included the privatization of several large state-owned institutions.

Turkey's economy grew an average of 7.5% per year from 2002 through 2006—one of the highest sustained rates of growth in the world. It is expected to grow about 6.1% in 2007. Inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, government debt has declined to more supportable levels, and business and consumer confidence have returned. At the same time, booming economic growth has contributed to a growing current account deficit. Though Turkey's vulnerabilities have been greatly reduced, the economy could still face problems in the event there is a sudden change in investor sentiment that leads to a sharp fall in the exchange rate. Continued implementation of reforms, including tight fiscal policy, is essential to sustain growth and stability.

After years of low levels of foreign direct investment (FDI), in 2006, Turkey succeeded in attracting $18.9 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) and is expected to attract a similar level in 2007. A series of large privatizations, the stability fostered by the start of Turkey's EU accession negotiations, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to the rise in foreign investment. Turkey has taken steps to improve its investment climate through administrative streamlining, an end to foreign investment screening, and strengthened intellectual property legislation. However, a number of disputes involving foreign investors in Turkey and certain policies, such as high taxation and continuing gaps in the intellectual property regime, inhibit investment. Turkey has a number of bilateral investment and tax treaties, including with the United States, which guarantee free repatriation of capital in convertible currencies and eliminate double taxation.
*GDP: $750 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $8,824 (2020)
*Annual real GDP growth rate: (2004) (+) 8.9%; (2005) 7.4%; (2006) 6.0%.
*Annual inflation rate /CPI: (2003) 18.4%; (2004) 9.3%; (2005) 7.7%; (2006) 9.7%.
*Natural resources: Coal, chromium, mercury, copper, boron, oil, gold.
*Agriculture (10.8% of GNP): Major cash crops—cotton, sugar beets, hazelnuts, wheat, barley, and tobacco. Provides 26% of jobs and 4% of exports.
*Industry (25.4% of GNP): Major growth sector, types—automotive, electronics, food processing, textiles, basic metals, chemicals, and petrochemicals. Provides 20% of jobs.
*Trade: Exports (merchandise)--(2005) $73.1 billion; (2006) $83.5 billion: textiles and apparel, industrial machinery, iron and steel, electronics, petroleum products, and motor vehicles. Imports (merchandise)--(2005) $116 billion; (2006) 135.5 billion: petroleum, machinery, motor vehicles, electronics, iron and steel, plastics precious metals. Major partners—Germany, U.S., Italy, France, Russia, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, U.K.

====European Union accession====
Turkey's principal ongoing economic challenge is providing for the needs of a fast-growing, young population. Raising living standards to those prevalent in Europe will require high rates of GDP growth sustained over many years. This will entail continued structural reforms that encourage both domestic and foreign investment. Principal areas for reform identified by international financial intuitions include increasing flexibility in the labor market, making the educational sector more responsive to the needs of the economy and ensuring faster and more predictable operation of the judicial system. As an aspirant to membership in the European Union, Turkey aims to adopt the EU's basic system of national law and regulation (the acquis communautaire) by 2014. While implementing some elements of the acquis will be costly and difficult (for example in the areas of environmental protection and agriculture), its adoption will make a significant contribution to modernizing the economy.

====Energy====
[[File:Electric Energy Grid Turkey.jpg|thumb|360px|Electric Energy Grid.]]
Installed electricity generation capacity in Turkey reached 35,600 megawatts (MW) as of 2004. Fossil fuels account for 71% of the total installed capacity and hydro, geothermal, and wind account for the remaining 28%. The growth in electricity generation has remained below electricity demand until recently, which has made Turkey a net importer of electricity since 1997. The growth of energy demand slowed somewhat as a result of the 2001 economic crisis, but has picked up again. Turkish authorities expect a significant electricity shortfall unless new facilities become operational. The Government of Turkey took some important steps in 2001 to liberalize its energy sector, including passage of the Electricity Market Law and establishment of the Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA). However, the government has moved slowly to follow through on plans to liberalize and privatize the electricity and natural gas sectors. In 2004, the High Planning Council approved the Electricity Sector Reform Strategy to renew the reform process.

Oil provides about 43% of Turkey's total energy requirements; around 90% is imported. Domestic production is mostly from small fields in the southeast. New exploration is taking place in the eastern Black Sea. In 2004, the Parliament approved a petroleum market reform bill that liberalized consumer prices and would lead to the privatization of the state refining company TUPRAS. TUPRAS was privatized in 2005, but this has been held up by court cases still in process. Turkey has a refining capacity of 802,275 barrels per day (b/d).

Turkey acts as an important link in the East-West Southern Energy Corridor bringing Caspian, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern energy to Europe and world markets. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, which came online in July 2006, delivers 1 million b/d of petroleum, and in 2007, the South Caucasus Pipeline (from Shah Deniz) is expected to bring natural gas from Azerbaijan to Turkey. Turkey is building an interconnector pipeline to Greece, an important step in bringing Caspian natural gas to Europe via Turkey.

====Telecommunications====
[[File:Turk map.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Turkey map.]]
Parliament enacted legislation separating telecommunications policy and regulatory functions in January 2000, by establishing an independent regulatory body, the Telecommunication Authority. The Authority is responsible for issuing licenses, supervising operators, and taking necessary technical measures against violations of the rules. Most regulatory functions of the Transport Ministry were transferred to the Authority, and the regulator is slowly gaining competence and independence. The long-expected privatization of the state-owned telecommunications company was accomplished by the sale of 55% of Turk Telekom to the Saudi-owned Oger Group in November 2005. With liberalization and growth in the economy, there is growing competition for Internet provision, but Turk Telekom remains the sole provider of ADSL wide band Internet.

====Environment====
[[File:TurkishForest.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Turkish forest.]]
With the establishment of the Environment Ministry in 1991, Turkey began to make significant progress addressing its most pressing environmental problems. The most dramatic improvements were significant reductions of air pollution in Istanbul and Ankara. However, progress has been slow on the remaining—and serious—environmental challenges facing Turkey.

In 2003, the Ministry of Environment was merged with the Forestry Ministry. With its goal to join the EU, Turkey has made commendable progress in updating and modernizing its environmental legislation. However, environmental concerns are not fully integrated into public decision-making and enforcement can be weak. Turkey faces a backlog of environmental problems, requiring enormous outlays for infrastructure. The most pressing needs are for water treatment plants, wastewater treatment facilities, solid waste management, and conservation of biodiversity. The discovery of a number of chemical waste sites in 2006 has highlighted weakness in environmental law and oversight.
{{Clear}}

====Transportation====
The Turkish Government gives a special priority to major infrastructure projects, especially in the transport sector. The government is in the process of building new airports and highways, thanks to an increased public investment budget. The government will realize many of these projects by utilizing the build-operate-transfer (BOT) model.

== See also ==
[[File:Blue mosque Istanbul Turkey.jpg|thumb|The Blue Mosque, Istanbul.]]
*[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople]]
*[[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Göbekli Tepe]]
*[[Catal Huyuk|Çatalhöyük]]
{{Clear}}

== External links ==
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/ A Turkish Delight: they think so in Israel also!]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3432.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Turkey]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Netherlands

2020-12-08T16:54:03Z

United States: adding more info!

{{Country|
|map=Netherlands rel87.jpg
|map2=Netherlands location.PNG
|flag=Netherlandsflag.gif
|arms=
|capital=Amsterdam
|government=Constitutional monarchy
|language=Dutch
|king=Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
|president=
|chancellor=
|pm=Mark Rutte
|area=41,526 km² (18,41% water)
|pop=17,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$900,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$52,478 (2020)
|currency=Euro (€) (EUR)
|idd=31
|tld=.nl
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on the Netherlands and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
The '''Netherlands''' (Dutch: ''Nederland'') is a country in the [[European Union]] in northwestern Europe, north of Belgium and France. It is a part of [[the Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. It is bordered by [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], and has a total population of 16.9 million (2015). Its system of government is [[constitutional monarchy]]. The country is often referred to as "Holland", which was originally the name of two densely populated provinces of the country (North-Holland and South-Holland). The cities of [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] all lie in these provinces, that have always been the most influential regions in the Netherlands. The official language is [[Dutch]] and the people are referred to in English as Dutchmen or collectively as the Dutch.

The major ethnic groups in the Netherlands are [[Dutch]] 79%, Turks 2%, Surinamese 2%, Moroccans 2%.

==History==
See [[History of the Netherlands]]

==Dike system==
The term "Netherlands" means "low country": about a quarter of the land area, containing more than half of the population, is actually below sea level, and would flood if the sea were not held back by a system of [[dike]]s. The Dutch have a saying that "God created the earth, but the Dutch made Holland".

A major breach of the dikes occurred in 1953, killing 1800 people. To avoid a repeat of the disaster the Dutch began construction of the "Delta Project" to protect the country from future inundations. Begun in 1953 and completed in 2002 the Delta Project is considered a modern wonder of civil engineering. After [[Hurricane Katrina]], a delegation of American engineers was invited by the Dutch government to see how the project works and how its technology can be applied in the United States for low-lying cities like [[New Orleans]]. Intentional flooding of the countryside has also been used to halt invading armies, dating back to the 80 years war.

==Major cities==
[[Amsterdam]], named for the Amstel river, is the largest city, and the capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is ringed by an extensive system of concentric canals. The seat of government, however, is located for historical reasons in [[The Hague]] (''Den Haag'').

[[Eindhoven]], a city of the southern province of Brabant, is the location of the giant electronics corporation, '''Philips''' (full name: Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.), with annual revenue equivalent to about $40 billion. (The U.S. corporation [[General Electric]] has revenues of about $150 billion, but much of it is from non-electronics businesses). The Eindhoven area is known for its high concentration of high-tech industires, which include '''ASML''', the world primary producer of lithography system for the production of semiconductors, and '''Océ''', a leading producer of printers and copiers.

[[Groningen]] is home to many branches of ''KPN'', the former state company of Post, Telegraphy and Telephony. It had its headquarters in Groningen when it was still state run, and move to [[The Hague]] since. ''KPN'' stands for ''Koninklijke PTT Nederland'', or ''Royal PTT Netherlands''. Groningen is also home to ''Gasunie'' (Gasunion), a public-private partnership that exploits the natural gas reseves in the province of Groningen and the adjoint [[North Sea]].

[[File:Jongkind A Windmill near Delft 1857.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johan Barthold Jongkind]], A Windmill near Delft, 1857.]]
[[Delft]] is a small town in [[South Holland]], situated between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]]. It is noted for the blue-and-white Delft pottery, and as the home of the great artist [[Jan Vermeer]].

[[Arnhem]] is a city in Gelderland, lying on the north bank of the Lower Rhine river. It was the scene of a major battle during [[Operation Market Garden]] in September 1944, when British and allied paratroop forces captured its strategic road bridge before being overwhelmed by German forces in the area.

[[Leeuwarden]] ([[Frisian]]: ''Ljouwert'') is the capital of the northern province of Friesland; it was also the home town of the spy [[Mata Hari]] and the artist [[M.C. Escher]].
It has a population of 92,000.

[[Utrecht]] is a city of the central province of Utrecht. It is the seat of a bishopric and is a major communications hub and rail center. With a population of 290,000, it is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands.
The city is best known as the site of lengthy peace negotiations to end the [[Wars of Spanish Succession]] in the 18th century. The resulting peace, called the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], was signed in April 1713.

Hoek van Holland ("Hook of Holland", literally 'corner of Holland') is a port in [[South Holland]], and is administratively part of the city of [[Rotterdam]]. It lies at the outflow of the Nieuwe Waterweg [[canal]] and the [[North Sea]], and is the base for ferry services to [[Harwich]] in eastern [[England]].

== Economy ==
The Dutch economy is almost $1 trillion, which is expected to be reached in less than 5 years. It is the 17th largest in the world. It was 10th in 1985, ahead of [[China]] at that time. The Netherlands is a major center of trade among European countries.

*GDP: $900 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $52,478 (2020)
*Natural resources: Land, farms, forests, oil.

==Provinces==

South Holland contains the cities of [[The Hague]] and [[Rotterdam]].

Flevoland is the youngest of the twelve provinces, having the least population (ca. 360,000). It was created in 1986 on two [[polder]]s: just 80 years ago, there was no dry land but the [[Zuiderzee]]. Its capital is [[Lelystad]].

Friesland is a coastal province in the north, home to the [[Frisian]] language and people.

Gelderland borders [[Germany]] to the east, and extends north to the [[Ijsselmeer]]. Gelderland includes the major cities of [[Nijmegen]] and [[Arnhem]], as well as the extensive heathland known as the Veluwe, now a national park.

North Brabant is often referred to as ''Brabant'', as there is no ''south Brabant'' in the Netherlands.
The southern part of the former ''duchy of Brabant'' (including the important cities of [[Antwerp]] and [[Leuven]]) now belongs to Belgium. While [[Eindhoven]] is the biggest city in North Brabant, its capital is [['s-Hertogenbosch]].

==Business==
The Netherlands is the home of the Anglo-Dutch oil company [[Royal Dutch Shell]] . Other well known Dutch or partly Dutch multinationals are [[Unilever]], a company owning many household brands, ''ING Group'', a banking group, ''Ahold'', an international chain of supermarkets, ''Reed Elsevier'', a publishing house, ''Nielsen Company'', owner of the [[Yellow Pages]], and ''Randstad Holding'', a company providing [[human resource services]]. The famous ''Dutch East India Company'', which dominated trade in with South-East Asia in the 17th century, is regarded as the first multinational in history.
The Netherlands has long been famous for its production of flowers, and also for a related economic event, the "[[tulip mania]]" of 1636-1637. [[Tulip]]s were traded on stock exchanges, and bid up to fantastic prices by people who understood that the prices were crazy but hoped to sell at a profit to even crazier investors. Many people mortgaged their homes for a single tulip bulb and in one case an entire brewery was exchanged for a few bulbs. As with all [[economic bubble]]s, when bidding began to lag people tried to sell and the bubble burst with disastrous consequences. Since then the Dutch have been renowned for their carefulness with money and have established a significant presence in the banking and financial sectors.

==King's Day==
April 27 is King's Day - the national holiday to mark the official birthday of the monarch. King's Day is the one day of the year when ordinary Netherlanders are permitted to sell goods on the streets without a license. Consequently, the whole country is turned into a gigantic flea market (garage sale). The primary effect of this is that people buy goods they do not want or need, solely in order to sell them the following year. In an act of patriotism, most of the populace wear orange colored clothing (the national color) to identify with the Royal House Of Orange-Nassau.

Those not involved with selling their surplus belongings celebrate the national holiday at outdoors parties in the cities or with fine weather, spend the free day on a terrace of a pub, or cycle in the national ''Fietsen op Dijken'' tour around the nation's dikes.

==Anne Frank==
[[Anne Frank]] was a famous Jewish girl who hid from Nazis in the house of friends in Amsterdam. She wrote a diary which was later published and became a best seller. Her family left Germany in 1933 because of the Nazis, but the Nazis caught up with her and sent her to Belsen death camp where she died before end of war in 1945. Anne Frank's house in Amsterdam is now a popular tourist attraction.

==Society==
[[Same-sex marriage]] has been recognized by the Dutch government since 2001.<ref>[http://marriage.about.com/cs/samesexmarriage/a/samesex.htm About.com]</ref> Furthermore, legal [[prostitution]], [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]] and its drug policy (see above) make The Netherlands the most liberal country in the world by most standards. Christianity was once the dominant factor in Dutch society and politics, but since the 1970s plays a secondary role in society, with only 15% of the population being [[Protestant]] (2015) and just under 24% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]]. There is a rising [[Muslim]] population (5%) which has caused social strains. An overall decline in religion can be seen as of 2004. These days The Netherlands are considered one of the least churchgoing countries in Europe. However the Dutch does have its own bible belt which is still very conservative.

===Drug policies===
The Netherlands is noted for its low-crime rate (although comparable to other western European nations) and [[libertarian]] legislation. Examples are licensed prostitution in designated areas of major cities, such as Amsterdam's Red Light District, the legal soft [[drugs]] sold in the country's many coffee shops, [[abortion]] rights, [[same-sex marriage]]s and [[euthanasia]].

Consuming and carrying (for personal use only) the "soft drugs" ([[marijuana]], [[hashish]] and [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]]) were made legal in the Netherlands in 1976 in a final attempt to stop drug-related crime in the 1970s. Soft drugs can be legally purchased by individuals over 18 in the famed (licensed) coffee shops, that do sell coffee as well, but are prohibited from serving alcohol.
The Dutch policy regarding soft drugs (and previously prostitution) is called "gedoogbeleid" (condonement policy). This means that although certain behavior is officially prohibited by law, a condonement clause prevents law enforcement agencies from prosecuting this behavior. This clause is, legally speaking, not a law and can be reverted much easier than a regular law.

The main reason for this policy is to try to split the market for "soft drugs" from the one for "hard drugs", this to avoid that users "upgrade" from soft to "hard drugs" (the latter are still illegal). So in short, the law tries to prevent citizen's exposure to hard drugs by providing a legal context in which to purchase cannabis. The policy also allows the police to focus on the war on hard drugs and criminal trade, and avoid the exhaustive bureaucratic costs associated with low-profile possession busts. In fact, most major cities in the world have similar non-prosecution policies, but the Dutch one is the only nationwide one.

Growing marijuana and hashish for commercial purposes is still officially illegal (it is legal to own up to four plants per household), causing coffee shop owners to rely on illegal homegrown products. Only two state run companies are exempted from this rule in order to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes. Leftist movements have stated that the government should make its mind up: "either make growing marijuana and hashish legal, or ban soft drugs altogether".

Some argue that the legal status of soft drugs has had no significant adverse effects on Dutch society.{{who}} This is probably due to the fact that it has become a more or less socially accepted drug like alcohol and tobacco, removing the need for dealers and effectively terminating cannabis' status as an anti-establishment symbol, and in effect diminishing its' popularity somewhat amongst youth. Some disagree:
* {{marijuana-passive-Dutch}}

== See also ==

*[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]
*[[Gallery of Flemish and Dutch painting]]
*[[Flemish School of Painting]]
*[[Gallery of Dutch Still life Masterpieces]]
*[[Countries of the world - Gross Domestic Product per capita]]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Amsterdam'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Amsterdam-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/075662441X/ref=pd_bbs_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* DK. ''Netherlands'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Holland-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Ewart/dp/0789493055/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* ''Lonely Planet the Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Netherlands-Travel-Guides/dp/1741042992/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Michelin the Green Guide Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Michelin-Green-Guide-Netherlands-Guides/dp/2067123319/ref=pd_bbs_sr_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
===Current conditions===
* Delsen, Lei. ''Exit Polder Model? Socioeconomic Changes in the Netherlands'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/113099417?title=Exit%20Polder%20Model%3f%20%20Socioeconomic%20Changes%20in%20the%20Netherlands online edition]
* Mathijs, Ernest, ed. ''The Cinema of the Low Countries.'' (2004). 268 pp.
* Vuijsje, Herman. ''The Politically Correct Netherlands: Since the 1960s.'' (2000). 244 pp.
* White, Colin, et al. ''The Undutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands, Its Culture And Its Inhabitants'' (2005)
===History surveys===
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries.'' (2006). 298 pp.
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Low-Countries-J-Blom/dp/1845452720/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Holland-Greenwood-Histories-Nations/dp/0313306583/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209805742&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* Israel, Jonathan. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806'' (1995) a major synthesis; [http://www.questia.com/read/91981119?title=The%20Dutch%20Republic%3a%20Its%20Rise%2c%20Greatness%2c%20and%20Fall%2c%201477-1806 complete online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Republic-Greatness-1477-1806-History/dp/0198207344/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780-1940'' (1978)
* van Oostrom, Frits, and Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries [http://www.questia.com/read/1276323?title=Belgian%20Democracy%2c%20Its%20Early%20History online free]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5th ed. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. ISBN 9061094402
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/82243176?title=Evolution%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Nation online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://www.iisg.nl/ International Institute of Social History (IISH)]
* [http://www.minbuza.nl/history/en/home History of the Netherlands, introduction from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/dutchrevolt.html Dutch revolt: maps]

==References==
<references/>

{{European Union}}

[[Category:Dutch History]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Netherlands

2020-12-08T16:52:40Z

United States: adding Natural resources!

{{Country|
|map=Netherlands rel87.jpg
|map2=Netherlands location.PNG
|flag=Netherlandsflag.gif
|arms=
|capital=Amsterdam
|government=Constitutional monarchy
|language=Dutch
|king=Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
|president=
|chancellor=
|pm=Mark Rutte
|area=41,526 km² (18,41% water)
|pop=17,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$900,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$52,478 (2020)
|currency=Euro (€) (EUR)
|idd=31
|tld=.nl
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on the Netherlands and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
The '''Netherlands''' (Dutch: ''Nederland'') is a country in the [[European Union]] in northwestern Europe, north of Belgium and France. It is a part of [[the Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. It is bordered by [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], and has a total population of 16.9 million (2015). Its system of government is [[constitutional monarchy]]. The country is often referred to as "Holland", which was originally the name of two densely populated provinces of the country (North-Holland and South-Holland). The cities of [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] all lie in these provinces, that have always been the most influential regions in the Netherlands. The official language is [[Dutch]] and the people are referred to in English as Dutchmen or collectively as the Dutch.

The major ethnic groups in the Netherlands are [[Dutch]] 79%, Turks 2%, Surinamese 2%, Moroccans 2%.

==History==
See [[History of the Netherlands]]

==Dike system==
The term "Netherlands" means "low country": about a quarter of the land area, containing more than half of the population, is actually below sea level, and would flood if the sea were not held back by a system of [[dike]]s. The Dutch have a saying that "God created the earth, but the Dutch made Holland".

A major breach of the dikes occurred in 1953, killing 1800 people. To avoid a repeat of the disaster the Dutch began construction of the "Delta Project" to protect the country from future inundations. Begun in 1953 and completed in 2002 the Delta Project is considered a modern wonder of civil engineering. After [[Hurricane Katrina]], a delegation of American engineers was invited by the Dutch government to see how the project works and how its technology can be applied in the United States for low-lying cities like [[New Orleans]]. Intentional flooding of the countryside has also been used to halt invading armies, dating back to the 80 years war.

==Major cities==
[[Amsterdam]], named for the Amstel river, is the largest city, and the capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is ringed by an extensive system of concentric canals. The seat of government, however, is located for historical reasons in [[The Hague]] (''Den Haag'').

[[Eindhoven]], a city of the southern province of Brabant, is the location of the giant electronics corporation, '''Philips''' (full name: Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.), with annual revenue equivalent to about $40 billion. (The U.S. corporation [[General Electric]] has revenues of about $150 billion, but much of it is from non-electronics businesses). The Eindhoven area is known for its high concentration of high-tech industires, which include '''ASML''', the world primary producer of lithography system for the production of semiconductors, and '''Océ''', a leading producer of printers and copiers.

[[Groningen]] is home to many branches of ''KPN'', the former state company of Post, Telegraphy and Telephony. It had its headquarters in Groningen when it was still state run, and move to [[The Hague]] since. ''KPN'' stands for ''Koninklijke PTT Nederland'', or ''Royal PTT Netherlands''. Groningen is also home to ''Gasunie'' (Gasunion), a public-private partnership that exploits the natural gas reseves in the province of Groningen and the adjoint [[North Sea]].

[[File:Jongkind A Windmill near Delft 1857.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johan Barthold Jongkind]], A Windmill near Delft, 1857.]]
[[Delft]] is a small town in [[South Holland]], situated between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]]. It is noted for the blue-and-white Delft pottery, and as the home of the great artist [[Jan Vermeer]].

[[Arnhem]] is a city in Gelderland, lying on the north bank of the Lower Rhine river. It was the scene of a major battle during [[Operation Market Garden]] in September 1944, when British and allied paratroop forces captured its strategic road bridge before being overwhelmed by German forces in the area.

[[Leeuwarden]] ([[Frisian]]: ''Ljouwert'') is the capital of the northern province of Friesland; it was also the home town of the spy [[Mata Hari]] and the artist [[M.C. Escher]].
It has a population of 92,000.

[[Utrecht]] is a city of the central province of Utrecht. It is the seat of a bishopric and is a major communications hub and rail center. With a population of 290,000, it is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands.
The city is best known as the site of lengthy peace negotiations to end the [[Wars of Spanish Succession]] in the 18th century. The resulting peace, called the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], was signed in April 1713.

Hoek van Holland ("Hook of Holland", literally 'corner of Holland') is a port in [[South Holland]], and is administratively part of the city of [[Rotterdam]]. It lies at the outflow of the Nieuwe Waterweg [[canal]] and the [[North Sea]], and is the base for ferry services to [[Harwich]] in eastern [[England]].

== Economy ==
The Dutch economy is almost $1 trillion, which is expected to be reached in less than 5 years. It is the 17th largest in the world. It was 10th in 1985, ahead of [[China]] at that time.
*GDP: $900 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $52,478 (2020)
*Natural resources: Land, farms, forests, oil.

==Provinces==

South Holland contains the cities of [[The Hague]] and [[Rotterdam]].

Flevoland is the youngest of the twelve provinces, having the least population (ca. 360,000). It was created in 1986 on two [[polder]]s: just 80 years ago, there was no dry land but the [[Zuiderzee]]. Its capital is [[Lelystad]].

Friesland is a coastal province in the north, home to the [[Frisian]] language and people.

Gelderland borders [[Germany]] to the east, and extends north to the [[Ijsselmeer]]. Gelderland includes the major cities of [[Nijmegen]] and [[Arnhem]], as well as the extensive heathland known as the Veluwe, now a national park.

North Brabant is often referred to as ''Brabant'', as there is no ''south Brabant'' in the Netherlands.
The southern part of the former ''duchy of Brabant'' (including the important cities of [[Antwerp]] and [[Leuven]]) now belongs to Belgium. While [[Eindhoven]] is the biggest city in North Brabant, its capital is [['s-Hertogenbosch]].

==Business==
The Netherlands is the home of the Anglo-Dutch oil company [[Royal Dutch Shell]] . Other well known Dutch or partly Dutch multinationals are [[Unilever]], a company owning many household brands, ''ING Group'', a banking group, ''Ahold'', an international chain of supermarkets, ''Reed Elsevier'', a publishing house, ''Nielsen Company'', owner of the [[Yellow Pages]], and ''Randstad Holding'', a company providing [[human resource services]]. The famous ''Dutch East India Company'', which dominated trade in with South-East Asia in the 17th century, is regarded as the first multinational in history.
The Netherlands has long been famous for its production of flowers, and also for a related economic event, the "[[tulip mania]]" of 1636-1637. [[Tulip]]s were traded on stock exchanges, and bid up to fantastic prices by people who understood that the prices were crazy but hoped to sell at a profit to even crazier investors. Many people mortgaged their homes for a single tulip bulb and in one case an entire brewery was exchanged for a few bulbs. As with all [[economic bubble]]s, when bidding began to lag people tried to sell and the bubble burst with disastrous consequences. Since then the Dutch have been renowned for their carefulness with money and have established a significant presence in the banking and financial sectors.

==King's Day==
April 27 is King's Day - the national holiday to mark the official birthday of the monarch. King's Day is the one day of the year when ordinary Netherlanders are permitted to sell goods on the streets without a license. Consequently, the whole country is turned into a gigantic flea market (garage sale). The primary effect of this is that people buy goods they do not want or need, solely in order to sell them the following year. In an act of patriotism, most of the populace wear orange colored clothing (the national color) to identify with the Royal House Of Orange-Nassau.

Those not involved with selling their surplus belongings celebrate the national holiday at outdoors parties in the cities or with fine weather, spend the free day on a terrace of a pub, or cycle in the national ''Fietsen op Dijken'' tour around the nation's dikes.

==Anne Frank==
[[Anne Frank]] was a famous Jewish girl who hid from Nazis in the house of friends in Amsterdam. She wrote a diary which was later published and became a best seller. Her family left Germany in 1933 because of the Nazis, but the Nazis caught up with her and sent her to Belsen death camp where she died before end of war in 1945. Anne Frank's house in Amsterdam is now a popular tourist attraction.

==Society==
[[Same-sex marriage]] has been recognized by the Dutch government since 2001.<ref>[http://marriage.about.com/cs/samesexmarriage/a/samesex.htm About.com]</ref> Furthermore, legal [[prostitution]], [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]] and its drug policy (see above) make The Netherlands the most liberal country in the world by most standards. Christianity was once the dominant factor in Dutch society and politics, but since the 1970s plays a secondary role in society, with only 15% of the population being [[Protestant]] (2015) and just under 24% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]]. There is a rising [[Muslim]] population (5%) which has caused social strains. An overall decline in religion can be seen as of 2004. These days The Netherlands are considered one of the least churchgoing countries in Europe. However the Dutch does have its own bible belt which is still very conservative.

===Drug policies===
The Netherlands is noted for its low-crime rate (although comparable to other western European nations) and [[libertarian]] legislation. Examples are licensed prostitution in designated areas of major cities, such as Amsterdam's Red Light District, the legal soft [[drugs]] sold in the country's many coffee shops, [[abortion]] rights, [[same-sex marriage]]s and [[euthanasia]].

Consuming and carrying (for personal use only) the "soft drugs" ([[marijuana]], [[hashish]] and [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]]) were made legal in the Netherlands in 1976 in a final attempt to stop drug-related crime in the 1970s. Soft drugs can be legally purchased by individuals over 18 in the famed (licensed) coffee shops, that do sell coffee as well, but are prohibited from serving alcohol.
The Dutch policy regarding soft drugs (and previously prostitution) is called "gedoogbeleid" (condonement policy). This means that although certain behavior is officially prohibited by law, a condonement clause prevents law enforcement agencies from prosecuting this behavior. This clause is, legally speaking, not a law and can be reverted much easier than a regular law.

The main reason for this policy is to try to split the market for "soft drugs" from the one for "hard drugs", this to avoid that users "upgrade" from soft to "hard drugs" (the latter are still illegal). So in short, the law tries to prevent citizen's exposure to hard drugs by providing a legal context in which to purchase cannabis. The policy also allows the police to focus on the war on hard drugs and criminal trade, and avoid the exhaustive bureaucratic costs associated with low-profile possession busts. In fact, most major cities in the world have similar non-prosecution policies, but the Dutch one is the only nationwide one.

Growing marijuana and hashish for commercial purposes is still officially illegal (it is legal to own up to four plants per household), causing coffee shop owners to rely on illegal homegrown products. Only two state run companies are exempted from this rule in order to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes. Leftist movements have stated that the government should make its mind up: "either make growing marijuana and hashish legal, or ban soft drugs altogether".

Some argue that the legal status of soft drugs has had no significant adverse effects on Dutch society.{{who}} This is probably due to the fact that it has become a more or less socially accepted drug like alcohol and tobacco, removing the need for dealers and effectively terminating cannabis' status as an anti-establishment symbol, and in effect diminishing its' popularity somewhat amongst youth. Some disagree:
* {{marijuana-passive-Dutch}}

== See also ==

*[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]
*[[Gallery of Flemish and Dutch painting]]
*[[Flemish School of Painting]]
*[[Gallery of Dutch Still life Masterpieces]]
*[[Countries of the world - Gross Domestic Product per capita]]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Amsterdam'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Amsterdam-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/075662441X/ref=pd_bbs_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* DK. ''Netherlands'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Holland-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Ewart/dp/0789493055/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* ''Lonely Planet the Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Netherlands-Travel-Guides/dp/1741042992/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Michelin the Green Guide Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Michelin-Green-Guide-Netherlands-Guides/dp/2067123319/ref=pd_bbs_sr_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
===Current conditions===
* Delsen, Lei. ''Exit Polder Model? Socioeconomic Changes in the Netherlands'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/113099417?title=Exit%20Polder%20Model%3f%20%20Socioeconomic%20Changes%20in%20the%20Netherlands online edition]
* Mathijs, Ernest, ed. ''The Cinema of the Low Countries.'' (2004). 268 pp.
* Vuijsje, Herman. ''The Politically Correct Netherlands: Since the 1960s.'' (2000). 244 pp.
* White, Colin, et al. ''The Undutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands, Its Culture And Its Inhabitants'' (2005)
===History surveys===
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries.'' (2006). 298 pp.
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Low-Countries-J-Blom/dp/1845452720/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Holland-Greenwood-Histories-Nations/dp/0313306583/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209805742&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* Israel, Jonathan. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806'' (1995) a major synthesis; [http://www.questia.com/read/91981119?title=The%20Dutch%20Republic%3a%20Its%20Rise%2c%20Greatness%2c%20and%20Fall%2c%201477-1806 complete online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Republic-Greatness-1477-1806-History/dp/0198207344/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780-1940'' (1978)
* van Oostrom, Frits, and Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries [http://www.questia.com/read/1276323?title=Belgian%20Democracy%2c%20Its%20Early%20History online free]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5th ed. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. ISBN 9061094402
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/82243176?title=Evolution%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Nation online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://www.iisg.nl/ International Institute of Social History (IISH)]
* [http://www.minbuza.nl/history/en/home History of the Netherlands, introduction from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/dutchrevolt.html Dutch revolt: maps]

==References==
<references/>

{{European Union}}

[[Category:Dutch History]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Netherlands

2020-12-08T16:51:34Z

United States: Adding Economy section!

{{Country|
|map=Netherlands rel87.jpg
|map2=Netherlands location.PNG
|flag=Netherlandsflag.gif
|arms=
|capital=Amsterdam
|government=Constitutional monarchy
|language=Dutch
|king=Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
|president=
|chancellor=
|pm=Mark Rutte
|area=41,526 km² (18,41% water)
|pop=17,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$900,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$52,478 (2020)
|currency=Euro (€) (EUR)
|idd=31
|tld=.nl
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on the Netherlands and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
The '''Netherlands''' (Dutch: ''Nederland'') is a country in the [[European Union]] in northwestern Europe, north of Belgium and France. It is a part of [[the Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. It is bordered by [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], and has a total population of 16.9 million (2015). Its system of government is [[constitutional monarchy]]. The country is often referred to as "Holland", which was originally the name of two densely populated provinces of the country (North-Holland and South-Holland). The cities of [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] all lie in these provinces, that have always been the most influential regions in the Netherlands. The official language is [[Dutch]] and the people are referred to in English as Dutchmen or collectively as the Dutch.

The major ethnic groups in the Netherlands are [[Dutch]] 79%, Turks 2%, Surinamese 2%, Moroccans 2%.

==History==
See [[History of the Netherlands]]

==Dike system==
The term "Netherlands" means "low country": about a quarter of the land area, containing more than half of the population, is actually below sea level, and would flood if the sea were not held back by a system of [[dike]]s. The Dutch have a saying that "God created the earth, but the Dutch made Holland".

A major breach of the dikes occurred in 1953, killing 1800 people. To avoid a repeat of the disaster the Dutch began construction of the "Delta Project" to protect the country from future inundations. Begun in 1953 and completed in 2002 the Delta Project is considered a modern wonder of civil engineering. After [[Hurricane Katrina]], a delegation of American engineers was invited by the Dutch government to see how the project works and how its technology can be applied in the United States for low-lying cities like [[New Orleans]]. Intentional flooding of the countryside has also been used to halt invading armies, dating back to the 80 years war.

==Major cities==
[[Amsterdam]], named for the Amstel river, is the largest city, and the capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is ringed by an extensive system of concentric canals. The seat of government, however, is located for historical reasons in [[The Hague]] (''Den Haag'').

[[Eindhoven]], a city of the southern province of Brabant, is the location of the giant electronics corporation, '''Philips''' (full name: Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.), with annual revenue equivalent to about $40 billion. (The U.S. corporation [[General Electric]] has revenues of about $150 billion, but much of it is from non-electronics businesses). The Eindhoven area is known for its high concentration of high-tech industires, which include '''ASML''', the world primary producer of lithography system for the production of semiconductors, and '''Océ''', a leading producer of printers and copiers.

[[Groningen]] is home to many branches of ''KPN'', the former state company of Post, Telegraphy and Telephony. It had its headquarters in Groningen when it was still state run, and move to [[The Hague]] since. ''KPN'' stands for ''Koninklijke PTT Nederland'', or ''Royal PTT Netherlands''. Groningen is also home to ''Gasunie'' (Gasunion), a public-private partnership that exploits the natural gas reseves in the province of Groningen and the adjoint [[North Sea]].

[[File:Jongkind A Windmill near Delft 1857.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johan Barthold Jongkind]], A Windmill near Delft, 1857.]]
[[Delft]] is a small town in [[South Holland]], situated between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]]. It is noted for the blue-and-white Delft pottery, and as the home of the great artist [[Jan Vermeer]].

[[Arnhem]] is a city in Gelderland, lying on the north bank of the Lower Rhine river. It was the scene of a major battle during [[Operation Market Garden]] in September 1944, when British and allied paratroop forces captured its strategic road bridge before being overwhelmed by German forces in the area.

[[Leeuwarden]] ([[Frisian]]: ''Ljouwert'') is the capital of the northern province of Friesland; it was also the home town of the spy [[Mata Hari]] and the artist [[M.C. Escher]].
It has a population of 92,000.

[[Utrecht]] is a city of the central province of Utrecht. It is the seat of a bishopric and is a major communications hub and rail center. With a population of 290,000, it is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands.
The city is best known as the site of lengthy peace negotiations to end the [[Wars of Spanish Succession]] in the 18th century. The resulting peace, called the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], was signed in April 1713.

Hoek van Holland ("Hook of Holland", literally 'corner of Holland') is a port in [[South Holland]], and is administratively part of the city of [[Rotterdam]]. It lies at the outflow of the Nieuwe Waterweg [[canal]] and the [[North Sea]], and is the base for ferry services to [[Harwich]] in eastern [[England]].

== Economy ==
The Dutch economy is almost $1 trillion, which is expected to be reached in less than 5 years. It is the 17th largest in the world. It was 10th in 1985, ahead of [[China]] at that time.
*GDP: $900 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $52,478 (2020)

==Provinces==

South Holland contains the cities of [[The Hague]] and [[Rotterdam]].

Flevoland is the youngest of the twelve provinces, having the least population (ca. 360,000). It was created in 1986 on two [[polder]]s: just 80 years ago, there was no dry land but the [[Zuiderzee]]. Its capital is [[Lelystad]].

Friesland is a coastal province in the north, home to the [[Frisian]] language and people.

Gelderland borders [[Germany]] to the east, and extends north to the [[Ijsselmeer]]. Gelderland includes the major cities of [[Nijmegen]] and [[Arnhem]], as well as the extensive heathland known as the Veluwe, now a national park.

North Brabant is often referred to as ''Brabant'', as there is no ''south Brabant'' in the Netherlands.
The southern part of the former ''duchy of Brabant'' (including the important cities of [[Antwerp]] and [[Leuven]]) now belongs to Belgium. While [[Eindhoven]] is the biggest city in North Brabant, its capital is [['s-Hertogenbosch]].

==Business==
The Netherlands is the home of the Anglo-Dutch oil company [[Royal Dutch Shell]] . Other well known Dutch or partly Dutch multinationals are [[Unilever]], a company owning many household brands, ''ING Group'', a banking group, ''Ahold'', an international chain of supermarkets, ''Reed Elsevier'', a publishing house, ''Nielsen Company'', owner of the [[Yellow Pages]], and ''Randstad Holding'', a company providing [[human resource services]]. The famous ''Dutch East India Company'', which dominated trade in with South-East Asia in the 17th century, is regarded as the first multinational in history.
The Netherlands has long been famous for its production of flowers, and also for a related economic event, the "[[tulip mania]]" of 1636-1637. [[Tulip]]s were traded on stock exchanges, and bid up to fantastic prices by people who understood that the prices were crazy but hoped to sell at a profit to even crazier investors. Many people mortgaged their homes for a single tulip bulb and in one case an entire brewery was exchanged for a few bulbs. As with all [[economic bubble]]s, when bidding began to lag people tried to sell and the bubble burst with disastrous consequences. Since then the Dutch have been renowned for their carefulness with money and have established a significant presence in the banking and financial sectors.

==King's Day==
April 27 is King's Day - the national holiday to mark the official birthday of the monarch. King's Day is the one day of the year when ordinary Netherlanders are permitted to sell goods on the streets without a license. Consequently, the whole country is turned into a gigantic flea market (garage sale). The primary effect of this is that people buy goods they do not want or need, solely in order to sell them the following year. In an act of patriotism, most of the populace wear orange colored clothing (the national color) to identify with the Royal House Of Orange-Nassau.

Those not involved with selling their surplus belongings celebrate the national holiday at outdoors parties in the cities or with fine weather, spend the free day on a terrace of a pub, or cycle in the national ''Fietsen op Dijken'' tour around the nation's dikes.

==Anne Frank==
[[Anne Frank]] was a famous Jewish girl who hid from Nazis in the house of friends in Amsterdam. She wrote a diary which was later published and became a best seller. Her family left Germany in 1933 because of the Nazis, but the Nazis caught up with her and sent her to Belsen death camp where she died before end of war in 1945. Anne Frank's house in Amsterdam is now a popular tourist attraction.

==Society==
[[Same-sex marriage]] has been recognized by the Dutch government since 2001.<ref>[http://marriage.about.com/cs/samesexmarriage/a/samesex.htm About.com]</ref> Furthermore, legal [[prostitution]], [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]] and its drug policy (see above) make The Netherlands the most liberal country in the world by most standards. Christianity was once the dominant factor in Dutch society and politics, but since the 1970s plays a secondary role in society, with only 15% of the population being [[Protestant]] (2015) and just under 24% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]]. There is a rising [[Muslim]] population (5%) which has caused social strains. An overall decline in religion can be seen as of 2004. These days The Netherlands are considered one of the least churchgoing countries in Europe. However the Dutch does have its own bible belt which is still very conservative.

===Drug policies===
The Netherlands is noted for its low-crime rate (although comparable to other western European nations) and [[libertarian]] legislation. Examples are licensed prostitution in designated areas of major cities, such as Amsterdam's Red Light District, the legal soft [[drugs]] sold in the country's many coffee shops, [[abortion]] rights, [[same-sex marriage]]s and [[euthanasia]].

Consuming and carrying (for personal use only) the "soft drugs" ([[marijuana]], [[hashish]] and [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]]) were made legal in the Netherlands in 1976 in a final attempt to stop drug-related crime in the 1970s. Soft drugs can be legally purchased by individuals over 18 in the famed (licensed) coffee shops, that do sell coffee as well, but are prohibited from serving alcohol.
The Dutch policy regarding soft drugs (and previously prostitution) is called "gedoogbeleid" (condonement policy). This means that although certain behavior is officially prohibited by law, a condonement clause prevents law enforcement agencies from prosecuting this behavior. This clause is, legally speaking, not a law and can be reverted much easier than a regular law.

The main reason for this policy is to try to split the market for "soft drugs" from the one for "hard drugs", this to avoid that users "upgrade" from soft to "hard drugs" (the latter are still illegal). So in short, the law tries to prevent citizen's exposure to hard drugs by providing a legal context in which to purchase cannabis. The policy also allows the police to focus on the war on hard drugs and criminal trade, and avoid the exhaustive bureaucratic costs associated with low-profile possession busts. In fact, most major cities in the world have similar non-prosecution policies, but the Dutch one is the only nationwide one.

Growing marijuana and hashish for commercial purposes is still officially illegal (it is legal to own up to four plants per household), causing coffee shop owners to rely on illegal homegrown products. Only two state run companies are exempted from this rule in order to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes. Leftist movements have stated that the government should make its mind up: "either make growing marijuana and hashish legal, or ban soft drugs altogether".

Some argue that the legal status of soft drugs has had no significant adverse effects on Dutch society.{{who}} This is probably due to the fact that it has become a more or less socially accepted drug like alcohol and tobacco, removing the need for dealers and effectively terminating cannabis' status as an anti-establishment symbol, and in effect diminishing its' popularity somewhat amongst youth. Some disagree:
* {{marijuana-passive-Dutch}}

== See also ==

*[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]
*[[Gallery of Flemish and Dutch painting]]
*[[Flemish School of Painting]]
*[[Gallery of Dutch Still life Masterpieces]]
*[[Countries of the world - Gross Domestic Product per capita]]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Amsterdam'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Amsterdam-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/075662441X/ref=pd_bbs_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* DK. ''Netherlands'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Holland-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Ewart/dp/0789493055/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* ''Lonely Planet the Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Netherlands-Travel-Guides/dp/1741042992/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Michelin the Green Guide Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Michelin-Green-Guide-Netherlands-Guides/dp/2067123319/ref=pd_bbs_sr_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
===Current conditions===
* Delsen, Lei. ''Exit Polder Model? Socioeconomic Changes in the Netherlands'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/113099417?title=Exit%20Polder%20Model%3f%20%20Socioeconomic%20Changes%20in%20the%20Netherlands online edition]
* Mathijs, Ernest, ed. ''The Cinema of the Low Countries.'' (2004). 268 pp.
* Vuijsje, Herman. ''The Politically Correct Netherlands: Since the 1960s.'' (2000). 244 pp.
* White, Colin, et al. ''The Undutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands, Its Culture And Its Inhabitants'' (2005)
===History surveys===
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries.'' (2006). 298 pp.
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Low-Countries-J-Blom/dp/1845452720/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Holland-Greenwood-Histories-Nations/dp/0313306583/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209805742&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* Israel, Jonathan. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806'' (1995) a major synthesis; [http://www.questia.com/read/91981119?title=The%20Dutch%20Republic%3a%20Its%20Rise%2c%20Greatness%2c%20and%20Fall%2c%201477-1806 complete online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Republic-Greatness-1477-1806-History/dp/0198207344/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780-1940'' (1978)
* van Oostrom, Frits, and Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries [http://www.questia.com/read/1276323?title=Belgian%20Democracy%2c%20Its%20Early%20History online free]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5th ed. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. ISBN 9061094402
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/82243176?title=Evolution%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Nation online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://www.iisg.nl/ International Institute of Social History (IISH)]
* [http://www.minbuza.nl/history/en/home History of the Netherlands, introduction from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/dutchrevolt.html Dutch revolt: maps]

==References==
<references/>

{{European Union}}

[[Category:Dutch History]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Indonesia

2020-12-08T16:49:05Z

United States: Update: The fact is that, I wasn't even born when Conservapedia was created.

{{Country
|name =''Republik Indonesia''
|map =Indonesia rel 2002.jpg
|map2 =Indonesia location.png
|flag =Flag of Indonesia.png
|arms =Indonesia arms.png
|capital =Jakarta
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Indonesian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Joko Widodo
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =735,355 sq. mi.
|pop =280,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,100,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$3,929 (2020)
|currency =rupiah
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Indonesia''' is a large [[archipelago]] nation lying between [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Australia]]. Indonesia has the largest [[Muslim]] population in the world, but there is no official religion. The capital of Indonesia is [[Jakarta]].

==Geography==
The major islands of the Indonesian archipelago include Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]), New Guinea (shared with [[Papua New Guinea]]), Bali, Flores, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumba, Sumbawa, part of Timor (shared with [[East Timor]]), and thousands of smaller islands, totaling more than 17,500; of these 6,000 are inhabited and 1,000 are permanently settled. Large islands consist of coastal plains with mountainous interiors.

Situated on the so-called "[[Ring of Fire]]" has made Indonesia prone to many earthquakes, [[tsunami]]s, and volcanic eruptions, which are particularly violent. One such eruption on the island of [[Krakatoa]] in 1883 killed an estimated 35,000 people.

===Fauna===
Indonesia is home to much interesting (and frequently threatened) wildlife, including [[tiger]]s, the Javan and Sumatran [[rhinoceros]]es, the [[orang-utan]], the [[Komodo dragon]], [[bird of paradise|birds of paradise]], and the [[coelacanth]].

==People==
[[File:Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque Jakarta Indonesia.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Muslim girls at Istiqlal [[Mosque]], Jakarta.]]
Indonesia's approximately 245.5 million people make it the world's fourth-most populous nation. The island of Java, roughly the size of New York State, is the most populous island in the world (124 million, 2005 est.) and one of the most densely populated areas in the world. Indonesia includes numerous related but distinct cultural and linguistic groups, many of which are ethnically Malay. Since independence, Bahasa Indonesia (the national language, a form of Malay) has spread throughout the archipelago and has become the language of most written communication, education, government, business, and media. Local languages are still important in many areas, however. English is the most widely spoken foreign language. Education is compulsory for children through grade 9. In primary school, 94% of eligible children are enrolled whereas 57% of eligible children are enrolled in secondary school.
*Population (July 2006 est.): 245.5 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2006): 1.3%.
*Ethnic groups: Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5%, others 26%.
*Religions: Muslim 88%, Protestant 5%, Catholic 3%, Hindu 2%, Buddhist and other 1%.
*Languages: Indonesian (official), local languages, the most prevalent of which is Javanese.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Enrollment—94% of eligible primary school-age children. Literacy—90% (2005).
*Health: Infant mortality rate—28/1,000 (2005). Life expectancy at birth—68 years (2005).
*Work force: 94.2 million (2005 est.). Agriculture—46.5%, industry—11.8%, services—41.7%.

===Religion===
[[Image:Gf56e5d.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta.]]
Constitutional guarantees of religious freedom apply to the six religions recognized by the state, namely Islam (88%), Protestantism (5%), Catholicism (3%), Buddhism (2%), Hinduism (1%) and Confucianism (less than 1%). In the resort island of Bali, over 90% of the population practices Hinduism. In some remote areas, animism is still practiced.

{{Clear}}

==Government and Political Conditions==
Indonesia is a republic based on the 1945 constitution providing for a separation of executive, legislative, and judicial power. Substantial restructuring has occurred since President Soeharto's resignation in 1998 and the short, transitional Habibie administration in 1998 and 1999. The Habibie government established political reform legislation that formally set up new rules for the electoral system, the House of Representatives (DPR), the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), and political parties without changing the 1945 Indonesian constitution. After these reforms, the constitution now limits the president to two terms in office.

The president, elected for a five-year term, is the top government and political figure. The president and the vice president were elected by popular vote for the first time on September 20, 2004. Previously, the MPR selected Indonesia's president. In 1999, the MPR selected [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] (1941-2010), also known as Gus Dur, as the fourth President. The MPR removed Gus Dur in July 2001, immediately appointing then-Vice President Megawati Soekarnoputri as the fifth President. Megawati brought a certain amount of stability to Indonesia, yet there were concerns over progress on combating corruption and encouraging economic growth. In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono was elected to succeed Megawati.

The president, assisted by an appointed cabinet, has the authority to conduct the administration of the government. President Yudhoyono's Democratic Party (PD), holds 55 of the 550 seats in the House of Representatives (DPR), making it the fourth-largest political party represented in the legislature as of mid-2006. Yudhoyono, however, also had the support of other political parties that combined to hold a majority of the seats in the DPR. The People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) has 678 members, consisting of the 550 members of the DPR and the 128 representatives of the House of Regional Representatives (DPD), which includes four members from each of Indonesia's 32 provinces. Since 2004, all seats in the DPR and DPD have been held by legislators elected by the citizenry. Previously, some seats had been reserved for representatives of the armed forces. The military has been a significant political force throughout Indonesian history.

The armed forces shaped the political environment and provided leadership for Soeharto's New Order from the time it came to power in the wake of the abortive 1965 uprising. Military officers, especially from the army, were key advisers to Soeharto and Habibie and had considerable influence on policy. Under the dual function concept ("dwifungsi"), the military asserted a continuing role in socio-political affairs. This concept was used to justify placement of officers to serve in the civilian bureaucracy at all government levels. Although the military retains influence and is one of the only truly national institutions, the wide-ranging democratic reforms instituted since 1999 abolished "dwifungsi" and ended the armed forces' formal involvement in government administration. The police have been separated from the military, further reducing the military's direct role in governmental matters. Control of the military by the democratically elected government has been strengthened.

As a reaction to Soeharto's centralization of power and reflecting historically independent sentiment, Hasan di Tiro established the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, GAM) in December 1976 to seek independence for Aceh. Some 15,000 died in military conflict in Aceh over the following three decades. Through peace talks led by former Finnish president Martti Ahtisaari, a peace agreement between GAM and the Indonesian Government that provided wide-ranging autonomy for Aceh was signed on August 15, 2005. By December 2005, GAM declared that they had disbanded the military wing of their organization, and the Indonesian Government had withdrawn the bulk of its security forces down to agreed levels. On December 11, 2006, Aceh held gubernatorial and district administrative elections, the first democratic elections in over half a century in Aceh.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Joko Widodo
*Vice President—Boediono
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Noer Hassan Wirajuda
*Ambassador to the United States—Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Rezlan Izhar Jeni

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Selendang Merah JG Photo Safir Makki Jakarta Globe.jpg|thumb|300px|An action shot from the musical "Selendang Merah", Indonesian theater.]]

Since independence in 1945, Indonesia has espoused a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. Indonesian foreign policy under the "New Order" government of President Soeharto moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterized the latter part of the Soekarno era. Following Soeharto's ouster in 1998, Indonesia's Presidents have preserved the broad outlines of Soeharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. The traumatic separation of East Timor from Indonesia after an August 1999 East Timor referendum, and subsequent events in East and West Timor, strained Indonesia's relations with the international community.

A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Since then, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Cambodia also have joined ASEAN. While organized to promote common economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in 1979. The security policy aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, in which 22 countries participate, including the United States. At ASEAN's Bali Summit in October 2003, the organization undertook to create an ASEAN Community characterized by greater integration in the areas of political and security affairs, economics, and socio-cultural affairs. Indonesia was a strong proponent of this initiative. Indonesia also was one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and has taken moderate positions in its councils. As NAM Chairman in 1992–95, Indonesia led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of north–south confrontation, advocating instead the broadening of north–south cooperation in the area of development. Indonesia continues to be a prominent leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.

A secular state, Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population and is a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions while providing a moderating influence in the OIC. President Wahid, for example, pursued better relations with Israel.

After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the donor community, particularly the United States, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan, through the Intergovernmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and its successor, the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), which have provided substantial foreign economic assistance. Donors remain committed to helping Indonesia reform, but express increasing frustration with poor governance and implementation.

Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Largely through the efforts of President Soeharto at the 1994 meeting in Bogor, Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialized economies and 2020 for developing economies.

Indonesia often supports Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and Group of 77 (G-77) foreign policy views, taking positions regarding human rights contrary to the United States. In May 2005, the Yudhoyono administration, in a major effort to reinvigorate its leadership of the NAM and reset the movement's future course, hosted an Asia-Africa Summit to commemorate the founding of the NAM in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955.

President Yudhoyono has sought a higher international profile for Indonesia. In March 2006, Yudhoyono traveled to Burma to discuss democratic reform and visited several Middle Eastern countries in April and May 2006. Yudhoyono delivered a major speech in Saudi Arabia, encouraging the Muslim world to embrace globalization and technology for greater social and economic progress. In November 2006, Indonesia sent about 1,000 peacekeeping troops to southern Lebanon to be part of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). In 2007 and 2008, Indonesia holds a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council.

==Defense==
Indonesia's armed forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, or TNI) total approximately 350,000 members, including the army, navy, marines, and air force. The army is the largest branch with about 280,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget accounts for 1.8% of GDP, but is supplemented by revenue from many military businesses and foundations.

The Indonesian National Police were a branch of the armed forces for many years. The police were formally separated from the military in April 1999, a process that was formally completed in July 2000. With 250,000 personnel, the police represent a much smaller portion of the population than in most nations.

Indonesia has peaceful relations with its neighbors. Without a credible external threat in the region, the military historically viewed its prime mission as assuring internal security. Military leaders have said that they wish to transform the military to a professional, external security force, providing domestic support to civilian security forces as necessary.

Throughout Indonesian history, the military maintained a prominent role in the nation's political and social affairs. A significant number of cabinet members have had military backgrounds, while active duty and retired military personnel occupied a large number of seats in the parliament. Commanders of the various territorial commands played influential roles in the affairs of their respective regions. With the inauguration of the newly elected national parliament in October 2004, the military no longer has a formal political role, although it retains important political influence.

==Economy==
Indonesia has a market-based economy in which the government plays a significant role. There are 158 state-owned enterprises and the government administers prices on several basic goods, including fuel, rice, and electricity.

In the mid-1980s, the government began eliminating regulatory obstacles to economic activity. The steps were aimed primarily at the external and financial sectors and were designed to stimulate employment and growth in the non-oil export sector. Annual real gross domestic product (GDP) growth averaged nearly 7% from 1987–97 and most analysts recognized Indonesia as a newly industrializing economy and emerging major market. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 altered the region's economic landscape. With the depreciation of the Thai currency, the foreign investment community quickly re-evaluated its investments in Asia. Foreign investors dumped assets and investments in Asia, leaving Indonesia the most affected in the region. In 1998, Indonesia experienced a negative GDP growth of 13.1% and unemployment rose to 15-20%. In the aftermath of the 1997-98 financial crisis, the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets via debt restructuring, but subsequently sold most of these assets, averaging a 29% return. Indonesia has since recovered, albeit slower than some of its neighbors, by recapitalizing its banking sector, improving oversight of capital markets, and taking steps to stimulate growth and investment, particularly in infrastructure. GDP growth was 4.5% in 2003, 5.1% in 2004, and 5.6% in 2005. Estimates for real GDP growth in 2006 are 5.5%.
*GDP: $1.1 trillion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $3,929 (2020)
*Annual growth rate (2005): 5.6%; (2006 est.): 5.5%.
*Inflation (2005): 10.5%; (2006 est.): 13.2%.
*Natural resources (10.4% of GDP): Oil and gas, bauxite, silver, tin, copper, gold, coal.
*Agriculture (13.4% of GDP): Products—timber, rubber, rice, palm oil, coffee. Land—17% cultivated.
*Manufacturing (28.1% of GDP): Garments, footwear, electronic goods, furniture, paper products.
*Trade: Exports (2005)--$86.2 billion including oil, natural gas, appliances, textiles. Major exporters—Japan, U.S., China, Singapore. Imports (2005)--$63.9 billion including food, chemicals, capital goods, consumer goods. Major importers—Japan, China, Singapore, and Thailand.

====Economic Policy====
After he took office on October 20, 2004, President Yudhoyono moved quickly to implement a "pro-growth, pro-poor, pro-employment" economic program. He appointed a respected group of economic ministers who announced a "100-Day Agenda" of short-term policy actions designed to energize the bureaucracy. President Yudhoyono also announced an ambitious anti-corruption plan in December 2004. The State Ministry of National Development Planning (BAPPENAS) released in early 2005 a Medium Term Plan focusing on four broad objectives: creating a safe and peaceful Indonesia; creating a just and democratic Indonesia; creating a prosperous Indonesia; and establishing a stable macroeconomic framework for development. President Yudhoyono reshuffled his cabinet in December 2005, appointing former Finance Minister Boediono as Coordinating Minister for Economic Affairs, and moving Sri Mulyani Indrawati from the National Development Planning Agency to the Finance Ministry. In early 2006, the Government of Indonesia announced new policy packages for stimulating investment and infrastructure.

The Yudhoyono Administration has targeted average growth of 6.6% from 2004–2009 to reduce unemployment and poverty significantly. Indonesia's overall macroeconomic picture is stable and improving. By 2004, real GDP per capita returned to pre-financial crisis levels. In 2005, domestic consumption continued to account for the largest portion of GDP, at 65.4%, followed by investment at 22%, government consumption at 8.2%, and net exports at 4.3%. In evidence of an accelerating economy, investment realization doubled in 2005. Capital goods imports increased 35.9% in 2005, a further indication of a strengthening economy.

The government raised fuel prices by an average of 126% on October 1, 2005 in an effort to reduce Indonesia's fuel subsidy burden, projected to reach Rp 89.2 trillion in 2005, or 3.3% of GDP. The fuel price hikes led to a surge in inflation as consumer price inflation reached 10.5% for 2005 and an estimated 13.2% for 2006. The Indonesian Government implemented a quarterly cash compensation package for low-income families and an extra range of benefits including subsidized rice, improved health and social services, housing subsidies, micro credit, and family planning programs.

====Banking Sector====
Indonesia currently has 130 banks, of which 11 are majority foreign-owned and 28 are foreign joint venture banks. The top 10 banks control about 67% of assets in the sector. Four state-owned banks (Bank Mandiri, BNI, BRI, BTN) continue to dominate the sector with approximately 40% of assets. The Indonesian central bank, Bank Indonesia (BI), announced plans in January 2005 to strengthen the banking sector by encouraging consolidation and improving prudential banking and supervision. BI hopes to encourage small banks with less than Rp 100 billion (about U.S. $11 million) in capital to either raise more capital or merge with healthier "anchor banks" before 2009, announcing the criteria for anchor banks in July 2005. In October 2006, BI announced a single presence policy to further prompt consolidation. The policy stipulates that a single party can own a controlling interest in only one banking organization. Controlling interest is defined as 25% or more of total outstanding shares or having direct or indirect control of the institution. BI plans to adopt Basel II standards beginning in 2008 and to improve operations of its credit bureau to centralize data on borrowers. Another important banking sector reform was the decision to eliminate the blanket guarantee on bank third-party liabilities. BI and the Indonesian Government completed the process of replacing the blanket guarantee with a deposit insurance scheme run by the independent Indonesian Deposit Insurance Agency (also known by its Indonesian acronym, LPS) in March 2007. Sharia banking has grown considerably in Indonesia in recent years, representing 1.4% of the banking sector, about $2.2 billion in assets at the end of 2005.

====Exports and Trade====
Indonesia's exports grew to a record $100.7 billion in 2006, an increase of 17.6% from 2005. The largest export commodities for 2006 were oil and gas (21.2%), minerals (15.7%), electrical appliances (14.7%), rubber products (6.9%), and textiles (3.4%). The top four destinations for exports for 2006 were Japan (15.4%), the U.S. (13.4%), Singapore (9.8%), and China (6.9%). Meanwhile, total imports were $61.1 billion in 2006, including: raw materials and intermediaries ($47.2 billion), capital goods ($9.1 billion), and consumer goods ($4.6 billion). The U.S. trade deficit with Indonesia decreased by 16.5% in 2006 to $7.2 billion ($4.0 billion in exports versus $11.2 billion in imports).

Oil and Minerals Sector: Indonesia, the only Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), ranks 21st among world oil producers (according to 2006 estimates), with about 1.8% of world production. Crude and condensate output averaged 1.04 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2006. In 2006, the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed $23 billion, or 24% of government revenues. U.S. companies have invested heavily in the petroleum sector. Due to limited refining capacity and growing domestic demand for petroleum fuels, Indonesia became a net oil importer in 2004 and continued to be a net oil importer through mid-2007. Indonesia ranks eighth in world gas production. In early 2007, Qatar passed Indonesia as the world's number one exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Despite the declining trends, Indonesia's oil and gas trade balance remained positive at $1.8 billion in 2005 and $2.3 billion for 2006, according to unofficial statistics.

Although minerals production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets. In mid-1993, the Energy Ministry reopened the coal sector to foreign investment. Total coal production reached 159 million metric tons in 2006, including exports of 119.8 million tons. Two U.S. firms operate two copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and U.K. firm holding significant investments in nickel and gold, respectively. Indonesian gold production in 2006 was 85.4 tons, down about 50% compared with 167 tons in 2005. Indonesia achieved its peak output in 2001 with 180 tons. Production mainly came from Freeport's Grasberg mine, the world's biggest gold-producing mine. Indonesia's share of global hard rock mining exploration spending has dropped from 3% to 1%. Since 1998, only three new gold mines have opened. This decline does not reflect Indonesia's mineral prospects, which are high; rather the decline reflects uncertainty over mining laws and regulations, low competitiveness in the tax and royalty system, and investor concerns over divestment policies and the sanctity of contracts.

====Investment====
Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage investment and economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors provided a majority of the investment in the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects. In addition, the presence of U.S. banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. While many petroleum and mining investors remained after the 1997 financial crisis, the number of U.S. investors in other sectors declined. Other major foreign investors include Japan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea. Infrastructure investment declined steadily after the financial crisis and has not yet recovered. In November 2006, however, the Indonesian Government announced that it is opening up 110 infrastructure projects valued at $16.5 billion and is working on 120 regulations to encourage infrastructure investment.

President Yudhoyono and his economic ministers have stated repeatedly their intention to improve the climate for private sector investment in order to raise the level of GDP growth and reduce unemployment. In addition to general corruption and legal uncertainty, businesses have cited a number of specific factors that have reduced the competitiveness of Indonesia's investment climate, including: corrupt and inefficient customs services; non-transparent and arbitrary tax administration; inflexible labor markets that have reduced Indonesia's advantage in labor-intensive manufacturing; increasing infrastructure bottlenecks; and uncompetitive investment laws and regulations. In February 2006, the Indonesian Government announced a new policy package to improve the investment climate in Indonesia for both domestic and foreign investors. The package, announced in Presidential Instruction (INPRES) No. 3/2006, consists of policies designed to strengthen investment services, harmonize central and regional regulations (Perda), improve customs, excise, and taxation services, create jobs, and support small and medium enterprises. However, labor reforms planned for 2006 have been delayed in parliament.

The passage of a new copyright law in July 2002 and accompanying optical disc regulations in 2004 greatly strengthened Indonesia's intellectual property rights (IPR) regime. Despite the government's recent efforts to improve enforcement, IPR piracy remains a major concern to U.S. intellectual property holders and foreign investors, particularly in the high-technology sector. In March 2006, President Yudhoyono issued a decree establishing a National Task Force for IPR Violation Prevention. The IPR Task Force will formulate national policy to prevent IPR violations and determine additional resources needed for prevention. It will also help to educate the public through various activities and improve bilateral, regional, and multilateral cooperation to prevent IPR violations. Due to these positive developments on IPR issues, Indonesia was removed from the U.S. Trade Representative's "Priority Watch" list and placed on the "Watch" list.

== History ==
[[Image:Prambanan Temple.jpg|right|400px]]
By the time of the Renaissance, the islands of Java and Sumatra had already enjoyed a 1,000-year heritage of advanced civilization spanning two major empires. During the 7th-14th centuries, the Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya flourished on Sumatra. At its peak, the Srivijaya Empire reached as far as West Java and the Malay Peninsula. Also by the 14th century, the Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit had risen in eastern Java. Gadjah Mada, the empire's chief minister from 1331 to 1364, succeeded in gaining allegiance from most of what is now modern Indonesia and much of the Malay archipelago as well. Legacies from Gadjah Mada's time include a codification of law and an epic poem. Islam arrived in Indonesia sometime during the 12th century and, through assimilation, supplanted Hinduism by the end of the 16th century in Java and Sumatra. Bali, however, remains overwhelmingly Hindu. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic proselytizing took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.

Beginning in 1602, the Dutch slowly established themselves as rulers of present-day Indonesia, exploiting the weakness of the small kingdoms that had replaced that of Majapahit. The only exception was East Timor, which remained under Portugal's control until 1975. During 300 years of rule, the Dutch developed the Netherlands East Indies into one of the world's richest colonial possessions.

During the first decade of the 20th century, an Indonesian independence movement began and expanded rapidly, particularly between the two World Wars. Its leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. Many, including Indonesia's first president, Soekarno (1945–67), were imprisoned for political activities.

The Japanese occupied Indonesia for three years during World War II (1942-1945). On August 17, 1945, three days after the Japanese surrender to the Allies, a small group of Indonesians, led by Soekarno and Mohammad Hatta, proclaimed independence and established the Republic of Indonesia. They set up a provisional government and adopted a constitution to govern the republic until elections could be held and a new constitution written. Dutch efforts to reestablish complete control met strong resistance. After four years of warfare and negotiations, the Dutch transferred sovereignty to a federal Indonesian Government. In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the United Nations.
[[File:Goenawan Muhamma Javanese people.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Author Goenawan Muhamma.]]
Shortly after hostilities with the Dutch ended in 1949, Indonesia adopted a new constitution, providing for a parliamentary system of government in which the executive was chosen by and accountable to parliament. Parliament was divided among many political parties before and after the country's first nationwide election in 1955, and stable governmental coalitions were difficult to achieve. The role of Islam in Indonesia became a divisive issue. Soekarno defended a secular state based on Pancasila, five principles of the state philosophy—monotheism, humanitarianism, national unity, representative democracy by consensus, and social justice—codified in the 1945 constitution, while some Muslim groups preferred either an Islamic state or a constitution which included a preambular provision requiring adherents of Islam to be subject to Islamic law. At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea (known as Irian Jaya in the Soekarno and Soeharto eras and as Papua since 2000) and permitted steps toward self-government and independence.

Negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of Irian Jaya into Indonesia failed and armed clashes broke out between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961. In August 1962, the two sides reached an agreement and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for Irian Jaya on May 1, 1963. The Indonesian Government conducted an "Act of Free Choice" in Irian Jaya under UN supervision in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils agreed by consensus to remain a part of Indonesia. A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Papua gave rise to small-scale guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control. In the more open atmosphere since 1998, there have been more explicit expressions within Papua calling for independence from Indonesia.

Unsuccessful rebellions on Sumatra, Sulawesi, West Java, and other islands beginning in 1958, plus a failure by the constituent assembly to develop a new constitution, weakened the parliamentary system. Consequently, in 1959, when President Soekarno unilaterally revived the provisional 1945 constitution that gave broad presidential powers, he met little resistance. From 1959 to 1965, President Soekarno imposed an authoritarian regime under the label of "Guided Democracy." He also moved Indonesia's foreign policy toward nonalignment, a foreign policy stance supported by other prominent leaders of former colonies who rejected formal alliances with either the West or Soviet bloc. Under Soekarno's auspices, these leaders gathered in Bandung, West Java in 1955 to lay the groundwork for what became known as the Non-Aligned Movement. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, President Soekarno moved closer to Asian communist states and toward the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in domestic affairs. Though the PKI represented the largest communist party outside the Soviet Union and China, its mass support base never demonstrated an ideological adherence typical of communist parties in other countries.
[[File:Javanese.jpg|right]]
By 1965, the PKI controlled many of the mass civic and cultural organizations that Soekarno had established to mobilize support for his regime and, with Soekarno's acquiescence, embarked on a campaign to establish a "Fifth Column" by arming its supporters. Army leaders resisted this campaign. Under circumstances that have never been fully explained, on October 1, 1965, PKI sympathizers within the military, including elements from Soekarno's palace guard, occupied key locations in Jakarta and kidnapped and murdered six senior generals. Major General Soeharto, the commander of the Army Strategic Reserve, rallied army troops opposed to the PKI to reestablish control over the city. Violence swept throughout Indonesia in the aftermath of the October 1 events and unsettled conditions persisted through 1966. Right-wing gangs killed tens of thousands of alleged communists in rural areas. Estimates of the number of deaths range between 160,000 and 500,000. The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. During this period, PKI members by the tens of thousands turned in their membership cards. The emotions and fears of instability created by this crisis persisted for many years as the communist party remains banned from Indonesia.

Throughout the 1965-66 period, President Soekarno vainly attempted to restore his political stature and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position. Although he remained President, in March 1966, Soekarno transferred key political and military powers to General Soeharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Soeharto acting President. Soekarno ceased to be a political force and lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.

President Soeharto proclaimed a "New Order" in Indonesian politics and dramatically shifted foreign and domestic policies away from the course set in Soekarno's final years. The New Order established economic rehabilitation and development as its primary goals and pursued its policies through an administrative structure dominated by the military but with advice from Western-educated economic experts. In 1968, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) formally selected Soeharto to a full five-year term as President and he was re-elected to successive 5-year terms in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. In mid-1997, Indonesia suffered from the Asian financial and economic crisis, accompanied by the worst drought in 50 years and falling prices for oil, gas, and other commodity exports. As the exchange rate changed from a fixed to a managed float to fully floating, the rupiah depreciated in value, inflation increased significantly, and capital flight accelerated. Demonstrators, initially led by students, called for Soeharto's resignation. Amid widespread civil unrest, Soeharto resigned on May 21, 1998, three months after the MPR had selected him for a seventh term. Soeharto's hand-picked Vice President, B.J. Habibie, became Indonesia's third President. President Habibie reestablished International Monetary Fund (IMF) and donor community support for an economic stabilization program. He released several prominent political and labor prisoners, initiated investigations into the unrest, and lifted controls on the press, political parties, and labor unions.

In January 1999, Habibie and the Indonesian Government agreed to a process, with UN involvement, under which the people of East Timor would be allowed to choose between autonomy and independence through a direct ballot held on August 30, 1999. Some 98% of registered voters cast their ballots, and 78.5% of the voters chose independence over continued integration with Indonesia. Many people were killed by Indonesian military forces and military-backed militias in a wave of violence and destruction after the announcement of the pro-independence vote.

Indonesia's first elections in the post-Soeharto period were held for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments on June 7, 1999. Forty-eight political parties participated in the elections. For the national parliament, Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan (PDI-P, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle led by Megawati Soekarnoputri) won 34% of the vote; Golkar ("Functional Groups" party) 22%; Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa (PKB, National Awakening Party linked to the conservative Islamic organization Nadhlatul Ulama headed by former President Abdurrahman Wahid) 13%; and Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP, United Development Party led by Hamzah Haz) 11%. The MPR selected Abdurrahman Wahid as Indonesia's fourth President in November 1999 and replaced him with Megawati Soekarnoputri in July 2001.

The constitution, as amended in the post-Soeharto era, provides for the direct election by popular vote of the president and vice president. Under the 2004 amendment, only parties or coalitions of parties that gained at least 3% of the House of Representatives (DPR) seats or 5% of the vote in national legislative elections were eligible to nominate a presidential and vice presidential ticket. The 2004 legislative elections took place on April 5 and were considered to be generally free and fair. PDI-P lost its plurality in the House of Representatives, dropping to under 19% of the total vote, while Golkar remained near 1999 levels with 21% of the vote. Five other parties won between 6 and 11% of the national vote. Of the 18 other parties that participated, nine won small numbers of seats in the DPR. The first direct presidential election was held on July 5, 2004, contested by five tickets. As no candidate won at least 50% of the vote, a runoff election was held between the top two candidates, President Megawati Sukarnoputri and retired General Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, on September 20, 2004. In this final round, Yudhoyono won 60.6% of the vote. Approximately 76.6% of the eligible voters participated, a total of roughly 117 million people, making Indonesia's presidential election the largest single-day election in the world. The Carter Center, which sent a delegation of election observers, issued a statement congratulating "the people and leaders of Indonesia for the successful conduct of the presidential election and the peaceful atmosphere that has prevailed throughout the ongoing democratic transition."

Natural disasters have devastated many parts of Indonesia over the past few years. On December 26, 2004 a 9.1 to 9.3 magnitude earthquake took place in the Indian Ocean, and the resulting tsunami killed over 130,000 people in Aceh and left more than 500,000 homeless. On March 26, 2005, an 8.7 magnitude earthquake struck between Aceh and northern Sumatra, killing 905 people and displacing tens of thousands. After much media attention of the seismic activity on Mt. Merapi in April and May 2006, a 6.2 magnitude earthquake occurred 30 miles to the southwest. It killed over 5,000 people and left an estimated 200,000 people homeless in the Yogyakarta region.

==Further reading==
*[http://www.adnki.com/index_2Level_English.php?cat=Security&loid=8.0.421255208&par=0 Another Christian Church Attacked in Bandung], AKI/Jakarta Post, 4 June 2007.
*'''Hostage in Djakarta'''. by Harold Lovestrand. Chicago : Moody Press, 1967. "Covers the period of impending Communist takeover [of Indonesia], the abortive coup and the bloody days that followed. Endless frustrations and arbitrary decisions by minor military officials were only a part of what was to lead to an unjust accusation and a near-fatal imprisonment."—Dust jacket flap

==External links==
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html CIA World Factbook - Indonesia]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pgpHHoIvU2I Indonesian Christians under attack]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FF-yu-cgn_U Religious Persecution And Hostility On The Rise In Indonesia]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJbnT9H3D_U Indonesia: Violence Against Religious Minorities]

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}
Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2748.htm]
{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:Archipelagos]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Southeast Asia]]

Mexico

2020-12-08T16:47:31Z

United States: Some clean-up; 20-year update

{{Country
|name =''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''
|map =Mexico rel97.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Mexico.png
|flag =Flag of Mexico.png
|arms =Mexican arms.jpg
|capital =Mexico City
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal republic (presidential)
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Andrés Manuel López Obrador
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =758,249 sq mi
|pop =130,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,200,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$9,231 (2020)
|currency =Peso
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Mexico''' is a country in [[North America]] directly south of the [[United States]]. It borders the North Pacific Ocean to the west, [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]] to the south, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the east. Mexico is a federal republic with 31 states and 1 federal district. Its capital is [[Mexico City]]. At present Mexico's territory covers almost 2 million square kilometers with a population of about 130 million. Major cities include: [[Mexico City]] (capital), [[Guadalajara]], [[Monterrey]], [[Puebla]], [[Tijuana]].

==People==
[[Image:Elisa Najera.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Elisa Nájera, Miss Mexico 2007.]]
Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second most-populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking [[Brazil]]. About 70% of the people live in urban areas. Many Mexicans emigrate from rural areas that lack job opportunities—such as the underdeveloped southern states and the crowded central plateau—to the industrialized urban centers and the developing areas along the U.S.-Mexico border. The Mexico City region has 18 million people and is the largest concentration of population in the Western Hemisphere. Cities bordering on the United States—such as Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez—and cities in the interior—such as [[Guadalajara]], Monterrey, and [[Puebla]]—have undergone sharp rises in population and income in recent years.

In 2008, according to the Pew Research Center 12.7 millions of immigrants in the US were of Mexican origin (32% of all immigrants living in that country).<ref>[http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1191/mexican-immigrants-in-america-largest-group Mexican Immigrants in the United States, 2008]</ref> Mexicans often join and serve together in the US military. There are high concentrations of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in California marine units, Texas [[National Guard]] units, and, for some unexplained statistical quirk, there are many Mexican Patriot missile operators.<ref>[http://209.85.173.104/search?q=cache:XMdSoqPdhR4J:www.justthinkfirst.org/updates/MilitaryService/MexicansDyingInIraq.pdf+MEXICANS+DIED+IRAQ&hl=es&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=mx Mexico Fiercely Opposes the Iraq War, But Mexicans Are Dying There Every Week.]</ref>

The United States [[NRA]] asserts:
* For honest Mexican citizens, guns are outlawed. So [[drug lords]] are free and safe to rule the land, government officials are either on the take or in the morgue, and honest citizens are imprisoned in their own homes ... unarmed and terrified of what may be outside. [http://home.nra.org/#/home]

===Education===
[[File:Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.]]
Education is among the Mexican government's highest priorities, and the education budget has continued to grow in recent years. Funding for education increased from 6.9% of GDP in 2002 to 7.3% of GDP in 2005. While efforts to decentralize responsibility for education from the federal to the state level in order to improve accountability are ongoing, the central government still retains significant authority. Although educational performance in Mexico has improved substantially in recent decades, the country still faces several major problems, including providing education to rural and indigenous populations.
[[Image:Cu11.jpg|thumb|right|The University of Mexico]]
Education is currently mandatory for ages 5 through 15. An education reform law enacted in 2002 will make preschool mandatory for all children ages 3 and up by 2008. This reform is being implemented in stages. In 2005, 77.4% of the population between the ages of 3 and 15 were enrolled in school. Primary, including preschool, enrollment totaled 18.8 million in 2005. Enrollment at the secondary public school level rose from 5.4 million in 2000 to 5.9 million in 2005. After a significant increase in higher education enrollment during previous decades, Mexico has seen a slower rise in university enrollment more recently. Numbers rose from 2 million enrolled in 2000 to 2.4 million in 2005.
{{Clear}}

===Statistics===
[[Image:Rafa Marquez.jpg|thumb|Rafa Marquez.]]
*Population (2011 estimate): 113.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2011 estimate): 1.102%.
*Ethnic groups: Indian-Spanish ([[mestizo]]) 60%, Indian 30%, Caucasian 10%.
*Religions: [[Roman Catholic]] 76.5%, Protestant 6.3% (Pentecostal 1.4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.1%, other 3.8%), unspecified 13.8%, other 0.3%, none 3.1% (2000 census)
*Language: [[Spanish]] only 92.7%, Spanish and indigenous languages 5.7%, indigenous only 0.8%.
*Education: Years compulsory—11 (note: preschool education was made mandatory in Dec. 2001). Literacy—86.1%.
*Health (2004 est.): Infant mortality rate—21.69/1000. Life expectancy—male 72.18 years; female 77.83 years.
*Work force (2000, 39.81 million): [[Agriculture]], forestry, hunting, fishing—21.0%; services—32.2%; commerce—16.9%; manufacturing—18.7%; construction—5.6%; transportation and communication—4.5%; mining and quarrying—1.0%.
*Natural resources: petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
[[File:Mexico Popocatepetl.jpg|thumb|240px|The volcano Popocatepetl.]]
*Land Area: 1,958,200 km2.
*Latitude/Longitude: 19.2ºN, 99.1ºW
*Highest Point: Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5,700 Mts.
*Border countries: Belize 250 km, Guatemala 962 km, US 3,141 km.
*Coastline: 9,330 km.
*Climate: varies from tropical to desert.
*Terrain: high, rugged mountains; low coastal plains; high plateaus; desert.
*Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm.
People who live in Mexico are referred to in English as Mexicans (adjective: Mexican). The net migration rate is: 3.24 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.) (Mainly to the US.)

[[Image:Priscila Perales 2.jpg|frame|left|240px|Priscila Perales, Miss Mexico 2005, Miss International 2007.]]
*Official Currency: Mexican Peso (MXN)

*Time Zone: GMT/UTC
*Electricity: 127V 60HzHz
*Country Dialing Code: 52
*Major Industries: Food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, original motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Tequila is originally produced in Mexico.
*Mexican commodities which have gained worldwide popularity include chocolate, vanilla, tomatoes and the poinsettia plant.

More facts:<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html CIA - Facts]</ref>
{{Clear}}

==History==
[[File:Uxmal Mexico Maya.jpg|thumb|[[Uxmal]], Mayan ruins.]]
Highly developed cultures, including those of the [[Olmecs]], [[Mayas]], [[Toltecs]], and [[Aztecs]], existed long before the Spanish conquest. Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico during the period 1519-21 and founded a Spanish colony that lasted nearly 300 years.
[[Image:Guanajuato 4.jpg|thumb|left|Guanajuato City]]
Independence from Spain was proclaimed by Father Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810. Father Hidalgo's declaration of national independence, known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores", launched a decade long struggle for independence from Spain. Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father Jose Maria Morelos; Gen. Augustin de Iturbide, who defeated the Spaniards and ruled as Mexican emperor from 1822–23; and Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who went on to dominate Mexican politics from 1833 to 1855. An 1821 treaty recognized Mexican independence from Spain and called for a constitutional monarchy. The planned monarchy failed; a republic was proclaimed in December 1822 and established in 1824.
[[File:Velasco El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel.jpg|thumb|[[Jose Maria Velasco]], El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel, 1892.]]
Throughout the rest of the 19th century, Mexico's government and economy were shaped by contentious debates among liberals and conservatives, republicans and monarchists, federalists and those who favored centralized government. During the two presidential terms of Benito Juarez (1858–71), Mexico experimented with modern democratic and economic reforms. President Juarez’ terms of office, and Mexico's early experience with democracy, were interrupted by the Hapsburg monarchy's rule of Mexico (1864–67), and was followed by the authoritarian government of Gen. Porfirio Díaz, who was president during most of the period between 1877 and 1911.

The states of [[New Mexico]], [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and parts of [[Wyoming]], and [[Colorado]], were part of Mexico until the [[Mexican American War]]. [[Texas]] was a part of Mexico for only 15 years, until Texans won their independence in the Texas Revolution in 1836, but Spanish Texas (Tejas) lasted between 1690 and 1821. Therefore, some U.S. citizens in this region speak Spanish as their native language.
[[File:Felipe Calderon Mexico.jpg|thumb|Felipe Calderon.]]
Mexico's severe social and economic problems erupted in a revolution that lasted from 1910–20 and gave rise to the 1917 constitution. Prominent leaders in this period—some of whom were rivals for power—were Francisco Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Alvaro Obregón, Victoriano Huerta, and Emiliano Zapata. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), formed in 1929 under a different name, emerged from the chaos of revolution as a vehicle for keeping political competition among a coalition of interests in peaceful channels. For 71 years, Mexico's national government was controlled by the PRI, which won every presidential race and most gubernatorial races until the July 2000 presidential election of Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe Calderón. In January 2009, Mexico assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2009–10 term.

[[Image:Maria Espinoza.jpg|thumb|200px|left|María Espinoza. (Photo: Reuters)]]
Famous Mexicans of history include: [[Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz]], [[Benito Juarez]], [[Porfirio Diaz]], [[Justo Sierra Mendez]], [[Francisco Madero]], [[Francisco Gabilondo Soler]], [[Jose Maria Velasco]], [[Joaquin Clausell]], [[Lazaro Cardenas]], [[Frida Kahlo]], [[Diego Rivera]], [[Carlos Chavez]] and [[Octavio Paz]].

Famous Mexicans of today: [[Felipe Calderon]], [[Carlos Slim]], [[Salma Hayek]], Priscila Perales, [[Lorena Ochoa]], [[Ana Gabriela Guevara]], [[Carlos Fuentes]], Guillermo del Toro, Alejandro González Iñárritu, [[Alfonso Cuarón]], [[Mario Molina]], [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]], Salvador Palma Vargas, Carlos Franco, Ángel Aliseda, Emanuel Johansen, Adriana Alcántara Ruiz, Dalia Graciela Díaz Gómez, Carlos Hernández Mejía, Belem Guerrero, [[Raúl Gío Argáez]], [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Hugo Sanchez]], [[Cuauhtemoc Blanco]], [[Rafa Marquez]], [[Javier Aguirre]], [[Giovanni dos Santos]], Guillermo Pérez Sandoval (gold medal Beijing 08) and María Espinoza (also gold medal Beijing 08).

In 2017, it was reported that Mexico had become the second deadliest conflict zone in the world, after [[Syria]] (through the [[Syrian Civil War]]).<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/05/09/mexico-now-considered-second-deadliest-conflict-zone-after-syria-study-says.html Mexico now considered second deadliest conflict zone after Syria, study says]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 9, 2017.</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Religion===
[[Image:Guadalupe ch.jpg|right|Virgin of Guadalupe.]]
According to the 2000 census, approximately 88% of respondents identify themselves as at least nominally Catholic. There are an estimated 11,000 Catholic churches and 14,000 Catholic priests and nuns.

An additional estimated 90,000 laypersons worked in the Catholic Church. Groups that constitute less than 5% of the population include evangelicals (Pentecostals, neo-Pentecostals, and Pentecostal Roots), "historical" Protestants (defined by the Government as Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Nazarene, Mennonite, and others), Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Jews.<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108532.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The General Director for Religious Associations of the Federal Secretariat of Government (GDAR) registered a total of 3,554 evangelical and 80 traditional Protestant associations. The exact number of evangelical and Protestant churches and pastors is unknown, and statistics on membership remain scant. Official figures sometimes differ from membership claims of religious groups. For example, the Seventh-day Adventist Church claims a nationwide membership of 600,000 to 700,000 persons; however, according to the 2000 census, only 488,945 persons identify themselves as such. Also according to the 2000 census, 205,229 persons identify themselves as Mormons, whereas the Mormons claim membership of approximately 1.2 million.
[[File:Guadalupe original image Mexico.jpg|thumb|Our Lady of Guadalupe, original image at the Basilica.]]
[[File:Altar Reyes Catedral Metropolitana.JPG|thumb|left|290px|Altar Reyes, Metropolitan Cathedral.]]
Non-Catholic Christians are concentrated primarily in the south. In the State of Chiapas, 21.9% of respondents in the 2000 census identify themselves as Protestant; however, some Protestant evangelical groups claim a much higher pecentage.

The Jewish community claims approximately 50,000 members, most of whom live in Mexico City; there are also congregations in Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, and Cancún. There is a small Muslim population in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, and there are an estimated 300 Muslims in the San Cristobal de las Casas area in Chiapas. Some indigenous people in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Yucatán practice a syncretic religion that mixes Catholic and pre-Hispanic Mayan religious beliefs.

In some communities, particularly in the south, there is a correlation between politics and religious affiliation. A small number of local leaders reportedly manipulate religious tensions in their communities for their own political or economic benefit, particularly in Chiapas.
{{Clear}}

==Government==

The 1917 constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive has been the dominant branch, with power vested in the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. The Congress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first made major gains. The president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from the Congress. The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a 6-year term and may not hold office a second time. There is no vice president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional president is elected by the Congress.
[[File:Enrique Peña Nieto.jpg|left|320px|President Peña]]

The Congress is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Consecutive re-election is prohibited. Senators are elected to 6-year terms, and deputies serve 3-year terms. The Senate's 128 seats are filled by a mixture of direct-election and proportional representation. In the lower chamber, 300 deputies are directly elected to represent single-member districts, and 200 are selected by a modified form of proportional representation from five electoral regions. The 200 proportional representation seats were created to help smaller parties gain access to the Chamber.

The judiciary is divided into federal and state court systems, with federal courts having jurisdiction over most civil cases and those involving major felonies. Under the constitution, trial and sentencing must be completed within 12 months of arrest for crimes that would carry at least a 2-year sentence. In practice, the judicial system often does not meet this requirement. Trial is by judge, not jury, in most criminal cases. Defendants have a right to counsel, and public defenders are available. Other rights include defense against self-incrimination, the right to confront one's accusers, and the right to a public trial. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President--[[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]
*Foreign Secretary—Marcelo Ebrard
*Ambassador to the U.S.—Martha Bárcena

===Political Conditions===
[[File:Estela de luz May 2012.jpg|thumb|Estela de Luz in Mexico City.]]
Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN) was elected president in July 2000 in what were widely considered the freest and fairest elections in Mexico's history. Fox began his six-year term on December 1, 2000. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) 71-year hold on the presidency. President Fox completed his term on December 1, 2006, when Felipe Calderon assumed the presidency.

Numerous electoral reforms implemented since 1989 have progressively opened the Mexican political system, and opposition parties have made historic gains in elections at all levels. At the same time, this opening has left Mexico's political institutions divided. Fox is credited with ending one-party rule and consolidating the opening of Mexico's political system. Under Fox, Mexico's highest office became a true constitutional presidency, considerably weakened in comparison to the PRI years by the PAN's lack of control over the Congress.

In 2018, Mexico received its first leftist president in 32 years, after being controlled by technocrats during that period.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/mexico-gets-1st-leftist-leader-after-32-years-of-technocrats Mexico gets first leftist leader after 32 years of technocrats]. ''Fox News''. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2018.</ref>

====2006 Elections====
The 2006 elections resulted in an extremely tight race, with a margin of less than one percent separating the vote totals of the two leading candidates for president, Felipe Calderon of the PAN and Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) of the left-of-center Democratic Revolution Party (PRD). The PRI candidate, Roberto Madrazo, came in a distant third.
[[Image:Siqueiros Mural en Ciudad Universitaria.jpg|thumb|320px|left|[[David Alfaro Siqueiros]], The People for the University. The University for the People. 1952–56.]]
Lopez Obrador contested the results of the July 2 presidential election, alleging that it was marred by widespread fraud. He challenged in court the result of the Federal Electoral Institute's tabulation showing that Calderon had won the election and launched a mass street protest demanding a nationwide vote-by-vote recount. Mexico's Federal Electoral Tribunal, while acknowledging the presence of randomly-distributed irregularities, rejected Lopez Obrador's accusation of widespread fraud and upheld Calderon's victory on September 5, 2006.

On September 16, 2006, the PRD sponsored a "National Democratic Convention," convened on Mexico City's historic central square, that rejected Calderon's presidency, approved a resolution naming Lopez Obrador Mexico's "legitimate" president, and called for the creation of a parallel executive cabinet. Convention participants also approved a long-term civil resistance action plan. Lopez Obrador's support is largely drawn from Mexico's poorer classes, some of whom feel disenfranchised from Mexico's political system.

In the 2006 elections, the PAN emerged as the largest party in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, with just over 40 percent of the seats in each house of Congress. It does not enjoy a legislative majority. Although the PRI no longer controls the Presidency and has fewer congressional seats than either the PAN or PRD, it remains a significant force in Mexican politics, holding 17 governorships.

====Other Reforms====
[[File:Mexican teenagers.jpg|thumb|250px|Mexican youth]]
One of President Fox's most important reforms was the passage and implementation of Freedom of Information (FOIA) laws that, by the end of 2005, were in effect for the federal government, Mexico City, and 26 states (only two states had such laws in 2001). These laws are a cornerstone in Mexico's fight against corruption, and Mexico's FOIA laws and enforcement mechanisms have been hailed as international models.

President Fox also highlighted the need for modernization of Mexico's criminal justice system, including the introduction of oral trials. Although judicial reforms stalled at the federal level during the Fox years, 10 states have now either completed or are in the process of enacting such reforms. Furthermore, all presidential candidates in the 2006 elections committed to further federal judicial reforms.

Under President Fox, the executive branch became more accountable, transparent, and citizen-centered. In 2003, Mexico passed its first-ever Civil Service Law, which introduced an on-line application system and competence-based hiring. The Fox administration's good government agenda also included the initiation of government services via Internet, the development of citizen charters that set standards for service delivery, and the reduction in the percentage of public servants working in administrative jobs from one out of two to one out of four.

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:France Mexico relations.jpg|right|280px]]
Traditionally, Mexico has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion and has championed the principles of nonintervention and self-determination. In its efforts to revitalize its economy and open up to international competition, Mexico has sought closer relations with the U.S., Western Europe, and the Pacific Basin. President Fox more actively promoted international human rights and democracy and sought to increase Mexico's participation in international affairs.
[[File:Embassy Mexico Berlin.jpg|thumb|left|Embassy of Mexico in Berlin.]]
Mexico actively participates in several international organizations; it was elected to a seat on the UN Security Council for the period 2002–03. It is a strong supporter of the United Nations and Organization of American States systems and also pursues its interests through a number of ad hoc international bodies. Mexico has been selective in its membership in other international organizations. It declined, for example, to become a member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Nevertheless, Mexico does seek to diversify its diplomatic and economic relations, as demonstrated by its accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986; its joining the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1993; its becoming, in April 1994, the first Latin American member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and its entering the World Trade Organization as a founding member in 1996. Mexico attended the 1994 Summit of the Americas, held in Miami; managed coordination of the agenda item on education for the 1998 Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile; and hosted a Special Summit of the Americas in early 2004. Mexico hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial in Cancun and a Hemispheric Security Conference in October of the same year. It was elected to the International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors in 2003. In 2002 it hosted the APEC Leaders’ Meeting in Cabo San Lucas.

===Relations with the United States===
During the 19th century Mexico and the U.S. had a tense, difficult relationship (including a war) which continued well into the 20th century. In World War II, Mexico sided with the Allies and this marked the beginning of a more friendly and modern relationship between the two countries.

U.S. relations with Mexico are as important and complex as with any country in the world. A stable, democratic, and economically prosperous Mexico is fundamental to U.S. interests. U.S. relations with Mexico have a direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans—whether the issue is trade and economic reform, homeland security, drug control, migration, or the promotion of democracy. The U.S. and Mexico are partners in NAFTA, and enjoy a rapidly developing trade relationship. In March 2005, the U.S., Mexico, and Canada formed the Security and Prosperity Partnership (SPP), which contemplates trilateral and bilateral initiatives to develop new avenues of cooperation that will enhance North America's security, competitiveness, and economic resilience.
[[File:Felipe Calderon Mexico Washington, DC, March, 2011.jpg|left|400px]]
The scope of U.S.-Mexican relations goes far beyond diplomatic and official contacts; it entails extensive commercial, cultural, and educational ties, as demonstrated by the annual figure of nearly a million legal border crossings a day. In addition, more than a half-million American citizens live in Mexico. More than 2,600 U.S. companies have operations there, and the U.S. accounts for 55% of all foreign direct investment in Mexico. Along the 2,000-mile shared border, state and local governments interact closely.

There has been frequent contact at the highest levels. Presidents’ meetings have included the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Leaders’ Meeting in Bangkok in October 2003; President Bush's visits to Monterrey in January 2004 (Summit of the Americas) and March 2002; his April 2001 visit to Guanajuato; President Fox's state visit to the U.S. in September 2001, and his meeting with the President at Crawford, Texas in March 2004. The two Presidents also met in Crawford in March 2005 where, along with then Canadian Prime Minister Martin, they launched the Security and Prosperity Partnership. They held a follow-on SPP meeting with Canadian Prime Minister Harper in Cancun in March 2006.

Since 1981, the management of the broad array of U.S.-Mexico issues has been formalized in the U.S.-Mexico Binational Commission, composed of numerous U.S. cabinet members and their Mexican counterparts. The commission holds annual plenary meetings, and many subgroups meet during the course of the year to discuss border security and counter terrorism, trade and investment opportunities, financial cooperation, consular issues and migration, legal affairs and anti-narcotics cooperation, education, energy, border affairs, environment and natural [[resources]], labor, agriculture, health, housing and urban development, transportation, and science and technology.

A strong partnership with Mexico is critical to combating terrorism and controlling the flow of illicit drugs into the United States. In recent years, cooperation on counter-narcotics and Mexico's own initiatives in fighting drug trafficking have been unprecedented. The U.S. will continue working with Mexico as it seeks to strengthen its cooperation and anti-drug efforts. The U.S. and Mexico continue to cooperate on narcotics interdiction, demand reduction, and eradication.

====Border and Environmental Affairs====
[[File:Map Mexicans in US 2000.jpg|right|Mexicans in US, 2000.]]
Cooperation between the United States and Mexico along the 2,000-mile common border includes state and local problem-solving mechanisms; transportation planning; and institutions to address resource, environment, and health issues. In 1993, the Border Liaison Mechanism (BLM) was established. Chaired by U.S. and Mexican consuls, the BLMs operate in "sister city" pairs and have proven to be effective means of dealing with a variety of local issues ranging from accidental violation of sovereignty by law enforcement officials and charges of mistreatment of foreign nationals to coordination of port security and cooperation in public health matters such as tuberculosis.

As the number of people and the volume of cargo crossing the U.S.-Mexico border grow, so, too, does the need for coordinated infrastructure development. The multi-agency U.S.-Mexico Bi-national Group on Bridges and Border Crossings meets twice yearly to improve the efficiency of existing crossings and coordinate planning for new ones. The 10 U.S. and Mexican border states have become active participants in these meetings.

The United States and Mexico have a history of cooperation on environmental and natural resource issues, particularly in the border area, where there are serious environmental problems caused by rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Cooperative activities between the U.S. and Mexico take place under a number of agreements such as:

*A 1889 convention establishing the International Boundary Commission, reconstituted by the Water Treaty of 1944 as the International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico (IBWC). The IBWC has settled many difficult U.S.-Mexico boundary and water problems, including the regularization of the Rio Grande near El Paso through the 1967 Chamizal settlement. The IBWC divides the use of international waters, builds and operates water conservation and flood control projects, and constructs and maintains boundary markers on the land boundary and on international bridges. In recent years, the IBWC has worked to resolve longstanding border sanitation problems, to monitor the quantity and quality of border waters, and to address water delivery and sedimentation problems of the Colorado River.

*A series of agreements on border health (since 1942), wildlife and migratory birds (since 1936), national parks, forests, marine and atmospheric resources. In July 2000, the U.S. and Mexico signed an agreement to establish a binational Border Health Commission. The Border Health Commission held its inaugural meeting in November 2000 and is made up of the federal secretaries of health, the ten border states' chief health officers, and prominent community health professionals from both countries. A representative from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services manages the U.S. Section in El Paso, Texas.

*The 1983 La Paz Agreement to protect and improve the border environment and Border 2012, a 10-year, binational, results-oriented environmental program for the U.S.-Mexico border region. The Border 2012 Program is the latest multi-year, binational planning effort to be implemented under the La Paz Agreement and succeeds Border XXI, a five-year program that ended in 2000.

*The 1993 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), creating the North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation under NAFTA by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, to improve enforcement of environmental laws and to address common environmental concerns.

*A November 1993 agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, also related to NAFTA, establishing the Border Environment Cooperation Commission (BECC), which works with local communities to develop and certify environmental infrastructure projects such as waste-water treatment plants, drinking water systems, and solid waste disposal facilities. The sister organization, the North American Development Bank (NADBank), uses capital and grant funds contributed by partner governments to help finance border environmental infrastructure projects certified by the BECC. Prior to 2005, both institutions had separate Boards of Directors. In an effort to improve efficiency, the separate Boards were merged into a single entity and the combined Board held its first meeting in June 2006.

====Crime====
[[File:Mexico Drug-War.jpg|left|180px]]
In 2009, Mexico experienced its most violent and dangerous year of the past decade with a homicide count of at least 7,724, a toll largely attributable to the government's offensive against drug traffickers and the turf wars being waged between the rival cartels themselves. In 2008, 8481 people were murdered. Over the past five years, approximately 20,000 people have died at the hands of organized crime, primarily in the states of Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Baja California, Durango, Michoacán and Guerrero. At least 3,250 homicides took place in the state of Chihuahua alone in 2009, the majority of which took place in Ciudad Juárez, on the border with El Paso, Texas. Many innocent bystanders get shot. Mexico's federal government has deployed nearly 50,000 soldiers to support local police in the war against drug trafficking.

<blockquote>
Tijuana is among the cities hardest hit by violence as Mexico's drug cartels battle for lucrative smuggling routes past the border to supply illegal drug users in the United States.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/photos/photos_galleries/mexicodrugviolence/ Mexico's violent year of drugs.]</ref>
</blockquote>

Drug cartels have done what effectively amounted to defeating the Mexican armed forces in battle.<ref>https://twitter.com/TheAbridgedZach/status/1185421587903700993</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Felipe Calderon, Mexico, 2011.jpg|right|300px]]
Mexico is highly dependent on exports to the U.S., which account for almost a quarter of the country's GDP. The result is that the Mexican economy is strongly linked to the U.S. business cycle. Real GDP grew by 3.0% in 2005 and was projected to grow by 4.5% for 2006.

Mexico's trade regime is among the most open in the world, with free trade agreements with the U.S., Canada, the EU, and many other countries. Since the 1994 devaluation of the peso, successive Mexican governments have improved the country's macroeconomic fundamentals. [[Inflation]] and public sector deficits are under control, while the current account balance and public debt profile have improved. As of September 2006, Moody's, Standard & Poor's, and Fitch Ratings had all issued investment-grade ratings for Mexico's [[Sovereign debt]].
*Nominal GDP: $1.2 trillion (2010 est.)
*GDP per capita: $9,231 (2020)
*Avg. annual real GDP growth (2000-2005): 3.2%.
*Inflation rate: (2006 est.) 3.4%, (2005) 3.3%; (2004) 5.2%; (2003) 4.0%; (2002) 5.7%; (2001) 4.4%; (2000) 9.0%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
*Agriculture (4% of GDP): Products—corn, beans, oilseeds, feed grains, fruit, cotton, coffee, sugarcane, winter vegetables.
*Industry (26% of GDP): Types—manufacturing, energy, construction, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Oil - production: 3.001 million bbl/day (2009 est.)
*Services (70% of GDP): Types—commerce and tourism (21%), financial services (13%), and transportation and communications (11%).
*Trade (Goods): Exports (2005)--$214 billion. Imports (2005)--$222 billion. Exports to U.S. (2005)--$183 billion (86% of total).
*Labor force: 46.99 million (2010 est.)
Imports from U.S. (2005)--$118 billion (53% of total). Major markets—U.S., EU, Canada, Colombia, Japan.

====Trade====
[[File:World Trade Center Mexico City.jpg|thumb|left|340px|World Trade Center, [[Mexico City]].]]
Mexico is among the world's most open economies, but it is dependent on trade with the U.S., which bought 86% of its exports in 2005. Top U.S. exports to Mexico include electronic equipment, motor vehicle parts, and chemicals. Top Mexican exports to the U.S. include petroleum, cars, and electronic equipment. There is considerable intra-company trade.

Mexico is an active and constructive member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial Meeting in Cancun. The Mexican Government and many businesses support a Free Trade Area of the Americas.

Trade disputes between the U.S. and Mexico are generally settled through direct negotiations between the two countries or via WTO or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) panels. The most significant areas of friction involve agricultural products such as sugar, high fructose corn syrup, apples, and rice.

Starting in 1994, [[NAFTA]] greatly boosted Mexico's exports to the U.S. and made the country more attractive for foreign investment. It also helped it to weather the 1994-1995 peso crisis by ensuring access to U.S. and Canadian markets. There has been a growth in the orther states of Mexico of large multinational companies whose maquiladora assembly operations have gained an increasingly larger proportion of Mexico's export production. Meanwhile, the proportion of production by smaller manufacturing firms and other producers has steadily shrunk. Mexico continues to be an importer of technology and innovative processes, and likewise remains heavily dependent on the performance of the U.S. economy. Manufacturing remains concentrated in the Federal District, Jalisco and Nuevo León. Mexico's inadequate road system, particularly in the central and southern states, is a serious impediment to attracting foreign investment in those regions, as well for exploiting the full potential of NAFTA.<ref>Edward J. Chambers, and Peter H. Smith, eds. ''NAFTA in the New Millennium.'' (2002) 520 pp. scholarly studies on trade, labor, migration, transport, and the environment.
</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Agriculture====
[[Image:Velasco El Valle de Mexico.jpg|left|Velasco The Valley of Mexico]]
Mexico's agrarian reform program began in 1917, when the government began distribution of land to farmers. Extended further in the 1930s, delivery of land to peasants continued into the 1960s and 1970s at varying rates. This cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since commonly held land could not be used as collateral. Additionally, only 12% of Mexico's land area is arable, of which less than 3% is irrigated. This, coupled with a general lack of economic opportunity in rural areas, has made it difficult to raise the productivity and living standards of Mexico's subsistence farmers.
[[File:Poinsettia Mexico.jpg|thumb|250px|Poinsettia.]]

Agriculture accounted for 4% of GDP in 2005, yet agricultural employment accounted for over 16% of total employment because wages are low. However, the number of Mexican farmers is steadily decreasing as they seek greater economic opportunities from off-farm employment.

Poor availability of credit continues to plague agriculture. Agricultural loans were hard hit by the 1994 peso crisis and many private banks view agricultural lending, particularly to smaller producers, as too risky. Several government entities provide public credit to the rural sector, including Financiera Rural, a development bank dedicated to supporting agriculture.
In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution was amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of communal land to the farmers cultivating it. They then could rent or sell the land, opening the way for larger farms and economies of scale. There have been few actual sales of communal land, and most have been limited primarily to suburban areas where land values are high. One inhibiting factor may be community opposition based on vested interests in maintaining the communal land system.

Mexico subsidizes agricultural production through various support programs, the most notable being the PROCAMPO initiative. Since the early 1990s, the availability of program payments has shifted from primarily grains and legumes to all commodities, provided a farmer was producing during a certain base period. Total support program funding for 2004 was approximately $2.4 billion, with PROCAMPO payments of $88 per hectare for producers with more than five hectares and $100 per hectare for producers with 1-5 hectares.

====Manufacturing and Foreign Investment====
The manufacturing sector, which accounts for about 18% of GDP, grew by 1.2% in 2005. Construction grew by 4% in real terms in 2005, fueled by a boom in housing finance.

According to Mexico's Ministry of Economy, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Mexico for 2005 was $18.8 billion, down slightly from the year before. The U.S. was once again the largest foreign investor in Mexico, accounting for 66% of reported FDI. The most recent numbers released by Mexico show FDI for January through June 2006 at $8.7 billion.

====Oil and Gas====
[[File:Offshore platforms Mexico.jpg|thumb|370px|Offshore platforms.]]
In 2005 Mexico was the world's sixth-largest oil producer, its eighth-largest oil exporter, and the third-largest supplier of oil to the U.S. Oil and gas revenues provide more than one-third of all Mexican Government revenues.

Mexico's state-owned oil company, Pemex, holds a constitutionally established monopoly for the exploration, production, transportation, and marketing of the nation's oil. While private investment in natural gas transportation, distribution, and storage has been permitted, Pemex remains in sole control of natural gas exploration and production. Despite substantial reserves, Mexico is a net natural gas importer.

====Transportation and Communications====
Mexico's land transportation network is one of the most extensive in Latin America with 117,000 kilometers (km.) of paved roads, including more than 10,000 kilometers of four-lane paved roads. The 26,622 kilometers (16,268 mi.) of government-owned railroads in Mexico have been privatized through the sale of 50-year operating concessions.

Mexico's ports have experienced a boom in investment and traffic following a 1993 law that privatized the port system. Mexico's ports moved nearly 1.7 million containers in 2003. A number of international airlines serve Mexico, with direct or connecting flights from most major cities in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Latin America. Most Mexican regional capitals and resorts have direct air services to Mexico City or the United States. In 2005, the Government of Mexico agreed to sell Mexicana, one of the two main national airlines, to a private investor. Airports are semi-privatized with the government still the majority shareholder, but with each regional airport group maintaining operational autonomy.
[[File:Cancun Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Cancun.]]
The telecommunications sector is dominated by Telmex, the former state-owned monopoly. Several international companies compete in the sector with limited success. The teledensity rate in Mexico (around 16%) is among the lowest in Latin America. Cellular penetration is much higher with over 33 million cellular customers in 2004. However, 31 million of these customers use prepaid cards, and many use their phones to receive calls only. Mexico's satellite service sector was opened to competition, including limited foreign direct investment, in 2001.

====Tourism====
[[Image:Mar campechano.jpg|thumb|Mexico's sea]]
Tourism—mostly from the U.S. and Canada—is the third largest industry, with revenues of $13 billion in 2008. 80 Million Americans visited in 2008, and despite the [[Recession of 2008]] the numbers are up for 2009 because Mexico is a much cheaper destination than Europe.

The most visited destinations are Mexico City, [[Cancun]], [[Acapulco]] and the border cities.
Mexico City is the world's third-largest metropolis (following [[Tokyo]] and NYC). New tourist areas are Huatulco, Zihuatanejo, Ixtapa, and Puerto Escondido on the Pacific coast

[http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb2/secturing/sect_1052_tourism_information The Ministry of Tourism], through INFOTUR, provides free information to Mexican and foreign tourists, including co-nationals, about tourist destinations, attractions and services.
{{Clear}}

====National Holidays====
[[Image:Camp01.jpg|right|Handicrafts]]
*Mexican Independence Day, September 16: the day that Miguel Hidalgo delivered [[The Grito de Dolores|El Grito de Dolores]], and announced the Mexican revolt against Spanish rule.
*Flag Day, February 24: honoring the Mexican Flag
*Primero de Mayo: May 1: equivalent to the U.S. Labor Day
*[[Cinco de Mayo]]: May 5: honoring the Mexican victory over the French army at [[Puebla]] in 1862. This holiday is also celebrated unofficially in parts of the U.S.

[[File:Hacienda Quintana Roo Mexico.jpg|left|280px]]

{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Paola Espinosa.jpg|thumb|Paola Espinosa, together with Tatiana Ortiz, won bronze medals in Beijing 2008.]]
*[[Mexican History]]
*[[Mexican Painters]]
*[[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]
*[[Edzna]]
*[[Jaina]]
*[[Maya]]
*[[Aztecs]]
*[[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]
*[[The Fine Arts Palace]]
*[[Aguascalientes]]
*[[Cristero War]]

== External links ==

*[http://mexico.pinnacle-travel.org/culture.htm Official and Religious Holidays] Pinnacle Travel
*[http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/mexico/index.html Mexico - 2007] Facts and more
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Mexico Mexico at "Everything2"]
*[http://www.mexicotourismauthority.com/travel.asp Travel destinations]
*[http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Articles/mexico_religion.htm Mexico religion] From Library of Congress, Country Studies.
*[http://www.explorandomexico.com/about-mexico/5/5/ Mexican Painters] Explorando Mexico.
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/mexico.htm Mexico] One World - Nations Online.
 

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:Mexico]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Immigration]]

L Sarah DeMerchant

2020-12-08T16:45:39Z

United States: new redirect!

#REDIRECT [[L. Sarah DeMerchant]]

User:United States/Trump vs China

2020-12-07T22:52:44Z

United States: new quote!

Not all against Trump are for China, but all for China are against Trump. --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 17:52, 7 December 2020 (EST)

India

2020-12-07T14:20:20Z

United States: Adding!

{{Country
|name =''भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaharājya''
|map =India rel01.jpg
|map2 =India location.png
|flag =Flag of India svg.png
|arms =Emblem of India.png
|capital =New Delhi
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic
|government-raw =
|language =[[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Ram Nath Kovind
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Narendra Modi
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,590 sq mi
|pop =1,380,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$3,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$2,174 (2020)
|currency =[[rupee]]
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''India''' is a major [[Social democracy|social democratic]] nation located in [[South Asia]] with a [[population]] of 1.3 billion people. It spans from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It borders [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]]. India is the 7th largest country in the world in terms of area and second most populous country (standing at around 1.4 billion according to 2021 estimate), only behind China.

India is far more [[conservative]] than [[China]], and the vast majority of Indians practice [[Hinduism]], a religion which emphasizes family values, education, and tradition. The belief in [[reincarnation]] in Hinduism gives primacy to the future rather than the past, in contrast with Chinese religions.

Founded on August 15, 1947, India was known as the ''Union of India'' until it re-declared itself a [[democratic republic]], using the name Republic of India. Though India is the world's third-largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, and the fifth-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, it has high levels of [[poverty]], [[illiteracy]], [[corruption]] and [[crime]]. However, poverty, illiteracy, corruption, and crime are declining dramatically, due to government reforms.

==Etymology==
The name "India" came from the word 'Indus', which derives from the [[Persian]] word "[[Hindu]]" which was used to describe the Sindhu river (now known as the [[Indus River|Indus]]). This river completes the [[West|westerly]] [[perimeter]] of the country.<ref>{{cite book|page=334|title=The Art Of Self-Realization|author=A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|year=2016|isbn=978-09946548098}}</ref>

==People==
[[File:Indians.jpg|right]]
Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population; only China has a larger population. India's median age is 25, one of the youngest among large economies. About 70% live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over the thousands of years of its history, India has been invaded from the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, Arabia, Afghanistan, and the West; Indian people and culture have absorbed and modified these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis.

Religion, [[caste]], and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. However, with more job opportunities in the private sector and better chances of upward social mobility, India has begun a quiet social transformation in this area. The government has recognized 18 official languages;<ref>"In the early 1900s ... English was ascendant in India. ... It was the lingua franca to which Indians, who spoke more than a dozen distinct languages, turned when they did not otherwise understand one another." ([https://www.amazon.com/The-Man-Who-Knew-Infinity/dp/0671750615 ''The Man Who Knew Infinity''], page 25 - [[Robert Kanigel]])</ref> Hindi, the national language, is the most widely spoken, although English is a national lingua franca. Although 81% of its people are Hindu, India also is the home of more than 138 million Muslims—one of the world's largest [[Muslim]] populations. The population also includes [[Christian]]s, [[Sikh]]s, [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Parsi]]s.

The Hindu [[caste system]] reflects Indian occupational and socially defined hierarchies. Ancient [[Sanskrit]] sources divide society into four major categories, priests ([[Brahmin]]), warriors ([[Kshatriya]]), traders-[[merchant]]s ([[Vaishya]]) and farmers/laborers ([[Shudra]]). Although these categories are understood throughout India, they describe reality only in the most general terms. They omit, for example, the tribes and those once known as "[[untouchables]]." In reality, Indian society is divided into thousands of jatis—local, endogamous groups based on occupation—and organized hierarchically according to complex ideas of purity and pollution. Discrimination based on caste is officially illegal, but remains prevalent, especially in rural areas. Nevertheless, the government has made strong efforts to minimize the importance of caste through active affirmative action and social policies. Moreover, caste has been diluted if not subsumed in the economically prosperous and heterogeneous cities, where an increasing percentage of India's population lives. In the countryside, expanding education, land reform and economic opportunity through access to information, communication, transport, and credit have lessened the harshest elements of the caste system.

==Religions==

===Overview===
[[File:Indian family going to church.jpg|thumb|Indian family going to church.]]
India has over 900 million [[Hindu]]s, 150 millions [[Muslim]]s, 25 million [[Christian]]s and 20 million [[Sikh]]s among the many religious groups that make up the country<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html</ref> including communities of [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Bahai]].

India is the region where four major world religions were founded:
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Jainism]]
*[[Sikhism]]

Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, after Christianity and Islam, with a collective 1.4 billion followers.

===Hinduism in India===
[[Image:Krishna a la flute.gif|right|180px]]
Hinduism as it is identified today has existed in India for over 4000 years; in the past it had spread to the rest of South-East [[Asia]] and [[Indonesia]], although Hinduism is practiced outside India today only in the island of [[Bali]].

The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BC) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the [[Vedas]],a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit]] literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, the oldest of which is the [[Rigveda]], dated to 1700–1100BC. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as [[Indra]], Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to [[Zoroastrian]]ism and with other Indo-European religions. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] were written roughly from 500–100BC, although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period. The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

===Buddhism in India===

Buddhism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of Asia through individual and organized missionaries, although there are few practicing Buddhists left in India today.

===Jainism in India===

Jainism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of India; today they are mostly concentrated in the Southern and Western parts of the country.

===Sikhism in India===

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in India in the 16th century A.D.

===Other Religions in India===

[[Christianity]] arrived in India in the first century A.D., possibly through the travels of the [[Apostle Thomas]], whose tomb in the Indian city of Chennai is a major pilgrimage site for Christians in India.

[[Islam]] arrived in the latter half of the 8th century A.D. as a consequence of both war and trade. It continued to spread with invasions, wars and forced conversions by Afghans and Turkic Mongols. They slowly integrated into the society and formed India's Islamic tradition. The [[Taj Mahal]], India's national monument, was built by a Muslim emperor named Shah Jahan. Islam is practiced by around 13.4% of all Indians.
[[Image:Taj Mahal.jpg|thumb|Taj Mahal]]

Although small in number, India does have a Jewish community. The first identifiably [[Judaism|Jewish]] migrants arrived in India as the Bene Israel group. There is some debate as to the Jewishness of a possibly older group of Indians in the Northeastern part of the country called the Bnei Menashe.

===Religious Persecution===

While for many years India has been known as an area of the world where a melting pot of religions could be practiced freely, troubling and persistent persecution against [[Christian]]s by the [[Hindu]] majority arose in the 1990s and has continued since that time. In October 2008, 38 Christians were killed and 30,000 fled from efforts of Hindu nationalist militants to force them to convert to Hinduism.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27380721</ref>

There are also frequent attacks upon Indian Christians by [[Muslims]] in India, who make up a large proportion of the population. They subject the Indian Christian population to harassment and intimidation, particularly those who were previously Muslims. In 2006, a Muslim who converted to Christianity in the Indian state of Kashmir was shot dead by [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] militants.<ref>http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=6705</ref>

==Government==
According to its Constitution, India is a "sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and has adopted a British-style parliamentary system.

The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. A special electoral college elects the president and vice president indirectly for 5-year terms. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president.

Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (Cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority in the Lok Sabha (lower house). The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister.
[[File:Delhi Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub Minar Complex.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub, Delhi.]]
India's bicameral Parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members, who serve 5-year terms; 543 are directly elected, and two are appointed.

India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Commonwealth countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.

India has 28 states* and 7 union territories. At the state level, some legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to Parliament.

Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor, who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or panchayats, to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives. Over half a million panchayats exist throughout India.

 

==Principal Government Officials==
*President—Ram Nath Kovind
*Vice President—Venkaiah Naidu
*Prime Minister—Narendra Modi
*Home Minister—Rajnath Singh
*Minister of External Affairs—Shushma Swaraj
*Ambassador to the U.S.--Arun Singh
*Ambassador to the UN—Syed Akbaruddin

===Politics ===
After the 2014 elections, the BJP, led by conservative [[Narendra Modi]], won an absolute majority in the lower house, and after the 2017 state elections it received an absolute majority in the upper house as well.

The governing coalition led by the Indian National Congress sailed to a decisive victory in India's parliamentary elections in May 2009, adding 57 seats. The election gave a second term to prime minister Manmohan Singh, age 77, a soft-spoken economic reformer, and ended the prospect of political instability in the world's most populous democracy. The election confirmed that Sonia Gandhi, age 62, dominates the Congress Party. She is the Italian-born widow of the assassinated former prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and the daughter-in-law of the prime minister before him, [[Indira Gandhi]], who was also assassinated. The Congress-led coalition built its near-majority with an appeal to the rural poor. During its first term, buoyed by robust economic growth, it used record government revenues to increase social spending, not just raising health and education budgets, but also starting an ambitious public works program in the countryside and a costly loan repayment waiver for farmers. Mrs. Gandhi won support by casting herself as a leader who relinquished power, turning down her party's appeals to become prime minister, first in 2004 and again this time. Instead, she chose the soft-spoken economist, Mr. Singh, and between them, they controlled the party and the government. She took care of the politics of keeping the coalition together, while he served as the chief executive who followed her advice.

[[File:India-14.jpg|thumb|390px]]
Emerging as the nation's single largest party in the April/May 2004 Lok Sabha election, Congress currently leads a coalition government under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Party President Sonia Gandhi was re-elected by the Party National Executive in May 2005. Also a Member of Parliament, she heads the Congress Lok Sabha delegation. Congress prides itself as a secular, left of center party, with a long history of political dominance. Although its performance in national elections had steadily declined during the last 12 years, its surprise victory in 2004 was a result of recruiting strong allies into the UPA, the anti-incumbency factor among voters, and its courtship of India's many poor, rural and Muslim voters. Congress political fortunes suffered badly in the 1990s, as many traditional supporters were lost to emerging regional and caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Samajwadi Party, but have rebounded since its May 2004 ascension to power. It currently rules either directly or in coalition with its allies in 9 states. In November 2005, the Congress regained the Chief Ministership of Jammu and Kashmir state, under a power-sharing agreement.

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Rajnath Singh, holds the second-largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee serves as Chairman of the BJP Parliamentary Party, and former Deputy Prime Minister L.K. Advani is Leader of the Opposition. The Hindu-nationalist BJP draws its political strength mainly from the "Hindi Belt" in the northern and western regions of India.

The party holds power in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa—in coalition with the Biju Janata Dal. Popularly viewed as the party of the northern upper caste and trading communities, the BJP made strong inroads into lower castes in recent national and state assembly elections. The party must balance the competing interests of Hindu nationalists, (who advocate construction of a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, and other primarily religious issues), and center-right modernizers who see the BJP as a party of economic and political reform.

Recently, the Bhartiya Janata Party scored a major victory in the Lok Sabha Elections of 2014, with Narendra Modi becoming Prime Minister. Modi known to have made the Indian state of Gujarat become an economic powerhouse and one of the most developed state in India.
[[Image:Haveli in Mandawa, India.jpg|240px|right|Haveli in Mandawa.]]

Four Communist and Marxist parties are united in a bloc called the "Left Front," which controls 57 parliamentary seats. The Left Front rules the states of West Bengal and Kerala. Although it has not joined the government, Left Front support provides the crucial seats necessary for the UPA to retain power in New Delhi; without its support, the UPA government would fall. It advocates a secular and Communist ideology and opposes many aspects of economic liberalization and globalization, resulting in dissonance with [[Prime Minister]] Singh's liberal economic approach.

==Foreign Relations==
{{See also|Foreign relations of India}}

India's size, population, and strategic location give it a prominent voice in international affairs, and its growing economic strength, military prowess, and scientific and technical capacity give it added weight. The end of the [[Cold War]] dramatically affected Indian foreign policy. India remains a leader of the developing world and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). India is now strengthening its political and commercial ties with the United States, Japan, the European Union, Iran, China, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. India is an active member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

Always an active member of the United Nations, India now seeks a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. India has a long tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations.

==Bilateral and Regional Relations==

===Tense relations with Pakistan===

India and Pakistan have been locked in a very tense rivalry since the partition of the subcontinent upon achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. The principal source of contention has been Kashmir, whose Hindu Maharaja at that time chose to join India, although a majority of his subjects were Muslim. India maintains that his decision and subsequent elections in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. This dispute triggered wars between the two countries in 1947 and 1965 and provoked the Kargil conflict in 1999.

Pakistan and India fought a war in December 1971 following a political crisis in what was then East Pakistan and the flight of millions of Bengali refugees to India. The brief conflict left the situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies reached an impasse, but a decisive Indian victory in the east resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
[[File:Iran Pakistan India gas pipeline.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline.]]
Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made slow progress toward normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the Indian hill station of Simla. They signed an agreement by which India would return all personnel and captured territory in the west and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade relations were re-established in 1976.

The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused new strains between India and Pakistan. Pakistan supported the Afghan resistance, while India implicitly supported the Soviet occupation. In the following eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms purchases, U.S. military aid to Pakistan, and Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries formed a joint commission. In December 1988, Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto concluded a pact not to attack each other's nuclear facilities and initiated agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation.

In 1997, high-level Indo-Pakistani talks resumed after a three-year pause. The Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice, and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997 at Lahore, the foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status of Jammu and Kashmir, an issue since partition, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists upon the implementation of UN resolutions calling for self-determination for the people of the state.

In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that separate working groups treat each issue. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then Pakistan, conducted nuclear tests. Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in Lahore and their signing of three agreements. These efforts were stalled by the intrusion of Pakistani-backed forces into Indian-held territory near Kargil in May 1999 (that nearly turned into full-scale war), and by the military coup in Pakistan that overturned the Nawaz Sharif government in October the same year. In July 2001, Mr. Vajpayee and General Pervez Musharraf, leader of Pakistan after the coup, met in Agra, but talks ended after two days without result.

After an attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, India-Pakistan relations cooled further as India accused Pakistan of involvement. Tensions increased, fueled by killings in Jammu and Kashmir, peaking in a troop buildup by both sides in early 2002.

Prime Minister Vajpayee's April 18, 2003 speech in Srinagar (Kashmir) revived bilateral efforts to normalize relations. In November 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf agreed to a ceasefire, which still holds, along the Line-of-Control in Jammu and Kashmir. After a series of confidence building measures, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf met on the sidelines of the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad and agreed to commence a Composite Dialogue addressing outstanding issues between India and Pakistan, including Kashmir. The UPA government has continued the Composite Dialogue with Pakistan.

In February 2004, India and Pakistan agreed to restart the "2+6" Composite Dialogue formula, which provides for talks on Peace and Security and Jammu and Kashmir, followed by technical and Secretary-level discussions on six other bilateral disputes: Siachen Glacier, Wuller Barrage/Tulbul Navigation Project, Sir Creek estuary, Terrorism and Drug Trafficking, Economic and Commercial cooperation, and the Promotion of Friendly Exchanges in various fields. The Foreign Secretary talks resumed in November 2006, after a three-month delay following the July 11, 2006 terrorist bombings in Mumbai. The meeting generated modest progress, with the two sides agreeing to establish a joint mechanism on counter-terrorism and agreeing to a follow-on meeting in February 2007. The restart of the Composite Dialogue process is especially significant, given the almost six years that transpired since the two sides agreed to this formula in 1997-98.

Following the October 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, the two governments coordinated relief efforts and opened access points along the Line-of-Control to allow relief supplies to flow from India to Pakistan and to allow Kashmiris from both sides to visit one another.

===South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)===

Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with the People's Republic of China, Iran, Japan, European Union, Republic of Korea, and the U.S. as observers. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics, and terrorism.

SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided those which could prove divisive, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC had slowed because of tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC summit scheduled for 1999 was not held until January 2002. In addition, to boost the process of normalizing India's relationship with Pakistan, the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad produced an agreement to establish a South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA). All the member governments have ratified SAFTA, which was slated to come into force on January 1, 2006, with a series of graduated tariff cuts through 2015. As of December 2006, however, the FTA partners were still negotiating sensitive product lists, rules of origin, and technical assistance. India hosted the 2007 SAARC summit, which called for greater regional cooperation on trade, environmental, social, and counterterrorism issues.

===Relations with China===

Despite suspicions remaining from a 1962 border conflict between India and [[China]] and continuing territorial/boundary disputes, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. Their bilateral trade reached $24 billion in 2006. China is India's second-largest trading partner behind the U.S.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations has improved relations. In December 1996, Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] visited India on a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he and the Indian Prime Minister signed a series of confidence-building measures along the disputed border, including troop reductions and weapons limitations.

Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao invited Prime Minister Vajpayee to visit China in June 2003. They recognized the common goals of both countries and made the commitment to build a "long-term constructive and cooperative partnership" to peacefully promote their mutual political and economic goals without encroaching upon their good relations with other countries. In [[Beijing]], Prime Minister Vajpayee proposed the designation of special representatives to discuss the border dispute at the political level, a process that is still under way.

In November 2006, President Hu Jintao made an official state visit to India, further cementing Sino-Indian relations. India and China are building on growing economic ties to improve other aspects of their relationship such as counter-terrorism, energy, and trade. In another symbol of improved ties, the two countries opened the Nathu La Pass to bilateral trade in July 2006 for the first time in 40 years. Though it is the first direct land trade route in decades, trade is expected to be local and small since the pass is open only four months a year.

===Russia===

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. India's substantial trade with the region plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing. Russia nonetheless remains India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.

Russia and India have not renewed the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. The visit of Russian President Boris Yeltsin to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defense purchases. UPA leader Sonia Gandhi and Prime Minister Singh visited Russia in July 2005. President Vladimir Putin traveled to India in January 2007 to attend an Indo-Russia Summit and was the guest of honor at India's Republic Day celebrations.

==Defense==
The supreme command of the Indian armed forces is vested in the President of India. Policies concerning India's defense, and the armed forces as a whole, are formulated and confirmed by the Cabinet.

===Indian Army===

The Indian Army numbers over 1.1 million strong and fields 34 divisions. Its primary task is to safeguard the territorial integrity of the country against external threats. The Army has been heavily committed in the recent past to counterterrorism operations in Jammu and Kashmir, as well as the in the Northeast. Its current modernization program focuses on obtaining equipment to be used in combating terror. The Army often provides aid to civil authorities and assists the government in organizing relief operations.

===Indian Navy===

The Indian Navy is by far the most capable navy in the region. The Navy's primary missions are the defense of India and of India's vital sea lines of communication. India relies on the sea for 90% of its oil and natural gas and over 90% of its foreign trade. The Navy currently operates one aircraft carrier with two on order, 14 submarines, and 15 major surface combatants. It is capable of projecting power within the Indian Ocean basin and occasionally operates in the South China Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Gulf. Fleet introduction of the Brahmos cruise missile and the possible lease of nuclear submarines from Russia will add significantly to the Indian Navy's flexibility and striking power.

Although small, the Indian Coast Guard has been expanding rapidly in recent years. Indian Navy officers typically fill top Coast Guard positions to ensure coordination between the two services. India's Coast Guard is responsible for control of India's huge exclusive economic zone.

===Indian Air Force===

The Indian Air Force is becoming a 21st-century force through modernization, new tactics and the acquisition of modern aircraft, such as the SU-30MKI, a new advanced jet trainer (BAE Hawk) and the indigenously produced advanced light [[helicopter]] (Dhruv). In June 2007, the Indian Government announced intentions to release a request for proposals for 126 multi-role combat aircraft for the Indian Air Force.

== Economy ==

The '''economy of [[India]]''', measured in [[Dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms, is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|seventh-largest]] in the world, with a GDP of around $3 trillion as of 2020. India recorded a GDP growth rate of 9.1% for the fiscal year 2007–2008 which makes its growth the second fastest among emerging economies in the world, after China.<ref name="gdp-growthrate">{{cite news | title=India Defies Turmoil With Growth of 8.8% | date= May 31, 2007 | publisher=MarketWatch | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121213639165032371.html?mod=googlenews_wsj}}</ref> At this rate of sustained growth many economists forecast that India would, over the coming decades, have a more pronounced economic effect on the world stage. Despite this phenomenal rate of growth, India's large [[population of India|population]] has an estimated [[per capita]] income of $2,563, measured by PPP, and $941, measured in nominal terms as of 2007

=== Economic History ===
In 1960, India was the tenth-largest economy, with a $35 billion GDP.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> In 1965, India kept the 10th place, with a $55 billion GDP. India only went to $65 billion in 1970, still being 10th. In 1975, India got bumped down to 12th by Brazil and Spain, with a $100 billion GDP. In 1980, Argentina, Mexico, and Netherlands bumped India, with a $190 billion GDP, to 14th. In 1985, India got $240 billion, this time getting to 14th, because of Argentina's crashing economy. In 1990, India, with a $325 billion GDP, went to 13th, bumping down the Netherlands. In 1995, India had a $366.7 billion GDP, but got bumped by South Korea to 14th. In 2000, the $475 billion economy, which is India, got to 13th place, bumping down Russia's declining economy. In 2005, India climbed to $833 billion, bumped down Brazil and Mexico, thus climbing to 11th. In 2010, India had a $1.725 billion GDP, and got to 9th, bumping down Canada, South Korea, and Spain, but being bumped down by Russia. In 2015, India hit the $2 trillion mark, and ultimately reaching $2.1 trillion, becoming the seventh-largest economy, bumping down Italy and Brazil. In 2020, India bumped down European powers the United Kingdom and France, and, with its $3 trillion GDP, India became the fifth-largest economy. In 2025, India is expected to have a $5 trillion GDP, and would become the fourth-largest economy, surpassing Europe's largest economy, Germany. If projections come true, India could become the third-largest economy, and Asia's second-largest economy, with a $8 trillion GDP, in 2030.

=== General overview ===
[[File:India...jpg|right|340px]]

India's population is estimated at more than 1.1 billion and is growing at 1.3% a year. It has the world's 5th largest economy—and the third largest in [[Asia]] behind [[Japan]] and [[China]]—with total [[GDP]] of around $3 trillion ($3,000 billion). Services, industry, and [[agriculture]] account for 55%, 27%, and 18% of GDP respectively. Nearly two-thirds of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. 700 million Indians live on $2 per day or less, but there is a large and growing [[middle class]] of 325-350 million with disposable income for consumer goods.

India is continuing to move forward with market-oriented economic reforms that began in 1991. Recent reforms include liberalized foreign investment and exchange regimes, industrial decontrol, significant reductions in [[tariff]]s and other trade barriers, reform and modernization of the financial sector, significant adjustments in government monetary and fiscal policies, and safeguarding intellectual property rights.

Real GDP growth for the fiscal year ending March 31, 2007 was 9.4%, up from 9.0% growth in the previous year. Growth for the year ending March 31, 2008 is expected to be between 8.5-9.0%. Foreign portfolio and direct investment inflows have risen significantly in recent years. They have contributed to $255 billion in foreign exchange reserves by June 2007. Government receipts from privatization were about $3 billion in fiscal year 2003-2004, but the privatization program has stalled since then.

Economic growth is constrained by inadequate infrastructure, a cumbersome bureaucracy, corruption, labor market rigidities, regulatory and foreign investment controls, the "reservation" of key products for small-scale industries, and high (although declining) fiscal deficits. The outlook for further trade liberalization is mixed. India eliminated quotas on 1,420 consumer imports in 2002 and has incrementally lowered non-agricultural customs duties in recent successive budgets. However, the tax structure is complex, with compounding effects of various taxes.

The [[United States]] is India's largest trading partner. Bilateral trade in 2006 was $32 billion. Principal U.S. exports are diagnostic or lab reagents, aircraft and parts, advanced machinery, [[cotton]], [[fertilizer]]s, ferrous waste/scrap metal, and computer hardware. Major U.S. imports from India include [[textile]]s and ready-made garments, Internet-enabled services, agricultural and related products, [[gem]]s and [[jewelry]], leather products, and chemicals.

The rapidly growing software sector is boosting service exports and modernizing India's economy. Software exports crossed $28 billion in FY 2006-2007, while business process outsourcing (BPO) revenues hit $8.3 billion in 2006-2007. Personal computer penetration is 14 per 1,000 persons. The cellular/mobile market surged to 140 million subscribers by November 2006. The country has 54 million [[cable TV]] customers.

The United States is India's largest investment partner, with a 13% share. India's total inflow of U.S. direct investment is estimated at more than $9 billion through 2006. Proposals for direct foreign investment are considered by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board and generally receive government approval. Automatic approvals are available for investments involving up to 100% foreign equity, depending on the kind of industry. Foreign investment is particularly sought after in power generation, telecommunications, ports, roads, petroleum exploration/processing, and mining.

India's external debt was $155 billion in 2006-2007, up from $126 billion in 2005-2006. Foreign assistance was approximately $3 billion in 2006-2007, with the United States providing about $126 million in development assistance. The [[World Bank]] plans to double aid to India to almost $3 billion a year, with focus on infrastructure, education, health, and rural livelihoods.

In 2016, India abolished larger banknotes in a move toward a [[Cashless society]].

===Agriculture===
[[Image:Varma Lady Carrying Fruits.jpg|thumb|Lady Carrying Fruits by Ravi Varma.]]
India has a cultivated area of 138 million hectares which almost equals that of the [[European Union]]. A lot of the land has good agriculture potential especially where water supplies are available. Arable farming, especially cereals is the main kind of farming. India, which has two thirds of its working population relying on the land to earn a living, desperately needs to improve agriculture production in order to develop its economy.

When India became independent from [[Britain]] in 1947 the Indian government recognized agriculture as a key area for economic development. Despite this there has been limited modernization of the sector. There hasn't been an effective land reform package introduced to redistribute land from wealthy landlords to landless peasants. In the 1990s almost half of rural families had plots of 0.5 hectares or no land at all, but a quarter of India's agricultural land was owned by five percent of rich landowning families. This has made it nearly impossible to mechanize and introduce modern farm practices.

The dominant type of farming throughout India is intensive [[Subsistence farming]]. It is used especially in rural areas with high population density, where people depend on being able to feed themselves. [[Rice]] is very important for this type of farming, especially in the Indus and Ganges flood plains. Other crops such as wheat and millet are grown in drier parts of peninsular India. Farming is a family affair, with all planting, flooding and harvesting done by hand. One of the reasons rural Indians have such large families is to provide free labour to help harvest crops. This adds to the pressure on India's service sector and India's agriculture sector to meet the demands of India's ever-growing population.

India is a country that has benefited from the Green revolution. This refers to the development and introduction of genetically modified, high yield varieties of staple crops, such as rice and wheat. These ‘miracle’ crops produce high yields and are resistant to disease and pests. Due to the Green revolution, India has managed to become a net exporter of food.

There is however some problems linked to the Green revolution. It depends on large inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that may be costly and harmful to the soil in the long run. Labour is often replaced with machinery, so rural unemployment goes up and more people leave the land and go to towns, increasing rural-urban migration. A well-educated farm population and capital investment are needed. It only really benefits comparatively few, large-scale farmers; large numbers of small-scale farmers may not be able to benefit from the process.

For a large number of Indian farmers a better solution would be the introduction of more intermediate technology and a more effective programme of land reform. While the Green revolution has brought some positive results, the vast majority of India's [[rice]] farmers use traditional farm practices that depend heavily on the natural environment. The need to match food production to match India's growing population is a major concern for government.

===Industry===

When India became independent in 1947 it had a largely underdeveloped Industrial system, with textiles and food processing been the key industries in the country. Only two percent of the working population had been employed in industry, which was concentrated in the major cities; [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]]. On gaining independence the new government was determined to reduce India's dependence on imported goods and to promote greater wealth and employment throughout the country.

The size of India's population provided it a large home market and the country had some natural resources ([[coal]] and Iron) a large and cheap labour force and outputs from agriculture (cotton, Jute) Mineral resources encouraged the government to develop heavy industries, such as Iron and [[steel]], shipbuilding and chemicals. Despite these advantages development was relatively slow and only benefited a few growth centers. In addition, by the 1980s, many heavy industries were in decline, Industrial policy has changed to emphasize Agri-industries, consumer goods industries and small craft industries, rural development (community based development and self-help schemes) and high technology industries.

Agri-industries would be advantageous to India in that it already employs a large number of people in the agricultural sector. The development of fertilizers, machinery and food processing benefits rural communities and helps in the modernization of India's agricultural system.

[[Consumer goods]] industries are more labor-intensive than large-scale heavy industries, so more jobs are created as a result. They also benefit from low labour costs and traditional skills, which make them more competitive in, export markets. E.g. jewellary, clothing, leather goods etc.

With more than 70% of India's population living in rural areas, jobs need to be taken to these people rather than encouraging migration to urban areas. This involves support for community development projects and self-help schemes that improve skills levels among the workforce.

High technology (Hi-tech) industries are attracted to India by the growing number of India's skilled workers (Which produces more university graduates than USA and Canada combined) low costs and improved communication systems. These high value industries add a modern face to Indian industry. Many major multinationals, such as [[IBM]] and [[Texas instruments]], have located in India. Large numbers of locally owned companies have also set up to supply software components to western markets. (See [[Spin-off Effect]])

Although the government has tried to spread industry across the country, this growing sector remains concentrated in a growing number of city regions. The most important are [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay]] and [[Bangalore]]. Bangalore is known as ‘India’s silicon valley’ as a result of all the high-tech industries which have set up there.

===Education===
[[File:Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar India.jpg|thumb|300px|Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar.]]
India has a large number of [[University|Universities]], but the quality ranges from poor to medicore. The best students head to the U.S. or Britain. To cover this weakness, the government in July 2009 announced plans to expand the higher education budget by 40%, to $3.1-billion, for 2009-10.

The government in 2009 allotted an extra $435-million to the prestigious Indian Institutes of Technology and the National Institutes of Technology, and $170.5-million more to open 16 central universities in states that lack one. In keeping with its agenda of inclusive economic growth, the government has also announced interest-free loans for disadvantaged students to take technical and professional courses.

To increase India's college-going rate to 21% by 2017, Prime Minister Singh has announced plans to start five new Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, eight new Indian Institutes of Technology, seven new Indian Institutes of Management, and 20 new Indian Institutes of Information Technology — thus doubling the number of top-tier institutions in the country. He also wants to set up 16 central universities, 14 “world class” universities, and almost 400 colleges.

==History==
See [[History of India]]

==Further reading==
* Cohen, Stephen P. ''India: Emerging Power'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0815715013/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Nilekani, Nandan. ''Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation'' (2009) business in India [https://www.amazon.com/Imagining-India-Idea-Renewed-Nation/dp/1594202044/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545602&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., The major recent history; for advanced readers. [https://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''India'' (4th ed. 2009), 264pp; excellent overview and introduction [https://www.amazon.com/India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0520260325/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255296028&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
===Guides===
* ''India'' (Lonely Planet Guide) by Sarina Singh et al. (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Country-Guide-Sarina-Singh/dp/1741043085/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* '' India'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789483955/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545500&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search])
* ''India - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette'' by Nicki Grihault (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Culture-Smart-customs-etiquette/dp/1857333055/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to India'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-India-Travel-Guides/dp/1858289947/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
* [[World History Lecture Three]] for more information on Ancient India.
* [[Anti-conversion legislation in India]]
* [[Oriental art]]
* [[Indian Painting]]
* [[Nuclear target structures]]
* [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
* [[Opposition to the partition of India]]
----
{{Indian philosophy topics}}
----
{{Buddhist topics}}
----

{{Copyright Details (US Government)|source=[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm]}}

{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:India]]
[[Category:Indian History]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

Australia

2020-12-07T13:57:37Z

United States: Cleanup; update; info added.

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Scott Morrison
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =25,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$52,941 (2020)
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of '''Australia''' is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast facing [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

Politically, Australia shifted towards [[Leftism]] as the result of enacting [[gun control]] in the wake of an isolated mass shooting in 1996, the Port Arthur massacre. In contrast, the [[United States]] has remained more [[conservative]] by rejecting that totalitarian approach urged by the [[liberal media]].

In 2020, [[China]] bullied, and sanctioned, Australia. Australia paid the price, then stood up to China. [[Joe Biden]] is expected to do nothing.

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney Harbour Bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent,<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref> the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 km2). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and two internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre).<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

Water is somewhat scarce and some cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]]. Contrary to that, young earth creation scientists assert that the entire subset animals that are all the Earth's species of kangaroos, wallabies and other similar creatures travelled together to Australia following the Great Flood. It is not known whether they communicated the idea amongst themselves or all went the same way by chance.

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2017 est.): 24.7 million.<ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory—to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy—over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—4.7/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture—3.3%; mining—1.5%; manufacturing—9.8%; retail trade—11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety—6%; construction—9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants are a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders (ATSI). Although evolutionary theorists purport that native Australians arrived more than 40,000 years ago, this view rejects the Biblical account of Noah as historic and is based on the old-earth paradigm. Aborigines arrived in Australia some time after the events at the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons—their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise, most of the "Kanakas"—Polynesians—who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

In 2017, the Australian government adopted measures to conduct extreme vetting of immigrants, particularly Muslims, to ensure that radical Islamists do not enter the country, and it reformed its [[H-1B visa]].<ref>Munro, Neil (April 20, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/04/20/australian-government-adopts-immigration-vetting-guest-worker-reforms/ Australian Gov’t Adopts ‘Extreme Vetting’ for Islamic Migrants, Reforms Foreign Worker Visas]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> In 2018, the government stated it would refuse to sign the UN global migration compact because of its negative effect on Australian [[sovereignty]].<ref>Multiple references:
*Remeikis, Amy (July 24, 2018). [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jul/25/dutton-says-australia-wont-surrender-our-sovereignty-by-signing-un-migration-deal Dutton says Australia won't 'surrender our sovereignty' by signing UN migration deal]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Riordan, Primrose (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/peter-dutton-says-he-will-not-sign-un-agreement-on-migration-in-its-current-form/news-story/953fcb518c3ac46d69f50034f08b0faf Peter Dutton says he will not sign UN agreement on migration ‘in its current form’]. ''The Australian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Kan, Janita (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/australia-will-not-sign-un-global-migration-agreement-in-its-current-form_2603283.html Australia Will Not Sign UN Global Migration Agreement ‘In Its Current Form’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.</ref> In November 2018, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] promised he would reduce immigration levels,<ref>Kent, Simon (November 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2018/11/19/enough-enough-enough-australia-ready-to-slash-migrant-intake/ ‘Enough, Enough, Enough’: Australia Ready to Slash Migrant Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 19, 2018.</ref> and he implemented that promise in March 2019.<ref>Packham, Colin (March 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration-idUSKCN1R10A5 Australia cuts annual immigrant cap, puts key cities off-limits to some]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 30, 2019. See also:
*Kelly, Lidia (October 26, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration/australia-to-settle-more-immigrants-outside-major-cities-idUSKBN1X501K Australia to settle more immigrants outside major cities]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 26, 2019.
*Koziol, Michael (November 22, 2019). [https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/government-wants-half-of-new-refugees-to-be-settled-in-regional-australia-by-2022-20191121-p53ct1.html Government wants half of new refugees to be settled in 'regional' Australia by 2022]. ''The Sydney Morning Herald''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.</ref> Because of Australia's conservative immigration policies, permanent migration in 2019 fell to the lowest level in a decade.<ref>Kent, Simon (September 5, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/09/05/skilled-workers-preferred-permanent-migration-to-australia-falls-to-lowest-level-in-a-decade/ Skilled Workers Preferred: Permanent Migration To Australia Falls to Lowest Level in a Decade]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.</ref> Australia's government advocated for integrating migrants into Australia's culture.<ref>Kent, Simon (December 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/immigration/2019/12/04/australia-wants-migrants-to-speak-english-fully-integrate-and-pledge-allegiance/ Australia Wants Migrants to Speak English, ‘Fully Integrate’ and Pledge Allegiance]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 4, 2019.</ref>

====Illegal immigration====
In 1999, there was a surge in illegal immigration to Australia.<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Stephan (August 28, 2015). [https://ricochet.com/archives/how-australia-stopped-illegal-immigration/ How Australia Stopped Illegal Immigration]. ''Ricochet''. Retrieved August 18, 2016.</ref> The Liberal (the conservative party) prime minister [[John Howard]] cracked down on illegal immigration and by 2002, there was virtually no illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2007, [[Kevin Rudd]] of the Labor party was elected prime minister, and because of his government's lenient immigration policy, the number of illegal immigrants skyrocketed, reaching over 20,000 people and 300 boats in the year 2013 alone.<ref name="Dawson"/> However, the government did not acknowledge that its lax policies were the reason for the growth in illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2013, the Liberal Party was voted back into the government, and again instituted strict (and thus, controversial) policies again, and illegal immigration dropped to virtually zero, with only one boat arriving in 2014, and zero in 2015.<ref name="Dawson"/>

Australia continued enacting additional border security measures which resulted in all forms of migration falling even further by 2018.<ref>Kent, Simon (May 30, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/05/30/toughened-border-security-drives-plunge-in-australias-migration-intake/ Toughened Border Security Drives Plunge in Australia’s Migration Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</ref> Because of its immigration policies, Australia's migration levels reached a 10-year low in 2017.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 13, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/07/13/tougher-border-controls-crash-australias-migrant-numbers-to-10-year-low/ Tougher Border Controls Crash Australia’s Migrant Numbers to 10-Year Low]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 13, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, [[Scott Morrison]], who created the country's tough immigration policy, became prime minister.<ref>Kent, Simon (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/24/hardline-border-security-advocate-scott-morrison-australias-new-pm/ Hardline Border Security Advocate Scott Morrison Australia’s New PM]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref><ref>Pannett, Rachel (August 24, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/scott-morrison-to-be-australias-next-prime-minister-1535080332 Australia Ousts Another Prime Minister as Ruling Party Shifts Right]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref>

In 2019, facing a very thin Liberal Party majority, Australia's parliament undermined the country's tough immigration policies, though foreign countries such as [[Nauru]] took some steps to preserve it.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/nauru-could-thwart-refugee-medical-transfers-to-australia-idUSKCN1Q813G Nauru could thwart refugee medical transfers to Australia]. ''Reuters''. February 19, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2019.</ref> However, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]]'s tough immigration policies helped him win the 2019 federal elections.<ref>Pinkerton, James P. (May 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/19/pinkerton-immigration-curbs-key-to-conservative-victory-in-australia-and-a-lesson-for-trump/ Pinkerton: Immigration Curbs Key to Conservative Victory in Australia and a Lesson for Trump]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</ref> After the election, Australia's government refused to soften the policy.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/07/17/australia-rejects-call-to-open-borders-soften-illegal-immigration-stand/ Australia Rejects Call to Open Borders, Soften Illegal Immigration Stand]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 17, 2019.</ref> It also succeeded in repealing some of the weakened policies pushed by Parliament earlier in the year.<ref>Packham, Colin (December 3, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/australia-restricts-medical-transfer-of-refugees-from-pacific-camps-idUSKBN1Y8058 Australia restricts medical transfer of refugees from Pacific camps]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</ref>

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four—of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.
(Requires mathematic correction)
According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services.<ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref> See also: [[Irreligion in Australia]]
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The [[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[Formula One]], [[V8 Supercars]], [[netball]] and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen at betting on horse races, with the Melbourne Cup<ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states and new teams from each have seen an increase in interest.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

====Gun control====
In response to the 1996 Port Arthur massacre in which 35 people were killed (23 wounded) by a gunman, Australia introduced strict gun control laws. Due to bipartisan support the laws were quickly passed and a "gun buy-back" scheme was imposed, gun owners were forced to surrender their guns to the government in exchange for monetary compensation. As there is little to no "gun culture" in Australia, these measures were widely accepted and even welcomed. Since 1997 both the homicide rate and gun death rate in Australia have fallen dramatically. {{cn}}

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the Prime Minister of Australia. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison who is the leader of the Liberal Party (a right-leaning political party).

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref>[http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power (since the 2013 Federal Election) is the Liberal National Party Coalition. The Labor Party is also in government in Queensland and South Australia and ACT. NSW, Tasmania and the Northern Territory are governed by conservatives . The Prime Minister is the Liberal, Malcolm Turnbull.

Conservative Queensland politician and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectively represented by the major parties. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—[[Queen Elizabeth II]]
*Governor General—David Hurley
*Prime Minister—[[Scott Morrison]]
*Deputy Prime Minister—Michael McCormack
*Treasurer—Josh Frydenberg
*President of the Senate—Scott Ryan
*Leader of the Government (Senate)—Mathias Cormann
*Manager of Government Business (Senate)—Anne Ruston
*Leader of the Opposition (Senate)—Penny Wong
*Manager of Opposition Business (Senate)—Katy Gallagher
*Speaker of the House of Representatives—Tony Smith
*Leader of the House of Representatives—Christian Porter
*Manager of Opposition Business (House)—Tony Burke
*Chief Justice—Susan Kiefel

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia's troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea—it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States—Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group—countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations—and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018—and 2.2% annual real growth beyond—to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia's long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia's submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army's armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*Nominal GDP: $1.35 trillion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $52,941 (2020)
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets—Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers—China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (May 2011): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

Australia is a developed country with a capitalist economy. It has a very small population compared to other Western countries like the [[USA]] and the [[UK]] but despite this, Australia is in the top 15 countries by GDP. Australia is currently the fourteenth-largest economy.

===Exports and Imports===
The economy of Australia is very different to that of other developed countries. For example, there is a nearly equal amount of exports compared to imports, which is generally not seen in Western Economies. This is mainly due to the fact that Australia is vast and rich in natural resources, and exports items such as coal, gold, meat, wool, iron ore, wheat and machinery. Australia has maintained trade links with various countries throughout history, but more recently with the economic boom of China and India exports (especially natural resources) have experienced a spike in growth. In 2008, China was 2nd while India was 4th on the Australian exports list, and China was 1st on Australia’s Imports list.

===Strong growth===
Australia’s strong trade market is generally attributed to its 2 decades of continuous growth at above average rates. This is really remarkable after considering the fact that there have been 2 recessions in that time frame (the early 2000s recession and the current recession). Australia is the only western nation that isn’t in recession currently due to the Global Economic crisis. Australia’s GDP reached over $1 trillion in the mid - late 2000’s and this has been the result of the booming trade in some states like Western Australia where the exports account for twice as much value than their imports.

===Businesses===
Businesses are attracted to Australia for a number of factors which include:

* The fact that Australia is the fastest place in the world in which to start a business (according to the World Bank)

* Strategic location in the fast-growing Asia–Pacific region

* Economic and political stability

* And a good and stable financial and legal system.

===Unemployment===
The unemployment rate in Australia is currently 5.5% and despite the global financial crisis, the unemployment rate had never gone over 6%, instead peaking at at only 5.8% in October 2009. This is unlike the US where the unemployment rate went over 10% despite massive stimulus. [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/markets/total-employment-soars-by-35200-amid-consensus-for-10000-australian-bureau-of-statistics/story-e6frg926-1225819149211] [http://www.news.com.au/business/jobless-rate-falls-to-55pc-in-december/story-e6frfm1i-1225819147794]

=== Resources ===

Australia has lots of natural resources; they especially have a high number of energy.

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia's energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country's power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref>See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world's largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia's prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia's 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5% of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living there. The great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self-image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref>The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic—a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system—whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==

* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]
* [[Australia, irreligion and obesity]]
*[[Irreligious Australia and alcoholism]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [https://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' (1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Spain

2020-12-07T13:55:31Z

United States: adding! I will add more later.

{{Country
|name =''Reino de España''
|map =Spain rel82.jpg
|map2 =Spain location.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Spanish arms.png
|capital =Madrid
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =Felipe VI
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Pedro Sánchez
|pm-raw =
|area =195,364 sq mi
|pop =46,750,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,400,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$29,947 (2020)
|currency =[[Euro]]
|idd =
|tld =.es
}}
'''Spain''' (Spanish: ''España''), officially the '''Kingdom of Spain''' (Spanish: ''Reino de España'') is a country located on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] in southwestern Europe, bordered by [[Portugal]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[west]], [[Gibraltar]] to the [[south]], the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the east, and [[France]] and [[Andorra]] to the [[north]]. The Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla also border [[Morocco]]. Spain is a member of both [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]], and a strong [[United States of America|U.S.]] ally.

Spain has universal government-controlled health care which is virtually free to patients, at the expense of taxpayers. Its system is highly rated by [[liberal]] organizations, but fared very poorly during the [[coronavirus]] pandemic in 2020 with a mortality rate much higher than every country other than [[Italy]].
==People==
[[File:People of Spain.jpg|left|240px]]
Spain's [[population density]], lower than that of most European countries, is roughly equivalent to [[New England]]'s. In recent years, following a longstanding pattern in the rest of Europe, [[rural]] populations are moving to [[cities]]. [[Urban]] areas are also experiencing a significant increase in [[immigrant]] populations, chiefly from [[North Africa]], [[America (continent)|America]], and [[Eastern Europe]]. Distinct ethnic groups within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, and Galicians. They compromise 91% of the population, 8% are Eastern European immigrants and North Africans number roughly 1%.

Spain has no official [[religion]]. The constitution of 1978 disestablished the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as the official state religion, while recognizing the role it plays in Spanish society. More than 70% of the population is at least nominally Catholic. Among the remaining population, there are about 1.2 million evangelical Christians and other Protestants (2006 est.), 1 million Muslims (2006 est.) and 48,000 Jews (2006 est.).

====Educational system====
About 70% of Spain's student population attends public schools or universities. The remainder attend private schools or universities, the great majority of which are operated by the Catholic Church. Compulsory education begins with primary school or general basic education for ages 6–16. It is free in public schools and in many private schools, most of which receive government subsidies. Following graduation, students attend either a secondary school offering a general high school diploma or a school of professional education (corresponding to grades 9-12 in the United States) offering a vocational training program. The Spanish university system offers degree and post-graduate programs in all fields—law, sciences, humanities, and medicine—and the superior technical schools offer programs in engineering and architecture.

==Government and political landscape==
[[File:Francisco Franco.jpg|thumb|left|Francisco Franco.]]

Parliamentary democracy was restored following the death of General [[Francisco Franco]] in 1975, who had ruled since the end of the civil war in 1939. The 1978 constitution established Spain as a parliamentary monarchy, with the prime minister responsible to the bicameral Cortes (Congress of Deputies and Senate) elected every 4 years. On February 23, 1981, rebel pro-Franco elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King [[Juan Carlos]], who used his personal authority to put down the bloodless coup attempt.

In October 1982, the Spanish [[Socialist]] Workers Party (PSOE), led by [[Felipe Gonzalez]], swept both the Congress of Deputies and Senate, winning an absolute majority. Gonzalez and the PSOE ruled for the next 13 years. During that period, Spain joined the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] ([[NATO]]) and the [[European Community]].

In March 1996, [[Jose Maria Aznar]]'s Popular Party (PP) won a plurality of votes. Aznar moved to decentralize powers to the regions and liberalize the [[economy]], with a program of privatization, labor market reform, and measures designed to increase [[competition]] in selected markets. During Aznar's first term, Spain fully integrated into European institutions, qualifying for the European Monetary Union. During this period, Spain participated, along with the [[United States]] and other NATO allies, in military operations in the former [[Yugoslavia]]. Prime Minister Aznar and the PP won reelection in March 2000, obtaining absolute majorities in both houses of parliament.
[[Image:Cantabria Santoña.jpg|thumb|240px|Santoña, Cantabria.]]
After the [[terrorist]] attacks on the U.S. on [[September 11, 2001]], Prime Minister Aznar became a key ally in the [[war on terror|fight against terrorism]]. Spain backed the military action against the [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]] and took a leadership role within the [[European Union]] ([[EU]]) in pushing for increased international cooperation on terrorism. The Aznar government, with a rotating seat on the [[UN Security Council]], supported the intervention in [[Iraq]].

Spanish parliamentary elections on March 14, 2004 came only three days after a devastating terrorist attack on Madrid commuter rail lines that killed 191 and wounded over 1,400. With large voter turnout, PSOE won the election and its leader, Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, took office on April 17, 2004. Carrying out campaign promises, the Zapatero government immediately withdrew Spanish forces from Iraq but has continued to support Iraq reconstruction efforts. The Zapatero government has supported coalition efforts in [[Afghanistan]], including maintaining troop support for 2004 and 2005 elections, supported reconstruction efforts in [[Haiti]], sent troops to UNIFIL in [[Lebanon]], and cooperated on counterterrorism issues and many other issues of importance to the U.S.

In 2005, the Spanish parliament approved a [[same-sex marriage]] bill.

The PSOE won a plurality of seats in the Congress of Deputies in the 2008 general election, leading to the second Zapatero government.

On November 20, 2011, the PP won a majority in the Congress, and its leader Mariano Rajoy Brey took office as prime minister on December 21. The subsequent general election, held on December 20, 2015, had an uncertain result, with both the PP and the PSOE falling well short of a majority. Rajoy formed a caretaker government, but negotiations among the four leading parties failed to reach an agreement. A snap election held on June 26, 2016, resulted in a better result for Rajoy's PP but it was still short of a majority. The king gave Rajoy the mandate to form a government, but there was no clear path to a majority coalition or a minority government with outside support. Finally, after Pedro Sánchez was ousted as its leader, the PSOE agreed that enough of its deputies would abstain to allow Rajoy to win approval on October 26 to lead a new government with the support of the [[Citizens (Spanish political party)|Citizens]] and several minor regional parties.

The second Rajoy government lasted until June 1, 2018, when, amid numerous accusations of corruption in the PP, it lost a vote of no confidence. Pedro Sánchez, who had again become leader of the PSOE, formed a minority government with support of the left-wing [[Unidos Podemos]] alliance and minor parties.

===Local Government===
[[File:Plaza Virgen de los Reyes, Seville, Spain 2009.jpg|thumb|left|Plaza Virgen de los Reyes, Seville.]]
The 1978 constitution authorized the creation of regional autonomous governments. By 1985, 17 regions covering all of peninsular Spain, the Canaries, and the Balearic Islands had negotiated autonomy statutes with the central government. In 1979, the first autonomous elections were held in the Basque and Catalan regions, which have the strongest regional traditions by virtue of their history and separate languages. Since then, autonomous governments have been created in the remainder of the 17 regions. The central government continues to devolve powers to the regional governments, which will eventually have full responsibility for health care and education, as well as other social programs.

Spain is divided into [[political subdivisions of Spain|seventeen autonomous communities]] and two autonomous cities ([[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], which are in north Africa next to [[Morocco]]). The seventeen autonomous communities are further divided into fifty provinces.
{{Clear}}

===Terrorism===
[[File:ETA.jpg|thumb|Mural with the anagram of Batasuna.]]
The Government of Spain is involved in a long-running campaign against Basque Fatherland and Liberty ([[ETA]]), a [[terrorist]] organization founded in 1959 and dedicated to promoting [[Basque]] independence. ETA targets Spanish security forces, military personnel, Spanish Government officials, and politicians of the Popular Party and the Socialist Party (PSOE.) The group has carried out numerous bombings against Spanish Government facilities and economic targets, including a car bomb assassination attempt on then-opposition leader Aznar in 1995, in which his armored car was destroyed but he was unhurt. The Spanish Government attributes over 800 deaths to ETA terrorism since its campaign of violence began. In recent years, the government has had more success in controlling ETA, due in part to increased security cooperation with [[French]] authorities.

In November 1999, ETA ended a cease-fire it declared in September 1998. Following the end of that ceasefire, ETA conducted a campaign of violence and has been blamed for the deaths of some 46 Spanish citizens and officials. Each attack has been followed by massive anti-ETA demonstrations around the country, clearly demonstrating that the majority of Spaniards, including the majority of Spain's Basque populace, have no tolerance for continued ETA violence. In March 2006, ETA declared another ceasefire, which it ended in June 2007. The government continues to pursue vigorous counterterrorist policy and has worked closely with its international allies to foil several suspected ETA attacks.

Spain also contends with a resistance group, commonly known as GRAPO. GRAPO is an urban left-wing terrorist group that seeks to overthrow the Spanish Government and establish a Marxist state. It opposes Spanish participation in NATO and U.S. military presence in Spain and has a long history of assassinations, bombings, and kidnappings mostly against Spanish interests during the 1970s and 1980s.

In a June 2000 communique following the explosions of two small devices in Barcelona, GRAPO claimed responsibility for several terrorist attacks throughout Spain during the past year. These attacks included two failed armored car robberies, one in which two security officers died, and four bombings of political party offices during the 1999/2000 election campaign. In 2002 and 2003, Spanish and French authorities were successful in hampering the organization's activities through sweeping arrests, including some of the group's leadership.

[[Al Qaeda]] is known to operate cells in Spain. On March 11, 2004, only three days before national elections, 10 bombs were detonated on crowded commuter trains during rush hour. Three were deactivated by security forces and one was found unexploded. Evidence quickly surfaced that [[jihad]]ist [[terrorist]]s with possible ties to the Al Qaeda network were responsible for the attack that killed 191 people. Spanish investigative services and the judicial system have aggressively sought to arrest and prosecute suspected Al Qaeda members and actively cooperate with foreign governments to diminish the transnational terrorist threat. A Spanish court convicted 18 individuals in September 2005 for their role in supporting Al Qaeda, and Spanish police disrupted numerous [[Islamist]] extremist cells operating in the country. The trial against 29 people for their alleged participation in the Madrid March 11, 2004 terrorist attack started in February 2007, and was declared ready for judgment at the end of June. One of the 29 was absolved during the trial. The prosecutor asked for sentences as high as 30,000 years of jail for some of them. The court is expected to issue the sentence sometime in October 2007.

===Principal government officials===
[[File:Barack Obama and Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero.jpg|thumb|[[Barack Obama]] and Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero.]]
*Chief of State, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces—King Felipe VI
*President of the Government (Prime Minister)-- [[Pedro Sánchez]]
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Miguel Angel Moratinos
*Ambassador to the United States—Carlos Westendorp y Cabeza

===Foreign relations===
After the return of democracy following the death of General Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to review the status of its African colonies, expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.
[[File:Monumento a Alfonso XII parque del Buen Retiro.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Monument to Alfonso XII, Madrid.]]
As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond Western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanism.

With the normalization of diplomatic relations with [[Israel]] and Albania in 1986, Spain virtually completed the process of universalizing its diplomatic relations. The only country with which it now does not have diplomatic relations is [[North Korea]].

Spain has maintained its special identification with [[Latin America]]. Its policy emphasizes the concept of Hispanidad, a mixture of linguistic, religious, ethnic, cultural, and historical ties binding Spanish-speaking America to Spain. Spain has been an effective example of transition from [[authoritarianism]] to [[democracy]], as shown in the many trips that Spain's King and Prime Ministers have made to the region. Spain maintains economic and technical cooperation programs and cultural exchanges with Latin America, both bilaterally and within the EU.

Spain also continues to focus attention on North [[Africa]], especially on Morocco. This concern is dictated by geographic proximity and long historical contacts, as well as by the two Spanish enclave cities of [[Ceuta]] and Melilla on the northern coast of Africa. While Spain's departure from its former colony of Western Sahara ended direct Spanish participation in Morocco, it maintains an interest in the peaceful resolution of the conflict brought about there by decolonization. These issues were highlighted by a crisis in 2002, when Spanish forces evicted a small contingent of Moroccans from a tiny islet off Morocco's coast following that nation's attempt to assert sovereignty over the island.

Meanwhile, Spain has gradually begun to broaden its contacts with Sub-Saharan Africa. It has a particular interest in its former colony of Equatorial Guinea, where it maintains a large aid program.

In relations with the [[Arab]] world, Spain has sought to promote European-Mediterranean dialog. Spain strongly supports the EU's "Barcelona Process" which seeks to expand dialog and trade between Europe and the nations of North Africa and the Middle East, including Israel. It is seen by some as too greatly favoring the European Union. Other proposals are on the table, including one put forward by French President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] in 2007. The latest meeting on the Barcelona initiative was held on November 29, 2005.

Spain has been successful in managing its relations with its two European neighbors, France and Portugal. The accession of Spain and Portugal to the EU has helped ease some of their periodic trade frictions by putting these into an EU context. Franco-Spanish bilateral cooperation is enhanced by joint action against Basque ETA terrorism. Ties with the United Kingdom are generally good, although the question of [[Gibraltar]] remains a sensitive issue.

==Economy==
[[File:El Escorial Spain.jpg|thumb|left|320px|El Escorial, an important touristic site.]]
Spain's accession to the European Community—now European Union (EU) -- in January 1986 required the country to open its [[economy]] to [[trade]] and [[investment]], modernize its industrial base, improve [[infrastructure]], and revise economic legislation to conform to EU guidelines. In doing so, Spain increased [[gross domestic product]] ([[GDP]]) growth, reduced the national [[debt to GDP ratio]], reduced [[unemployment]] from 23% in 1986 to 8.47% in first quarter 2007, and reduced [[inflation]] to under 3%. The fundamental challenges remaining for Spain include decreasing unemployment further, reforming labor laws lowering inflation, and raising per capita GDP. Spain is currently the thirteenth-largest economy in the world.

Following peak growth years in the late 1980s, the Spanish economy entered into recession in mid-1992. The economy recovered during the first Aznar administration (1996-2000), driven by a return of consumer confidence and increased private consumption, although growth has slowed in recent years. Unemployment remains a problem at 8.47% (2007, first quarter), but this still represents a significant improvement from previous levels. Devaluations of the peseta during the 1990s made Spanish exports more competitive, but the strength of the euro since its adoption has raised recent concerns that Spanish exports are being priced out of the range of foreign buyers.

Following the financial problems starting in the [[USA]] the economy of Spain had serious problems. Like the US, it had a huge housing bubble. Unlike the US, the banking sector relied on small Cajas de Ahorros. When the housing market collapsed, most of the Cajas de Ahorros found themselves with red balance sheets, sparking the Spanish banking crisis. The collapse of the housing market also had a devastating effect on the construction and service sector. A surplus of housing also led to the collapse of prices in the rental sector.

Spain's public sector is proportionally smaller than most, including those of the US. Nevertheless, Mariano Rajoy's government has sought to privatize most of the remaining state-run sector while increasing subsidies to banks like Santander and Bankia and cutting investment in infrastructure. The cost of these reforms has further burdened the Spanish the economy, causing considerable social unrest as cuts to education and health start to bite people find less money in their pockets.

==History==
[[File:Testamento Isabel la Catolica PDWC.jpg|thumb|Will of Isabel I, Queen of Castile.]]
See [[History of Spain]]
[[Image:Sorolla The Jota (Aragon ).jpg|thumb|left|The Jota (Aragon) by [[Joaquín Sorolla]]]]

==The leisure activities==

The so-called national sport of Spain is the [[bullfighting]], although real national sport is Soccer.

[[File:Goya Jovellanos 1798.jpg|200px|center|Melchor de Jovellanos by [[Francisco de Goya]], 1798.]]

== See also ==
[[File:Goya Naturaleza muerta con frutas, botellas, panes, ca 1824-1826.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Francisco de Goya]], Naturaleza muerta con frutas, botellas, panes, ca. 1824-1826.]]
*[[Spanish Painting]]
*[[Gallery of Spanish Masterpieces]]
*[[Famous Spanish Artists]]
*[[Spanish Still Life Painting]]
*[[Spanish Golden Age]]

[[File:Zurbarán La defensa de Cádiz.jpg|thumb|left|[[Francisco de Zurbarán]], La defensa de Cádiz, 1634.]]
[[File:Estatua del papa Juan Pablo II en Alcala de Henares, España.jpg|thumb|250px|center|Sculpture of pope Juan Pablo II at Alcalá de Henares.]]
{{Clear}}

== External links ==

*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sp.html Spain] CIA - The World Factbook.
*[http://www.okspain.org/ The Tourist Office of Spain]

==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spain]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Spanish History]]

South Korea

2020-12-07T13:54:00Z

United States: Some cleanup; info added; minor GDP updates (From 2000 to 2020)

{{Country
|name =大韓民國 대한민국 ''Daehan Minguk'' ''Republic of Korea''
|map =S korea rel 95.jpg
|map2 =SouthKorea location.png
|flag =Flag of South Korea.png
|arms =Arms of South Korea.png
|capital =Seoul
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Korean
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Moon Jae-in
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Chung Sye-kyun
|pm-raw =
|area =38,492 sq. miles
|pop =52,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =1,600,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$30,476
|currency =Won
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Korea''', commonly called '''South Korea''', is a democratic ally of the U.S. in East Asia. Its capital is [[Seoul]], and it shares a border—the most heavily fortified border in the world—with [[North Korea]].<ref>http://www.sofmag.com/news/permalink/2006/10/10/2132098393004.html</ref> South Korea was formed in 1945 after the Japanese colonial control was ended, and the Communists took control of the north, dividing Korea along the 38th parallel according to an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

*South Korea, a robust [[democracy]] since 1987, has embraced the [[free market]] and grown to become the world's 12th-largest economy, a leader in consumer electronics and home to the fastest [[internet]] connections on the planet.

==Geography==
[[File:Hyangwonjeong at Gyeongbokgung Palace Seoul South Korea.jpg|thumb|left|Gyeongbokgung Palace, Seoul.]]
*Area: 98,477 km2. (38,022 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities (2005): Capital--[[Seoul]] (10.3 million). Other major cities—Busan (3.7 million), Daegu (2.5 million), [[Incheon]] (2.6 million), Gwangju (1.4 million), Daejeon (1.5 million), Ulsan (1.0 million).
*Terrain: Partially forested mountain ranges separated by deep, narrow valleys; cultivated plains along the coasts, particularly in the west and south.
*Climate: Temperate.

==People==
[[File:2008 Yongsan Fall Festival.jpg|thumb|left|Yongsan Fall Festival.]]
Korea's population is one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogenous in the world. Except for a small [[Chinese]] community (about 20,000), virtually all Koreans share a common cultural and linguistic heritage. With 48.85 million people, South Korea has one of the world's highest population densities. Major population centers are located in the northwest, southeast, and in the plains south of the Seoul-[[Incheon]] area.

Korea has experienced one of the largest rates of emigration, with ethnic Koreans residing primarily in China (1.9 million), the United States (1.52 million), [[Japan]] (681,000), and the countries of the former [[Soviet Union]] (450,000).

The Korean language is related to Japanese and [[Mongolian]]. Although it differs grammatically from Chinese and does not use tones, a large number of Chinese cognates exist in Korean. Chinese ideograms are believed to have been brought into Korea sometime before the second century BC. The learned class spoke Korean, but read and wrote Chinese. A phonetic writing system ("hangul") was invented in the 15th century by [[Sejong|King Sejong]] to provide a writing system for commoners who could not read classical Chinese. Modern Korean uses hangul almost exclusively with Chinese characters in limited use for word clarification. Approximately 1,300 Chinese characters are used in modern Korean. English is taught as a second language in most primary and secondary schools. Chinese and Japanese are widely taught at secondary schools.

*Population (2006): 48,846,823.
*Population annual growth rate (2006): 0.42%.
*Ethnic groups: Korean; small Chinese minority.
*Religions: [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]], Shamanism, [[Confucianism]], Chondogyo.
*Language: Korean.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Enrollment—11.5 million. Attendance—middle school 99%, high school 95%. Literacy—98%.
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate—6.16/1,000. Life expectancy—77.0 yrs (men 73.6 yrs.; women 80.8 yrs).
*Work force (2005): 23.53 million. Services—67.2%; mining and manufacturing—26.4%; agriculture—6.4%.
===Religion===
[[File:Korea south Buddhist architecture.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Buddhist architecture, Gangneung.]]
According to 2005 census data, the% ages of adherents to the predominant religious communities are: Buddhist, 22.8%; Protestant, 18.3%; and Roman Catholic, 10.9% .<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108411.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

No official figures were available on the membership of other religious groups, which include Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-day Adventist Church, Daesun Jinrihoe, Unification Church, and Islam.

According to Gallup Korea's 2004 survey on the state of religion in the country, 36% of those who practiced a faith reported that they attended religious services or rituals at a church or temple more than once a week, 11% attended two to three times per month, 21% attended once or twice a year, and 4.9% did not attend services. Of those who attended more than once a week, Protestants had the highest attendance rate at 71%, Catholics 43%, and Buddhists 3.5%.

The Government observes Buddha's Birthday and Christmas as national holidays. The Government does not permit religious instruction in public schools. Private schools are free to conduct religious activities.

Religious leaders regularly met both privately and under government auspices to promote mutual understanding and tolerance. The media gave public meetings wide and favorable coverage. For example, the Korean Council of Religious Leaders holds an annual event, the Republic of Korea Religious Culture Festival, which aims to promote reconciliation and mutual understanding among religious groups. The most recent festival, which was held on October 20, 2007, in Seoul, was attended by the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, Christian Churches of Korea, Won Buddhism, the Korea Religious Council, and the Catholic Church, among others.

==Government and Political Conditions==
The Republic of Korea (commonly known as "South Korea") is a republic with powers nominally shared among the presidency, the legislature, and the judiciary, but traditionally dominated by the president. The president is chief of state and is elected for a single term of 5 years. The 299 members of the unicameral National Assembly are elected to 4-year terms. In the upcoming general elections on April 9, 2008, a total of 245 members will be elected from single-seat districts and 54 members will be chosen by proportional representation. South Korea's judicial system comprises a [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts, and a [[Constitutional Court]]. The judiciary is independent under the constitution. The country has nine provinces and seven administratively separate cities—the capital of Seoul, along with [[Busan]], [[Daegu]], [[Daejeon]], [[Gwangju]], Incheon and [[Ulsan]]. Political parties include the Grand National Party (GNP), United Democratic Party (UDP), Liberal Forward Party (LFP), and Democratic Labor Party (DLP). [[Suffrage]] is universal at age 19 (lowered from 20 in 2005).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Moon Jae-in
*Prime Minister—Chung Sye-kyun
*Minister of Strategy and Finance—Kang Man-soo
*Minister of Education, Science and Technology—Kim Do-yeon
*Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade—Kim Sung-hwan
*Minister of Unification—Kim Ha-joong
*Minister of Justice—Kim Kyung-han
*Minister of National Defense—Lee Sang-hee
*Minister of Public Administration and Security—Won Sei-hoon
*Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism—Yu In-chon
*Minister of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries—Chung Un-chun
*Minister of Knowledge Economy—Lee Youn-ho
*Minister of Health, Welfare and Family Affairs—Kim Soung-yee
*Minister of Environment—Lee Maan-ee
*Minister of Labor—Lee Young-hee
*Minister of Gender Equality—Byun Do-yoon
*Minister of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs—Chung Jong-hwan
*Director of the National Intelligence Service—Kim Sung-ho
*Senior Secretary to the President for Foreign Affairs and National Security—Kim Byung-kook

===Foreign Relations===
In August 1991, South Korea joined the [[United Nations]] along with [[North Korea]] and is active in most UN specialized agencies and many international forums. The Republic of Korea also hosted major international events such as the 1988 Summer [[Olympics]], the 2002 [[World Cup]] Soccer Tournament (co-hosted with Japan), and the 2002 Second Ministerial Conference of the Community of Democracies.

Economic considerations have a high priority in Korean foreign policy. The R.O.K. seeks to build on its economic accomplishments to increase its regional and global role. It is a founding member of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum and chaired the organization in 2005.

The Republic of Korea maintains diplomatic relations with more than 170 countries and a broad network of trading relationships. The United States and Korea are allied by the 1953 Mutual Defense Treaty. Korea and Japan coordinate closely on numerous issues. This includes consultations with the United States on North Korea policy.

===Korean Reunification===
For almost 20 years after the 1950-53 Korean War, relations between North and South Korea were minimal and very strained. Official contact did not occur until 1971, beginning with [[Red Cross]] contacts and family reunification projects in 1985. In the early 1990s, relations between the two countries improved with the 1991 South-North Basic Agreement, which acknowledged that reunification was the goal of both governments, and the 1992 Joint Declaration of Denuclearization. However, divergent positions on the process of reunification and North Korean weapons programs, compounded by South Korea's tumultuous domestic politics and the 1994 death of North Korean leader [[Kim Il-sung]], contributed to a cycle of warming and cooling of relations.
[[File:Kim Jong-il of North Korea meets South Korean President Kim Dae-jung.jpg|thumb|300px|Kim Jong-il of North Korea meets South Korean President Kim Dae-jung, 2000.]]
Relations improved again following the 1997 election of Kim Dae-jung. His "Sunshine Policy" of engagement with the D.P.R.K. set the stage for the historic June 2000 inter-Korean summit between President Kim and North Korean leader [[Kim Jong-il]]. President Kim was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2000 for the policy, but the prize was somewhat tarnished by revelations of a $500 million "payoff" to North Korea that immediately preceded the summit.

Relations again became tense following the October 2002 North Korean acknowledgement of a covert program to enrich uranium for nuclear weapons. Following this acknowledgement, the United States, along with the People's Republic of China, proposed multilateral talks among the concerned parties to deal with this issue. At the urging of [[China]] and its neighbors, the D.P.R.K. agreed to meet with China and the United States in April 2003. In August of that year, the D.P.R.K. agreed to attend Six-Party Talks aimed at ending the North's pursuit of nuclear weapons that added the Republic of Korea, Japan, and Russia to the table. Two more rounds of Six-Party Talks between the United States, the Republic of Korea, Japan, China, and the D.P.R.K. were held in February and June 2004. At the third round, the United States put forward a comprehensive proposal aimed at completely, verifiably, and irreversibly eliminating North Korea's nuclear weapons programs.

A fourth round of talks was held in two sessions spanning a period of 20 days between July and September 2005. All parties agreed to a Joint Statement of Principles on September 19, 2005, in which, among other things, the D.P.R.K. committed to "abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards." The Joint Statement also committed the United States and other parties to certain actions as the D.P.R.K. denuclearized. The United States offered a security assurance, specifying that it had no nuclear weapons on R.O.K. territory and no intention to attack or invade the D.P.R.K. with nuclear or other weapons. Finally, the United States and the D.P.R.K., as well as the D.P.R.K. and Japan, agreed to undertake steps to normalize relations, subject to their respective bilateral policies. On October 9, 2006, North Korea announced a successful [[nuclear]] test, verified by the United States on October 11. In response, the United Nations Security Council, citing Chapter VII of the [[UN Charter]], unanimously adopted Resolution 1718, condemning North Korea's action and imposing sanctions on certain luxury goods and trade of military units, weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related parts, and technology transfers. The Six-Party Talks resumed in December 2006 after a 13-month hiatus. Following a bilateral meeting between the United States and D.P.R.K. in Berlin in January 2007, another round of Six-Party Talks was held in February 2007. On February 13, 2007, the parties reached an agreement on "Initial Actions for the Implementation of the Joint Statement" in which North Korea agreed to shut down and seal its Yongbyon nuclear facility, including the reprocessing facility, and to invite back [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) personnel to conduct all necessary monitoring and verification of these actions. The other five parties agreed to provide emergency energy assistance to North Korea in the amount of 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oil (HFO) in the initial phase (within 60 days) and the equivalent of up to 950,000 tons of HFO in the next phase of North Korea's denuclearization. The six parties also established five working groups to form specific plans for implementing the Joint Statement in the following areas: denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, normalization of D.P.R.K.-U.S. relations, normalization of D.P.R.K.-Japan relations, economic and energy cooperation, and a Northeast Asia peace and security mechanism. All parties agreed that the working groups would meet within 30 days of the agreement, which they did. The agreement also envisions the directly-related parties negotiating a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum. As part of the initial actions, North Korea invited IAEA Director General ElBaradei to Pyongyang in early March for preliminary discussions on the return of the IAEA to the D.P.R.K. The sixth round of Six-Party Talks took place on March 19–23, 2007. The parties reported on the first meetings of the five working groups. At the invitation of the D.P.R.K., Assistant Secretary of State Christopher Hill visited Pyongyang in June 2007 as part of ongoing consultations with the six parties on implementation of the Initial Actions agreement. In July 2007, the D.P.R.K. shut down the Yongbyon nuclear facility, as well as an uncompleted reactor at Taechon, and IAEA personnel returned to the D.P.R.K. to monitor and verify the shut-down and to seal the facility. Concurrently, the R.O.K., China, United States, and Russia initiated deliveries of approximately 50,000 metric tons of HFO per month, with the R.O.K. completing delivery of the first tranche of 50,000 metric tons in August, China the second in September, the United States the third in November, and Russia the fourth in January. These four parties are expected to continue to provide monthly shipments of HFO as the D.P.R.K. continues to implement denuclearization steps. All five working groups met in August and September to discuss detailed plans for implementation of the next phase of the Initial Actions agreement, and the D.P.R.K. invited a team of experts from the United States, China, and Russia to visit the Yongbyon nuclear facility in September 2007 to discuss specific steps that could be taken to disable the facility. The subsequent September 27–30 Six-Party plenary meeting resulted in the October 3, 2007 agreement on "Second-Phase Actions for the Implementation of the Joint Statement."
[[File:Korea DM Zone sentry - Border watchtowers.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Demilitarized Zone of Korea, Imjingang, 2005.]]
Under the terms of the October 3 agreement, the D.P.R.K. agreed to disable all existing nuclear facilities subject to abandonment under the September 2005 Joint Statement and the February 13 agreement. The parties agreed to complete by December 31, 2007 a set of disablement actions for the three core facilities at Yongbyon—the 5-MW(e) Experimental Reactor, the Radiochemical Laboratory (Reprocessing Plant), and the Fresh Fuel Fabrication Plant—with oversight from a team of U.S. experts, The D.P.R.K. also agreed to provide a complete and correct declaration of all its nuclear programs in accordance with the February 13 agreement by December 31, 2007 and reaffirmed its commitment not to transfer nuclear materials, technology, or know-how.

In November 2007, the D.P.R.K. began to disable the three core facilities at Yongbyon and complete most of the agreed disablement actions by the end of the year. Due to health and safety concerns, disablement activities at the 5-MW(e) reactor continued beyond December 31, 2007. Assistant Secretary of State Christopher Hill visited Pyongyang again in December 2007 as part of ongoing consultations on the implementation of Second-Phase actions and carried with him a letter from the President of the United States to Kim Jong-il. The D.P.R.K. missed the December 31 deadline to provide a complete and correct declaration, but efforts to secure a declaration continued into January 2008.

===Relations with the United States===
The United States believes that the question of peace and security on the Korean Peninsula is, first and foremost, a matter for the Korean people to decide.
[[File:MacArthur statue in Jayu Park South Korea.jpg|thumb|[[Douglas MacArthur|Gen. MacArthur]] statue in Jayu Park, Incheon.]]
Under the 1953 U.S.-R.O.K. Mutual Defense Treaty, the United States agreed to help the Republic of Korea defend itself against external aggression. Since that time in support of this commitment, the United States has maintained military personnel in Korea, including the [[Army]]'s Second Infantry Division and several [[Air Force]] tactical squadrons. To coordinate operations between these units and the over 680,000-strong Korean armed forces, a Combined Forces Command (CFC) was established in 1978. The head of the CFC also serves as Commander of the United Nations Command (UNC) and U.S. Forces Korea (USFK). The current commander is General Burwell Baxter "B.B." Bell.

Several aspects of the security relationship are changing as the U.S. moves from a leading to a supporting role. In 2004, agreement was reached on the return of the Yongsan base in Seoul—as well as a number of other U.S. bases—to the R.O.K. and the eventual relocation of all U.S. forces to south of the Han River. In addition, the U.S. and R.O.K. agreed to move 12,500 of the 37,500 U.S. troops out of Korea by 2008. At the same time U.S. troops are being redeployed from Korea, the U.S. will bolster combined U.S./R.O.K. deterrent and defense capabilities by providing $11 billion in force enhancements in Korea and at regional facilities over the next four years.

As Korea's economy has developed, trade has become an increasingly important aspect of the U.S.-R.O.K. relationship. The U.S. seeks to improve access to Korea's expanding market and increase investment opportunities for [[America]]n business. The implementation of structural reforms contained in the IMF's 1998 program for Korea improved access to the Korean market, although a range of serious sectoral and structural barriers remained. Korean leaders appear determined to successfully manage the complex economic relationship with the United States and take a more active role in international economic fora as befits Korea's status as a major trading nation. On April 1, 2007, the U.S. and Korea successfully concluded [[Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) negotiations. Eight rounds of formal talks held over the course of 10 months culminated in a deal that will "further enhance the strong United States-Korea partnership, which has served as a force for stability and prosperity in Asia," as stated by President Bush. The agreement was signed by U.S. Trade Representative Susan Schwab and South Korean Trade Minister Kim Hyun-chong on June 30, 2007 and is currently awaiting ratification in the U.S. Congress and the Korean National Assembly. The FTA is expected to stimulate billions of dollars in trade through the removal of trade barriers and increased investment.

==Economy==
[[File:Korea - Free Market.jpg|right|280px|Korean peninsula by night.]]
The Republic of Korea's economic growth over the past several decades has been spectacular. Per capita GNP, only $100 in 1963, is approaching $33,333. South Korea is now the United States' seventh-largest trading partner and is the twelfth-largest economy in the world.

In the early 1960s, the government of Park Chung Hee instituted sweeping economic policy changes emphasizing exports and labor-intensive light industries, leading to rapid debt-financed industrial expansion. The government carried out a currency reform, strengthened financial institutions, and introduced flexible economic planning. In the 1970s Korea began directing fiscal and financial policies toward promoting heavy and chemical industries, consumer electronics, and automobiles. Manufacturing continued to grow rapidly in the 1980s and early 1990s.

In recent years, Korea's economy moved away from the centrally planned, government-directed investment model toward a more market-oriented one. Korea bounced back from the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis with some International Monetary Fund (IMF) assistance, but based largely on extensive financial reforms that restored stability to markets. These economic reforms, pushed by President Kim Dae-jung, helped Korea maintain one of Asia's few expanding economies, with growth rates of 10% in 1999 and 9% in 2000. The slowing global economy and falling exports slowed growth to 3.3% in 2001, prompting consumer stimulus measures that led to 7.0% growth in 2002. Consumer over-shopping and rising household debt, along with external factors, slowed growth to near 3% again in 2003. Economic performance in 2004 improved to 4.6% due to an increase in exports, and remained at or above 4% in 2005, 2006, and 2007.

Economists are concerned that South Korea's economic growth potential has fallen because of a rapidly aging population and structural problems that are becoming increasingly apparent. Foremost among these structural concerns is the rigidity of South Korea's labor regulations, the need for more constructive relations between management and workers, the country's underdeveloped financial markets, and a general lack of regulatory transparency. Restructuring of Korean conglomerates ("chaebols") and creating a more liberalized economy with a mechanism for bankrupt firms to exit the market are also important unfinished reform tasks. Korean policy makers are increasingly worried about diversion of corporate investment to China and other lower wage countries.

By 2020, South Korea plans on eliminating coins, a move toward a [[Cashless society]].

*Nominal GDP: $1.6 trillion (2020)
*GDP growth rate: 2.2% (2020)
*GDP per capita: $30,476 (2020)
*Consumer price index: 2004, 3.6%; 2005, 2.8%; 2006, 2.2%.
*Natural resources: Limited coal, iron ore, limestone, kaolinite, and graphite.
*Agriculture, including forestry and fisheries: Products—rice, vegetables, fruit, root crops, barley; cattle, pigs, chickens, milk, eggs, fish. *Arable land—17% of land area.
*Industry: Types—Electronics and electrical products, telecommunications, motor vehicles, shipbuilding, mining and manufacturing, petrochemicals, industrial machinery, steel.
*Trade (2007 est.): Exports--$386.6 billion f.o.b.: electronic products (semiconductors, cellular phones and equipment, computers), automobiles, machinery and equipment, steel, ships, petrochemicals. Imports--$359.5 billion f.o.b.: crude oil, food, machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals and chemical products, base metals and articles. Major markets (2006)--China (21.3%), U.S. (13.3%), Japan (8.1%), Hong Kong (5.9%). Major suppliers (2006)--Japan (16.8%), China (15.7%), U.S. (11%), Saudi Arabia (6.7%), U.A.E. 4.2%.

====North-South Economic Ties====
[[File:Korean flags.jpg|left]]
Two-way trade between North and South Korea, legalized in 1988, hit almost $1.35 billion in 2006, much of it related to out-processing or assembly work undertaken by South Korean firms in the Kaesong Industrial Complex (KIC). A significant portion of the total also includes donated goods provided to the North as humanitarian assistance or as part of inter-Korean cooperation projects. According to R.O.K. figures, about 60% of the total trade consisted of commercial transactions, much of that based on processing-on-commission arrangements. The R.O.K. is North Korea's second-largest trading partner.

Since the June 2000 North-South summit, North and South Korea have reconnected their east and west coast railroads and roads where they cross the DMZ and are working to improve these transportation routes. North and South Korea conducted tests of the east and west coast railroads on May 17, 2007 and began cross-border freight service between Kaesong in the D.P.R.K. and Munsan in the R.O.K. in December 2007. Much of the work done in North Korea has been funded by South Korea. The west coast rail and road are complete as far north as the KIC (six miles north of the DMZ), but little work is being done north of Kaesong. On the east coast, the road is complete but the rail line is far from operational. Since 2003, tour groups have been using the east coast road to travel from South Korea to Mt. Geumgang in North Korea, where cruise ship-based tours had been permitted since 1998.

As of August 2007, 65 South Korean firms were manufacturing goods in the KIC, employing nearly 22,000 North Korean workers. Most of the goods are sold in South Korea; a small quantity is being exported to foreign markets. Ground was broken on the complex in June 2003, and the first products were shipped from the KIC in December 2004. Plans envision 250 firms employing 350,000 workers by 2012.

R.O.K.-organized tours to Mt. Kumgang in North Korea began in 1998. Since then, more than a million visitors have traveled to Mt. Kumgang.

==History==
[[File:Buddha Korea.jpg|thumb|left|Giant stone statue of [[Buddha]] in Gyeongju.]]
The myth of Korea's foundation by the god-king Tangun in BC 2333 embodies the homogeneity and self-sufficiency valued by the Korean people. Korea experienced many invasions by its larger neighbors in its 2,000 years of recorded history. The country repelled numerous foreign invasions despite domestic strife, in part due to its protected status in the Sino-centric regional political model during Korea's Chosun dynasty (1392-1910). Historical antipathies to foreign influence earned Korea the title of "Hermit Kingdom" in the 19th century.
[[File:The bell tower Korea.JPG|thumb|300px|Cheongnyangsa Temple, Gyeongbuk.]]
With declining Chinese power and a weakened domestic posture at the end of the 19th century, Korea was open to Western and Japanese encroachment. In 1910, Japan began a 35-year period of colonial rule over Korea. As a result of Japan's efforts to supplant the Korean language and aspects of Korean culture, memories of Japanese annexation still recall fierce animosity and resentment, especially among older Koreans. Nevertheless, import restrictions on Japanese movies, popular music, fashion, and the like have been lifted, and many Koreans, especially the younger generations, eagerly follow Japanese pop culture. Aspects of Korean culture, including television shows and movies, have also become popular in Japan.

Japan's surrender to the Allied Powers in 1945, signaling the end of World War II, only further embroiled Korea in foreign rivalries. Division at the 38th parallel marked the beginning of Soviet and U.S. trusteeship over the North and South, respectively. On August 15, 1948 the Republic of Korea (R.O.K.) was established, with Syngman Rhee as the first President. On September 9, 1948 the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (D.P.R.K.) was established under Kim Il Sung.

On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea. Led by the U.S., a 16-member coalition undertook the first collective action under United Nations Command (UNC). Following China's entry on behalf of North Korea later that year, a stalemate ensued for the final two years of the conflict. Armistice negotiations, initiated in July 1951, were ultimately concluded on July 27, 1953 at Panmunjom, in what is now the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The Armistice Agreement was signed by representatives of the Korean People's Army, the Chinese People's Volunteers, and the U.S.-led United Nations Command (UNC). Though the R.O.K. supported the UNC, it refused to sign the Armistice Agreement. A peace treaty has never been signed. The war left almost three million Koreans dead or wounded and millions of others homeless and separated from their families.

In the following decades, South Korea experienced political turmoil under autocratic leadership. President Syngman Rhee was forced to resign in April 1960 following a student-led uprising. The Second Republic under the leadership of Chang Myon ended after only one year, when Major General Park Chung-hee led a military coup. Park's rule, which resulted in tremendous economic growth and development but increasingly restricted political freedoms, ended with his assassination in 1979. Subsequently, a powerful group of military officers, led by Lieutenant General [[Chun Doo Hwan]], declared martial law and took power.

Throughout the Park and Chun eras, South Korea developed a vocal civil society that led to strong protests against authoritarian rule. Composed primarily of students and labor union activists, protest movements reached a climax after Chun's 1979 coup and declaration of martial law. A confrontation in Gwangju in 1980 left at least 200 civilians dead. Thereafter, pro-democracy activities intensified even more, ultimately forcing political concessions by the government in 1987, including the restoration of direct presidential elections.

In 1987, Roh Tae-woo, a former general, was elected president, but additional democratic advances during his tenure resulted in the 1992 election of a long-time pro-democracy activist, Kim Young-sam. Kim became Korea's first civilian elected president in 32 years. The 1997 presidential election and peaceful transition of power marked another step forward in Korea's democratization when Kim Dae-jung, a lifelong democracy and human rights activist, was elected from a major opposition party. The transition to an open, democratic system was further consolidated in 2002, when self-educated human rights lawyer, Roh Moo-hyun, won the presidential election on a "participatory government" platform. Most recently, South Koreans voted for a new president in December 2007. Former business executive and Mayor of Seoul Lee Myung-bak's 5-year term began with his inauguration on February 25, 2008.

==Korean Airlines==

The national air carrier of the State is Korean Airlines. The most famous incident involving the airline is the shooting down by the Soviets of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] near [[Moneron Island]] just west of the Soviet [[Sakhalin]] Island on Sept. 1, 1983. Among the 269 people on board this flight was a sitting conservative congressman (Democratic) from the state of [[Georgia]], [[Larry McDonald]], a younger cousin of General [[George Patton]]. Staunchly anti-communist, Larry McDonald, just three months earlier, had been elected the second head of the [[John Birch Society]]. Senator [[Jesse Helms]] was scheduled to also be aboard KAL 007 but was spared by boarding the sister flight for the trip from the U.S.to Korea, KAL 015. Both McDonald and Helms, with other congressmen, were on their way to Korea to celebrate the 30th year anniversary of the U.S.-Korea Mutual Defense Treaty.

== See also ==
* [[Korea]]
*[[Asian painting]]

== References ==
<references/>

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some content for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2800.htm]}}}.
|}
{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:Korea]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]

Russia

2020-12-07T13:51:38Z

United States: Update and cleanup.

{{Country
|name =''Российская Федерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''
|map =Russia rel94.jpg
|map2 =Russia location.png
|flag =Flag of Russia.png
|arms =Arms of the Russian Federation.png
|capital =Moscow
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-Presidential Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Russian language
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Vladimir Putin
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Mikhail Mushustin
|pm-raw =
|area =6,592,800 sq mi
|pop =146,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =1,650,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$11,301 (2020)
|currency =ruble
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Russia''' (formally the '''Russian Federation,''' in Russian: Российская Федерация, ''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''), is the largest country by area (17,075,200 square kilometers) and has the ninth largest population spanning from Eastern Europe to Northern Asia. Its capital is [[Moscow]].

Increasingly [[Christian]] and [[conservative]], Russia opposes the [[homosexual agenda]] and is passing laws to reduce its numbers of [[abortion]]. Russia has for the most part repudiated its unsuccessful foray into [[communism]]/[[atheism]], which harmed the nation from 1918-1991, although despite this, they retained a monument to the founder of Communism, Karl Marx on Teatralyana Square in Moscow.<ref>http://www.lindsayfincher.com/potd-the-last-karl-marx-monument-in-moscow.html</ref> In 2015, Russia's Ministry of Health signed an agreement with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] to prevent [[abortion]].<ref>http://www.nationalrighttolifenews.org/news/2015/07/russia-church-and-state-sign-agreement-to-prevent-abortion/#.VlDHnnarTIU</ref>

The history stretches back over a thousand years, with rule by the Czars until [[communists]] took over the nation in 1917, and were subsequently overthrown in 1991. Russia was the largest constituent of the [[Soviet Union]]. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nation became known as the Russian Federation. Russia had an extensive empire built up over hundreds of years, almost all of which broke away in 1991.

Russia is a federation of constituent governments.

==Geography==
[[File:Aerial view of the Caucasus Mountains.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Caucasus Mountains.]]
*Area: 17 million km2. (6.5 million sq. mi.); about 1.8 times the size of the United States.
*Cities: Capital—Moscow (pop. 8.3 million). Other cities—St. Petersburg (4.6 million), Novosibirsk (1.4 million), Yekaterinburg (1.4 million). 8 other cities over 1 million inhabitants.
*Terrain: Broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains (Caucasus range) along southern borders.
*Climate: Huge variation from humid sub-tropical in Krasnodar krai, to desert/semi-desert in the Altai republic, and arctic tundra in north eastern Siberia, which is one of the coldest areas on the planet.

==Religion==
[[File:Cathedral of Christ the Savior.jpg|thumb|left|Cathedral of Christ the Savior.]]

''See: [[Religion in Russia]]''

In practice, only a minority of citizens actively participated in any religion. Many who identified themselves as members of a religious group participated in religious life rarely or not at all. There is no one set of reliable statistics that breaks down the population by denomination, and the statistics below are compiled from government, polling, and religious group sources.<ref>According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108468.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

Approximately 100 million citizens are Russian Orthodox. Muslims, with a population estimated between 14 million and 23 million, form the largest religious minority. The majority of Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region and the North Caucasus, although Moscow, St. Petersburg, and parts of Siberia also have sizable Muslim populations. There are an estimated one million Buddhists, the majority of whom live in the traditionally Buddhist regions of Buryatiya, Tuva, and Kalmykiya. According to the NGO Slavic Center for Law and Justice, Protestants make up the second largest group of Christian believers, with 3,500 registered organizations and more than 2 million followers. The Roman Catholic Church estimated that there are 600,000 Catholics, most of whom are not ethnic Russians. There are an estimated 250,000 Jews, the majority of whom live in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In some areas, such as Yakutiya and Chukotka, pantheistic and nature-based religions are practiced independently or alongside other religions.

According to the annual report from the Human Rights Ombudsman, the Ministry of Justice had registered 21,963 religious organizations as of January 1, 2008, 993 fewer than January 2006. The registered religious groups (with the number of registered organizations) include Russian Orthodox (12,586), Muslim (3,815), Protestant (several denominations totaling 3,410), Jehovah's Witnesses (402), Jewish (286), Orthodox Old Believers (283), Roman Catholic (240), Buddhist (200), and other denominations.

It was reported in 2017 that atheism in Russia had fallen by 50% in three years.<ref>Williams, Thomas D. (July 27, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/07/27/report-atheism-in-russia-falls-by-50-percent-in-three-years/ Report: Atheism in Russia Falls by 50 Percent in Three Years]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 17, 2017.</ref>

===Religion in schools===
The federal Government does not require religious instruction in schools, but it continues to allow public use of school buildings after hours for the ROC to provide religious instruction on a voluntary basis. Several regions offer a course on Orthodox Christianity in public schools, and five oblasts or regions (Kaluga, Tver, Bryansk, Smolensk, and Voronezh) have a mandatory class on the "Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture." Students may avoid the Belgorod Oblast voluntary course only if their parents provide and pay for an alternative course. The course is offered as an elective in several other regions. In regions where the class is not mandatory, in practice students may be compelled to take it where schools do not provide alternatives.

Some regions offer a class on "History of Religion," a proposal that the Minister of Education had suggested but did not introduce nationally. Although the Ministry of Education rejected continued publication and dissemination of a controversial textbook that detailed Orthodox Christianity's contribution to the country's culture, some schools continued to use the text. The textbook contained descriptions of some religious groups that members of those groups found objectionable. The Congress of Religious Associations in the Tyumen region appealed to the Governor and regional department of education to allow input from other religious groups into the religious culture curriculum, claiming that the course currently contains only the viewpoint of the ROC.

[[File:Roma children in Russia.jpg|thumb|360px|Roma children in Russia.]]

==Demography==
[[File:Collecting the census in Russia.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Collecting the census.]]
In a major [[demography|demographic]] catastrophe, population indicators in Russia dramatically worsened after 1990: the number of [[death]]s exceeds the number of [[birth]]s, [[life expectancy]] is drastically decreasing, the number of [[suicide]]s has increased, and there are 240 abortions per 100 live births. Every year since 1992 the country has lost 400,000 to 650,000 population and the current total of 142 million is [[projection|projected]] to fall to 100 million by 2050.

In the 1990s, life expectancy in Russia fell an astonishing six years. [[Statistical analysis]] indicates that one-quarter of the increase in [[mortality]] was due to an increase in [[alcohol consumption]] and one-quarter was a consequence of [[stress]] due to economic uncertainty.<ref>Elizabeth Brainerd, and David M. Cutler, "Autopsy On An Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union." ''Journal Of Economic Perspectives'' 2005 19(1): 107-130. Issn: 0895-3309 Fulltext: in Ebsco</ref>

Russia's population of 141.4 million (2007) is falling. Lower birth rates and higher death rates have reduced Russia's population at a nearly 0.5% annual rate since the early 1990s. Russia is one of few countries with a declining population (although birth rates in many developed countries have dropped below the long-term population replacement). Population decline is particularly drastic in Russia due to higher death rates, especially among working-age males. Cardiovascular disease, cancer, traffic injuries, suicide, alcohol poisoning, and violence are major causes of death. In a June 2006 speech to the Russian National Security Council, President Putin declared that Russia is facing a demographic crisis and called for measures to improve birth and mortality rates and increase population through immigration, primarily the return of Russian-speaking foreigners.

====HIV/AIDS====
Russia and Ukraine are said to have the highest growth rates of HIV infection in the world. In Russia HIV seems to be transmitted mostly by intravenous drug users sharing needles, although data is very uncertain. Data from the Federal AIDS Center shows that the number of registered cases is doubling every 12 months and is currently at 300,000 persons. When projections are made which allow for people in high-risk groups who have not been tested for the disease, estimates of the actual number of HIV-infected persons are approximately 3 million. The high growth rate of AIDS cases, if unchecked, will have negative economic consequences. Investment will suffer from the diversion of private and government funds to AIDS treatment. The effect on the labor force may be acute since about 80% of infected individuals in Russia are under 30 years of age.{{fact}}

===Ethnicity===
[[File:Novosibirsk Karimov - Cossacks.jpg|left|140px]]
Most of the roughly 141 million Russians derive from the Eastern Slavic family of peoples, whose original homeland was probably present-day Poland. Russian is the official language of Russia and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the language of such giants of world literature as [[Pushkin]], [[Tolstoy]], [[Dostoevsky]], [[Chekhov]], [[Pasternak]], and [[Solzhenitsyn]].

===Education===
[[Image:Russian band in Pushkin.jpg|thumb|220px|Russian band in Pushkin.]]
Russia's educational system has produced nearly 100% literacy. About 3 million students attend Russia's 519 institutions of higher education and 48 universities, but continued reform is critical to producing students with skills to adapt to a market economy. Because great emphasis is placed on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is still generally of a high order. The number of doctors in relation to the population is high by American standards, although medical care in Russia, even in major cities, is generally far below Western standards. The unraveling of the Soviet state in its last decades and the physical and psychological traumas of transition during the 1990s resulted in a steady decline in the health of the Russian people. Currently Russia faces a demographic crisis as births lag far behind deaths. While its population is aging, skyrocketing deaths of working-age males due to cardiovascular disease is a major cause of Russia's demographic woes. A rapid increase in HIV/AIDS infections and tuberculosis compounds the problem. In 2007, life expectancy at birth was 59 for men and 73 for women. The large annual excess of deaths over births is expected to cut Russia's population by 30% over the next 50 years.{{fact}}

===Labor force===
[[File:Russian unemployment.jpg|thumb|Russian unemployment, 2009.]]
The Russian labor force is undergoing tremendous changes. Although well educated and skilled, it is largely mismatched to the rapidly changing needs of the Russian economy. Official unemployment has shrunken in recent years to 6.9%, and labor shortages have started to appear in some high-skilled job markets. Nonetheless, pockets of high unemployment remain and many Russian workers are underemployed. Unemployment is highest among women and young people. Following the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union and the economic dislocation it engendered, the standard of living fell dramatically. However, real disposable incomes have doubled since 1999, and experts estimate that the middle class ranges from one-fifth to one-third of the population. In 2006, 15.8% of the population lived below the subsistence level, in contrast to 38.1% in 1998.{{fact}}

 

===Statistics===
*Population (2007 est.): 141.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): -0.484% (population declining).
*Ethnic groups: Russian 79.8%, Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 2%, other 14.4%.
*Religion: Russian Orthodox, Islam, Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestant, Buddhist, other.
*Language: Russian (official); more than 140 other languages and dialects.
*Education (total pop.): Literacy—99.4%.
*Health: Life expectancy (2007 est.)--59.12 yrs. men, 73.03 yrs. women.
*Work force (73.88 million) (2006 est.): Production and economic services—84%; government—16%.

==Cities==
[[File:Saint Petersburg Russia.jpg|thumb|Saint Petersburg.]]
[[Moscow]] is Russia's capital and largest city (population 8.3 million). [[Moscow]] is also increasingly important as an economic and business center; it has become Russia's principal magnet for foreign investment and business presence. Its cultural tradition is rich, and there are many museums devoted to art, literature, music, dance, history, and science, as well as hundreds of churches and dozens of notable [[cathedral]]s.

[[Image:Traffic in Moscow.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Traffic in Moscow.]]
The second-largest city in Russia is [[St. Petersburg]] (formerly '''Leningrad'''), which was established by [[Tsar]] [[Peter the Great]] in 1703 to be the capital of the Russian Empire as part of his Western-looking reforms. The city was called Petrograd during [[World War I]] and Leningrad after 1924. In 1991, as the result of a city referendum, it was renamed St. Petersburg. Under the tsars, the city was Russia's cultural, intellectual, commercial, financial, and industrial center. After [[Lenin]] moved the capital back to Moscow in 1918, the city's political significance declined, but it remained a cultural, scientific, and military-industrial center. The [[State Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]], formerly the Winter Palace of the tsars, is one of the world's great fine arts museums.

Russia has an area of about 17 million square kilometers (6.5 million sq. mi.); in geographic terms, this makes Russia the largest country in the world by more than 2.5 million square miles. But with a population density of about 22 persons per square mile (9 per km2.), it is sparsely populated, and most of its residents live in urban areas.
{{Clear}}

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Duma Parliament building Moscow Russia.jpg|thumb|340px|Duma Parliament building, Moscow.]]
In the political system established by the 1993 [[constitution]], the [[president]] wields considerable executive power. There is no vice president, and the legislative branch is far weaker than the executive. The bicameral legislature consists of the lower house (State Duma) and the upper house (the Federation Council). The president nominates the highest state officials, including the [[prime minister]], who must be approved by the Duma. The [[president]] can pass decrees without consent from the [[Duma]]. He also is head of the armed forces and of the Security Council.

Duma elections were held most recently on December 7, 2003, and presidential elections on March 14, 2004. The pro-government party, [[United Russia]], won close to half of the seats in the Duma. Combined with its allies, United Russia commands a two-thirds majority. [[Vladimir Putin]] was re-elected to a second four-year term with 71% of the vote in March 2004. The Russian constitution does not allow presidents to serve more than two consecutive terms. Following elections for the Duma occurred in December 2007, and for President in March 2008. In these election [[Dmitry Medvedev]] (member of United Russia) was elected as new president. Since 2012 Vladimir Putin is president again.

Russia is a federation, but the precise distribution of powers between the central government and the regional and local authorities is still evolving. The Russian Federation consists of 89 regional administrative units, including two federal cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg. The constitution explicitly defines the federal government's exclusive powers, but it also describes most key regional issues as the joint responsibility of the federal government and the regional administrative units. In 2000, President Putin grouped the regions into seven federal districts, with presidential appointees established in Moscow and six provincial capitals. In March 2004, the Constitution was amended to permit the merger of some regional administrative units. A law enacted in December 2004 eliminated the direct election of the country's regional leaders. Governors are now nominated by the president and subject to confirmation by regional legislatures.

===Judicial System===
The Russian [[judicial system]] consists of the Constitutional Court, courts of [[general jurisdiction]], military courts, and arbitrage courts (which hear commercial disputes). The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation is a court of limited subject matter jurisdiction. The 1993 constitution empowers the Constitutional Court to arbitrate disputes between the executive and legislative branches and between Moscow and the regional and local governments. The court also is authorized to rule on violations of constitutional rights, to examine appeals from various bodies, and to participate in impeachment proceedings against the president. The July 1994 Law on the Constitutional Court prohibits the court from examining cases on its own initiative and limits the scope of issues the court can hear. The system of general jurisdiction courts includes the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, regional level courts, district level courts and justices of the peace.

The Duma passed a Criminal Procedure Code and other judicial reforms during its 2001 session. These reforms help make the Russian judicial system more compatible with its Western counterparts and are seen by most as an accomplishment in human rights. The reforms have reintroduced jury [[trials]] in certain [[criminal]] cases and created a more adversarial system of criminal trials that protect the rights of defendants more adequately. In 2002, the introduction of the new code led to significant reductions in time spent in detention for new detainees, and the number of suspects placed in pretrial detention declined by 30%. Another significant advance in the new Code is the transfer from the Procuracy to the courts of the authority to issue search and arrest warrants. There are rising concerns, however, that prosecutors have selectively targeted individuals for political reasons, as in the prosecution of Yukos Oil CEO Mikhail Khodorkovskiy.{{fact}}

In spite of the general tendency to increase judicial [[independence]] (for example, by recent considerable salary raise to judges), many judges still see their role not as of impartial and independent arbiters, but as of government officials protecting state interests. See below for more information on the commercial court/business law.

===Human Rights===
[[Image:Human Rights.JPG|left]]
Some specific areas of human rights violations of the Soviet era continued on into the late 1990s and even have been reported up to 2002.
These involved experimentation on humans and the use of imported foreign forced labor, particularly from North Korea, to work in forestry in gulag type camps of Siberia (for Russian and other newspaper accounts, see [[Essay: KAL 007 Survivors and Gulags of Russia]]). Experimentation on humans have been noted by Russian rights activists in connection with certain medical facilities. The Serbsky Institute and Mental Hospital figuring in as a center for mind altering experiments receives startling confirmation from Emilia Cherkover, former Deputy of the Zelenograd Soviet and member of the Russian Federation Human Rights Commission. Cherkover maintains that, along with Vladivostok and Moscow prisons and the mental hospital in Oryal, microwave (psychotronic and electromagnetic application) experiments had been conducted on humans between 1989 and 1990 at the Serbsky Institute in Moscow (see [[The Stavitski Account]]). {{fact}}

<blockquote>
Journalist Yury Vorobyovsky has been investigating the top secret program of "psychotronic" brainwashing techniques developed by the KGB and the Ministry for three years. He notes Emilia Cherkova's claim that there are over a million victims. Her group, Ecology and Living Environment had filed damages against the [[Federal Security Service]] (FSB). The newspaper reports, "there is strong evidence that some kind of psychotronic warfare program did exist in the Soviet period, and that the technology may be falling into the wrong hands" (From Moscow Times, 7-11-95).{{fact}}
</blockquote>
====Chechnya====
[[File:Evstafiev palace gunman Chechnya.jpg|thumb|280px|Government palace building in Grozny, Chechnya.]]
[[Chechnya]] has seen continuing violations of international human rights and humanitarian law committed by Russian and pro-Moscow Chechen forces. Chechen rebels also have committed abuses as well as acts of terrorism. In [[Chechnya]], Ingushetiya, and Dagestan, security forces were involved in unlawful killings and politically motivated kidnappings. Chechen President [[Ramzan Kadyrov|Kadyrov]] continued his repressive control as federal forces withdrew. Federal and local security forces in Chechnya targeted families of suspected insurgents with impunity, and Kadyrov's private militia allegedly engaged in kidnapping and torture.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008]</ref>

====Religion - Human rights====
The Russian constitution provides for freedom of religion and the equality of all religions before the law, as well as the separation of church and state. Although Jews and Muslims continue to encounter prejudice and societal discrimination, they have not been inhibited by the government in the free practice of their religion. High-ranking federal officials have condemned anti-Semitic hate crimes, but law enforcement bodies have not always effectively prosecuted those responsible. The influx of foreign missionaries has led to pressure by groups in Russia, specifically nationalists and the Russian Orthodox Church, to limit the activities of these "nontraditional" religious groups.

In response, the Duma passed a restrictive and potentially discriminatory law on religion in October 1997. The law is complex, with many ambiguous and contradictory provisions. The law's most controversial provisions distinguish between religious "groups" and "organizations" and introduce a 15-year rule, which allows groups that have been in existence for 15 years or longer to obtain accredited status. Senior Russian officials have pledged to implement the 1997 law on religion in a manner that is not in conflict with Russia's international human rights obligations. Some local officials, however, have used the law as a pretext to restrict religious liberty.<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/rt_russi1.htm A 1997 law restricting freedom]</ref>

In 2016, another law was passed called the [[Yarovaya law]] which primarily focuses on anti-terrorism. However, the law also contains provisions which allow for the further persecution of religious minorities found under the 1997 act. [[Don Ossewaarde]] was the first Missionary to be convicted under the law.

====Media====
Pressure from Putin's regime weakened freedom of expression and media independence, particularly of the major television networks. Five journalists were assassinated in 2008. As some print and Internet media reflected a widening range of views, the government restricted media freedom through direct ownership of media outlets, pressuring the owners of major media outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassing and intimidating journalists into practicing self-censorship. Local governments limited freedom of assembly, and police sometimes used violence to prevent groups from engaging in peaceful protest. The government limited freedom of association. The government restricted religious groups in some regions, and there were incidents of societal discrimination, harassment, and violence against religious minorities, including anti-Semitism.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008] </ref>

Government pressure continued to weaken freedom of expression and the independence and freedom of some media, particularly major national television networks and regional electronic media outlets. A government decision resulted in the elimination of the last major non-state television network in 2003. National press is also increasingly in government hands or owned by government officials, narrowing the scope of opinion available. Self-censorship is a growing press problem. Unsolved murders of journalists, including the killing of respected investigative reporter Anna Politkovskaya in October 2006, have caused significant international concern and increased pressure on journalists to avoid subjects considered sensitive. In August 2007, authorities arrested several suspects in connection with the Politkovksaya case.{{fact}}

====Civil Society====
Enactment of a new law on foreign non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in 2006 was criticized in many quarters as a device to control [[civil society]], that is, private organizations. Implementing regulations appear to impose onerous paperwork reporting burdens on NGOs that could be used to limit or even suppress some of them. This law was used to shut down an NGO for the first time in January 2007 on the basis of extremism charges; however, most foreign NGOs have successfully re-registered. Domestic NGOs were not required to re-register, but are required to meeting new reporting requirements.{{fact}}

===Government Spending/Taxation===
[[Image:Putin..jpg|left|260px|Vladimir Putin.]]
The Russian federal budget has run growing surpluses since 2001, as the government has taxed and saved much of the rapidly increasing oil revenues. According to preliminary figures, the 2006 budget surplus was 7.4% of GDP on a cash basis. Although there are strong pressures to relax spending ahead of elections, the government has loosened its spending gradually, as the economy is running at near capacity and there are dangers of increasing inflation and rapid exchange rate appreciation. Spending increases to date have mostly been for increased salaries of government employees and pensions, but some money is also being dedicated to special investment funds and tax breaks to develop new industries in special economic zones. The government overhauled its tax system for both corporations and individuals in 2000-01, introducing a 13% flat tax for individuals and a unified tax for corporations, which improved overall collection. Business has put pressure on the government to reduce value added taxes (VAT) on oil and gas, but the government has postponed this discussion. Tax enforcement of disputes, particularly following the Yukos case, continues to be uneven and unpredictable.

A major focus of increased government spending has been the military, with large increases being spent on overhauling and updating equipment, as well as increasing salaries of military personnel, though a huge backlog of problems remain from the chaotic Yeltsin era and almost two decades of chronic underinvestment.

Much needed investment in national infrastructure, including railways and waterways, which are much more important in transportation in Russia than in the US and Europe has been insignificant, leading to bottlenecks that hamper growth and development. Telecoms and electricity production and distribution also remain run-down and outdated from the post-Soviet collapse. As a result of this, Russia remains dependent on energy exports for income, with the domestic economy effectively held back by capacity restraints or neglected facilities, a fact which has left Russia vulnerable to a collapse in fuel prices, such as that experienced at the beginning the global financial crisis, when crude oil prices dropped from over $100 per barrel to less than $60. Currently, Russian development of railways and highways in terms of new/renewed miles of route lies at around 1/10 that of China, despite having a much larger landmass.

==Foreign Relations==
In the years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia took important steps to become a full partner in the world's principal political groupings. On December 27, 1991, Russia assumed the permanent UN Security Council seat formerly held by the Soviet Union. Russia also is a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Russia and the European Union (EU) signed a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement. It signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace initiative in 1994. The NATO-Russia Founding Act in 1997 and the NATO-Russia Council superseded that in 2002. Russia acquiesced (despite misgivings) in enlargement of NATO by members first of the former [[Warsaw Pact]] and most recently by the Baltic states that had been forcibly integrated into the Soviet Union.

Over the past several years Russia has increased its international profile, played an increasing role in regional issues, and been more assertive in dealing with its neighbors. The rise in energy prices has given it leverage over countries which are dependent on Russian sources. Russia continues to support separatist regimes in Georgia and Moldova.

===Relations with the United States===
The United States and Russia share common interests on a broad range of issues, including counterterrorism and the drastic reduction of our strategic arsenals. Russia shares our basic goal of stemming the [[proliferation]] of [[weapons of mass destruction]] and the means to deliver them. We are working with Russia to compel Iran to bring its nuclear programs into compliance with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) rules and United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737. On North Korea, Russia is a participant in the Six-Party Talks aimed at the complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantling of North Korea's nuclear program. Russia also takes part in the Middle East Peace Process "Quartet" (along with the UN and the EU). Russia now interacts with NATO members as an equal through the NATO-Russia Council but without veto power over NATO decisions. During the past several years, Russia has intensified its efforts to combat trafficking in persons.

Ties between Moscow and Washington
:plunged to a post-Cold War low as Barack Obama slapped on sanctions over the Ukraine crisis and Russia's alleged meddling in Trump's election.<ref> [https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4237090/Mike-Pence-tells-security-summit-US-hold-Russia-accountable.html Mike Pence fires NATO warning at Vladimir Putin] - ''Daily Mail Online''</ref>

US Secretary of State [[Rex Tillerson]] said that US sanctions against Russia will remain in place until Moscow "reverses the actions" it has taken in Ukraine.<ref>[https://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/31/politics/rex-tillerson-russia-ukraine/ Tillerson: US to maintain Ukraine-related sanctions on Russia until Crimea is returned]</ref> In April 2017 Putin explained that the US-Russia relations have gotten worse under [[Trump]].<ref>http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/228064</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Defense==
Russia's efforts to transform its Soviet-legacy military into a smaller, lighter and more mobile force continue to be hampered by an ossified military leadership, discipline problems and human rights violations, limited funding and demographics. Recent steps by the Government of Russia suggest a desire to reform. There has been an increased emphasis on practical training, and the government is introducing bills to improve the organization of the military.
[[Image:Cannon Russia.jpg|left|300px]]
Despite large increases in the budget, defense spending is still unable to sustain Russia's large military. Current troop strength, estimated at 1.1 million, is large in comparison to Russia's GDP and military budget, which continues to make the process of transformation to a professional army difficult. This is both the result of the Soviet legacy and military thinking, and Russian geography, which demands a sizable force simply to patrol and maintain normal defensive readiness across Russia's huge, remote and sparsely populated territory. Furthermore, unrest in Russia's souther regions demands a substantial military force at a high level of readiness.

Russian military salaries are low. Though, the army provides all necessities, the quality of accommodation is low, though the situation has improved considerably since the Yeltsin era when the military establishment almost totally collapsed, and some soldiers actually starved when provisions to remote bases went undelivered for months on end. Problems with both discipline and brutal hazing remain common, however. HIV infection rates in the Russian army are estimated to be between two and five times higher than in the general population, and tuberculosis is a persistent problem both in and outside the military, affecting the fitness of recruits.
[[File:SU-24.jpg|thumb|Bomber jet Su-24.]]
Although the available manpower (males 15-49) for the Russian Armed Forces was projected at 35.2 million in 2005, only approximately 11% of eligible males do military service. Moreover, military officials complain that new recruit cohorts are plagued by increasing incidences of poor education, communicable diseases and criminality.

The Russian Government has stated a desire to convert to a professional army, but implementation has been delayed repeatedly. Current plans envision a transition to a mixed force, in which professional soldiers fill the ranks of select units and conscription is gradually phased out. Some officials have talked of developing a non-commissioned officer corps to lead the professional army, but the military has yet to make any concrete decisions, due to internal political considerations and a backlog of other issues soaking up increased funding.

Russia continues to maintain a sizable strategic nuclear force equipped with global reach, with land, sea and air based nuclear launch facilities, though maintenance issues continue to affect the readiness of the system due to a flight of skilled personnel from the military, and financial and organization pressures in the post-Soviet era. For this reason, Russia has sought a renewed START treaty with the United States for a mutual reduction of strategic nuclear forces. This agreement was reached between Presidents Obama and Medvedev in April 2010.

==Economy==
[[Image:Historic Centre of St. Petersburg.jpg|thumb|260px|Historic Center of St. Petersburg.]]
At the end of March, 2009, the World Bank issued a grim forecast of the Russian Economy, projecting a 4.5% decline in the economy in 2009 and warning that 5.8 million Russians would fall into poverty unless the government shifts spending to poor families. It praised the government's $85 billion anticrisis program, which stabilized Russia's banks and prevented financial panic. But it said too little had gone to households — a hazard in a society where 37 million people, a quarter of the population, lives near the poverty line.<ref>Ellen Berry, "World Bank Grim on Russian Economy," [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/31/world/europe/31russia.html?ref=world ''New York Times'' Mar. 30, 2009]</ref>

The Russian economy underwent tremendous stress in the 1990s as it moved from a centrally planned economy to a free market system. Difficulties in implementing fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998. Lower prices for Russia's major export earners (oil and minerals) and a loss of investor confidence due to the Asian financial crisis exacerbated financial problems. The result was a rapid and steep decline (60%) in the value of the ruble, flight of foreign investment, delayed payments on sovereign and private debts, a breakdown of commercial transactions through the banking system, and the threat of runaway inflation.

Still, Russia weathered the crisis well. In the 8 years following the financial crisis, GDP growth averaged just under 7% due to a devalued ruble, implementation of key economic reforms (tax, banking, labor and land codes), tight fiscal policy, and favorable commodities prices. Household consumption and fixed capital investments have both grown by about 10 percent per year since 1999 and have replaced net exports as the main drivers of demand growth. Inflation and exchange rates have stabilized due to a prudent fiscal policy (Russia has run a budget surplus since 2003). The government created a stabilization/rainy day fund ($127 billion in mid-2007), and has the third-largest foreign exchange reserves in the world (close to $420 billion in mid-2007) which should shelter it from commodity price shocks.

Russia's balance of payments moves from strength to strength. The current account balance grew from $58.6 billion in 2004 to $95.3 billion in 2006, almost entirely due to oil price increases. The capital account turned positive in 2006, with net inflow of $6.1 billion. In addition, net private capital flows in 2006 increased significantly to $40.9 billion, compared to an inflow of $0.1 billion in 2005 due to liberalization of the capital account in mid-2006. Foreign direct investment (FDI) flows dramatically improved in 2006 to an estimated $31 billion (inflows totaled $15.4 billion and $14.6 billion in 2004 and 2005, respectively). As of July 1, 2006, the ruble is convertible for both current and capital transactions. Russia prepaid its entire Soviet-era Paris Club debt of $22 billion in late 2006, pushing Russia's sovereign foreign debt down to $45 billion at the end of 2006, or about 5 percent of GDP. Russia's total public and private foreign debt at the end of 2006 was $310 billion, or 31 percent of GDP. Such a dramatic reversal to the macroeconomic situation is truly remarkable. Russia currently has a sovereign investment-grade rating from Standard and Poor's of BBB+.
[[File:Znamensk Russia.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Street in Znamensk.]]
Although the economy has begun to diversify, the government budget remains dependent on oil and gas revenues; consumption and investment are, however, contributing to an increasing share to GDP growth. While currently sheltered from external price shocks, the government realizes the need to intensify reforms that will promote new investment in aging infrastructure and continued productivity gains. The government believes it can do this by creating state-sponsored investment funds, special economic zones, and by exercising control of strategic enterprises (a draft law defining strategic sectors was submitted to the Duma in August 2007). Although investors are returning to Russia, excessive bureaucracy, corruption, insufficient and insufficiently enforced legislation, selective interpretation of laws (particularly tax laws), unclear limits and conditions on foreign investment, obsolete infrastructure, and stalled economic reforms still remain a problem.{{fact}} In 2005, the government announced reform programs in four priority areas (health, education, housing, and agriculture), but further work is needed on them as well as in financial regulation, civil service reform, and reform of government monopolies, such as railroads, gas, and electricity.

*GDP: $1.65 trillion (2020)
*Growth rate: 3.0% (2020)
*Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, timber, furs, precious and nonferrous metals.
*Agriculture: Products—Grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, meat, dairy products.
*Industry: Types—Complete range of manufactures: automobiles, trucks, trains, agricultural equipment, advanced aircraft, aerospace, machine and equipment products; mining and extractive industry; medical and scientific instruments; construction equipment.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$304 billion: petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, woods and wood products, metals, chemicals. Major markets—EU, CIS, China, Japan. Imports--$165 billion: machinery and equipment, chemicals, consumer goods, medicines, meat, sugar, semi-finished metal products. Major partners—EU, U.S., NIS, Japan, China. U.S. exports--$4.7 billion. Principal U.S. exports (2006)--oil/gas equipment, meat, inorganic chemicals, tobacco, aircraft, medical equipment, autos/parts. U.S. imports--$19.8 billion. Principal U.S. imports (2006)--oil, aluminum, chemicals, platinum, iron/steel, fish and crustaceans, nickel, wood, and copper.

===GDP===
[[File:City garden Kolpino Autumn, 2009.JPG|thumb|City garden, Kolpino.]]
A strong expansion in domestic demand continues to drive GDP growth, despite a slowdown in manufacturing. GDP growth and industrial production for 2006 were 6.7% and 4.8%, respectively, relative to 6.4% and 5.7% in 2005. GDP growth is currently derived from non-tradable sectors, but investment remains concentrated in tradables (oil and gas). Construction was the fastest growing sector of the economy, expanding by 14% in 2006. The main private sector services—wholesale & retail trade, banking & insurance, and transportation & communications—showed strong growth of about 10%. In contrast, public sector services—education, health care, and public administration—lagged behind with only 2-4% growth in 2006. Recent productivity growth has still been strong in some parts of domestic manufacturing. Real disposable incomes grew by 10.2% in 2006, spurring considerable growth in private consumption.

{{Clear}}

===Monetary Policy===
Large balance of payments surpluses have complicated monetary policy for Russia. The Central Bank has followed a policy of managed appreciation to ease the impact on domestic producers and has sterilized capital inflows with its large budget surpluses. However, the Central Bank also has been buying back dollars, pumping additional ruble liquidity into the system. Given the rising demand for money, this has softened the inflationary impact, but these policy choices have complicated the government's efforts to lower inflation to the single digits. Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation was 9% in 2006 and 10.9% in 2005, having steadily decreased from 20.2% in 2000, due primarily to prudent fiscal policy and in 2006 lower world oil prices.

===Commercial Law===
Russia has a body of conflicting, overlapping and rapidly changing laws, decrees and regulations, which has resulted in an ad hoc and unpredictable approach to doing business. In this environment, negotiations and contracts from commercial transactions are complex and protracted. Uneven implementation of laws creates further complications. Regional and local courts are often subject to political pressure, and corruption is widespread.{{fact}} However, more and more small and medium businesses in recent years have reported fewer difficulties in this regard, especially in the Moscow region. In addition, Russian businesses are increasingly turning to the courts to resolve disputes. Russia's WTO accession process is also helping to bring the country's legal and regulatory regime in line with internationally accepted practices.

===Natural Resources===
The mineral-packed Ural Mountains and the vast oil, gas, coal, and timber reserves of Siberia and the Russian Far East make Russia rich in natural resources. However, most such resources are located in remote and climatically unfavorable areas that are difficult to develop and far from Russian ports. Nevertheless, Russia is a leading producer and exporter of minerals, gold, and all major fuels. Natural resources, especially energy, dominate Russian exports. Ninety percent of Russian exports to the United States are minerals or other raw materials.

===Industry===
[[Image:Tower Russia.JPG|right|180px]]
Russia is one of the most industrialized of the former Soviet republics. However, years of very low investment have left much of Russian industry antiquated and highly inefficient. Besides its resource-based industries, it has developed large manufacturing capacities, notably in metals, food products, and transport equipment. Russia is now the world's third-largest exporter of steel and primary aluminum. Russia inherited most of the defense industrial base of the Soviet Union, so armaments remain an important export category for Russia. Efforts have been made with varying success over the past few years to convert defense industries to civilian use, and the Russian Government is engaged in an ongoing process to privatize the remaining 9,222 state-owned enterprises, 33% of which are in the industrial manufacturing sector.
 

===Agriculture===
For its great size, Russia has relatively little area suited for agriculture because of its arid climate and inconsistent rainfall. Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock, and the southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. Restructuring of former state farms has been an extremely slow process. Foreigners are not allowed to own farmland in Russia although long-term leases are permitted. Private farms and garden plots of individuals account for over one-half of all agricultural production.

===Investment/Banking===
[[File:Russian Federation Central Bank.jpg|left|thumb|330px|Russian Federation Central Bank.]]
Russia attracted an estimated $31 billion in FDI in 2006 (3.2% of GDP), up from $13 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) in 2005.Russia's annual FDI figures are now in line with those of China, India, and Brazil. However, Russia's per capita cumulative FDI still lags far behind such countries as Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic. The paradox is that Russia's challenging business climate, lack of transparency, and weak rule of law/corruption{{fact}} has taken a back seat to Russia's extraordinary macroeconomic fundamentals and the consumer and retail boom, which is providing double digit returns to investors and attracting new flows. Russian domestic investment is also returning home, as the foreign investment coming into Russia from havens like Cyprus and Gibraltar, is actually returning Russian capital . As of the end of 2006, loans to the financial sector were 57.2% of total banking sector assets. Retail loans amounted to $78.4 billion at the end of 2006, up from $41 billion at the end of 2005. Retail deposits increased to $144.1 billion from $95.7 billion over the same period. Also, currently deposits are fully insured up to $4,000 and an additional $12,000 is insured at 90%.

Although still small by international standards, the Russian banking sector is growing fast and is becoming a larger source of investment funds. To meet a growing demand for loans, which they were unable to cover with domestic deposits, Russian banks borrowed heavily abroad in 2006, accounting for two-thirds of the private-sector capital inflows in that year. Ruble lending has increased since the October 1998 financial crisis, and in 2006 loans were 63% of total bank assets, with consumer loans posting the fastest growth at 74% that same year. Fewer Russians prefer to keep their money outside the banking sector, the recent appreciation of the ruble against the dollar has persuaded many Russians to keep their money in rubles or other currencies such as the euro, and retail deposits grew by 65% in 2006. Despite recent growth, the poorly developed banking system, along with contradictory regulations across banking, bond, and equity markets, still makes it difficult for entrepreneurs to raise capital as well as to permit capital transfer from a capital-rich sector such as energy to capital-poor sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing and to diversify risk. Banks still perceive small and medium commercial lending as risky, and some banks are inexperienced with assessing credit risk, though the situation is improving. In 2003, Russia enacted a deposit insurance law to protect deposits up to 100,000 rubles (about $3,700) per depositor, and a bill is currently in the Duma, which if passed will increase this coverage to 190,000 rubles (about $7,000) per depositor.

===Trade===
[[File:Moscow International Business Centre 2008.jpg|thumb|400px|Moscow International Business Centre, 2008.]]
The U.S. exported $4.7 billion in goods to Russia in 2006, a 21% increase from the previous year. Corresponding U.S. imports from Russia were $19.8 billion, up 29%. Russia is currently the 33rd-largest export market for U.S. goods. Russian exports to the U.S. were fuel oil, inorganic chemicals, aluminum, and precious stones. U.S. exports to Russia were machinery, meat (mostly poultry), electrical equipment, and high-tech products.

Russia's overall trade surplus in 2006 was $139 billion, up from $118 billion in 2005. World prices continue to have a major effect on export performance, since commodities—particularly oil, natural gas, metals, and timber—comprise 80% of Russian exports. Russian GDP growth and the surplus/deficit in the Russian Federation state budget are closely linked to world oil prices.

Russia is in the process of negotiating terms of accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). The U.S. and Russia concluded a bilateral WTO accession agreement in late 2006, and negotiations continue in 2007 on meeting WTO requirements for accession. Russia reports that it has yet to conclude bilateral agreements with Saudi Arabia and Georgia.

According to the 2005 U.S. Trade Representative's National Trade Estimate, Russia continues to maintain a number of barriers with respect to imports, including tariffs and tariff-rate quotas; discriminatory and prohibitive charges and fees; and discriminatory licensing, registration, and certification regimes. Discussions continue within the context of Russia's WTO accession to eliminate these measures or modify them to be consistent with internationally accepted trade policy practices. Non-tariff barriers are frequently used to restrict foreign access to the market and are also a significant topic in Russia's WTO negotiations. In addition, large losses to U.S. audiovisual and other companies in Russia owing to poor enforcement of intellectual property rights in Russia is an ongoing irritant in U.S.-Russia trade relations. Russia continues to work to bring its technical regulations, including those related to product and food safety, into conformity with international standards.

==History==
{{See also|History of Russia}}
At the onset of [[Operation Barbarossa]], Russia was caught flatfooted in military preparedness and defense spending. In the four years during [[World War II]] the Russian economy became geared up and fully focused on arms manufacture. When the war ended, Russian conventional arms manufacturing never ceased and became one among several precipitating causes of the [[Cold War]]. Defense conversion to a peacetime, consumer driven, manufacturing economy never occurred. The situation was compounded by a costly [[nuclear arms race]] which made conventional arms spending redundant and wasteful. The communist system imposed a rigid cost-burden on ordinary people's lives to support the Soviet [[military industrial complex]] at the expense of luxury consumer goods, such as [[automobile]]s, [[television]] sets, and household appliances, that the [[Western]] capitalist system enjoyed.

Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union the Russian Federation has tried to improve the living standards of ordinary citizens and consumers by reducing costly defense expenditures and promote the manufacture of household consumer goods. However Russia has been forced to maintain its status as a nuclear [[superpower]] through a series of agreements with the United States, beginning in the period of ''[[Detente]]'' of the 1970s, to never allow [[China]] to catch-up in the sphere of [[nuclear weapon]]s development and manufacture. To live up to these commitments requires a constant process of modernization and adaptation to [[technology|technological]] improvements, which the Russian people can scarcely afford, but were forced into in the modern [[tri-polar]] world which has maintained the peace and avoided the use of nuclear weapons since 1945.

==See also==
* [[Big government]] [[liberal]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[socialist]] [[Nanny state]], leads to [[communist]] [[Police state]]
* [[Liberal totalitarianism]]
[[File:Repin Self Portrait 1878.jpg|thumb|[[Ilya Repin]], Self Portrait, 1878.]]
* [[Nuclear target structures]]
* [[Russian painting]]
* [[Gallery of Russian painting]]
* [[Soviet Union]]
* [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] 1983 shootdown incident that intensified "2nd Cold War"
* [[KAL 007: Soviet stalk, shoot down, and rescue mission orders transcripts]] with Russian Federation 1992 Soviet military communications handover to U.N.
* [[KAL 007: the Russian Federation support for a water landing]]
* [[Larry McDonald]] only U.S. congressman killed by the Russians during Cold War
* [[Pussy Riot]]
* [[Conservative Party of Russia]]
* [[Agrarian Party of Russia]]
* [[Fair Russia]]

==Further reading==
===Guidebooks===
* ''Frommer's Moscow & St. Petersburg'' by Angela Charlton (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Moscow-St-Petersburg-Complete/dp/0470194030/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* ''Eyewitness: Russia'' by Kathleen Berton Murrell, (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Eyewitness-Russia-Kathleen-Berton-Murrell/dp/0789458802/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Russia & Belarus'' (Lonely Planet Travel Guides) by Mark Elliott (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Russia-Belarus-Lonely-Planet-Travel/dp/1741042917/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239324359&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
===Surveys===
* Goldman, Marshall I. ''Petrostate: Putin, Power, and the New Russia'' (2008), by a leading scholar [https://www.amazon.com/Petrostate-Putin-Power-New-Russia/dp/0195340736/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-5 extract and text search]
* Politkovskaya, Anna. ''Putin's Russia: Life in a Failing Democracy'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Life-Failing-Democracy/dp/0805082506/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-9 extract and text search]
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Nicholas II to Vladimir Putin'' (2005)
* Lucas, Edward. ''The New Cold War: Putin's Russia and the Threat to the West'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/New-Cold-War-Putins-Russia/dp/0230606121/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-12 extract and text search]

====References====
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==

*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html The World Fact Book]
*[http://russiatrek.org Russian cities and regions guide]
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/ Then, from Egypt to Israel: Now, from Russia and the U.S.]
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/ An Open Secret: the gulags of the Russian Federation]

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:Russia]]
[[Category:Russian History]]
[[Category:Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]
[[Category:Arctic Circle]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Brazil

2020-12-07T13:48:36Z

United States: Minor cleanup.

{{Country
|name =''República Federativa do Brasil''
|map =Brazil rel94.jpg
|map2 =Brazil1.png
|flag =Flag of Brazil.png
|arms =Arms of Brazil.png
|capital =Brasilia
|capital-raw =
|government =
|government-raw =Presidential Federal republic
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Jair Bolsonaro
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,597 sq mi
|pop =215,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,850,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$8,605 (2020)
|currency =real
|idd =
|tld =
}}
Located in [[South America]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> '''Brazil''' has the third largest area among North/South American countries and the second largest population, having a total of 213 million people as of 2020. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. About three-quarters of all Brazilians belong to the [[Roman Catholic Church]]; most others are Protestant, members of a growing evangelical movement, or follow practices derived from African religions. [[São Paulo]] is its largest city, and the famous [[Rio de Janeiro]] is a major port city and former capital of Brazil. Brasilia is the present capital and became so in 1960 after it was planned and developed in 1956.

Brazil successfully hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics, the 2014 World Cup, and the 2013 World Youth Day. Brazil is known for its spectacular beaches, such as its world-renowned Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro.

Brazil is currently led by the [[conservative]] president [[Jair Bolsonaro]]. His foreign minister is the anti-[[Marxist]] conservative [[Ernesto Araújo]].

== The 2014 World Cup ==
[[File:Cathedral illumination for world cup 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cathedral]] of Brasília; illumination for world cup 2014.]]

The [[FIFA World Cup|FIFA 2014 World Cup]] was hosted in Brazil between 12 June and 13 July 2014. Twelve cities were selected for this tournament: Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasília, DF, São Paulo, SP, Porto Alegre, RS, Fortaleza, CE, Belo Horizonte, MG, Salvador, BA, Recife, PE, Cuiabá, MT Manaus, AM, Natal, RN, and Curitiba, PR. The United States team had as base camp the city of São Paulo, São Paulo. The tournament started with hosts Brazil facing Croatia on 12 June.

Teams and camps: Algeria (Sorocaba), Australia (Vitoria), Argentina (Vespasiano), Belgium (Mogi das Cruzes), Bosnia-Hercegovina (Guaruja), Brazil (Teresopolis), Cameroon (Vitoria), Chile (Belo Horizonte), Colombia (Cotia), Costa Rica (Santos), Croatia (Mata de Sao Joao), Ecuador (Viamao), England (Rio de Janeiro), France (Ribeirao Preto), Germany (Santa Cruz Cabralia), Ghana (Maceio), Greece (Aracaju), Honduras (Porto Feliz), Italy (Mangaratiba), Iran (Guarulhos), Ivory Coast (Aguas de Lindoia), Japan (Itu), South Korea (Foz do Iguacu), Mexico (Santos), Netherlands (Rio de Janeiro), Nigeria (Campinas), Portugal (Campinas), Russia (Itu), Spain (Curitiba), Switzerland (Porto Seguro), Uruguay (Sete Lagoas), United States (São Paulo). [https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25998576]

Brazilian Government website on the 2014 World Cup: [http://www.copa2014.gov.br/en Brazil and the World Cup.] [http://www.pinterest.com/armando4411/brazil-2014-stadiums/ See also: World Cup 2014 - Stadiums Architecture.]

The winner of this event was [[Germany]].

[[File:Arena das Dunas Natal.jpg|thumb|center|350px|Arena das Dunas, Natal.]]

==Geography==
[[File:Rio de Janeiro Brasil.jpg|thumb|left|Rio de Janeiro.]]
Brazil's topography includes the world's largest rain forest, which occupies roughly two-thirds of country. Through this forest run the many tributaries of the Amazon, second-longest river (after the Nile) in the world.
*Area: 8,511,965 km2. (3,290,000 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than the U.S.
*Cities: Capital—Brasilia (pop. 2.5 million). Other cities—São Paulo (10.9 million), Rio de Janeiro (6.1 million), Belo Horizonte (2.4 million), Salvador (2.9 million), Fortaleza (2.4 million), Recife (1.5 million), Porto Alegre (1.4 million), Curitiba (1.8 million).
*Terrain: Dense forests in northern regions including Amazon Basin; semiarid along northeast coast; mountains, hills, and rolling plains in the southwest, including Mato Grosso; midwestern savannahs; the world's largest wetland area; and coastal lowland.
*Climate: Mostly tropical or semitropical with temperate zone in the south.

==People==
[[File:Brasileiros.JPG|180px|left]]
With its estimated 186 million inhabitants, Brazil has the largest population in Latin America and the fifth-largest in the world. The majority of its people live in the south-central area, which includes the industrial cities of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte. Urban growth has been rapid; by 2005, 81% of the total population was living in urban areas. This growth has aided economic development but also has created serious social, security, environmental, and political problems for major cities.

Six major groups make up the Brazilian population: the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil in the 16th century; Africans brought to Brazil as slaves; various other European, Middle Eastern, and Asian immigrant groups who have settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century; and indigenous peoples of Tupi and Guarani language stock. Intermarriage between the Portuguese and indigenous people or slaves was common. Although the major European ethnic stock of Brazil was originally Portuguese, subsequent waves of immigration have contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage.
[[File:Amistoso selecao.jpg|thumb|left|World Cup 2014.]]
[[File:Brasil 2.JPG|240px|right]]
From 1875 until 1960, about 5 million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of São Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Immigrants have come mainly from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and the Middle East. The largest Japanese community outside Japan is in São Paulo. Despite class distinctions, national identity is strong, and racial friction is a relatively new phenomenon. Indigenous full-blooded Indians, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin, constitute less than 1% of the population. Their numbers are declining as contact with the outside world and commercial expansion into the interior increase. Brazilian Government programs to establish reservations and to provide other forms of assistance have existed for years but are controversial and often ineffective.

Brazil prohibits [[abortion]] unless necessary to save the life of the mother. Sometimes courts have authorized [[abortion]] in specific cases of rape or fetal handicap.<ref>https://www.hli.org/brazil.html</ref>

== Government ==
[[File:Jair Bolsonaro official photo.jpg|thumbnail|240px|President Jair Messias Bolsonaro]]
Brazil is a federal republic with 26 states and a federal district. The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. There are 81 senators, three for each state and the Federal District, and 513 deputies. Senate terms are eight years, staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later. Chamber terms are four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states. Each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats; the largest state delegation (São Paulo's) is capped at 70 seats. This system is weighted in favor of geographically large but sparsely populated states.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The major political parties are:
*Social Liberal Party (PSL-conservative-right)
*Workers' Party (PT-left-wing)
*Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center)
*Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB-center-left)
*Progressive Party (PP-right)
*Brazilian Labor Party (PTB-center-right)
*Democrats (DEM-center-right)
*Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB-left)
*Popular Socialist Party (PPS-left)
*Democratic Labor Party (PDT-left)
*Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB-left)
*Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL-left)
President Lula was re-elected October 29, 2006, in a second round victory with over sixty percent of the vote, over Geraldo Alckmin of the PSDB. Lula's PT party failed to win a majority in either the lower or upper houses in concurrent legislative elections and will be obliged to form a coalition with the centrist PMDB party—which won the most seats in the lower house and may end up with the largest number in the Senate—and a collection of minor parties. However, party loyalty is weak in Brazil, and it is common for politicians to switch parties, changing the balance of power in Congress. The PT won five of twenty-seven governorships, but the opposition PSDB remains in control of the critical states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. The PMDB, as in the legislative elections, won the most governorships of any one party, controlling seven states. Because of the mandatory revenue allocation to states and municipalities provided for in the 1988 constitution, Brazilian governors and mayors have exercised considerable power since 1989.

Lula's electoral victory came despite a series of corruption scandals that resulted in the resignation of senior PT officials and the electoral defeat of several congressmen from parties allied to the PT. At least four congressional investigations are ongoing, though Lula has yet to be personally linked to any of the scandals.

In the 2018 presidential election, [[conservative]] [[Jair Bolsonaro]] was elected Brazil's president, marking a major shift in Brazilian politics from the Marxist Left to the conservative-nationalist Right.

===Chief of State and Cabinet Members===
[[Image:Brasilia - Congress.jpg|thumb|200px|Brazilian Congress]]
*President—[[Jair Bolsonaro]]
*Vice President—[[Hamilton Mourão]]
*Minister of Defense—Fernando Azevedo e Silva
*Minister of Finance—[[Paulo Guedes]]
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—[[Ernesto Araújo]]
*Minister of Science and Technology—Marcos Pontes
*Minister of Justice—[[Sérgio Moro]]
*Chief of staff—Onyx Lorenzoni

{{clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Trump and Bolsonaro, March 2019.jpg|thumb|250px|Bolsonaro and U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] in March 2019]]
Brazil has traditionally been a leader in the inter-American community and played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the Allies in both World Wars. During World War II, its expeditionary force in Italy played a key role in the Allied victory at Monte Castello. It is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and a party to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Community of South American Nations (CASN) and Mercosul, a customs union including Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela and Brazil, with Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador as associate members.

Along with Argentina, Chile, and the U.S., Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, East Timor, and most recently Haiti. Brazil is currently leading the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti. Brazil served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council from 2004–2005. Prior to this, it had been a member of the UN Security Council four times. Brazil is lobbying for a permanent position on the Council.

As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international economic and trade policy discussions. For example, Brazil has been a leader of the G-20 group of nations in the WTO Doha Round talks. The U.S., Western Europe, and Japan are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. China is a growing market for Brazilian exports. Brazil also has bolstered its commitment to nonproliferation through ratification of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signing a full-scale nuclear safeguard agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), acceding to the Treaty of Tlatelolco, and joining the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

== Economy ==
[[File:ChristredeemerRio.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''Christ the Redeemer'', overlooking Rio de Janeiro]]
Brazil's economy is the largest economy in South America, the second-largest economy in the Americas, and the ninth-largest economy in the world. It is aided by a benign international environment, grew approximately 2.9% in 2005 and 3.7% in 2006. (Note: In early 2007, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) revised its methodology for computing gross domestic product and announced revised figures for 2000–2006.) Sustained growth, coupled with booming exports, healthy external accounts, moderate inflation, decreasing unemployment, and reductions in the debt-to-GDP ratio. President Lula and his economic team have implemented prudent fiscal and monetary policies and have pursued necessary microeconomic reforms.

Brazil has made progress but significant vulnerabilities remain. Despite registering year-on-year declines from 2004 to 2006, Brazil's (largely domestic) government debt remains high, at 50% of GDP. Total foreign debt, while falling, is still large in relation to Brazil's export base. Over time this concern will be reduced by healthy export growth, which has anchored the positive trade and current accounts. Personal incomes improved since 2004 after a significant decline over the previous decade. Income and land distribution remains skewed.

Sustaining high growth rates in the longer term depends on the impact of President Lula's structural reform program and efforts to build a more welcoming climate for investment, both domestic and foreign. In its first year, the [[Lula da Silva]] administration passed key tax and pension reforms to improve the government fiscal accounts. Judicial reform and an overhaul of the bankruptcy law were passed in late 2004, along with tax measures to create incentives for long-term savings and investments.

Legislation promoting public-private partnerships, a key effort to attract private investment to infrastructure, also passed in 2004. Labor reform and proposals to increase autonomy for the Central Bank are pending. In January 2007, the Lula administration announced a package of reforms to increase public investment and control spending growth. Despite this well-considered reform agenda, much remains to be done to improve the regulatory climate for investments, particularly in the energy sector; to simplify tax systems at the state and federal levels; and to further reform the pension system.

<blockquote>
Under Mr. da Silva, Brazil emerged as one of the world's major economies, along with Russia, India and China. It is estimated that 30 million people joined the middle class during his eight-year presidency. [https://www.voanews.com/english/news/Rousseff-Sworn-In-as-Brazils-First-Woman-President-112749864.html]
</blockquote>

===Trade Policy===
[[File:Ponte estaiada Octavio Frias - Sao Paulo.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The Octavio Frias de Oliveira bridge, São Paulo.]]
President Lula has made economic growth and poverty alleviation top priorities. Export promotion is a main component in plans to generate growth and reduce what is seen as a vulnerability to international financial market gyrations. To increase exports, the government is seeking access to foreign markets through trade negotiations and increased export promotion as well as government financing for exports.

To increase its international profile (both economically and politically), the Lula administration is seeking expanded trade ties with developing countries, as well as a strengthening of the Mercosul (Mercosur in Spanish) customs union with Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. In 2004, Mercosul concluded free trade agreements with Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru, adding to its existing agreements with Chile and Bolivia to establish a commercial base for the newly launched South American Community of Nations. Mercosul is pursuing free trade negotiations with Mexico and Canada and has resumed trade negotiations with the EU. The trade bloc also plans to launch trilateral free trade negotiations with India and South Africa, building on partial trade liberalization agreements concluded with these countries in 2004. In July 2006, Venezuela was admitted to the trade bloc as a full member; China has increased its importance as an export market for Brazilian soy, iron ore and steel, becoming Brazil's fourth largest trading partner and a potential source of investment.

===Reform Agenda===
In 2003, Congress passed Lula's key reforms of the public sector pension system and the tax code. The 2004 legislative season was not very productive, in part because of a political scandal early in the year followed by campaigning for the October municipal elections. In December 2004, several key bills passed into law, including a reform of the judicial system, a modern bankruptcy law, and Public-Private Partnerships to fund infrastructure projects. In March 2005, a law to legalize biotechnology crops and stem cell research passed. The domestic political scandal, which surfaced in June 2005 and led to multiple congressional investigations, sidetracked most reform legislation for the remainder of the 2005 and 2006 sessions.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Caracol Falls Brazil.jpg|thumb|Caracol Falls.]]
Agriculture is a major sector of the Brazilian economy, and is key for economic growth and foreign exchange. Agriculture accounts for 8% of GDP (30% when including agribusiness) and 40% of Brazilian exports. Brazil enjoyed a positive agricultural trade balance of $43 billion in 2006. Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugar cane, coffee, tropical fruits, frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), and has the world's largest commercial cattle herd (50% larger than the U.S.) at 170 million head. Brazil is also an important producer of soybeans (second to the United States), corn, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, and forest products. The remainder of agricultural output is in the livestock sector, mainly the production of beef and poultry (second to the United States), pork, milk, and seafood.

===Other Aspects===
Forests cover half of Brazil, with the largest rain forest in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and large-scale burning of forest areas have brought international attention. The government has reduced incentives for such activity and is implementing an ambitious environmental plan that includes an Environmental Crimes Law with serious penalties for infractions.

Brazil has one of the most advanced industrial sectors in Latin America. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles and parts, other machinery and equipment, steel, textiles, shoes, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, and petrochemicals, to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. Most major automobile producers have established production facilities in Brazil.
[[File:Cia de Dança Deborah Colker.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Cia. de Dança Deborah Colker.]]
Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. Mail and telecommunications are the largest, followed by banking, energy, commerce, and computing. During the 1990s, Brazil's financial services industry underwent a major overhaul and is relatively sound. The financial sector provides local firms a wide range of financial products. The largest financial firms are Brazilian (and the two largest banks are government-owned), but U.S. and other foreign firms have an important share of the market.

Privatization triggered a flood of investors after 1996. The yearly investment average in the telecommunications sector the 4 years prior to the start of privatization was R$5.8 billion, and the annual average for the four years following privatization was R$16.3 billion, nearly tripling. Investment in the electrical power sector increased from R$5.3 billion annually in the pre-privatization era to R$7.2 billion. U.S. companies provided a great deal of this influx of cash. After 2000, many of these investors suffered huge losses in the face of adverse regulatory decisions and especially the sharp depreciation of the real. The energy sector was especially hard hit.
[[File:Neimeyer Cathedrale de Brasilia.jpg|thumb|Cathedral of Brasilia by [[Oscar Niemeyer]].]]
In 2001, Brazil experienced an electricity crisis due to inadequate rainfall for its hydroelectric system and insufficient new investment in the sector. Mandatory rationing and price hikes were sufficient to prevent blackouts. The rationing system officially ended on March 1, 2002. Lula's then-Energy Minister unveiled an energy plan in July 2003, which left many vital details undefined and most investors dissatisfied.

The Government of Brazil has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. In the mid-1980s, imports accounted for more than 70% of Brazil's oil and derivatives needs; the net figure is nearing zero. Brazil is expected to become a net exporter of oil in 2007 as output from the Campos Basin continues to increase. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power. Of its total installed electricity-generation capacity of 90,000 megawatts, hydrological power accounts for 66,000 megawatts (74%).

Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality, coking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.

==History==
[[File:Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.jpg|thumb|Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.]]
Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. The colony was ruled from Lisbon until 1808, when Dom Joao VI and the rest of the Portuguese royal family fled from Napoleon's army, and established its seat of government in Rio de Janeiro. Dom Joao VI returned to Portugal in 1821. His son declared Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822, and became emperor with the title of Dom Pedro I. His son, Dom Pedro II, ruled from 1831 to 1889, when a federal republic was established in a coup led by Deodoro da Fonseca, Marshal of the Army. Slavery had been abolished a year earlier by the Regent Princess Isabel while Dom Pedro II was in Europe.

From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional republic, with the presidency alternating between the dominant states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a military coup that placed Getulio Vargas, a civilian, in the presidency; Vargas remained as dictator until 1945. Between 1945 and 1961, Jose Linhares, Gaspar Dutra, Vargas himself, Café Filho, Carlos Luz, Nereu Ramos, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros were elected presidents. When Quadros resigned in 1961, Vice President Joao Goulart succeeded him.
[[Image:Pan de azucar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pan de Azucar (Sugarloaf Mountain) in Rio de Janeiro]]
Goulart's years in office were marked by high inflation, economic stagnation, and the increasing influence of radical political elements. The armed forces, alarmed by these developments, staged a coup on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose as president [[Humberto Castelo Branco]], followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967–69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1969–74), and Ernesto Geisel (1974–79), all of whom were senior army officers. Geisel began a democratic opening that was continued by his successor, Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979–85). Figueiredo not only permitted the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, but also allowed them to run for state and federal offices in 1982.
[[File:Brasil.JPG|240px|left]]
At the same time, an electoral college consisting of all members of congress and six delegates chosen from each state continued to choose the president. In January 1985, the electoral college voted Tancredo Neves from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) into office as President. However, Neves became ill in March and died a month later. His Vice President, former Senator Jose Sarney, became President upon Neves' death. Brazil completed its transition to a popularly elected government in 1989, when Fernando Collor de Mello won 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in 29 years. In 1992, a major corruption scandal led to his impeachment and ultimate resignation. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and governed for the remainder of Collor's term culminating in the October 3, 1994 presidential elections, when Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President with 54% of the vote. Cardoso took office January 1, 1995, and pursued a program of ambitious economic reform. He was re-elected in October 1998 for a second four-year term. Luiz Inacio da Silva, commonly known as Lula, was elected president in 2002, after his fourth campaign for the office.

President Lula, a former union leader, was Brazil's first working-class president. After taking office, he took a prudent fiscal path, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to maintain tight fiscal [[Ascesis|austerity]] policies. Economic growth in 2004 and the first half of 2005 was strong with increases in employment and real wages. Growth slowed somewhat in the second half of 2005, but rebounded modestly in 2006.

Brazil's leftist government enacted strict gun control laws in the early 20th century, and in the two subsequent decades saw a massive increase in violent crime.<ref>De Castro, Fernando (September 14, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/gun-control-and-crime-rise-in-brazil_3073802.html Gun Control and Crime Rise in Brazil]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved September 15, 2019.</ref>

Brazilian President [[Dilma Rousseff]] was impeached for corruption in 2016. In 2017, [[Lula da Silva]] was convicted of corruption. Both political figures are socialists. Brazil has seen a growing [[conservative]] and [[evangelical]] movement.<ref>Pearson, Samantha (April 8, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brazil-turns-rightward-heralding-new-chapter-for-latin-america-1523216901 Brazil Turns Rightward, Heralding New Chapter for Latin America]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved April 9, 2018.</ref> In 2018, Brazil ended 15 years of Marxist rule by electing [[Jair Bolsonaro]], a strong conservative and nationalist, as president.

== Presidents ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!President
!Years
!State
!Party
!Vice President(s)
|-
|1. Deodoro da Fonseca
|1889-1891
|Alagoas
|none
|Peixoto
|-
|2. Floriano Peixoto
|1891-1894
|Alagoas
|None
|none
|-
|3. Prudente de Morais
|1894-1898
|São Paulo
|Federal Republican
|Vitorino
|-
|4. Campos Sales
|1898-1902
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Rosa e Silva
|-
|5. Rodrigues Alves
|1902-1906
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Pena
|-
|6. Afonso Pena
|1906-1909
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Peçanha
|-
|7. Nilo Peçanha
|1909-1910
|Rio de Janeiro
|Fluminensian Republican
|none
|-
|8. Hermes da Fonseca
|1910-1914
|Rio Grande do Sul
|Conservative Republican
|Brás
|-
|9. Venceslau Brás
|1914-1918
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Santos
|-
|10. Delfim Moreira
|1918-1919
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|none
|-
|11. Epitácio Pessoa
|1919-1922
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Moreira
|-
|12. Artur Bernardes
|1922-1926
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Coimbra
|-
|13. Washington Luís
|1926-1930
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Viana
|-
|14. [[Getúlio Vargas]]
|1930-1945
|Rio Grande do Sul
|Liberal Alliance
|none
|-
|15. José Linhares
|1945-1946
|Ceará
|none
|none
|-
|16. Eurico Gaspar Dutra
|1946-1951
|Mato Grosso
|Social Democratic
|Ramos
|-
|17. [[Getúlio Vargas]]
|1951-1954
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[Brazilian Labour Party|Brazilian Labour]]
|Filho
|-
|18. Café Filho
|1954-1955
|Rio Grande do Norte
|Social Progressive
|none
|-
|19. Carlos Luz
|1955
|Minas Gerais
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|20. Nereu Ramos
|1955-1956
|Santa Catarina
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|21. Juscelino Kubitschek
|1956-1961
|Minas Gerais
|Social Democratic
|Goulart
|-
|22. Jânio Quadros
|1961
|Mato Grosso do Sul
|[[National Labour Party|National Labour]]
|Goulart
|-
|23. Ranieri Mazzilli
|1961
|São Paulo
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|24. João Goulart
|1961-1964
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[Brazilian Labour]]
|none
|-
|25. Ranieri Mazzilli
|1964
|São Paulo
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|26. [[Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco]]
|1964-1967
|Ceará
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Alkmin
|-
|27. [[Arthur da Costa e Silva]]
|1967-1969
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Aleixo
|-
|28. [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]]
|1969-1974
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Rademaker
|-
|29. [[Ernesto Geisel]]
|1974-1979
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Santos
|-
|30. [[João Figueiredo]]
|1979–1985
|Rio de Janeiro
|Democratic Social
|Chaves
|-
|31. [[José Sarney]]
|1985–1990
|Maranhão
|[[Brazilian Democratic Movement]]
|none
|-
|32. Fernando Collor de Mello
|1990–1992
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Party of National Reconstruction|National Reconstruction]]
|Franco
|-
|33. Itamar Franco
|1992–1995
|Bahia
|[[Party of National Reconstruction|National Reconstruction]]
|none
|-
|34. Fernando Henrique Cardoso
|1995–2002
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Brazilian Social Democratic Party|Brazilian Social Democratic]]
|Maciel
|-
|35. [[Lula da Silva]]
|2002–2010
|Pernambuco
|[[Worker's Party|Worker's]]
|Alencar
|-
|36. [[Dilma Rousseff]]
|2011–2016
|Minas Gerais
|[[Worker's Party|Worker's]]
|Temer
|-
|37. [[Michel Temer]]
|2016–2018
|São Paulo
|[[Brazilian Democratic Movement]]
|''None''
|-
|38. [[Jair Bolsonaro]]
|2019–present
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Social Liberal Party|Social Liberal]]
|Mourão
|}

==See also==
[[File:Samba Brazil carnaval.jpg|right|Carnaval, 2011.]]
* [[Campinas Brazil Temple]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]
* [[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
* [[Mídia Sem Máscara]]

[[File:Arena da Amazonia, Manaus.jpg|thumb|left|Arena da Amazonia, Manaus.]]

{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

 

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm]}}}.
|}

 

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Brazil]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Canada

2020-12-07T13:46:56Z

United States: Cleanup

{{Country
|name =''Canada''
|map =Canada pol99.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Canada.png
|flag =Flag of Canada.svg
|arms =Canada arms.png
|capital =Ottawa
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Democracy/Federal Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English, French
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Justin Trudeau
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =
|pop =38,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,700,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$44,737
|currency =Canadian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Canada''' is a Representative [[Democracy]] in [[North America]] which extends from the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and northward to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada is the largest country by total area in [[North America]] and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation, as well as the longest border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Its border with the US is the longest undefended border in the world.

Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>

==Etymology==
The name Canada originated in 1535 by [[Jacques Cartier]] is based on the Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village."<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, Europeans began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867. The name continued until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the legal name. Canada Day, on July 1, used to known as be Dominion Day.

== Anthem==

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada. The English lyrics and French lyrics have several notable differences, with the French version being slightly longer.

==Geography==
[[File:E-canada.jpg|thumb|450px|political map of Canada]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]],. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government. Nunavut is the newest territory, created as a homeland for the Inuit people in 1999.

*Area: 9.9 million km2. (3.8 million sq. mi.); second-largest country in the world.
*Cities: Capital—Ottawa (pop. 1.1 million). Other major cities—Toronto (5.1 million), Montreal (3.6 million), Vancouver (2.1 million), Calgary (1.1 million), Edmonton (1.0 million), Quebec City (0.7 million), Winnipeg (0.7 million), Hamilton (0.7 million).
*Terrain: Mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the southeast.
*Climate: Temperate to arctic.
{{Clear}}

==People==
[[File:Canadian Aboriginal Festival.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Aboriginal leader at the 13th Annual Canadian Aboriginal Festival, 2006.]]
*Population (2008 est.): 33.1 million.
*Ethnic groups: British/Irish 28%, French 23%, other European 15%, Asian/Arab/African 6%, indigenous Amerindian 2%, mixed background 26%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 43.6%, Protestant 29.2%, other Christian 4.3%, Muslim 2.0%, Jewish 1.1%, Buddhist 1.0%, Hindu 1.0% other 1.3%, none 16.5%.
*Languages: English (official) 57.8%, French (official) 22.1%, other 20.1% (including Chinese and aboriginal languages).
*Education: Literacy—99% of population aged 15 and over has at least a ninth-grade education.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—5.4/1,000. Life expectancy—77.7 yrs. male, 82.5 yrs. female.
*Work force (2008, 18.2 million): Goods-producing sector—25%, of which: manufacturing 15%; construction 6%; agriculture 2%; natural resources 2%; utilities 1%. Service-producing sector—75%, of which: trade 16%; health care and social assistance 11%; educational services 7%, accommodation and food services 7%; professional, scientific, and technical services 7%; finance 6%; public administration 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%; information, culture, and recreation 5%; other services 4%.

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live" in the world.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"] ("Canadian cities scored well, as did Austria's Vienna and Switzerland's Geneva, because they are not seen as targets for terror attacks.")</ref> Calgary has been named on several occasions the world's cleanest city.
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A satellite image of Canada.]]

====Culture====
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British culture. Quebec maintains a French culture but has been largely cut off from Parisian trends for 250 years. Since 1800 Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, television shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. The Canadian television industry has a local content requirement, which requires the use of Canadian actors in Canadian productions. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world, with the percentage growing every day.<ref>http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm</ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as its official language, New Brunswick both French and English, making it the only bilingual province, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitut and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognizes French and English.

Canada tends to reflect significantly more liberal social policies than the neighboring states of the northern U.S. One such example is the legalizing of [[same-sex "marriage"]] in June 2005.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> Another is its single-payer health care system.

In comparing the suicide rates between Canada and its closest neighbour the US, Canada has a slightly higher rate.<ref>[http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suiciderates/en/ WHO: Suicide rates]</ref> It has been suggested that this slightly higher rate of suicide is induced by Seasonal Affective Disorder, a mental health disorder prevalent in northern countries due the significantly reduced or non-existent daylight hours during the winter. Severe episodes of Seasonal Affective Disorder can cause suicidal thoughts.<ref>http://www.cmha.ca/bins/content_page.asp?cid=3-86-93-291</ref>

<center>
[[File:Toronto Canada 2009.jpg]]

Panorama of Toronto, Ontario.
</center>

===Sports===
See [[Canadian sports]]

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The most recent winter Olympics was held in 2010 in Vancouver and Whistler. Canada finished third overall in the medal count and was first in the gold medal count with 14 gold. This was the first instance of Canada winning a gold medal on home ground and a moment of national pride.

====Cultural Style====
[[File:Canada Orchestra.jpg|thumb|Collegiate band.]]
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints.<ref>See [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures]</ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although their economy, society, and culture closely resembles the U.S., and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. Canada is usually contrasted as a "cultural mosaic" to the United States' "melting pot". Canadian and U.S. polls habitually confirm citizens of both countries view the relationship with each other in a highly positive light, and consider each other with a special respect afforded to common allies.<ref>http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/canadian-cultural-mosaic-american-melting-pot</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Education====
[[File:Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane.jpg|thumb|330px|Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane, 1847.]]
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example, has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kindergarten with school starting at age 5 going to grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardized provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and private(either corporate or religious). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

A source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, Canada scores +.967 and the U.S. +950.

====Religion====

''See also:'' [[Canada and irreligion]]

For the total population, in 2001, 12.9 million (44%) were Roman Catholic, with 8.7 million Protestants (29%). 4.9 million (16% ) report no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics). Other religions of significance in Canada include 580,000 Muslims; 330,000 Jews; 300,000 Buddhists; 297,000 Hindus; and 278,000 Sikhs.<ref>See [http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm "Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)"]</ref>

Catholicism formerly dominated Quebec until the "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s, which has greatly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in Quebec, and its participation rates.
[[File:Gurion Hyman Jewish people of Canada.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Jewish people of Canada.]]
The proportion attending religious services on a regular basis has declined over the past 20 years. According to the General Social Survey (GSS), 21% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported they attended a religious service at least once a week in 2005, down from 30% in 1985.<ref>Colin Lindsay, "Canadians attend weekly religious services less than 20 years ago," [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-630-x/2008001/article/10650-eng.htm ''Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref> Between 1985 and 2004, the share of Canadians aged 15 and older reporting no religious affiliation increased by seven percentage points from 12% to 19%. 37% of Canadians who rarely attend formal services nevertheless regularly engage in personal religious practices. Of of those who had not attended any religious services over the previous year, 27% engaged in weekly religious practices on their own. Overall this group of adults who regularly engage in private religious practices, but infrequently or never attend religious services, represent, 21% of the adult population. This pattern was most prevalent among older Canadians.<ref>Warren Clark and Grant Schellenberg, "Who's religious?" [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2006001/9181-eng.htm '"Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref>

Civil liberties organizations, the media, and some members of Parliament occasionally criticized federal and provincial human rights commissions and tribunals for their application of hate speech restrictions included in federal and provincial human rights acts, claiming that the commissions and tribunals at times limited free speech and expression, and religious rights. The commissions are required by law to process all complaints they receive.

A complaint against the editor of ''Catholic Insight'', alleging the magazine promoted hatred against homosexuals, remained before the Canadian Human Rights Commission at the end of 2008. The complainant alleged that he was upholding Catholic teaching on homosexuality in the magazine.

In June 2008 members of the Ontario legislature voted unanimously to maintain the tradition of reading the Lord's Prayer in the provincial legislature and to add a rotation of prayers from other major religious traditions and a moment of silent reflection for atheists. The vote was prompted by a proposal by Ontario's premier in February 2008 to discontinue the religious observance.

==Government==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government. The governor General (GG) thus appoints the Prime minister.

The Senate is made up of senators appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governor General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The senators and the governor general are appointed positions by the sitting government. Senators are "lifetime" (until 75 years old) appointments and the Governor General will sit for, approximately, five yerars. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, a practise inherited from the British system. The PM's term can last up to five years.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently, the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occurred on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is Justin Trudeau, a member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], while His Excellency [[David Lloyd Johnston]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a liberal [[majority government]].<ref>http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canadavotes2011/</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General—David Lloyd Johnston
*Prime Minister—Justin Trudeau
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Stéphane Dion
*Ambassador to the United Nations—John McNee

===Politics===
On October 19, 2015, the Conservative party lost the election in favor of Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party.

On February 6, 2006, [[Stephen Harper]], leader of the Conservative Party, became Canada's twenty-second prime minister, succeeding Liberal Paul Martin. A policy wonk from Alberta, Harper rose from the ranks of conservative political party staffers. In Parliament, he became Leader of the Opposition (2002-6). In 2003 he became head of the western-based Canadian Alliance. He was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party of Canada when it was created in 2003 through the merger of Harper's Canadian Alliance and Peter MacKay's Progressive Conservative Party. The January 23, 2006 election victory by the Conservative Party ended twelve years of Liberal Party rule that, in the end, was tainted by accusations of corruption and ethical missteps. In the federal election on October 14, 2008, the Conservatives won 38% of the vote and formed a second minority government with 143 seats in the House of Commons. The Liberals won 26% of the vote and 77 seats in the House of Commons. As the party with the second-largest number of seats, the Liberals form the "official opposition."

The Conservatives made unexpected gains in Quebec by winning ten seats in the January 2006 election, but failed to increase their number of seats in the province in the 2008 election. The separatist Bloc Quebecois (BQ) had a majority (49) of Quebec's 75 seats (the BQ runs candidates only in Quebec). The left-leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) had 37 seats, and two independents also sat in Parliament. Harper beat off a threatening no-confidence vote in late 2008 by warning that a government that included the BQ separatists—who want Quebec to break away from Canada—was hostile to Canada's national unity.

On May 2, 2011 there was another election. The outcome was very dramatic and ground breaking. The Liberals traditionally placing first or second were reduced to just 34 seats becoming the third party of Canada. This happened from vote splitting in Ontario in which the leftists split their votes between the Liberals and the NDP. The Bloc Quebecois were destroyed in Quebec as the so-called "Orange Crush" of the NDP swept that province taking 59 out of 75 seats, leaving the BQ with a mere 4 seats. The NDP had their best results of all time and for the first time in history became the Official Opposition. The Conservatives came out on top though with 166 seats giving them their coveted majority. The Conservative lost the election of 2015 to the Liberal Party by a large margin.

Canada is ranked 5th on the [[Fraser Institute]]'s [https://www.fraserinstitute.org/economic-freedom/map?page=map&year=2014 Economic Freedom Index], with a score of 7.98 out of 10.

====2020 Leftist insurrection====
[[File:Commie vandals.png|right|300px|thumb|Communists vandalized the Memorial to the 100 million dead victims of Communism.]]
:{{See also|2020 Marxist insurrection}}
Canada did not escape the [[violence]], mayhem, and destruction of the 2020 [[Marxist]] uprising. In Toronto, [[Antifa]] declared [[class war]].<ref>https://youtu.be/XEQbLsRn6Zo</ref> In Montreal, a check cashing establishment was looted and destroyed<ref>https://streamable.com/3hwkx2</ref> and other businesses.<ref>https://streamable.com/92h4rr</ref> The Memorial to the 100 million dead [[victim]]s of [[Communism]] was vandalized.

===Policy===

Policy priorities of the Conservatives under Harper have remained fairly consistent since 2006: fighting the [[Recession of 2008]]; aiding the ailing [[Automobile]] industry; improving accountability and ethics in government; lowering taxes; fighting crime; reinvesting in defense; bolstering Canada's Arctic sovereignty; promoting national unity; and raising the profile of Canada's role abroad, through its combat mission in Afghanistan, contributions to stabilization in Haiti, and renewed partnership with Latin America. Harper has been friendly with the U.S., despite growing Canadian annoyance with restrictions on border crossings. Harper has been a strong supporter of [[NAFTA]], and works to increase Canada's oil exports to the U.S. He remains strong in the polls as Canada has suffered less from the worldwide [[Recession of 2008]] than the EU or the U.S.
[[File:Afghanistan Canadian army.JPEG|thumb|280px|Canadian army at Afghanistan.]]
[[Quebec]], with 23% of the national population, its distinctive French-language ("francophone") culture, angered the western provinces by wielding undue influence on the Federal Government and its repeated threats to national unity. Until Harper of Alberta became prime minister in 2006, the western provinces had denounced Ottawa's failure to appreciate the oil interests, one of Canada's major industries. Ontario complains that it pays out far more to the Federal Government than it gets back in revenues, while the Atlantic Provinces seek to assert greater control over fishing and mineral rights off their shores. The Federal Government ceded some power in a few areas of provincial jurisdiction, while seeking to strengthen the federal role in many other areas such as inter-provincial trade and the regulation of securities.

====National Unity====
Popular support for Quebec sovereignty appears to be on the wane, although Francophone pride in that province's unique cultural and linguistic identity remains very strong. Most Quebec voters seem to appreciate the economic benefits of remaining in the Canadian confederation and aim to advance their separate Francophone identity within the confederation. In a provincial election held on December 8, 2008, provincial Liberal Leader Jean Charest won a majority government. The separatist Parti Quebecois placed second.

====Quebec Secession Movement and the October Crisis====
[[File:Quebec1759.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Painting of British landing at Quebec, 1759.]]
There are trivial separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. The only movement of real significance is in Quebec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada".<ref>http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

This movement did reach a violent level however when the [[FLQ]] (Front de liberation du Quebec) undertook a series of letterbombings from 1963-1970 [http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005880.com] The terror campaign reached a fever pitch when Pierre Laporte and James Cross were kidnapped in their own homes by gun wielding FLQ members. [http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/101/] The government initiated a crackdown in which the War Measures Act was put in place. This allowed the government to detain suspected terrorists without trial, and is the only time where the measure has been enacted in peace time. [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/flq/11.html]. The measure was widely supported by Canadians at the time. The action was short-lived however as the members of the FLQ were tracked down and arrested. The body of Pierre Laporte was discovered in the trunk of a car outside a Canadian military base. James Cross was released after intense negotiations with the government. The remaining members of the FLQ were either jailed or as a result of negotiations deported to Cuba.

===Taxation===
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4%.<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref> The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also had managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years under the last Liberal government.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland,<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref> and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario,<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref> Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan). This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>[http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html Budget 2007]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia's combined federal and provincial corporate tax rate is lower than any jurisdiction in the United States.<ref name=tax>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishcolumbia.ca/Invest/Business-Climate/Pages/CompetitiveTaxClimate.aspx|title=Competitive Tax Climate|publisher=British Columbia|accessdate=Aug 12, 2012}}</ref> The BC corporate rate is 10% and the federal rate is 15%.<ref name=tax/>

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

====Public Health Care====
[[File:Trudeau.jpg|thumb|Pierre Elliot Trudeau.]]
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration".<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref> This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferral of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004.<ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians.<ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare]</ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for non-emergency surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==Defense==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defense.
[[File:Canadian Army ambulance Medical Truck.jpg|left|250px]]
The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force and the Reserve Force. The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure.<ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref> equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence.<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defense spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective. They have also taken steps to establish Canada's sovereignty over its arctic regions.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, including a few fighter planes used in operations in the middle East. Another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

==Economy==
[[File:Urmas Paet Canadian Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan, 2010.jpg|thumb|250px|The Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan with Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister, 2010.]]
*GDP: $1.700 trillion (2020)
*GDP growth rate: 1.9% (2020)
*GDP per capita: 44,737 (2020)
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, hydroelectric power, metals and minerals, fish, forests, wildlife, abundant fresh water.
*Agriculture: Products—wheat, livestock and meat, feed grains, oil seeds, dairy products, tobacco, fruits, vegetables.
*Industry: Types—motor vehicles and parts, machinery and equipment, aircraft and components, other diversified manufacturing, fish and forest products, processed and unprocessed minerals.
*Trade: U.S. merchandise exports to Canada (2007)--$248.9 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, industrial and electrical machinery, plastics, computers, chemicals, petroleum products and natural gas, and agricultural products. In 2007, 65% of Canada's imports came from the United States. U.S. merchandise imports from Canada (2007)--$313.1 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, crude petroleum and natural gas, forest products, agricultural products, metals, industrial machinery, and aircraft. In 2007, 76% of Canada's exports went to the U.S.

===Business===

Canada has invested heavily in high-tech, export-oriented businesses, achieving major success in:
* Aerospace: Canada's global share of aerospace activity has tripled in the last 20 years, making Canada the world's 5th largest aerospace producer.
* Ag-biotech: Canadian firms’ revenues exceed those of US agro-based companies and are more than double those of Japan and the UK.
* Agri-food: Canada is the world's fourth-largest exporter of agricultural products.
* Automotive: Canada is among the Top 10 automotive countries and the 3rd largest exporter of automotive products after Japan and the U.S. Most of the output goes to the U.S. market.
* Biotechnology: Canada is a leader in biotechnology—one of the top five countries in the world.
* Plastics: Canada is the world's fourth largest exporter of moulds and eighth largest exporter of plastics processing machinery.
* see also [[Canadian railways]]
[[File:O-bad-for-canada.jpg|thumb|200px|Leading Canadian newsmagazine evaluates Obama's threat to Canada, June 29, 2009]]

Canadians worry that Obama's economic policies will damage Canada's economy, especially [[cap and trade]], the Buy America rule in the 2009 stimulus, and environmental hostility to Canadian oil produced from oil sands.

===Energy===
Canada has vast natural resources and is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of energy. In 2005, Canada produced 19.1 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) of total energy, the fifth-largest amount in the world. Since 1980, Canada's total energy production has increased by 86%, while its total energy consumption has increased by only 48% during that period. Almost all of Canada's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.<ref>See Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Canada/Background.html "Canada" (2009 report)]</ref>

In 2005, the largest source of energy consumption in Canada was oil (31%), followed by hydroelectricity (25%) and natural gas (24%). Both coal (12%) and nuclear (7%) constitute a smaller share of the country's overall energy mix. From 1985-2005, Canada's overall energy mix has remained relatively stable, though hydroelectricity has decreased from 31%to 25%, as oil drilling is more popular than dam building. As of 2011, the trend has reversed, and Hydroelectricity is making 32% of the country's electricity. The remainder is produced by oil, and renewables.

==History==
* See [[History of Canada]]

[[File:VC John Robert Osborn Statue Military of Canada Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Statue, Military of Canada, John Robert Osborn, VC, [[Hong Kong]]'s Park.]]

==See also==
*[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]]

==Further reading==
* '''See [[History of Canada]] for a more detailed bibliography.'''

* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. ''Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian Society: A Guide to the Literature.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 156 pp.
* Bickerton, James, and Alain Gagnon. ''Canadian Politics'' (2004) 584 pages, textbook
* Blore, Shawn. ''Frommer's Canada'' (2004) 828 pages travel guide
* Campbell, Robert Malcolm et al. ''The Real Worlds of Canadian Politics: Cases in Process and Policy,'' (2004) 342 pages
* Conrad, Margaret, and Alvin Finkel. ''Canada: A National History.'' (2003), college textbook.
* DK Publishing. ''Canada'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Hugh Thompson (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Canada-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789495619/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249580319&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2004) 1650 very good entries
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Stephen-Harper-Future-William-Johnson/dp/0771095546/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239348955&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Morton, Desmond. ''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)
* ''National Atlas of Canada'' (1st ed. 1906; 2nd ed. 1915; 3rd ed. 1957; 4th ed. 1974; 6th ed. 1999 is electronic)
* Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan. ''The Canadian Federal Election of 2006'' (2006)
* Pryke, Kenneth G. and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. ''Profiles of Canada.'' (2003). 3rd edition of textbook
* Toye, William, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature.'' (1983). 843 pp.
* Wells, Paul. ''Right Side Up: the Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism'' (2006)
* Westhues, Anne. '' Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives,'' 2003

== External links ==
[[File:David Sorensen Horizon Center Focus No 2 Horizon-Series 2004.jpg|thumb|David Sorensen, Horizon Center Focus No. 2, Horizon-Series, 2004.]]
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [http://cansim2.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-win/cnsmcgi.pgm?Lang=Eng&SP_Action=Main-Principal&SP_Mode=2 Statistics Canada current data]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces], military
* [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/3000140-eng.htm ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1983)] The major historical data source.
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwDvF0NtgdU Canadian National Anthem]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNlTwaPQQH4&feature=related Canadian National Anthem (French)]
*[http://www.asianramblings.com/travel/hong-kong/battle-hong-kong/canadian-heroes-china-john-robert-osborn/ Battle of Hong Kong - Canadian Heroes in China: John Robert Osborn, VC.]

=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]
* [https://www.peoplespartyofcanada.ca/ People's Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Gun Control]]
[[Category:Anti Second Amendment]]

Italy

2020-12-07T13:45:02Z

United States: Minor clean-up.

{{Country
|name =''Repubblica Italiana''
|map =Italy rel 2004.jpg
|map2 =Italy location.png
|flag =Italyflag.gif
|arms =Italy-Emblem.png
|capital =Rome
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Italian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Sergio Mattarella
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Giuseppe Conte
|pm-raw =
|area =116,340 sq mi
|pop =60,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$2,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$33,058 (2020)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =.it
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on Italy and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
'''Italy''' is a country in [[Europe]], and was the center of the [[Roman Empire]] until its collapse. Italian cities led the [[Renaissance]], with world-class artists such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Donatello]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Titian]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Caravaggio]], and [[Giotto]]. Major cities today include [[Rome]], [[Milan]], [[Naples]] (Napoli), [[Turin]] (Torino), [[Palermo]], [[Genoa]] (Genova), [[Bologna]], [[Florence]] (Firenze) and [[Venice]] (Venezia).<ref>The [[Vatican City]], the governmental center of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], lies entirely within the boundaries of the capital city, Rome. The equally tiny sovereign state of [[San Marino]] is also entirely within Italy.</ref>

Italy relies on [[socialized medicine]] and "is known for its enormous morbidity in respiratory problems, more than three times any other European country."<ref>https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-lockdown-lunacy-1001322696</ref> In 2020, Italy had a far higher mortality from the [[coronavirus]] known as [[COVID-19]] than any country other than [[Spain]].
==Geography==
Italy, slightly larger than [[Arizona]], is a long peninsula shaped like a boot, surrounded on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea and on the east by the Adriatic. It is bounded by [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], and [[Slovenia]] to the north. The [[Apennine Mountains]] form the peninsula's backbone; the Alps form its northern boundary. The largest of its many northern lakes is Garda (143 sq mi; 370 km2); the Po, its principal river, flows from the [[Alps]] on Italy's western border and crosses the Lombard plain to the Adriatic Sea. Several islands form part of Italy; the largest are [[Sicily]] (9,926 sq mi; 25,708 km2) and [[Sardinia]] (9,301 sq mi; 24,090 km2).
*Area: 301,225 km2. (116,303 sq. mi.); about the size of Georgia and Florida combined.
*Cities: Capital—Rome (pop. 2.8 million, 3.7 million metro). Other cities—Milan (1.3 million, 3.9 metro), Naples (975,000, 3 million metro), Turin (900,000, 2.1 million metro).
*Terrain: Mostly rugged and mountainous.
*Climate: Generally mild Mediterranean; cold northern winters.

==People==
[[File:Rowers in Venice.jpg|thumb|left|Rowers in Venice.]]
Italy is largely homogeneous linguistically and religiously but is diverse culturally, economically, and politically. Italy has the fifth-highest population density in Europe—about 200 persons per square kilometer (490 per sq. mi.). Minority groups are small, the largest being the German-speaking people of Bolzano Province and the Slovenes around Trieste. There are also small communities of Albanian, Greek, Ladino, and French origin. Immigration has increased in recent years, however, while the Italian population is declining overall due to low birth rates. Although Roman Catholicism is the majority religion—85% of native-born citizens are nominally Catholic—all religious faiths are provided equal freedom before the law by the constitution.
*Population (November 2009 est.): Above 60.3 million.
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): 0.01%.
*Ethnic groups: Primarily Italian, but there are small groups of German-, French-, Slovene-, and Albanian-Italians.
*Religion: Roman Catholic (majority).
*Language: Italian (official).
*Education: Years compulsory—10. Literacy—98%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—5.72/1,000 live births. Life expectancy—77.01 years for men; 83.07 years for women.
*Work force (24.63 million, 2006 est.): Services—63%; industry and commerce—32%; agriculture—5%. Unemployment rate is 7

===Religion===
[[File:Milan Cathedral.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Cathedral of Milan (Duomo).]]
About 87% of native-born citizens are nominally Catholic, but only 20% regularly participate in worship services.<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108453.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref> Other significant Christian communities include Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses, Assembly of God, the Confederation of Methodist and Waldensian Churches, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and other small Protestant groups. Non-Catholic Christian groups, Muslims, Jews, Hindus, Baha'is, and Buddhists constitute less than 5% of the population and, with the exception of Jews, are mainly foreign-born.

Immigration, both legal and illegal, continues to add large numbers of non-Christian residents, mainly Muslims, from North Africa, South Asia, Albania, and the Middle East. The Ministry of Interior reports that there are 258 places of Islamic worship (mainly "garage" mosques) and 628 Islamic associations concentrated in Lombardy, Veneto, Lazio, Emilia Romagna, and Tuscany. The Jewish community is estimated at 30,000 and maintains synagogues in 21 cities. The most recent data indicate that approximately 14% of the population identifies itself as either atheist or agnostic. (Numbers do not add up to 100% because of overlapping categories.)

===Italy's Cultural Contributions===
[[File:Caravaggio.JPG|thumb|[[Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio]]]]
Europe's Renaissance period began in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries. Literary achievements, such as the poetry of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Francesco Petrarch|Petrarch]], [[Torquato Tasso|Tasso]], and [[Ludovico Ariosto|Ariosto]] and the prose of [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] and [[Alessandro Manzoni|Manzoni]], exerted a tremendous and lasting influence on the subsequent development of Western civilization, as did the painting, sculpture, and architecture contributed by giants such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], [[Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio|Caravaggio]], and [[Michelangelo|Michelangelo Buonarroti]].

The musical influence of Italian composers Monteverdi, Palestrina, and Vivaldi proved epochal; in the 19th century, Italian romantic opera flourished under composers Gioacchino Rossini, Giuseppe Verdi, and Giacomo Puccini. Contemporary Italian artists, writers, filmmakers, architects, composers, and designers contribute significantly to Western culture.

==History==
[[Image:Tiber.jpg|thumb|300px|The River Tiber.]]
The migrations of Indo-European peoples into Italy probably began about 2000 B.C. and continued down to 1000 B.C. From about the 9th century B.C. until it was overthrown by the [[Romans]] in the 3rd century B.C., the Etruscan civilization dominated the area. By 264 B.C. all Italy south of Cisalpine Gaul was under the leadership of Rome. For the next seven centuries, until the barbarian invasions destroyed the western Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., the history of Italy is largely the history of Rome.

From 800 on, the Holy Roman Emperors, Roman Catholic popes, Normans, and Saracens all vied for control over various segments of the Italian peninsula. Numerous city-states, such as [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]], whose political and commercial rivalries were intense, and many small principalities flourished in the late [[Middle Ages]]. Although Italy remained politically fragmented for centuries, it became the cultural center of the Western world from the 13th to the 16th century.

In 1713, after the War of the Spanish Succession, [[Milan]], [[Naples]], and [[Sardinia]] were handed over to the Hapsburgs of Austria, which lost some of its Italian territories in 1735. After 1800, Italy was unified by Napoléon, who crowned himself king of Italy in 1805; but with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria once again became the dominant power in a disunited Italy. Austrian armies crushed Italian uprisings in 1820–1821 and 1831.

=== Italian unification ===
[[File:Proclamazione della Repubblica sassarese - Giuseppe Sciuti, 1880.png|thumb|center|450px|Proclamazione della Repubblica Sassarese - Giuseppe Sciuti, 1880.]]
In the 1830s, [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], a brilliant liberal nationalist, organized the Risorgimento (Resurrection), which laid the foundation for Italian unity. Disappointed Italian patriots looked to the House of Savoy for leadership. Count Camille di Cavour (1810–1861), prime minister of Sardinia in 1852 and the architect of a united Italy, joined England and France in the Crimean War (1853–1856), and in 1859 helped France in a war against Austria, thereby obtaining Lombardy. By plebiscite in 1860, Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and the Romagna voted to join Sardinia. In 1860, [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] conquered Sicily and Naples and turned them over to Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed king of Italy in 1861. The annexation of Venetia in 1866 and of papal Rome in 1870 marked the complete unification of peninsular Italy into one nation under a constitutional monarchy.

=== Fascism and World Wars ===
{{See also|Italy in World War II}}
Italy declared its neutrality upon the outbreak of [[World War I]] on the grounds that Germany had embarked upon an offensive war. In 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies but obtained less territory than it expected in the postwar settlement. [[Benito Mussolini]], “Il Duce”. a former Socialist, organized discontented Italians in 1919 into the [[Fascism|Fascist Party]] to “rescue Italy from [[Bolshevik|Bolshevism]].” He led his Black Shirts in a march on Rome and, on Oct. 28, 1922, became prime minister. He transformed Italy into a dictatorship, embarking on an expansionist foreign policy with the invasion and annexation of Ethiopia in 1935 and allying himself with Adolf Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. When the Allies invaded Italy in 1943, Mussolini's dictatorship collapsed; he was executed by partisans on April 28, 1945, at Dongo on Lake Como. Following the armistice with the Allies (Sept. 3, 1943), Italy joined the war against Germany as a cobelligerent.

=== Italian Republic ===
A June 1946 plebiscite rejected monarchy and a republic was proclaimed. The peace treaty of Sept. 15, 1947, required Italian renunciation of all claims in Ethiopia and Greece and the cession of the Dodecanese islands to Greece and of five small Alpine areas to France. The Trieste area west of the new Yugoslav territory was made a free territory (until 1954, when the city and a 90-square-mile zone were transferred to Italy and the rest to Yugoslavia).

Italy became an integral member of [[NATO]] and the European Economic Community (later the [[EU]]) as it successfully rebuilt its postwar economy.

Until recently, there had been frequent government turnovers since 1945. The dominance of the Christian Democratic (DC) party during much of the postwar period lent continuity and comparative stability to Italy's political situation. A prolonged outbreak of terrorist activities by the left-wing Red Brigades threatened domestic stability in the 1970s, but by the early 1980s the terrorist groups had been suppressed. “Revolving door” governments, political instability, scandal, and corruption characterized Italian politics in the 1980s and 1990s.

=== Silvio Berlusconi and the "Second Republic" ===
From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters—disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime's considerable influence—demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. Scandal investigations touched thousands of politicians, administrators, and businessmen. In 1993 referendums, voters approved substantial changes, including moving from a proportional to a largely majoritarian electoral system and the abolishment of some ministries.

Major political parties, beset by scandal and loss of voter confidence, underwent far-reaching changes. The end of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Communism]] caused a crisis on the Left, with a complex reshuffling of voters. Party changes were sweeping. The Christian Democratic Party dissolved; the Italian People's Party and the Christian Democratic Center emerged. Other major parties, such as the [[Socialist]]s, saw support plummet. For this reason, this period is called the "Second Republic".

New political forces and new alignments of power emerged in March 1994 national elections. A new populist and free-market oriented movement, Forza Italia, gained wide support among moderate voters. The National Alliance broke from the neofascist Italian Social Movement. The election saw a major turnover in the new parliament, with 452 out of 630 deputies and 213 out of 315 senators elected for the first time. The 1994 elections also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]], and his Freedom Pole coalition, into office as Prime Minister. A trend toward two large coalitions—one on the center-left and the other on the center-right—emerged from the April 1995 regional elections.

Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in January 1995 when one member of his coalition withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a technical government headed by Prime Minister Lamberto Dini, which fell in early 1996. For the 1996 national elections, the center-left parties created the Olive Tree coalition while the center right united again under the Freedom Pole. The new elections in 1996 brought a center-left coalition to government for the first time after World War II.

A series of center-left coalitions dominated Italy's political landscape between 1996 and 2001. In April 1996, national elections led to the victory of a center-left coalition (the Olive Tree) under the leadership of Romano Prodi. Prodi's government became the second-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence (by three votes) in October 1998. A new government was formed by Democratic Party of the Left leader and former-communist Massimo D'Alema.

Italy adopted the [[euro]] as its currency in January 1999. Treasury Secretary Carlo Ciampi, who is credited with the economic reforms that permitted Italy to enter the European Monetary Union, was elected president in May 1999. Italy joined its [[NATO]] partners in the [[Kosovo]] crisis. Aviano Air Base in northern Italy was a crucial base for launching air strikes into Kosovo and [[Yugoslavia]].

In April 2000, following a poor showing by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned. The succeeding center-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by Giuliano Amato, who previously served as Prime Minister in 1992–93.

National elections, held on May 13, 2001, returned Berlusconi to power at the head of the five-party center-right Freedom House coalition, comprising the prime minister's own party, Forza Italia, the National Alliance, the Northern League, the Christian Democratic Center, and the United Christian Democrats. Berlusconi pledged to reduce unemployment, cut taxes, revamp the educational system, and reform the bureaucracy. His critics were alarmed by the apparent conflict of interest of a prime minister who also owned 90% of Italy's media. He was accused of Mafia connections and was under indictment for tax fraud and bribery. Found guilty in three out of four of his trials, he was acquitted in all of them on appeal. Several other cases are pending.

In Nov. 2002, Giulio Andreotti, who served as Italy's prime minister numerous times between 1972 and 1992, was sentenced to 24 years for ordering the [[Mafia]] to murder a journalist in 1979. At 84, however, he was deemed too old for prison.

At the end of 2003, Italian food giant [[Parmalat]] was accused of a massive accounting fraud scheme—$5 billion the company claimed was in fact nonexistent.

In April 2005, regional elections had disastrous results for Berlusconi's center-right coalition. The dismal state of the economy was blamed for the poor showing. Prime Minister Berlusconi resigned and formed a new government. The 60th government since the liberation of Italy was formed on April 23, 2005, with a new program emphasizing economic concerns. The previous Berlusconi government was the longest serving in Italy's post-war history. In the same year, parliament passed a new electoral law based on the full proportional assignment of seats.

In national elections held April 9–10, 2006, the center-left Union coalition led by Romano Prodi, a successor to the Olive Tree, won 49.8% of the vote and Berlusconi's House of Liberties coalition won 49.7%—a mere 25,000 vote difference. The Union coalition includes the Democratic Party of the Left, the Daisy Party, UDEUR (Union of Democrats for Europe), Rose in the Fist (made up by Italian Social Democrats and Italian Radical Party), Communist Renewal, the Italian Communist Party, and the Greens. Berlusconi refused to concede and called for a recount. He eventually relented, and Prodi was given the go-ahead by the newly installed president Giorgio Napolitano to form a government. Prodi served as prime minister once before (1996–98) and also as president of the European Union. Prodi's government proved fragile almost immediately. Indeed, he submitted his resignation just nine months into his term after a key foreign-policy vote about the deployment of troops to Afghanistan and an expansion of a U. S. military base failed in the Senate. Days later, the Senate, facing the prospect of Silvio Berlusconi returning to power, narrowly passed a vote of confidence in Prodi's government. Prodi remained in office, surely to face similar obstacles in the near future.

In April 2006, Italy caught and arrested Bernardo Provenzano, the alleged boss of the Sicilian Mafia, who had eluded authorities for 42 years.

In October 2007, the Democrats of the Left and the Daisy parties officially merged to form the '''Democratic Party'''.

[[File:Logo-pdl-berlusconi.jpg|left|200px]]
The Prodi government collapsed on January 24, 2008, when it lost a vote of confidence in the Senate and the Prime Minister submitted his resignation to the President. The Prodi government fell when small coalition partner UDEUR withdrew support. In February, the President dissolved parliament and Silvio Berlusconi returned to power after defeating former Rome Mayor Walter Veltroni by a comfortable margin in elections on April 13–14, 2008. Berlusconi's winning coalition was composed of the '''People of Liberty''' (a union of Forza Italia and Gianfranco Fini's National Alliance), the Northern League, and the Movement for Autonomy. The election greatly simplified parliament, dramatically reducing the numbers of parties, and for the first time since World War II, leaving communist parties out of parliament. People of Liberty (37.4%) won the largest share of the vote and took power in coalition with a strengthened Northern League (8.3%) and the tiny Movement for Autonomy (1.1%). The Democratic Party scored 33.2% and ran in alliance with Italy of Values (4.4%), while the Union of the Center (5.6%) ran alone.

Berlusconi was sworn in as Prime Minister on May 8. Veltroni resigned as leader of the opposition in February 2009, and his deputy, Dario Franceschini, was elected new Democratic Party leader. In March 2009, Forza Italia and National Alliance changed the People of Liberty identification from an alliance to a party. The new mass center-right party is Italy's largest party and one of the largest in Europe. Party leaders define the party as post-ideological, charismatic, and pragmatic. It is led by Berlusconi.

In 2010, Gianfranco Fini's conservative party Future and Freedom emerged from a split from Berlusconi's People of Liberty party.

===Rise of conservative populism===
[[File:Conte Cabinet 2018.jpg|thumb|250px|The populist cabinet under Prime Minister Conte]]
After the 2018 Italian elections, which saw populist and anti-establishment parties receive over 50% of the vote, the [[Five Star Movement]] and [[Lega Nord]], the latter led by [[Matteo Salvini]], formed a governing coalition. Other parties strongly opposed Salvini's conservative immigration policies, and the Italian Democratic Party called for [[open borders]].<ref>Tomlinson, Chris (August 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/24/italy-democrat-party-wants-borders-re-opened-as-price-of-replacing-salvini-party-in-coalition-govt/ Italy: Democrat Party Wants Borders Re-Opened as Price of Replacing Salvini Party in Coalition Govt]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2019.</ref>

===Coronavirus===
In March 2019, Italy entered into a new agreement with China, part of its “one belt, one road” initiative, a sweeping economic agreement with the country that saw the port of Triesta in northern Italy “revitalized” and managed by The [[PRC]].

The project makes enormous infrastructure investments to move Chinese goods and resources. Italy became the first of the Group of 7 nations that once dominated the global economy to take part in China's “One Belt One Road” throughout Asia, Africa and Europe.

The Trump administration, which tried and failed to stop the deal, focused in the days leading up to Mr. Xi's visit on blocking any Italian use of 5G wireless networks developed by the Chinese electronics giant Huawei, which Washington warned could be used by Beijing to spy on communications networks.

Italy, which is saddled with crushing debt, hopes to lift its lagging economy by exporting goods to China and inviting more Chinese investment.

But opponents of the project in the [[Trump administration]] and in the European Union worry that Italy has turned itself into a Trojan Horse, allowing China's economic — and potentially military and political — expansion to reach into the heart of Europe.<ref>[https://uncoverdc.com/2020/03/20/why-italy/ ''Why Italy?''. March 20, 2020].</ref>

Italy is the home of some 300,000 legally registered Chinese with many more illegal. As the [[Chinese Communist Party]] withheld information about the seriousness and spread of [[Wuhan coronavirus]] in January 2020, many of these immigrants were returning- and arriving – from China to celebrate the Chinese New Year holiday with family.

==Government==
Italy has been a democratic republic since June 2, 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by popular referendum. The constitution was promulgated on January 1, 1948.

The Italian state is centralized. The prefect of each of the provinces is appointed by and answerable to the central government. In addition to the provinces, the constitution provides for 20 regions with limited governing powers. Five regions—Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige, Valle d'Aosta, and Friuli-Venezia Giulia—function with special autonomy statutes. The other 15 regions were established in 1970 and vote for regional "councils." The establishment of regional governments throughout Italy has brought some decentralization to the national governmental machinery, and recent governments have devolved further powers to the regions. Many regional governments, particularly in the north of Italy, are seeking additional powers.

The 1948 constitution established a perfectly bicameral parliament (Chamber of Deputies and Senate), a separate judiciary, and an executive branch composed of a Council of Ministers (cabinet), headed by the president of the council (prime minister). The president of the republic is elected for seven years by the parliament sitting jointly with a small number of regional delegates. The president nominates the prime minister, who chooses the other ministers. The Council of Ministers—in practice composed mostly of members of parliament—must retain the confidence of both houses.

The houses of parliament are popularly and directly elected by a proportional representation system. Under 2005 legislation, the Chamber of Deputies has 630 members (12 of which are elected by Italians abroad). In addition to 315 elected members (six of which are elected by Italians abroad), the Senate includes former presidents and several other persons appointed for life according to special constitutional provisions. Both houses are elected for a maximum of five years, but either may be dissolved before the expiration of its normal term. Legislative bills may originate in either house and must be passed by a majority in both.

The Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and subsequent statutes. There is only partial judicial review of legislation in the American sense. A constitutional court, which passes on the constitutionality of laws, is a post-World War II innovation. Its powers, volume, and frequency of decisions are not as extensive as those of the U.S. Supreme Court.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President: Sergio Mattarella
*Prime Minister: Giuseppe Conte
*Foreign Minister: Enzo Moavero Milanesi
*Minister of Defense: Elisabetta Trenta
*Minister of Finance: Giovanni Tria
*Minister of Justice: Alfonso Bonafede
*Minister of the Interior: [[Matteo Salvini]]

===Foreign Relations===
Italy was a founding member of the European Community—now the [[European Union]] (EU). Italy was admitted to the [[United Nations]] in 1955 and is a member and strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Council of Europe. It chaired the CSCE (the forerunner of the OSCE) in 1994, the EU from July to December 1990, January to June 1996, and July to December 2003, and the G-8 in 2001 and in 2009. Italy served a two-year term on the UN Security Council in 2007–2008.

Italy firmly supports the United Nations and its international security activities. Italy leads the UN mission in Lebanon (UNIFIL) and has actively participated in and deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and Timor-Leste. It provides critical support for NATO and EU operations in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Georgia, and Chad.

Italy, under NATO's ISAF, maintains a Provincial Reconstruction Team in the western [[Afghanistan]] province of Herat, commands RC-West, and maintains a Carabinieri police training center. Italy supports reconstruction and development assistance to the Iraqi people through humanitarian workers and other officials, particularly in Dhi Qar Province, and is a leading contributor to the NATO Training Mission-Iraq, with approximately 100 military personnel and Carabinieri police trainers. Currently almost 9,000 Italian troops are deployed, including 2,100 in Kosovo, 2,350 in Lebanon as part of UNIFIL, and over 2,600 in Afghanistan. It will send another 1000 troops for the surge in [[Afghanistan War|Afghanistan]] in 2010.

=== Armed forces ===
The Italian Constitution explicitly repudiates war as a mean to solve international conflicts<ref>http://www.governo.it/Governo/Costituzione/principi.html</ref> but still affirms that the defence of the fatherland is a citizen's "sacred duty" and that, when required by the law, military service is mandatory.<ref>http://www.governo.it/Governo/Costituzione/1_titolo4.html</ref> Therefore, the Italian Republic maintains four armed forces:
* The Italian Army, ''Esercito Italiano'', is the ground branch and numbers above 108,000 troops. Its most famous equipment include the C-1 ''Ariete'' main battle tank, the ''Centauro'' wheeled armored car, the AR-70/90 assault rifle and the Beretta M9 pistol, which is also used by the United States armed forces. Among the corps which make up the Army, it's worthy to remember: the ''Alpini'' (mountain troops), the ''Bersaglieri'' (light infantry) and the ''Lagunari'' (marines).
* The Italian Navy, ''Marina Militare'', is the sea branch and counts 31,000 sailors and 70 warships, among them: the ''Cavour'' and ''Garibaldi'' aircraft carriers, the ''Horizon'' destroyers and the ''Amerigo Vespucci'' school sailship for naval cadets. The Com.Sub.In. (Underwater Incursion Command) are the Italian Navy SEALs, extremely well trained and with a long history of daring victories.
* The Italian Air Force, ''Aeronautica Militare'', is the air branch and musters 42,960 airmen and officers and 665 planes and helicopters. Its acrobatic patrol is highly famed and is known as the ''Tricolor Arrows'.
* The Carabinieri Corps, ''Arma dei Carabinieri'' is the national gendarmery force, 120,000-strong. Formerly part of the Army, the Carabinieri act both as a civilian police force and a military one. They maintain some combat-ready light infantry units, the "Hunters" regiments.

The Italian armed forces relied upon conscription for almost a hundred and fifty years, but mandatory service was abolished in 2005, moving them to a professionist, volunteer model.

==Economy==
[[File:Banca Commerciale Italiana Milan.JPG|thumb|300px|Palace of the "Banca Commerciale Italiana", Milan.]]
The Italian economy has changed dramatically since the end of World War II. From an agricultural-based economy, it has developed into an industrial state ranked as the world's eighth-largest economy. Italy belongs to the Group of Seven (G-7) industrialized nations; it is a member of the European Union and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

Italy has few natural resources. With much land unsuited for farming, Italy is a net food importer. There are no substantial deposits of iron, coal, or oil. Proven natural gas reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic, constitute the country's most important mineral resource. Most raw materials needed for manufacturing and more than 80% of the country's energy sources are imported. Italy's economic strength is in the processing and the manufacturing of goods, primarily in small and medium-sized family-owned firms. Its major industries are precision machinery, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, electric goods, and fashion and clothing.

Italy's economic growth averaged only 0.66% for the five years ending in 2005; 2006 GDP growth reached 1.9%, largely due to export growth to the Euro zone area.

Italy continues to grapple with budget deficits and high public debt—2.6% and 105.9% of GDP for 2008, respectively. Italy joined the European Monetary Union in 1998 by signing the Stability and Growth Pact, and as a condition of this Euro zone membership, Italy must keep its budget deficit beneath a 3% ceiling. The Italian Government has found it difficult to bring the budget deficit down to a level that would allow a rapid decrease of that debt. The worsening of the economic situation is expected to jeopardize this effort. The deficit is expected to grow well above the 3% ceiling in 2009 and 2010.

Italy's economic growth averaged only 0.8% in the period 2001–2008; 2008 GDP decreased 1.0%, largely due to the global economic crisis and its impact on exports and domestic demand. GDP is expected to contract further, with a huge decrease in 2009 (ranging from 2% to 3%) as the Euro zone and world economies slow.

Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 60.1% of its total trade (2007 data). Its largest EU trade partners are Germany (12.9%), France (11.4%), and the United Kingdom (5.8%). Italy continues to grapple with the effects of globalization, where China has undersold the Italian lower-end industrial product sector.

The Italian economy is also affected by a large underground economy—worth some 27% of its GDP. This production is not subject, of course, to taxation and thus remains a source of lost revenue to the local and central government.

*GDP (purchasing power parity, 2007 est.): $1.8 trillion.
*GDP per capita (purchasing power parity, 2007 est.): $31,000.
*GDP growth: 1.7% (2007); 1.9% (2006); 0.1% (2005); 0.9% (2003 est.); 0.4% (2002); 1.8% (2001).
*Natural resources: Fish and natural gas.
*Agriculture: Products—wheat, rice, grapes, olives, citrus fruits, potatoes, sugar beets, soybeans beef, dairy products.
*Industry: Types—tourism, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, food processing, textiles, motor vehicles, clothing, footwear, ceramics.
*Trade: Exports (2007 est.)--$474.8 billion f.o.b.: mechanical products, textiles and apparel, transportation equipment, metal products, chemical products, food and agricultural products. Partners (2006)--Germany 13.2%, France 12.3%, U.S. 7.5%, Spain 7.5%, U.K. 6.6%. Imports (2007 est.)--$483.6 billion f.o.b.: machinery and transport equipment, foodstuffs, ferrous and nonferrous metals, wool, cotton, energy products. Partners (2006)--Germany 17.3%, France 10.0%, Netherlands 5.7%, China 5.2%, Belgium 4.5%, Spain 4.3%.

====U.S.-Italy Economic Relations====
[[File:Thomas Moran Amalfi Coast ca 1867 68.jpg|thumb|[[Thomas Moran]], Amalfi Coast, ca. 1867 - 68.]]
The United States and Italy cooperate closely on major economic issues, including within the G-8. With a large population and a high per capita income, Italy was the United States' twelfth-largest trading partner in 2008, with total bilateral trade of $51.6 billion comprised of exports to Italy totaling $15.5 billion and imports worth $36.1 billion. The U.S.'s $20.7 billion deficit with Italy in 2008 was slightly below the $20.9 billion deficit registered in 2007. Machinery and aircraft are becoming important U.S. exports. U.S. foreign direct investment in Italy at the end of 2007 exceeded $28.4 billion.

====Labor====
Unemployment is a regional issue in Italy—low in the north, high in the south. The overall national rate is at its lowest level since 1992. Chronic problems of inadequate infrastructure, corruption, and organized crime act as disincentives to investment and job creation in the south. A significant underground economy absorbs substantial numbers of people, but they work for low wages and without standard social benefits and protections. Women and youth have significantly higher rates of unemployment than do men.

Unions claim to represent 40% of the work force. Most Italian unions are grouped in four major confederations: the General Italian Confederation of Labor (CGIL), the Italian Confederation of Workers' Unions (CISL), the Italian Union of Labor (UIL), and the General Union of Labor (UGL), which together claim 35% of the work force. These confederations formerly were associated with important political parties or currents, but they have evolved into fully autonomous, professional bodies. The CGIL, CISL, and UIL are affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and customarily coordinate their positions before confronting management or lobbying the government. The confederations have had an important consultative role on national social and economic issues.

====Agriculture====
Italy's agriculture is typical of the division between the agricultures of the northern and southern countries of the European Union. The northern part of Italy produces primarily grains, sugarbeets, soybeans, meat, and dairy products, while the south specializes in fruits, vegetables, olive oil, wine, and durum wheat. Even though much of its mountainous terrain is unsuitable for farming, Italy has a large work force (1.4 million) employed in farming. Most farms are small, with the average size being only seven hectares.

== See also ==
*[[Benito Mussolini]]
*[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Marco Polo]]
*[[The Renaissance]]
*[[Italian Painting]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107658.html Italy.]

==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

{{European Union}}

[[Category:Italy|*]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

India

2020-12-07T13:44:13Z

United States: Minor clean-up/update

{{Country
|name =''भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaharājya''
|map =India rel01.jpg
|map2 =India location.png
|flag =Flag of India svg.png
|arms =Emblem of India.png
|capital =New Delhi
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic
|government-raw =
|language =[[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Ram Nath Kovind
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Narendra Modi
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,590 sq mi
|pop =1,380,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$3,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$2,174 (2020)
|currency =[[rupee]]
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''India''' is a major [[Social democracy|social democratic]] nation located in [[South Asia]] with a [[population]] of 1.3 billion people. It spans from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It borders [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]]. India is the 7th largest country in the world in terms of area and second most populous country (standing at around 1.4 billion according to 2021 estimate), only behind China.

India is far more [[conservative]] than [[China]], and the vast majority of Indians practice [[Hinduism]], a religion which emphasizes family values, education, and tradition. The belief in [[reincarnation]] in Hinduism gives primacy to the future rather than the past, in contrast with Chinese religions.

Founded on August 15, 1947, India was known as the ''Union of India'' until it re-declared itself a [[democratic republic]], using the name Republic of India. Though India is the world's third-largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, and the fifth-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, it has high levels of [[poverty]], [[illiteracy]], [[corruption]] and [[crime]]. However, poverty, illiteracy, corruption, and crime are declining dramatically.

==Etymology==
The name "India" came from the word 'Indus', which derives from the [[Persian]] word "[[Hindu]]" which was used to describe the Sindhu river (now known as the [[Indus River|Indus]]). This river completes the [[West|westerly]] [[perimeter]] of the country.<ref>{{cite book|page=334|title=The Art Of Self-Realization|author=A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|year=2016|isbn=978-09946548098}}</ref>

==People==
[[File:Indians.jpg|right]]
Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population; only China has a larger population. India's median age is 25, one of the youngest among large economies. About 70% live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over the thousands of years of its history, India has been invaded from the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, Arabia, Afghanistan, and the West; Indian people and culture have absorbed and modified these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis.

Religion, [[caste]], and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. However, with more job opportunities in the private sector and better chances of upward social mobility, India has begun a quiet social transformation in this area. The government has recognized 18 official languages;<ref>"In the early 1900s ... English was ascendant in India. ... It was the lingua franca to which Indians, who spoke more than a dozen distinct languages, turned when they did not otherwise understand one another." ([https://www.amazon.com/The-Man-Who-Knew-Infinity/dp/0671750615 ''The Man Who Knew Infinity''], page 25 - [[Robert Kanigel]])</ref> Hindi, the national language, is the most widely spoken, although English is a national lingua franca. Although 81% of its people are Hindu, India also is the home of more than 138 million Muslims—one of the world's largest [[Muslim]] populations. The population also includes [[Christian]]s, [[Sikh]]s, [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Parsi]]s.

The Hindu [[caste system]] reflects Indian occupational and socially defined hierarchies. Ancient [[Sanskrit]] sources divide society into four major categories, priests ([[Brahmin]]), warriors ([[Kshatriya]]), traders-[[merchant]]s ([[Vaishya]]) and farmers/laborers ([[Shudra]]). Although these categories are understood throughout India, they describe reality only in the most general terms. They omit, for example, the tribes and those once known as "[[untouchables]]." In reality, Indian society is divided into thousands of jatis—local, endogamous groups based on occupation—and organized hierarchically according to complex ideas of purity and pollution. Discrimination based on caste is officially illegal, but remains prevalent, especially in rural areas. Nevertheless, the government has made strong efforts to minimize the importance of caste through active affirmative action and social policies. Moreover, caste has been diluted if not subsumed in the economically prosperous and heterogeneous cities, where an increasing percentage of India's population lives. In the countryside, expanding education, land reform and economic opportunity through access to information, communication, transport, and credit have lessened the harshest elements of the caste system.

==Religions==

===Overview===
[[File:Indian family going to church.jpg|thumb|Indian family going to church.]]
India has over 900 million [[Hindu]]s, 150 millions [[Muslim]]s, 25 million [[Christian]]s and 20 million [[Sikh]]s among the many religious groups that make up the country<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html</ref> including communities of [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Bahai]].

India is the region where four major world religions were founded:
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Jainism]]
*[[Sikhism]]

Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, after Christianity and Islam, with a collective 1.4 billion followers.

===Hinduism in India===
[[Image:Krishna a la flute.gif|right|180px]]
Hinduism as it is identified today has existed in India for over 4000 years; in the past it had spread to the rest of South-East [[Asia]] and [[Indonesia]], although Hinduism is practiced outside India today only in the island of [[Bali]].

The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BC) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the [[Vedas]],a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit]] literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, the oldest of which is the [[Rigveda]], dated to 1700–1100BC. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as [[Indra]], Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to [[Zoroastrian]]ism and with other Indo-European religions. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] were written roughly from 500–100BC, although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period. The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

===Buddhism in India===

Buddhism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of Asia through individual and organized missionaries, although there are few practicing Buddhists left in India today.

===Jainism in India===

Jainism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of India; today they are mostly concentrated in the Southern and Western parts of the country.

===Sikhism in India===

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in India in the 16th century A.D.

===Other Religions in India===

[[Christianity]] arrived in India in the first century A.D., possibly through the travels of the [[Apostle Thomas]], whose tomb in the Indian city of Chennai is a major pilgrimage site for Christians in India.

[[Islam]] arrived in the latter half of the 8th century A.D. as a consequence of both war and trade. It continued to spread with invasions, wars and forced conversions by Afghans and Turkic Mongols. They slowly integrated into the society and formed India's Islamic tradition. The [[Taj Mahal]], India's national monument, was built by a Muslim emperor named Shah Jahan. Islam is practiced by around 13.4% of all Indians.
[[Image:Taj Mahal.jpg|thumb|Taj Mahal]]

Although small in number, India does have a Jewish community. The first identifiably [[Judaism|Jewish]] migrants arrived in India as the Bene Israel group. There is some debate as to the Jewishness of a possibly older group of Indians in the Northeastern part of the country called the Bnei Menashe.

===Religious Persecution===

While for many years India has been known as an area of the world where a melting pot of religions could be practiced freely, troubling and persistent persecution against [[Christian]]s by the [[Hindu]] majority arose in the 1990s and has continued since that time. In October 2008, 38 Christians were killed and 30,000 fled from efforts of Hindu nationalist militants to force them to convert to Hinduism.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27380721</ref>

There are also frequent attacks upon Indian Christians by [[Muslims]] in India, who make up a large proportion of the population. They subject the Indian Christian population to harassment and intimidation, particularly those who were previously Muslims. In 2006, a Muslim who converted to Christianity in the Indian state of Kashmir was shot dead by [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] militants.<ref>http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=6705</ref>

==Government==
According to its Constitution, India is a "sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and has adopted a British-style parliamentary system.

The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. A special electoral college elects the president and vice president indirectly for 5-year terms. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president.

Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (Cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority in the Lok Sabha (lower house). The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister.
[[File:Delhi Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub Minar Complex.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub, Delhi.]]
India's bicameral Parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members, who serve 5-year terms; 543 are directly elected, and two are appointed.

India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Commonwealth countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.

India has 28 states* and 7 union territories. At the state level, some legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to Parliament.

Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor, who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or panchayats, to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives. Over half a million panchayats exist throughout India.

 

==Principal Government Officials==
*President—Ram Nath Kovind
*Vice President—Venkaiah Naidu
*Prime Minister—Narendra Modi
*Home Minister—Rajnath Singh
*Minister of External Affairs—Shushma Swaraj
*Ambassador to the U.S.--Arun Singh
*Ambassador to the UN—Syed Akbaruddin

===Politics ===
After the 2014 elections, the BJP, led by conservative [[Narendra Modi]], won an absolute majority in the lower house, and after the 2017 state elections it received an absolute majority in the upper house as well.

The governing coalition led by the Indian National Congress sailed to a decisive victory in India's parliamentary elections in May 2009, adding 57 seats. The election gave a second term to prime minister Manmohan Singh, age 77, a soft-spoken economic reformer, and ended the prospect of political instability in the world's most populous democracy. The election confirmed that Sonia Gandhi, age 62, dominates the Congress Party. She is the Italian-born widow of the assassinated former prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and the daughter-in-law of the prime minister before him, [[Indira Gandhi]], who was also assassinated. The Congress-led coalition built its near-majority with an appeal to the rural poor. During its first term, buoyed by robust economic growth, it used record government revenues to increase social spending, not just raising health and education budgets, but also starting an ambitious public works program in the countryside and a costly loan repayment waiver for farmers. Mrs. Gandhi won support by casting herself as a leader who relinquished power, turning down her party's appeals to become prime minister, first in 2004 and again this time. Instead, she chose the soft-spoken economist, Mr. Singh, and between them, they controlled the party and the government. She took care of the politics of keeping the coalition together, while he served as the chief executive who followed her advice.

[[File:India-14.jpg|thumb|390px]]
Emerging as the nation's single largest party in the April/May 2004 Lok Sabha election, Congress currently leads a coalition government under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Party President Sonia Gandhi was re-elected by the Party National Executive in May 2005. Also a Member of Parliament, she heads the Congress Lok Sabha delegation. Congress prides itself as a secular, left of center party, with a long history of political dominance. Although its performance in national elections had steadily declined during the last 12 years, its surprise victory in 2004 was a result of recruiting strong allies into the UPA, the anti-incumbency factor among voters, and its courtship of India's many poor, rural and Muslim voters. Congress political fortunes suffered badly in the 1990s, as many traditional supporters were lost to emerging regional and caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Samajwadi Party, but have rebounded since its May 2004 ascension to power. It currently rules either directly or in coalition with its allies in 9 states. In November 2005, the Congress regained the Chief Ministership of Jammu and Kashmir state, under a power-sharing agreement.

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Rajnath Singh, holds the second-largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee serves as Chairman of the BJP Parliamentary Party, and former Deputy Prime Minister L.K. Advani is Leader of the Opposition. The Hindu-nationalist BJP draws its political strength mainly from the "Hindi Belt" in the northern and western regions of India.

The party holds power in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa—in coalition with the Biju Janata Dal. Popularly viewed as the party of the northern upper caste and trading communities, the BJP made strong inroads into lower castes in recent national and state assembly elections. The party must balance the competing interests of Hindu nationalists, (who advocate construction of a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, and other primarily religious issues), and center-right modernizers who see the BJP as a party of economic and political reform.

Recently, the Bhartiya Janata Party scored a major victory in the Lok Sabha Elections of 2014, with Narendra Modi becoming Prime Minister. Modi known to have made the Indian state of Gujarat become an economic powerhouse and one of the most developed state in India.
[[Image:Haveli in Mandawa, India.jpg|240px|right|Haveli in Mandawa.]]

Four Communist and Marxist parties are united in a bloc called the "Left Front," which controls 57 parliamentary seats. The Left Front rules the states of West Bengal and Kerala. Although it has not joined the government, Left Front support provides the crucial seats necessary for the UPA to retain power in New Delhi; without its support, the UPA government would fall. It advocates a secular and Communist ideology and opposes many aspects of economic liberalization and globalization, resulting in dissonance with [[Prime Minister]] Singh's liberal economic approach.

==Foreign Relations==
{{See also|Foreign relations of India}}

India's size, population, and strategic location give it a prominent voice in international affairs, and its growing economic strength, military prowess, and scientific and technical capacity give it added weight. The end of the [[Cold War]] dramatically affected Indian foreign policy. India remains a leader of the developing world and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). India is now strengthening its political and commercial ties with the United States, Japan, the European Union, Iran, China, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. India is an active member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

Always an active member of the United Nations, India now seeks a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. India has a long tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations.

==Bilateral and Regional Relations==

===Tense relations with Pakistan===

India and Pakistan have been locked in a very tense rivalry since the partition of the subcontinent upon achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. The principal source of contention has been Kashmir, whose Hindu Maharaja at that time chose to join India, although a majority of his subjects were Muslim. India maintains that his decision and subsequent elections in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. This dispute triggered wars between the two countries in 1947 and 1965 and provoked the Kargil conflict in 1999.

Pakistan and India fought a war in December 1971 following a political crisis in what was then East Pakistan and the flight of millions of Bengali refugees to India. The brief conflict left the situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies reached an impasse, but a decisive Indian victory in the east resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
[[File:Iran Pakistan India gas pipeline.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline.]]
Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made slow progress toward normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the Indian hill station of Simla. They signed an agreement by which India would return all personnel and captured territory in the west and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade relations were re-established in 1976.

The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused new strains between India and Pakistan. Pakistan supported the Afghan resistance, while India implicitly supported the Soviet occupation. In the following eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms purchases, U.S. military aid to Pakistan, and Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries formed a joint commission. In December 1988, Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto concluded a pact not to attack each other's nuclear facilities and initiated agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation.

In 1997, high-level Indo-Pakistani talks resumed after a three-year pause. The Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice, and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997 at Lahore, the foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status of Jammu and Kashmir, an issue since partition, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists upon the implementation of UN resolutions calling for self-determination for the people of the state.

In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that separate working groups treat each issue. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then Pakistan, conducted nuclear tests. Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in Lahore and their signing of three agreements. These efforts were stalled by the intrusion of Pakistani-backed forces into Indian-held territory near Kargil in May 1999 (that nearly turned into full-scale war), and by the military coup in Pakistan that overturned the Nawaz Sharif government in October the same year. In July 2001, Mr. Vajpayee and General Pervez Musharraf, leader of Pakistan after the coup, met in Agra, but talks ended after two days without result.

After an attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, India-Pakistan relations cooled further as India accused Pakistan of involvement. Tensions increased, fueled by killings in Jammu and Kashmir, peaking in a troop buildup by both sides in early 2002.

Prime Minister Vajpayee's April 18, 2003 speech in Srinagar (Kashmir) revived bilateral efforts to normalize relations. In November 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf agreed to a ceasefire, which still holds, along the Line-of-Control in Jammu and Kashmir. After a series of confidence building measures, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf met on the sidelines of the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad and agreed to commence a Composite Dialogue addressing outstanding issues between India and Pakistan, including Kashmir. The UPA government has continued the Composite Dialogue with Pakistan.

In February 2004, India and Pakistan agreed to restart the "2+6" Composite Dialogue formula, which provides for talks on Peace and Security and Jammu and Kashmir, followed by technical and Secretary-level discussions on six other bilateral disputes: Siachen Glacier, Wuller Barrage/Tulbul Navigation Project, Sir Creek estuary, Terrorism and Drug Trafficking, Economic and Commercial cooperation, and the Promotion of Friendly Exchanges in various fields. The Foreign Secretary talks resumed in November 2006, after a three-month delay following the July 11, 2006 terrorist bombings in Mumbai. The meeting generated modest progress, with the two sides agreeing to establish a joint mechanism on counter-terrorism and agreeing to a follow-on meeting in February 2007. The restart of the Composite Dialogue process is especially significant, given the almost six years that transpired since the two sides agreed to this formula in 1997-98.

Following the October 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, the two governments coordinated relief efforts and opened access points along the Line-of-Control to allow relief supplies to flow from India to Pakistan and to allow Kashmiris from both sides to visit one another.

===South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)===

Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with the People's Republic of China, Iran, Japan, European Union, Republic of Korea, and the U.S. as observers. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics, and terrorism.

SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided those which could prove divisive, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC had slowed because of tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC summit scheduled for 1999 was not held until January 2002. In addition, to boost the process of normalizing India's relationship with Pakistan, the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad produced an agreement to establish a South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA). All the member governments have ratified SAFTA, which was slated to come into force on January 1, 2006, with a series of graduated tariff cuts through 2015. As of December 2006, however, the FTA partners were still negotiating sensitive product lists, rules of origin, and technical assistance. India hosted the 2007 SAARC summit, which called for greater regional cooperation on trade, environmental, social, and counterterrorism issues.

===Relations with China===

Despite suspicions remaining from a 1962 border conflict between India and [[China]] and continuing territorial/boundary disputes, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. Their bilateral trade reached $24 billion in 2006. China is India's second-largest trading partner behind the U.S.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations has improved relations. In December 1996, Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] visited India on a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he and the Indian Prime Minister signed a series of confidence-building measures along the disputed border, including troop reductions and weapons limitations.

Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao invited Prime Minister Vajpayee to visit China in June 2003. They recognized the common goals of both countries and made the commitment to build a "long-term constructive and cooperative partnership" to peacefully promote their mutual political and economic goals without encroaching upon their good relations with other countries. In [[Beijing]], Prime Minister Vajpayee proposed the designation of special representatives to discuss the border dispute at the political level, a process that is still under way.

In November 2006, President Hu Jintao made an official state visit to India, further cementing Sino-Indian relations. India and China are building on growing economic ties to improve other aspects of their relationship such as counter-terrorism, energy, and trade. In another symbol of improved ties, the two countries opened the Nathu La Pass to bilateral trade in July 2006 for the first time in 40 years. Though it is the first direct land trade route in decades, trade is expected to be local and small since the pass is open only four months a year.

===Russia===

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. India's substantial trade with the region plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing. Russia nonetheless remains India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.

Russia and India have not renewed the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. The visit of Russian President Boris Yeltsin to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defense purchases. UPA leader Sonia Gandhi and Prime Minister Singh visited Russia in July 2005. President Vladimir Putin traveled to India in January 2007 to attend an Indo-Russia Summit and was the guest of honor at India's Republic Day celebrations.

==Defense==
The supreme command of the Indian armed forces is vested in the President of India. Policies concerning India's defense, and the armed forces as a whole, are formulated and confirmed by the Cabinet.

===Indian Army===

The Indian Army numbers over 1.1 million strong and fields 34 divisions. Its primary task is to safeguard the territorial integrity of the country against external threats. The Army has been heavily committed in the recent past to counterterrorism operations in Jammu and Kashmir, as well as the in the Northeast. Its current modernization program focuses on obtaining equipment to be used in combating terror. The Army often provides aid to civil authorities and assists the government in organizing relief operations.

===Indian Navy===

The Indian Navy is by far the most capable navy in the region. The Navy's primary missions are the defense of India and of India's vital sea lines of communication. India relies on the sea for 90% of its oil and natural gas and over 90% of its foreign trade. The Navy currently operates one aircraft carrier with two on order, 14 submarines, and 15 major surface combatants. It is capable of projecting power within the Indian Ocean basin and occasionally operates in the South China Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Gulf. Fleet introduction of the Brahmos cruise missile and the possible lease of nuclear submarines from Russia will add significantly to the Indian Navy's flexibility and striking power.

Although small, the Indian Coast Guard has been expanding rapidly in recent years. Indian Navy officers typically fill top Coast Guard positions to ensure coordination between the two services. India's Coast Guard is responsible for control of India's huge exclusive economic zone.

===Indian Air Force===

The Indian Air Force is becoming a 21st-century force through modernization, new tactics and the acquisition of modern aircraft, such as the SU-30MKI, a new advanced jet trainer (BAE Hawk) and the indigenously produced advanced light [[helicopter]] (Dhruv). In June 2007, the Indian Government announced intentions to release a request for proposals for 126 multi-role combat aircraft for the Indian Air Force.

== Economy ==

The '''economy of [[India]]''', measured in [[Dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms, is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|seventh-largest]] in the world, with a GDP of around $3 trillion as of 2020. India recorded a GDP growth rate of 9.1% for the fiscal year 2007–2008 which makes its growth the second fastest among emerging economies in the world, after China.<ref name="gdp-growthrate">{{cite news | title=India Defies Turmoil With Growth of 8.8% | date= May 31, 2007 | publisher=MarketWatch | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121213639165032371.html?mod=googlenews_wsj}}</ref> At this rate of sustained growth many economists forecast that India would, over the coming decades, have a more pronounced economic effect on the world stage. Despite this phenomenal rate of growth, India's large [[population of India|population]] has an estimated [[per capita]] income of $2,563, measured by PPP, and $941, measured in nominal terms as of 2007

=== Economic History ===
In 1960, India was the tenth-largest economy, with a $35 billion GDP.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> In 1965, India kept the 10th place, with a $55 billion GDP. India only went to $65 billion in 1970, still being 10th. In 1975, India got bumped down to 12th by Brazil and Spain, with a $100 billion GDP. In 1980, Argentina, Mexico, and Netherlands bumped India, with a $190 billion GDP, to 14th. In 1985, India got $240 billion, this time getting to 14th, because of Argentina's crashing economy. In 1990, India, with a $325 billion GDP, went to 13th, bumping down the Netherlands. In 1995, India had a $366.7 billion GDP, but got bumped by South Korea to 14th. In 2000, the $475 billion economy, which is India, got to 13th place, bumping down Russia's declining economy. In 2005, India climbed to $833 billion, bumped down Brazil and Mexico, thus climbing to 11th. In 2010, India had a $1.725 billion GDP, and got to 9th, bumping down Canada, South Korea, and Spain, but being bumped down by Russia. In 2015, India hit the $2 trillion mark, and ultimately reaching $2.1 trillion, becoming the seventh-largest economy, bumping down Italy and Brazil. In 2020, India bumped down European powers the United Kingdom and France, and, with its $3 trillion GDP, India became the fifth-largest economy. In 2025, India is expected to have a $5 trillion GDP, and would become the fourth-largest economy, surpassing Europe's largest economy, Germany. If projections come true, India could become the third-largest economy, and Asia's second-largest economy, with a $8 trillion GDP, in 2030.

=== General overview ===
[[File:India...jpg|right|340px]]

India's population is estimated at more than 1.1 billion and is growing at 1.3% a year. It has the world's 5th largest economy—and the third largest in [[Asia]] behind [[Japan]] and [[China]]—with total [[GDP]] of around $3 trillion ($3,000 billion). Services, industry, and [[agriculture]] account for 55%, 27%, and 18% of GDP respectively. Nearly two-thirds of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. 700 million Indians live on $2 per day or less, but there is a large and growing [[middle class]] of 325-350 million with disposable income for consumer goods.

India is continuing to move forward with market-oriented economic reforms that began in 1991. Recent reforms include liberalized foreign investment and exchange regimes, industrial decontrol, significant reductions in [[tariff]]s and other trade barriers, reform and modernization of the financial sector, significant adjustments in government monetary and fiscal policies, and safeguarding intellectual property rights.

Real GDP growth for the fiscal year ending March 31, 2007 was 9.4%, up from 9.0% growth in the previous year. Growth for the year ending March 31, 2008 is expected to be between 8.5-9.0%. Foreign portfolio and direct investment inflows have risen significantly in recent years. They have contributed to $255 billion in foreign exchange reserves by June 2007. Government receipts from privatization were about $3 billion in fiscal year 2003-2004, but the privatization program has stalled since then.

Economic growth is constrained by inadequate infrastructure, a cumbersome bureaucracy, corruption, labor market rigidities, regulatory and foreign investment controls, the "reservation" of key products for small-scale industries, and high (although declining) fiscal deficits. The outlook for further trade liberalization is mixed. India eliminated quotas on 1,420 consumer imports in 2002 and has incrementally lowered non-agricultural customs duties in recent successive budgets. However, the tax structure is complex, with compounding effects of various taxes.

The [[United States]] is India's largest trading partner. Bilateral trade in 2006 was $32 billion. Principal U.S. exports are diagnostic or lab reagents, aircraft and parts, advanced machinery, [[cotton]], [[fertilizer]]s, ferrous waste/scrap metal, and computer hardware. Major U.S. imports from India include [[textile]]s and ready-made garments, Internet-enabled services, agricultural and related products, [[gem]]s and [[jewelry]], leather products, and chemicals.

The rapidly growing software sector is boosting service exports and modernizing India's economy. Software exports crossed $28 billion in FY 2006-2007, while business process outsourcing (BPO) revenues hit $8.3 billion in 2006-2007. Personal computer penetration is 14 per 1,000 persons. The cellular/mobile market surged to 140 million subscribers by November 2006. The country has 54 million [[cable TV]] customers.

The United States is India's largest investment partner, with a 13% share. India's total inflow of U.S. direct investment is estimated at more than $9 billion through 2006. Proposals for direct foreign investment are considered by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board and generally receive government approval. Automatic approvals are available for investments involving up to 100% foreign equity, depending on the kind of industry. Foreign investment is particularly sought after in power generation, telecommunications, ports, roads, petroleum exploration/processing, and mining.

India's external debt was $155 billion in 2006-2007, up from $126 billion in 2005-2006. Foreign assistance was approximately $3 billion in 2006-2007, with the United States providing about $126 million in development assistance. The [[World Bank]] plans to double aid to India to almost $3 billion a year, with focus on infrastructure, education, health, and rural livelihoods.

In 2016, India abolished larger banknotes in a move toward a [[Cashless society]].

===Agriculture===
[[Image:Varma Lady Carrying Fruits.jpg|thumb|Lady Carrying Fruits by Ravi Varma.]]
India has a cultivated area of 138 million hectares which almost equals that of the [[European Union]]. A lot of the land has good agriculture potential especially where water supplies are available. Arable farming, especially cereals is the main kind of farming. India, which has two thirds of its working population relying on the land to earn a living, desperately needs to improve agriculture production in order to develop its economy.

When India became independent from [[Britain]] in 1947 the Indian government recognized agriculture as a key area for economic development. Despite this there has been limited modernization of the sector. There hasn't been an effective land reform package introduced to redistribute land from wealthy landlords to landless peasants. In the 1990s almost half of rural families had plots of 0.5 hectares or no land at all, but a quarter of India's agricultural land was owned by five percent of rich landowning families. This has made it nearly impossible to mechanize and introduce modern farm practices.

The dominant type of farming throughout India is intensive [[Subsistence farming]]. It is used especially in rural areas with high population density, where people depend on being able to feed themselves. [[Rice]] is very important for this type of farming, especially in the Indus and Ganges flood plains. Other crops such as wheat and millet are grown in drier parts of peninsular India. Farming is a family affair, with all planting, flooding and harvesting done by hand. One of the reasons rural Indians have such large families is to provide free labour to help harvest crops. This adds to the pressure on India's service sector and India's agriculture sector to meet the demands of India's ever-growing population.

India is a country that has benefited from the Green revolution. This refers to the development and introduction of genetically modified, high yield varieties of staple crops, such as rice and wheat. These ‘miracle’ crops produce high yields and are resistant to disease and pests. Due to the Green revolution, India has managed to become a net exporter of food.

There is however some problems linked to the Green revolution. It depends on large inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that may be costly and harmful to the soil in the long run. Labour is often replaced with machinery, so rural unemployment goes up and more people leave the land and go to towns, increasing rural-urban migration. A well-educated farm population and capital investment are needed. It only really benefits comparatively few, large-scale farmers; large numbers of small-scale farmers may not be able to benefit from the process.

For a large number of Indian farmers a better solution would be the introduction of more intermediate technology and a more effective programme of land reform. While the Green revolution has brought some positive results, the vast majority of India's [[rice]] farmers use traditional farm practices that depend heavily on the natural environment. The need to match food production to match India's growing population is a major concern for government.

===Industry===

When India became independent in 1947 it had a largely underdeveloped Industrial system, with textiles and food processing been the key industries in the country. Only two percent of the working population had been employed in industry, which was concentrated in the major cities; [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]]. On gaining independence the new government was determined to reduce India's dependence on imported goods and to promote greater wealth and employment throughout the country.

The size of India's population provided it a large home market and the country had some natural resources ([[coal]] and Iron) a large and cheap labour force and outputs from agriculture (cotton, Jute) Mineral resources encouraged the government to develop heavy industries, such as Iron and [[steel]], shipbuilding and chemicals. Despite these advantages development was relatively slow and only benefited a few growth centers. In addition, by the 1980s, many heavy industries were in decline, Industrial policy has changed to emphasize Agri-industries, consumer goods industries and small craft industries, rural development (community based development and self-help schemes) and high technology industries.

Agri-industries would be advantageous to India in that it already employs a large number of people in the agricultural sector. The development of fertilizers, machinery and food processing benefits rural communities and helps in the modernization of India's agricultural system.

[[Consumer goods]] industries are more labor-intensive than large-scale heavy industries, so more jobs are created as a result. They also benefit from low labour costs and traditional skills, which make them more competitive in, export markets. E.g. jewellary, clothing, leather goods etc.

With more than 70% of India's population living in rural areas, jobs need to be taken to these people rather than encouraging migration to urban areas. This involves support for community development projects and self-help schemes that improve skills levels among the workforce.

High technology (Hi-tech) industries are attracted to India by the growing number of India's skilled workers (Which produces more university graduates than USA and Canada combined) low costs and improved communication systems. These high value industries add a modern face to Indian industry. Many major multinationals, such as [[IBM]] and [[Texas instruments]], have located in India. Large numbers of locally owned companies have also set up to supply software components to western markets. (See [[Spin-off Effect]])

Although the government has tried to spread industry across the country, this growing sector remains concentrated in a growing number of city regions. The most important are [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay]] and [[Bangalore]]. Bangalore is known as ‘India’s silicon valley’ as a result of all the high-tech industries which have set up there.

===Education===
[[File:Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar India.jpg|thumb|300px|Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar.]]
India has a large number of [[University|Universities]], but the quality ranges from poor to medicore. The best students head to the U.S. or Britain. To cover this weakness, the government in July 2009 announced plans to expand the higher education budget by 40%, to $3.1-billion, for 2009-10.

The government in 2009 allotted an extra $435-million to the prestigious Indian Institutes of Technology and the National Institutes of Technology, and $170.5-million more to open 16 central universities in states that lack one. In keeping with its agenda of inclusive economic growth, the government has also announced interest-free loans for disadvantaged students to take technical and professional courses.

To increase India's college-going rate to 21% by 2017, Prime Minister Singh has announced plans to start five new Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, eight new Indian Institutes of Technology, seven new Indian Institutes of Management, and 20 new Indian Institutes of Information Technology — thus doubling the number of top-tier institutions in the country. He also wants to set up 16 central universities, 14 “world class” universities, and almost 400 colleges.

==History==
See [[History of India]]

==Further reading==
* Cohen, Stephen P. ''India: Emerging Power'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0815715013/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Nilekani, Nandan. ''Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation'' (2009) business in India [https://www.amazon.com/Imagining-India-Idea-Renewed-Nation/dp/1594202044/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545602&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., The major recent history; for advanced readers. [https://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''India'' (4th ed. 2009), 264pp; excellent overview and introduction [https://www.amazon.com/India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0520260325/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255296028&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
===Guides===
* ''India'' (Lonely Planet Guide) by Sarina Singh et al. (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Country-Guide-Sarina-Singh/dp/1741043085/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* '' India'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789483955/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545500&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search])
* ''India - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette'' by Nicki Grihault (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Culture-Smart-customs-etiquette/dp/1857333055/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to India'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-India-Travel-Guides/dp/1858289947/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
* [[World History Lecture Three]] for more information on Ancient India.
* [[Anti-conversion legislation in India]]
* [[Oriental art]]
* [[Indian Painting]]
* [[Nuclear target structures]]
* [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
* [[Opposition to the partition of India]]
----
{{Indian philosophy topics}}
----
{{Buddhist topics}}
----

{{Copyright Details (US Government)|source=[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm]}}

{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:India]]
[[Category:Indian History]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

United Kingdom

2020-12-07T13:42:03Z

United States: fixing/adding/rewording!

{{Country
|name =''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''
|map =United kingdom rel87.jpg
|map2 =UK location.png
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =UK Royal Coat of Arms.png
|capital =London
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =HM Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Boris Johnson
|pm-raw =
|area =94,526 sq mi
|pop =68,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$2,800,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$41,176 (2020)
|currency =Pound Sterling
|idd =
|tld =.uk
}}
The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' ('''UK''') is a sovereign [[state]] north-west of mainland [[Europe]]. It comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], which occupy the island of [[Great Britain]], and [[Northern Ireland]] on the island of [[Ireland]]. It attained its current identity in 1922 after most of Ireland was granted independence. The UK, at least in part, has a separate identity from mainland Europe.<ref>Hanson, Victor Davis (September 12, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/victor-davis-hanson-britain-free-market-democratic-world Victor Davis Hanson: Britain's got one last chance to reembrace free-market democratic world it helped create]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved September 13, 2019.</ref>

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Its [[head of state]] is Queen [[Elizabeth II]], and its [[head of government]] is Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]].

The United Kingdom is a member of the [[NATO]] and the [[United Nations]].

British values, culture and institutions were spread throughout many parts of the world during the period of the [[British Empire]], 1600-1960, and British contributions to world culture include the English language, the [[parliament]]ary form of government, the [[Church of England|Anglican]] Church ("Church of England"), a tradition of personal liberty, and the [[common law]] legal system.

==Name==
[[File:London Thames Sunset panorama 2008.jpg|thumb|left|London - Thames panorama.]]
The official name of the nation (since 1927) is ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''.<ref>From 1801 to 1927 the official name was ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland''.</ref> The full official name is seldom used except in very formal or legal documents. The short version for historical topics is either "Britain" or "Great Britain." The short version for recent events (since the 1970s) is "United Kingdom" or "UK" The adjective is always '''"British"'''.

Britain was part of the [[British Empire]], which has become the "British Commonwealth", and is mostly a discussion club. Britain has a few scattered minor possessions, including [[Gibraltar]], but gave up its last important colony—[[Hong Kong]]—in 1997.
[[File:Westminster in the evening.jpg|thumb|280px|Westminster in the evening.]]
* '''England''' is the largest of the four components of the United Kingdom. "England" was often used to stand for the nation in older literature published before 1970. However use of "England" to refer to the entire country is now sometimes considered offensive by many citizens of the other three member countries and is thus discouraged.
* The standard language of the UK is English; [[Welsh]] has parity in Wales, and [[Gaelic]] is widely used on official documents, roadsigns, etc. in remote Gaelic-speaking areas of western Scotland.

MacColl (2008) explores the use of the term 'Britain' in English, French, and Latin texts from the 12th century to the 16th. The term was flexible, used in a variety of ways (geographically, politically, and ethnically), and not always indicative of any specific meaning. The English at first tended to conflate 'Britain' with England or the southern portion of the island of Great Britain, though the term 'Greater Britain' was applied starting in the 14th century to refer to the entire island. The Scottish, beginning in the 15th century, used the term in the modern sense - as reflective of the entire island of Great Britain and the 'polity' of England, Wales, and Scotland. This latter usage paved the way for the relatively smooth ideological transition after the 1707 Acts of Union.<ref>Alan MacColl, "The Meaning of 'Britain' in Medieval and Early Modern England." ''Journal of British Studies'' 2006 45(2): 248-269</ref>

===Anthem===

The national anthem of the UK is currently ''[[God Save the Queen]]''. Should a male heir accede to the throne, the anthem will become "God Save the King".<ref>This same melody is also sung by American schoolchildren (with different words) as "[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]".</ref>

The constituent nations have their own unofficial anthems. In the case of Wales, this is ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau'' (''Land of My Fathers''), and for Scotland it is ''Flower of Scotland''. England does not have its own distinctive anthem in the same way, but at sporting events in which England is competing as a separate nation, [[Edward Elgar]]'s patriotic song ''Land of Hope and Glory'' is sometimes used (although ''God Save the Queen'' is more commonly used). Additionally the hymn "Jerusalem" has a large number of supporters in England as an alternative to, or replacement for, the national anthem. In Northern Ireland, the Protestant and Catholic communities respectively use ''God Save the Queen'' and ''Amhran na bhFiann'', the Irish national anthem. ''Londonderry Air'' is often used as the anthem for Northern Ireland competitors in sporting events.

==People==
[[Image:Tower Bridge London.jpg|thumb|340px|Tower Bridge, London.]]
The United Kingdom's population in 2004 surpassed 60 million—Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. Almost one-third of the population lives in England's prosperous and fertile southeast and is predominantly urban and suburban—with about 7.2 million in the capital of London, which remains the largest city in Europe.

A net total of 408,000 people were added to the UK population in 2008, the largest numerical increase since 1972. This was partly due to the highest fertility rate in more than three decades. More than half of the increase in births last year was due to non-UK born mothers.

There is also an ever-increasing aging population with the number of people over 85 now at a record 1.3 million, the equivalent of one in every 50 people.

===Education===
[[File:Royal College of Music 2007.jpg|thumb|left|Royal College of Music.]]
The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900. Education is mandatory from ages 5 through 16, although this is in the process of being raised to 18 for England and Wales. "Public" schools are elite private prep schools, such as [[Eton]] and [[Rugby School|Rugby]], attended by youth whose families can afford to pay high tuition rates.

All state-funded schools in the UK are required to start the day with a collective assembly that is 'wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character',<ref>[http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=387464 Times Educational Supplement]</ref> although this is not always adhered to and there are small numbers of state-funded [[Muslim]], [[Jew]]ish and [[Hindu]] schools.

About thirty-six percent of British students go on to post-secondary education.

Higher education has been a specialty for over 500 years at Oxbridge ([[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]), with new "red brick" universities added in the 19th century and many others in the late 20th century. Universities contribute £33 billion a year to the economy. Britain has a strong attraction for international students, with 342,000 attending in 2007 (compared to 672,000 in the U.S. and 183,000 in Australia). They spend £1.5 billion in tuition in Britain annually, plus another £0.4 billion off campus.

According to an early-2017 report, universities in the UK have high levels of censorship and low levels of [[free speech]].<ref>Singman, Brooke (March 14, 2017). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/03/14/free-speech-under-attack-at-uk-colleges-report-says.html Free speech under attack at UK colleges, report says]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved March 15, 2017.</ref> Additionally, many UK schools (about 120 in May 2017) adopted a program that promotes in indoctrinates students with the [[homosexual agenda]] in all areas of curriculum and in other ways such as unisex uniforms and the removal of terms such as "boy" and "girl" from school vocabulary.<ref>Hale, Virginia (May 17, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2017/05/17/120-uk-schools-lgbt-curriculum/ LGBT Curriculum Programme, Gender Neutral Uniforms Adopted By 120 UK Schools]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 17, 2017.</ref>

===Demographics===
[[File:Youth UK.JPG|thumb|British youth.]]
A group of islands close to continental Europe, the British Isles have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. Contemporary Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended in Great Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who had lived in Northern France. Although Celtic languages persist in Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, as well as Cornwall in south-west England, the predominant language is English, which is primarily a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French.
*Population (2007 est.): 60.8 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2007 est.): 0.275%.
*Major ethnic groups: White British 91%, Irish 2%, West Indian and African 3%, South Asian 3%, others 1%.
*Major religions: Church of England (Anglican), Roman Catholic, Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), Muslim.
*Major languages: English
*Minority languages: Welsh, Gaelic, Lowland Scots (including Ulster Scots), Cornish.
*Education: Years compulsory—12. Attendance—nearly 100%. Literacy—99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2007 est.)--5.01/1,000. Life expectancy (2007 est.)--males 76.23 yrs.; females 81.3 yrs.; total 78.7 years
*Work force (2007, 31.1 million): Services—80.4%; industry—18.2%; agriculture—1.4%.

===Ethnic tensions===

Britain is home to 2.4 million Muslims from numerous ethnicities. This population is growing 10 times faster than the national average. Regarded as one of the most tolerant countries in Europe, Britain struggles with questions of Islamic integration, as well as the psychological aftermath of the July 2005 suicide bombings on London's public transport system carried out by young Britons of Pakistani descent, which left 52 people dead and over 700 injured.

===Religion===

[[File:Canterbury Cathedral.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Canterbury Cathedral (photographed during 1890-1900).]]
Religious faith, according to a 2011 survey, has declined sharply in Britain over the last two decades. Now only 42% of people describe themselves as Christian, as opposed to 66% in 1990. Most of the decline is due to a drift away from the Church of England, it is claimed, with only 20% claiming allegiance, down from 40%.

In 2003 the Office of National Statistics estimated 29% of the population identified with Anglicanism, 10% with the Catholic Church, and 14% with other Protestant churches. A 2007 survey reported that the number of Catholics (mostly Irish) attending Sunday services has overtaken the number of Anglicans doing so. A September 2006 English Church Census reported that Methodists were decreasing as a percentage of the population, while members of the Church of Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Pentecostal churches, many churches from Africa, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, almost entirely immigrants, were increasing.<ref>According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108478.htm U.S. State Department Report, 2008]</ref>

Individuals with no religious belief comprised 21% of the population in 2009. Muslims comprise 3% of the population. The Muslim community is predominantly South Asian in origin, but other groups from the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Levant are represented. In addition, there is a growing number of indigenous converts. Although estimates vary, the Government places the number of mosques in the whole country at one thousand. Groups comprising 1% or less of the population include Hindus, Sikhs, Jews, and Buddhists. Individuals from Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, and Sikh backgrounds are concentrated in London and other large urban areas, primarily in England.

Attendance at religious services was significantly different from the number of adherents. According to a report released on May 8, 2008, by Religious Trends, only 4 million Christians attend services on a regular basis (defined as at least once a month) in the country. These figures do not include Northern Ireland, where higher%ages reportedly attend both Catholic (more than 60%) and Protestant (more than 35%) services. The Religious Trends report stated that more than 50% of Muslims regularly worship at mosques. Figures for Jews and other religious groups were unavailable.

Religious affiliation was not evenly distributed among ethnicities. According to the 2001 census, approximately 70% of the white population described themselves as Christians. Nearly 75% of black Caribbean respondents stated that they were Christians, as did 70% of black Africans. Meanwhile, 45% of Indians were Hindus and 29% were Sikhs. Approximately 92% of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis were Muslims.

In Northern Ireland, where divisions between nationalists and unionists evolved largely along religious lines, the 2001 census showed that 53.1% were Protestants and 43.8% were Catholics. Many Catholics and Protestants continued to live in segregated communities in Northern Ireland, although many middle-class neighborhoods were mixed communities. The policy of the Government remained one of promotion of religious tolerance.

There are two established (or state) churches—The [[Church of England]] (Anglican) and the [[Church of Scotland]] (Presbyterian). The Act of Settlement, enacted in 1688, states that no Catholic, or person married to a Catholic, may ascend the throne.

====Religion in schools====

The Government provides financial support—up to 90% of the total capital costs of the buildings and 100% of running costs, including teachers' salaries - to sectarian educational institutions that are commonly referred to as "faith schools".
[[File:Matthew Boulton College.jpg|thumb|Matthew Boulton College.]]
The Government also helps fund the repair and maintenance of all listed places of worship for religious groups nationwide and contributes to the budget of the Church Conservation Trust, which preserves "redundant" Church of England buildings of architectural or historic significance.

The Government has not classified the Church of Scientology as a religious institution and therefore has not granted the organization recognition for charitable status.

More than 30% of state schools had a religious character. Nearly all of the 6,949 "faith schools" are associated with Christian denominations, although there are 31 Jewish, 7 Islamic, and 2 Sikh schools. An additional two Jewish, three Islamic, and two Sikh schools have also been tentatively approved by the Government to open. In addition, several hundred independent schools of a religious nature receive no state support but must meet government quality standards. Controversy arose in 2006 over 100 Islamic schools when an Office of Standards in Education (Ofsted) evaluation of these schools showed many were "little more than places where the Koran was recited." The schools were given time to correct their deficiencies. A review is due in 2010. Some Christian faith schools also faced controversy. Some were accused of not following the national curriculum in science, teaching creationism instead. During the reporting period, a further controversy erupted when it was learned that some faith schools were not following an "open" admission policy as required by law, denying admission to both special needs children and those outside the faith of the school administrators. The Catholic Church and the Church of England have an agreement to voluntarily accept up to 25% of places for pupils from another religious group or no religious group.

Almost all schools in Northern Ireland receive state support. More than 90% of students attended schools that were either predominantly Catholic or Protestant. Integrated schools served approximately 5% of school-age children whose families voluntarily chose this option, often after overcoming significant obstacles to provide the resources to start a new school and demonstrate its sustainability for 3 years before government funding begins. Demand for places in integrated schools outweighed the limited number of places available. The May 8, 2007, devolution, or granting of power, authorized the Northern Ireland Assembly to decide on academic selection. Now there are more than 50 integrated schools, and the new Government permits existing schools to petition to change from sectarian to integrated. More petition for that status than are granted it. Some have accused the Government of a go-slow approach to avoid sectarian animus.

The law requires religious education for all children, ages 3 to 19, in publicly maintained schools. In England and Wales it forms part of the core curriculum in accordance with the Education Reform Act of 1988. In Scotland, religious education of some sort is mandated by the Education Act of 1980. However, the shape and content of religious instruction throughout the country is decided on a local basis. Locally agreed syllabi are required to reflect the predominant place of Christianity while taking into account the teachings and practices of other principal religions in the country. Syllabuses must be nondenominational and refrain from attempting to convert pupils. Schools with a religious designation follow a syllabus drawn up by the school governors according to the trust deed of the school. All parents have the legal right to request that their children not participate in religious education, but the school must approve this request.

Daily collective prayer or worship of "a wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character" is practiced in schools in England and Wales, a requirement that may be waived for students who obtain permission of the school authorities. The Education and Inspections Act 2006 permits sixth form students (generally 16-19-year-olds) to withdraw themselves from worship without their parents' permission or action. This new law does not exempt sixth form students from religious education classes. Non-Christian worship is permitted with approval of the authorities. Teachers have the right not to participate in collective worship, without prejudice, unless they work for a faith school.

After several controversial court decisions prohibiting full-face veils in school (but not head scarves) and the wearing of a Christian chastity ring, the Department of Education provided guidance that advises schools to "… act reasonably in accommodating religious requirements," under human rights legislation. Some Muslim groups, including the Islamic Human Rights Commission, said it was inappropriate for the Government to provide guidance that regulated Muslim communities in matters concerning the expression of their religious beliefs. But it is also legally possible under the act, according to the guidance, to have a school uniform policy that "restricts the freedom of pupils to manifest their religion" on the grounds of health and safety and the "protection of the rights and freedoms of others." The Government's guidance is meant to remind "head teachers" to act with a degree of sensitivity when considering decisions that will impact the cultural complexion of their communities.

====Census====

According to the 2011 Census the religious make-up of the UK at that time was:

{| border="1" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|+'''Religions in United Kingdom'''
!Belief
!Thousands
!Proportion
|-
|Christian ||29,000 ||51.6
|-
|No Religion ||9104 ||15.5
|-
|Muslim ||1591 ||2.7
|-
|Hindu ||559 ||1.0
|-
|Sikh ||336 ||0.6
|-
|Jewish ||267 ||0.5
|-
|Other ||179 ||0.3
|-
|Buddhist ||152 ||0.3
|-
|Pagan & Wicca ||40 ||0.1
|-
|Total religious ||45,163 ||76.8
|-
|No answer ||4289 ||7.3
|}

The answers were distorted by an internet campaign just prior to the census, encouraging people to actually question religion that claimed that if at least 50,000 people stated their religion as 'Jedi Knight' it would be officially classified as a religion. This was not true, though the Office of National Statistics does aggregate very small religions into the 'Other' category whereas a religion of 50,000 would be itemised separately. This separate listing does not constitute any form of official recognition.

It should be noted that non-practising Christians and the non-religious group are growing in the UK and Europe. At the same time, there is growth in the Islamic group due to immigration.

Two of the four states of the United Kingdom, England and Scotland, have official state religions. The [[Church of England]] is the official religion of England and the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland is the official religion of Scotland. The (Anglican) Church of Ireland was [[disestablished]] in 1871 and the (Anglican) Church of Wales was disestablished in 1920, whereupon it was renamed the [[Church ''in'' Wales]].

===Crown Dependencies===

A number of the smaller [[British Isles]], most importantly [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]] are '[[Crown dependencies|British Crown Dependencies]]' and not members of the UK. Their governments are independent of that of the UK other than foreign and defense policy (the UK government retains the legal power to overrule the governments of the Dependencies, but this power has not been exercised since 1967).

==Sports and Pastimes==

[[File:Wembley Stadium.jpg|thumb|230px|Wembley Stadium.]]
Many of the most popular [[sport]]s in the world today were developed or codified in the UK. These include [[soccer|football]] (which is called ''soccer'' in North America), [[cricket]], [[Rugby (Sport)|rugby]], [[tennis]], [[hockey]], [[baseball]] and [[golf]]. The UK is represented in international competitions by the individual nations (such as in football, the one-day form of cricket and rugby) and by the whole of the UK in other sports (such as [[athletics]], golf and tennis). The Test cricket team is that of 'England & Wales' (colloquially, just 'England') but from time to time has had Scottish and Irish players.

The UK remains a major sporting force both in competition and the administration of sport. It is dominant in several Olympic sports, notably cycling, rowing and sailing and a leading force in cricket, rugby union, and golf.

Certain venues have their own distinct and historical recognition and host a number of international competitions. These include Wimbledon for tennis, Silverstone for motor racing, and St Andrews for golf. There are several major venues for football, rugby and cricket.

Domestic sport is dominated by football with one of the strongest and most popular leagues in the world - the Premier League. This league is sponsored by Barclays Bank, so has the official name "Barclays Premier League". Many of the Premier League's teams are well known outside the United Kingdom, especially the "big four" (Manchester United, Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool) and maintain followings around the world. Cricket and both codes of rugby also have strong and popular domestic leagues. Other popular sports include snooker, rowing, golf, tennis, athletics, cycling, darts, horse racing, and motor racing. These most popular sports are well covered by both the print press and television.

Some sports which are more popular in other countries such as volleyball, handball, American football and basketball have small but dedicated followings.

The [[U.K.]] is also renowned for its music, and is the home of bands like [[The Beatles]], [[Rolling Stones]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[The Who]], [[Oasis]], [[Coldplay]] and [[Radiohead]], as well as festivals such as [[Creamfields]], [[Isle of White]] Festival and [[Glastonbury]]. London traditionally is the world centre for recordings of classical music and the annual "London Proms" concerts are recorded worldwide. The "Last Night at the Proms" is a major "Television Event".

==Government==

''See also [[British politics]]''
[[File:Jewel House guard in the Tower of London.JPG|thumb|200px|Jewel House guard in the Tower of London.]]

The United Kingdom does not have the constitutional [[free speech]] protections or an energetic [[Christian]] culture that exist in the [[United States]], because there is not a codified constitution - though limited speech is proved via the Human Rights Act of 1998. However various acts mean there is free speech, similar to that in the [[United States]]. Certain county councils, like Salford Quays in the United Kingdom have issued 'public space protection orders' that fine people £50 for swearing.

In 2015, the UK was ranked 12th on the World Democracy index, above countries such as the US and France, and below those like Germany and Canada.<ref>[http://democracyranking.org/wordpress/rank/democracy-ranking-2015/ World's Democracy Index]</ref>

Nationalist movements exist in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, seeking (in the case of Scottish and Welsh nationalists) to dissolve the United Kingdom and to win independence for their respective territories, and in the case of Northern Ireland nationalists and republicans to create a sovereign united Ireland. At the present time, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own legislatures.

The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution (even though the [[Magna Carta]] is the oldest basis for constitutional law in the world and the basis for numerous other countries such as the U.S.). The equivalent body of law is based on statute, common law, and "traditional rights". Changes may come about formally through new acts of Parliament, informally through the acceptance of new practices and usage, or by judicial precedents. Although Parliament has the theoretical power to make or repeal any law, in actual practice the weight of 700 years of tradition restrains arbitrary actions.

Executive power rests nominally with the monarch but actually is exercised by a committee of ministers (cabinet) selected from among the members of the House of Commons and, less frequently, the House of Lords. The prime minister is normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, and can remain in office for so long as he or she has the support of a majority in that body.

==Parliament==

[[File:Westminster palace Charles Barry.jpg|left|380px]]
Parliament was authorized in the [[Magna Carta]] (1215), and first summoned by King Edward I in 1296, making it one of the oldest governing bodies in the world. Parliament represents the entire country, and can legislate for the whole or for any constituent part or combination of parts. Elections are called by the Prime Minister, but the maximum length of a parliament is usually 5 years (except in wartime). The focus of legislative power is the 646 member [[House of Commons]], which has sole jurisdiction over finance. Normally the government—the Prime Minister and cabinet with their supporting MPs—have full control of the House. If they lose control an new general election may be held. The House of Lords, although shorn of most of its powers, can still review, amend, or delay temporarily any bills except those relating to the budget. In 1999, the government removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to hold seats in the House of Lords. The current house consists of appointed life peers who hold their seats for life and 92 hereditary peers who will hold their seats only until final reforms have been agreed upon and implemented. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches, but cannot review the constitutionality of legislation.

Members of the House of Commons are elected to represent specific geographic constituencies. Members are elected on a "First past the post" system as opposed to proportional representation or other electoral systems. In effect this means that a third party with less than 25% of the vote typically obtains very few seats.

==Constituent countries==

[[File:Scottish Eilean Donan castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Scottish Eilean Donan castle.]]
The separate identities of each of the United Kingdom's constituent parts are also reflected in their respective governmental structures. Up until the recent devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, a cabinet minister (the Secretary of State for Wales) handled Welsh affairs at the national level with the advice of a broadly representative council for Wales. Scotland maintains, as it did before union with England, different systems of law (Roman-French), education, local government, judiciary, and national church (the Church of Scotland instead of the Church of England). In addition, separate departments grouped under a Secretary of State for Scotland, who also is a cabinet member, handled most domestic matters. In late 1997, however, following approval of referenda by Scottish and Welsh voters (though only narrowly in Wales), the British Government introduced legislation to establish a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly. The first elections for the two bodies were held May 6, 1999. The Welsh Assembly opened on May 26, and the Scottish Parliament opened on July 1, 1999. The devolved legislatures have largely taken over most of the functions previously performed by the Scottish and Welsh offices.

Northern Ireland had its own Parliament and prime minister from 1921 to 1973, when the British Government imposed direct rule in order to deal with the deteriorating political and security situation. From 1973, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, based in London, was responsible for the region, including efforts to resolve the issues that lay behind the "the troubles."

By the mid-1990s, gestures toward peace encouraged by successive British governments and by President Clinton began to open the door for restored local government in Northern Ireland. An Irish Republican Army (IRA) cease-fire and nearly 2 years of multiparty negotiations, led by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, resulted in the Good Friday Agreement of 10 April 1998, which was subsequently approved by majorities in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Key elements of the agreement include devolved government, a commitment of the parties to work toward "total disarmament of all paramilitary organisations," police reform, and enhanced mechanisms to guarantee human rights and equal opportunity. The Good Friday Agreement also called for formal cooperation between the Northern Ireland institutions and the Government of the Republic of Ireland, and it established the British-Irish Council, which includes representatives of the British and Irish Governments as well as the devolved Governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Devolved government was reestablished in Northern Ireland in December 1999.

The Agreement (more commonly known as the "Good Friday Agreement", and more rarely as the Belfast Agreement<ref>http://www.nio.gov.uk/index/key-issues/the-agreement.htm</ref>) was reached on Friday, April 10, 1998 in Belfast and provides for a 108-member elected Assembly, overseen by a 12-minister Executive Committee (cabinet) in which unionists and nationalists share leadership responsibility. Northern Ireland elects 18 representatives to the Westminster Parliament in London. However, the five Sinn Féin Members of Parliament (MPs), who won seats in the 2004 election, have refused to claim their seats.

===Political conditions===

[[David Cameron]] became Prime Minister on May 11, 2010, after [[Gordon Brown]] resigned, and led a [[Conservative Party|Con]]-[[Liberal Democrats|Dem]] coalition in 2010.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8676607.stm "David Cameron and Nick Clegg pledge 'united' coalition"] ''BBC News'', Election 2010.</ref> In 2015, a general election was called<ref>Under the provisions of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (c. 14), parliamentary elections in the UK must be held every five years, beginning in 2015. The Act received Royal Assent on 15 September 2011. Fixed-term Parliaments, where general elections ordinarily take place in accordance with a schedule set far in advance, were part of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement which was produced after the 2010 general election.</ref> and Cameron's Conservative Party won a majority of seats, against all odds.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/11599600/How-did-the-Conservatives-win-the-general-election.html "How did the Conservatives win the general election?"] ''The Daily Telegraph''</ref> It must be noted that despite its name, many supporters of the European Union and homosexual "marriage" are members of the Conservative Party.

===Membership in the European Union (1973-2020)===

The [[Conservative Party|Conservative]] government of [[Edward Heath|Sir Edward Heath]] took the UK into the [[European Union]] in 1973. The [[Labour Party]] under [[Harold Wilson]] won the 1974 general elections and due to splits within the party, called the only national [[referendum]] asking the people if they wanted to stay in the Union. The "yes" vote won by a margin of approximately two to one. The Labour and Conservative parties have since had deep divisions over Union membership. Labour's 1983 manifesto promised to leave the Union, and whilst the Conservative party have never pledged to leave the Union, a growing band of "Eurosceptics" threatened to tear the party apart in the 1990s. The Labour, Conservative and Scottish National parties wish to stay in the Union although disagree over the level of integration, but smaller parties such as the [[UK Independence Party]] and the Referendum Party campaigned on the single issue of sovereignty being lost to the Union.

A referendum to [[Brexit|leave the EU]] was successfully held on June 23, 2016. In accordance with a [[Conservative Party]] manifesto commitment, the legal basis for a referendum was established by the passage of the European Union Referendum Act 2015 by the British Parliament. It was the third plebiscite held throughout the United Kingdom, and the second time the British electorate had been asked to vote on the issue of European Union membership: the first was held in 1975, when it was known as the EEC. Membership was approved in that referendum by 67% of voters – but the nature of the EU changed dramatically since then.<ref>Adrian Williamson, [http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/the-case-for-brexit-lessons-from-1960s-and-1970s The Case for Brexit: Lessons from the 1960s and 1970s], History and Policy (2015).</ref> The referendum result, to leave the European Union, was a historic victory for conservative eurosceptics, and the next day, liberal prime minister [[David Cameron]], who had supported EU membership despite its many flaws and no real benefits, resigned.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36615028 Brexit: David Cameron to quit after UK votes to leave EU]. ''BBC''. June 24, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.</ref><ref>Gross, Jenny; Winning, Nicholas (June 24, 2016). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-s-brexit-vote-throws-political-scene-into-disarray-1466786724 Brexit Vote Throws U.K. Political Scene Into Disarray]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 15, 2016.</ref> Another winner was conservative Eurosceptic [[Nigel Farage]].

In 31th January of 2020 the United Kingdom started the transition period of leaving the European Union in which a trade deal should be negociated until January 2021.
==Defense and Foreign Relations==

[[File:11943452 115b299206.jpg|right|240px]]
The United Kingdom is a founding member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and is one of NATO's major European maritime, air, and land powers; it ranks third among NATO countries in total defence expenditure. The United Kingdom was a member of the European Community (now European Union) from 1973 to 2020. In the United Nations, the United Kingdom is a permanent member of the Security Council. The U.K. held the Presidency of the G-8 during 2005; it held the EU Presidency from July to December 2005.

The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting Britain's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. The 37,000-member Royal Navy, which includes 6,000 Royal Marine commandos, is in charge of the United Kingdom's independent strategic nuclear arm, which consists of four Trident missile submarines. The British Army, consisting of approximately 99,200 personnel, the Royal Air Force, with 42,000 personnel, along with the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, are active and regular participants in NATO and other coalition operations. Approximately 9% of the British Armed Forces is female, and 4% of British forces represent ethnic minorities.
[[File:Royal Naval college UK.jpg|thumb|center|380px|Royal Naval College.]]

===Iraq===

The U.K. was the United States' main coalition partner under the designation Operation TELIC. Under UN Security Council Resolution 1483, the U.K. also shared with the United States responsibility for civil administration in Iraq and was an active participant in the Coalition Provisional Authority before the handover of Iraqi sovereignty on June 28, 2004. Britain's participation in the Iraq war and its aftermath remains a domestically controversial issue.

<blockquote>
Iraqi oil supply was considered to be 'vital' to British interests. The British Government saw Iraqi oil as "vital" to the UK's long-term energy security, and the effective privatisation of its oil industry was central to the post-invasion plan for the country, according to previously unseen Whitehall documents. [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/iraqi-oil-supply-was-considered-to-be-vital-to-british-interests-2270072.html] ''The Independent.''
</blockquote>

The Iraq Inquiry is conducted to identify lessons that can be learned from the Iraq conflict; the inquiry is concerned over Mr. Blair's evidence on the legal advice he received before agreeing to join the invasion, and the timing of the decision to go to war. [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/chilcot-to-grill-blair-on-how-he-misled-iraq-war-inquiry-2185725.html] The Chair of the Inquiry, Sir John Chilcot (1939) was Staff Counsellor to the Security and Intelligence Agencies (1999-2004) and the National Criminal Intelligence Service (2002–06).

===Afghanistan===

Britain stood shoulder to shoulder with the United States following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., and its military forces are part of the coalition force in Afghanistan. The British force in [[Afghanistan War|Afghanistan]] is at 9,000 in late 2009 and will rise by an extra 500 troops in 2010. British forces are primarily based in the Helmand region, where they are on the front line in the war against continued Taliban operations. In addition, Britain has contributed more than £500 million to Afghan reconstruction—the second-largest donor after the U.S.

===Israel===

Britain has shown a greater willingness than the United States to criticize the Israelis over settlements and what some call the disproportionate responses to provocations from Gaza and southern Lebanon. (Jewish Labour MP Gerald Kaufman is among the most vocal.) Like his predecessors, both Labour and Conservative, former Foreign Secretary Milliband has been unequivocal: "Settlements are illegal under international law," he told Parliament in 2008; "They are a major blockage to peace in the Middle East on the basis of a two-state solution." His successor William Hague, on 20 March 2011, "expressed our serious concern over the recent announcement of 400 new housing units in the West Bank. Continued settlements run contrary to peace.” A BBC poll in March 2011 found that 14% of British subjects have a generally positive opinion of Israel while 66% have a generally negative opinion.

===Relations with the United States===

[[File:Send_a_gun_to_a_British_home.jpg|thumb|right|[[Second Amendment]]-supporting [[American]] [[citizen]]s gifted their [[firearm]]s to [[gun free zone]]-[[gun control]] supporting British citizens during [[World War II]] via [[The American Committee for the Defense of British Homes]]]]

The United Kingdom is one of the United States' closest allies, and British foreign policy emphasises close coordination with the United States. Bilateral cooperation reflects the common language, ideals, and democratic practices of the two nations. Relations were strengthened by the countries' alliances during both World Wars, and its role as a founding member of NATO, in the Korean conflict, in the Persian Gulf War, and in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The United Kingdom and the United States continually consult on foreign policy issues and global problems and share major foreign and security policy objectives.

The United Kingdom is the fifth-largest market for U.S. goods exports after Canada, Mexico, Japan, and China, and the sixth-largest supplier of U.S. imports after Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany. U.S. exports of goods and services to the United Kingdom in 2006 totaled $92 billion, while U.S. imports from the U.K. totaled $93 billion. The United States has had a trade deficit with the United Kingdom since 1998. The United Kingdom is a large source of foreign tourists in the United States. In 2005, 3.4 million U.S. residents visited the United Kingdom, while 4.2 million U.K. residents visited the United States.

The United States and the United Kingdom share the world's largest foreign direct investment partnership. U.S. investment in the United Kingdom reached $324 billion in 2005, while U.K. direct investment in the U.S. totaled $282 billion. This investment sustains more than 1 million American jobs.

==Economy==

[[File:London.jpg|thumb|left|280px|London's financial center.]]
Britain has been hard hit by the [[Recession of 2008]], with its major banks taken over or subsidized by the government. Real gross domestic product declined by 4.6% in 2009, and is expected to rise by 0.6% before 2010 and probably will continue to increase by 1% in 2011.

Britain has the sixth-largest economy in the world, and the second largest economy in Europe. It is a major international trading power. A highly developed, diversified, market-based economy with extensive social welfare services provides most residents with a high standard of living. Unemployment and inflation levels are amongst the lowest within Europe.

Since 1979, the British Government has privatised most state-owned companies, including British Steel, British Airways, British Telecom, British Coal, British Aerospace, and British Gas, although in some cases the government retains a "golden share" in these companies. The previous Labour government continued the privatisation policy of its Conservative predecessor, particularly by encouraging "public-private partnerships" (partial privatisation) in such areas as the London Underground. The economy of the United Kingdom is now primarily based on private enterprise, accounting for approximately four-fifths of employment and output.
[[File:Bluewater Shopping Centre, Kent, England Crop 2009.jpg|thumb|440px|Bluewater Shopping Centre, Kent, 2009.]]
London ranks alongside New York as a leading international financial centre. London's financial exports contribute greatly to the United Kingdom's balance of payments. Ratings agencies rank the United Kingdom's banking sector as one of the strongest in the world and its banks are amongst the most profitable in the G-8. It is a global leader in emissions trading and is home to the Alternative Investment Market (AIM). It is also a government priority to make London the leading center of Islamic finance.

Britain a significant European energy exporter. It is also one of the world's largest energy consumers, and most analysts predict a shift in U.K. status from net exporter to net importer of energy by 2020, possibly sooner. Oil production in the U.K. is levelling off. While North Sea natural gas production continues to rise, gains may be offset by ever-increasing consumption. North Sea oil and gas exploration activities are shifting to smaller fields and to increments of larger, developed fields, presenting opportunities for smaller, independent energy operators to become active in North Sea production.
*GDP (at current market prices, 2007 est.): US$1.93 trillion.
*Annual growth rate (2009 est.): -4.6%
*Per capita GDP (2006 est.): US$31,800.
*Natural resources: Coal, oil, natural gas.
*Agriculture (1.1% of GDP): Products—cereals, oilseed, potatoes, vegetables, cattle, sheep, poultry, fish.
*Industry: Types—steel, heavy engineering and metal manufacturing, textiles, motor vehicles and aircraft, construction (5.2% of GDP), electronics, chemicals.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports of goods and services—US$468.8 billion: manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals; food, beverages, tobacco. Major markets—U.S., European Union. Imports of goods and services—US$603 billion: manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, foodstuffs. Major suppliers—U.S., European Union, Japan.

=== Economic History ===

In 1960, the United Kingdom had the fourth-largest economy, with a GDP of $75 billion.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> In 1965, the UK got surpassed by France, getting to fifth place, with a GDP of $100 billion. In 1970, the fast-growing Japanese economy surpassed the UK, bumping it to 6th place. In 1975, the UK got $240 billion, in 1980 it got $540 billion, and in 1985, the UK declined slightly to $535 billion. But the top 6 stayed the same, the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. In 1990, Italy humiliated the UK, by putting the UK at 7th, despite booming to $1.1 trillion. In 1995, the UK grew to $1.325 trillion, bumping both Italy's curving economy and Russia's collapsing economy. In 2000, the UK went to $1.445 trillion, surpassing its longtime-rival-but-ally France, thus getting to 4th. In 2005, the UK boomed to $2.5 trillion dollars, keeping its 4th. In 2010, the UK declined to $2.25 trillion, getting bumped to 6th. In 2015, however, the UK got to $2.863 trillion, surpassing France again. In 2020, the booming Indian economy surpassed the UK, with $2.8 trillion (a small decline), bumping it to 6th.

=== Currency ===

The currency of the United Kingdom is the [[Pound|Pound Sterling]], commonly called Pound and written £ or GBP, divided into 100 New Pence (now commonly just called pence or 'p'). Traditionally the UK had a complicated triple currency structure of 20 [[shilling]]s to the Pound and 12 "old pence" (represented by a "d" from the Roman ''denarius'') to the shilling, making a total of 240 pence to the Pound. This system was abandoned in 1971 due to difficulties with computerised accounting systems, in favour of the current [[decimal]] system.

The UK has never joined the [[Euro]] zone.

==History==

[[File:Stonehenge.jpg|thumb|left|Stonehenge.]]
The Roman invasion of Britain in 43AD and most of Britain's subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated development and brought more active contacts with the rest of Europe. However, there was no permanent Roman imprint apart from roads and locations for cities. As Rome's strength declined, the country again was exposed to invasion—including the pivotal incursions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD—up to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further intrusions; certain institutions, which remain characteristic of Britain, could develop. Among these are a political, administrative, cultural, and economic centre in London; a separate but established church and distinctive and distinguished university education.

====Union====

Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that resisted English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I, and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease the Welsh, Edward's son (later Edward II), who had been born in Wales, was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British Monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and administrative union of England and Wales.

While maintaining separate parliaments, England and Scotland were ruled by the same king beginning in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years, strong religious and political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England and Scotland were unified as Great Britain, sharing a single Parliament at Westminster.

Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of strife. Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century, large-scale settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After its defeat, Ireland was subjected, with varying degrees of success, to control and regulation by Britain.

The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on January 1, 1801, under the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (normally shortened to "Great Britain" or "Britain"). However, armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State, which subsequently left the Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six northern, predominantly [[Protestant]], Irish counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.

====British Expansion and Empire====

[[Image:Sir Francis Grant's Portrait of Queen Victoria.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Queen Victoria'', by [[Sir Francis Grant]].]]
The '''British Empire''' was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] in history and, for over a century, was the foremost [[Great power|global power]]. It was a product of the [[Age of Discovery]], which began with the maritime explorations of the 15th century, that sparked the era of the European [[Colonialism|colonial]] empires. By 1921, the British Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, approximately one-quarter of the world's population.<ref>Angus Maddison. ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'' (p. 98, 242). [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], Paris, 2001.</ref> It covered about 36.7 million km² (14.2 million square miles),<ref>Bruce R. Gordon. [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html ''To Rule the Earth...''] (See [http://www.hostkingdom.net/Bibliography.html Bibliography] for sources used.)</ref> about a quarter of Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "[[The empire on which the sun never sets|the sun never sets on the British Empire]]" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous [[colonies]] or subject nations.<ref>This phrase had already been used a few centuries before by the king [[Charles I of Spain]], referring to the [[Spanish Empire]].</ref>

Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087) holdings in France, Britain's policy of active involvement in continental European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.

During the five decades following [[World War II]], most of the territories of the Empire became independent. Many went on to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a free association of independent states.<ref>T. O. Lloyd, ''The British Empire, 1558-1995. 2nd ed. (1996).</ref> Some have retained the [[British monarch]] as their [[head of state]] to become independent [[Commonwealth realm]]s.

====Sea Power====

The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major sea power. Thereafter, its interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice trade, English mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands, John Cabot reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the first, short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584, and permanent English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. During the next two centuries, Britain extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political development at home, as the Royal Navy dominated the seas.

====Industrial Revolution====

[[File:Bradford Industrial Museum.jpg|thumb|left|Bradford Industrial Museum.]]
Britain's [[industrial revolution]] greatly strengthened its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Britain was the foremost European power, and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts of the world, and, during this period, the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial expansion reached its height largely during the reign of [[Queen Victoria]] (1837-1901). [[Victorian era|Queen Victoria's]] reign witnessed the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and government throughout the British Empire, which, at its greatest extent, encompassed roughly one-fifth to one-quarter of the world's area and population. It is controversial whether British colonies accelerated or slowed Britain's economic growth, for its growth rate fell below nations without empires, especially the U.S. and [[Germany]]. Democracy came in fits and starts in a series of reforms that finally, by the 1920s, allowed all adults to vote.

 

====End of Empire====

By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, other nations, including the United States and Germany, had developed their own industries; Britain lost its comparative economic advantage, and the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The UK joined world war I because of the invasion of [[Belgium]], and subsequently began [[World War II]] after the invasion of [[Poland]]. The losses and destruction of [[World War I|The First World War]], the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, the independence of the Dominions, and decades of relatively slow growth eroded the Britain's preeminent international position of the previous century.

Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and Egypt.

In 1926, Britain granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand almost complete autonomy as "dominions"; beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled by the 1960s.

== See also ==

*[[English Painting]]
*[[British politics]]
*[[June 2007 UK terror attacks]]
*[[List of political parties in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Mystery:Why is England More Liberal than the United States?]]
*[[Flags of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Piers Morgan]]
*[[Victorian era]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/15/sir-john-chilcot-wrong-man Sir John Chilcot 'wrong man to head Iraq invasion inquiry'.]
*[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/iraqi-oil-supply-was-considered-to-be-vital-to-british-interests-2270072.html Iraqi oil supply was considered to be 'vital' to British interests.]

== Notes ==
<references/>

[[Category:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]
[[Category:Gun Control]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

Germany

2020-12-07T13:37:44Z

United States: fixing and adding!

{{Country
|name =''Bundesrepublik Deutschland''
|map =Germany rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Germany.PNG
|flag =Flag of Germany.JPG
|arms =Arms of Germany.png
|capital =Berlin
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic (Parliamentary)
|government-raw =
|language =German
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Frank-Walter Steinmeier
|president-raw =
|chancellor =Angela Merkel
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =137,858 sq mi
|pop =82,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$4,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$48,485 (2020)
|currency =[[Euro]] (formerly the [[Deutsche Mark]])
|idd =
|tld =.de
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on Germany and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
'''Germany''' (official name: '''Federal Republic of Germany''') is a federally organized Representative [[Democracy]] in [[Central Europe]] with a population of about 82.2 million. The capital city and seat of government is [[Berlin]]. Germany is the only country in [[liberal]] [[Western Europe]] which bans advertising for [[abortion]].<ref>https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/cardinal-defends-german-ban-on-abortion-advertising-in-powerful-pro-life-homily</ref>

The major ethnic groups are German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4% Polish 1%, Yugoslavs 1% and others 4%. 29% of the population are Protestants, 27% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and 4.4% are Muslim.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gm.html</ref>

As Europe's largest economy and the most populous nation wholly within Europe, Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. The central German bank, the Bundesbank, has historically been the most influential force within the financial markets of the [[European Union]]. But Germany has allowed itself to become dependent on [[Russia]] for [[natural gas]], and in recent years Germany has taken large numbers of immigrants from [[Muslim]] countries.

Currently Germany is ruled by the pseudo-conservative [[Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) under chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] and the left-wing [[SPD]]. Before it was ruled by CDU and the left-liberal [[Free Democratic Party]] (FDP).

In June 2017, both German parliament chambers voted to legalize [[Same-sex marriage|same-sex "marriage"]]. The new law went into effect on October 1, 2017. The Bavarian state government is currently investigating a possible appeal to the German constitutional court.

==People==
===Demography===
[[File:German-fans.jpg|thumb|250px|German fans.]]
In 2005 there were 388,451 marriages and 201,693 divorces. There were 685,795 births and 830,227 deaths. The number of births has dropped from 767,000 in 2000, while the deaths have risen from 179,600.

The average age at marrying (for the first time) for men was 32 and for women 29. Abortions are officially illegal, according to a 1995 law. However, prosecutions are not brought if they are performed in the first three months of pregnancy after consultation with a doctor. The annual abortion rate, at under ten per 1,000 women aged 15–44, is among the lowest in the world. Advertising for abortion is prohibited.

In 2005 10.2% of all children lived in poverty (in households with income below 50% of the national median).

Germany had a Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) of 0.66 in 1999. A rate of NRR=1.0 equals a constant population. Therefore, in terms of births and deaths (and not counting immigration), the population is shrinking by 34% between generations.[3]

Life expectancy of females at birth in West Germany rose from 71 years in 1954 to 80 years in 2000; the expectancy for boys rose from 66 to 75. Expectancy in the eastern zone was about three years less.

The projected population in 2050 is 76 million, down from the present 82 million. There will be more deaths than births, and that is largely offset by a net inflow of immigrants from 2000 to 2050, predicted to be about 240,000 per year.

<blockquote>
Germany's recent debate about immigration misses an important reality: for Germany, and most all developed countries, attracting educated and skilled foreign workers is a matter of economic survival.<ref>[http://www.cfr.org/germany/germanys-immigration-dilemma/p24213 Germany's Immigration Dilemma.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===Ethnicity===
[[File:Germany - houses.jpg|left|340px]]
Most inhabitants of Germany are ethnic German. There are, however, more than 7 million foreign residents, many of whom are the families and descendants of so-called "guest workers" (foreign workers, mostly from Turkey, invited to Germany in the 1950s and 1960s to fill labor shortages) who remained in Germany. Germany has a sizable ethnic Turkish population. Germany is also a prime destination for political and economic refugees from many developing countries. An ethnic Danish minority lives in the north, and a small Slavic minority known as the Sorbs lives in eastern Germany. Due to restrictive German citizenship laws, most "foreigners" do not hold German citizenship even when born and raised in Germany. However, since the German government undertook citizenship and immigration law reforms in 2002, more foreign residents have had the ability to naturalize.

===Education===
Germany has one of the world's highest average levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of World War II, the number of youths entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools of the Federal Republic of Germany (F.R.G.) are reasonably good. German 15-year olds score about average in comparison with similar countries.

At the university level, however, there has been a dramatic decline in quality from the days before Hitler, when German universities were the best in the world. Since the student revolts of 1968, conditions at the once-famous universities have deteriorated badly. A strong egalitarianism prevents the re-emergence of world-class faculties and no German university ranks among the top 40 in the world.<ref>Gebhard Schweigler, "Heidelberg is Not Harvard …and Germany is embarrassed." [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=83 ''The Atlantic Times'' Dec. 2004]</ref>

The conservative government has tried to reverse the decline by offering €1.9 billion (about $2.7 billion) in excellence grants to numerous schools spread over a period of five years—for less money than Harvard spends in one year. Little improvement has been reported from this small investment. The leading schools are Freiburg, Heidelberg and Konstanz (all in the southern state of Baden-Württemberg), Aachen, Göttingen, the Free University of Berlin, two schools in Munich and Karlsruhe's Technical University.<ref>Lutz Lichtenberger, "Selective Upgrades The government’s 'Excellence Initiative' grants German universities small packs of ivy seeds," [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=1080 ''The Atlantic Times'' Nov. 2007]</ref> Meanwhile, top German scientists and engineers migrate to the United States, where their talents are appreciated.

===Standard of Living===
[[File:Living Germany.jpg|left|170px]]
With a per capita income level of more than $28,700, Germany is a broadly middle-class society. A generous social welfare system provides for universal medical care, unemployment compensation, and other social needs. Millions of Germans travel abroad each year.

With unification on October 3, 1990, Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.) up to that of western Germany. This has been a lengthy and difficult process due to the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former G.D.R., difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from years of mismanagement under communist rule.
{{Clear}}

===Extremism===
Economic [[malaise]] in eastern Germany is one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from neo-Nazis. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame has found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. The vast majority of Germans condemn such violence.

Wolfgang Schaube, the Interior minister 2005–9, was shot by a deranged man in 1990 and is confined to a wheel chair. He calls on Germans to feel more patriotic, and for immigrants to assimilate faster. He has adopted tough policies on policing and anti-terrorism, such as giving the military authority to shoot down hijacked planes.

===Religion===
[[Image:St Stephens Cathedral interior.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Stephens Cathedral (''Stephansdom'') in Passau, Bavaria.]]
In 2006 the Roman Catholic Church reported a membership of 25.7 million. The Evangelical Church, a confederation of the Lutheran, Uniate, and Reformed Protestant Churches, has 25.3 million members. Together, these two churches account for nearly two-thirds of the population.<ref>According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108448.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>
[[File:Church pipe organ St Stephen s Cathedral of Passau Germany..jpg|thumb|Church pipe organ, St. Stephen's Cathedral of Passau.]]
Protestant Christian denominations include: New Apostolic Church, 371,305; Ethnic German Baptists from the former Soviet Union (FSU), 85,000; and Baptist, 75,000. Muslims number 3.5 million, including Sunnis, 2.5 million; Alevis, 410,000; and Shi'a, 225,000. Until 2004 the annual number of conversions to Islam was 300, largely Christian women native citizens marrying Muslim men; however, since 2004 the annual numbers of conversions have jumped into the thousands. There are approximately 2,600 Islamic places of worship, including an estimated 150 traditional architecture mosques, with 100 more mosques being planned. One million Muslims are citizens. Orthodox Christians number 1.4 million, including Greek Orthodox/Constantinople Patriarchate, 450,000; Serbian Orthodox, 250,000; Romanian Orthodox, 300,000; and Russian Orthodox/Moscow Patriarchate, 150,000. Buddhists number 245,000, Jehovah's Witnesses 165,000, and Hindus 97,500. The Church of Scientology operates 18 churches and missions, and according to press reports, it has 30,000 members. However, according to the Offices for the Protection of the Constitution (OPC) in Brandenburg and Hamburg, the Church of Scientology has 5,000-6,000 members.

According to estimates, Jews number more than 200,000, of which 107,330 are registered members of the Jewish community. Of these registered community members, 100,967 are immigrants and 6,363 are originally from the country. From 1990 to 2006, approximately 202,000 Jews and non-Jewish dependents from the countries of the FSU arrived, joining 25,000 to 30,000 Jews already in the country. As a result of a more restrictive immigration policy regarding Jews from the FSU, the number of Jewish immigrants decreased to 1,296 in 2007 from 1,971 in 2006 and 3,124 in 2005. The new policy was designed in cooperation with Jewish organizations in order to better manage the integration of individuals into the Jewish community.

An estimated 21 million persons (one-quarter of the population) either have no religious affiliation or belong to unrecorded religious organizations.

On December 18, 2007, the Bertelsmann Foundation published a survey on religious convictions and practice in the country, which failed to confirm the commonly held belief that the country was becoming more secular. Fully 70% of adult respondents said they were religious, and of those, 18% said they were "deeply religious" and regularly attend worship services, up from 15% in earlier studies. In the 18-29 age group, 41% expressed a belief in eternal life and a divine being, more than in any other age bracket. Roman Catholics report that 15% of nominal Catholics regularly attend Sunday Mass. Seventeen years after reunification, the country's eastern part remains far more secular than the west. The Bertelsmann Foundation found former easterners self-identified as 36% religious and 8% deeply religious, in contrast with 78% and 21%, respectively, for those from the west. Only 5 to 10% of eastern citizens belong to a religious organization, but numbers are increasing among non-Lutheran Protestants in the east.
====Discrimination====
[[File:Muslims in Europe map.jpg|thumb|290px|Muslims in Europe by country.]]
There have been recent reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, and practice. Right-wing extremists committed politically motivated crimes against minorities including religious groups, as well as anti-Semitic and anti-Islamic acts. Cemeteries were desecrated, and Muslim communities sometimes suffered societal discrimination when building new mosques and finding allotments of land for cemeteries; however, many members of Government and civil society initiated discussions about Muslim integration and expressed their commitment to addressing the issue. The Roman Catholic and Evangelical churches continued to use "sect commissioners" to warn the public of dangers from some minority religious groups such as the Unification Church, Scientologists, Universal Life (Universelles Leben), and Transcendental Meditation practitioners. Scientologists continue to find "sect filters" used against them in employment as well as discrimination in political party membership.

<blockquote>
Muslim population is around 3 million (3.6%); the majority of the Muslim population is Turkish, with many retaining strong links to Turkey. Others arrived from Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan wars. Until recently Muslims were considered "guest workers", who would one day leave the country - a view that is changing. Racist violence is a sensitive issue, with the authorities trying a range of strategies to beat it. Steps are being taken to improve integration.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#germany Muslims in Europe.]</ref>
</blockquote>

====Religion in schools====
Most public schools offer Protestant and Catholic religious instruction in cooperation with those churches, as well as instruction in Judaism if enough students express interest. The number of Islamic religion classes in public schools continued to grow. In principle, participants of the federal government-sponsored Islam Conference agreed that Islamic education should be made widely available. Education is a state responsibility and, in part because no nationally recognized Islamic organization exists that could assist in developing a curriculum or providing services, the form and content of Islamic instruction vary from state to state. Organizations providing Islamic instruction do not have public law corporation status.

Depending on the state, a nonreligious ethics course or study hall may be available for students not wishing to participate in religious instruction.
[[File:MUSLIM GERMANY RELIGION SCHOOL.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Coauthors Evelin Lubig-Fohsel and Guel Solgun-Kaps hold the German-language textbook they wrote for state-sponsored religion classes in Germany's schools.]]
Islamic classes in public schools continued to be a controversial topic but were increasingly common throughout the country, except in areas where the Muslim population was too small to support them. Although no Muslim group had "public law corporation" status that would entitle them to offer Islamic courses, state governments recognized the need and demand and worked with local Muslim organizations to establish such courses. On March 13, 2008, the Interior Minister was quoted in the press indicating that the Federal Government and Muslim community leaders had reached an agreement in principle that schools should offer classes in Islam taught in German alongside the other religions, but he noted that it would take time to implement the agreement.

There are an estimated 900,000 Muslim students in the public school system; Islamic education in schools is offered in some states. At the start of the 2006‑07 school year, authorities in Baden‑Wuerttemberg established a two‑course system: one for Sunni and Shi'a students and another for Alevis. State officials and Muslim groups in Baden‑Wuerttemberg agreed upon the system and the initial reactions were positive. Some states offered similar programs while others were working with Muslim leaders to establish a uniform curriculum. Later in the year, universities in Frankfurt, Ludwigsburg, Karlsruhe, and Weingarten began offering training courses in the teaching of Islam.

The legal obligation that children attend school, confirmed by the Constitutional Court and the European Court of Justice in 2006, continued to be a problem for some home-schooling advocates, such as Baptists from the FSU in Eastern Westphalia, due to concerns about sex education and the teaching of evolution. On August 2, 2007, the Stuttgart Administrative Court dismissed the case brought by several Russian‑German immigrant families belonging to the Baptist group Gemeinde Gottes who had petitioned in 2004 to send their children to a private religious school run by members of their community. The court ruled that the teaching staff was insufficiently qualified. Other home-schooling cases remain in the court system.

<blockquote>
Public schools in Germany must offer religion classes, and pilot courses in Islam are now being offered in addition to established programs in Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism.<ref>[https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0120/Why-German-public-schools-now-teach-Islam Why German public schools now teach Islam.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===State support for religion===
In order to help support [[Protestant]], [[Catholic]], and [[Jewish]] religious institutions, the German state collects [[taxes]] on members of those religions and passes the funding along to the relevant religious administrative body.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-19737983]</ref>

===Data===
*Population (2007 est.): 82 million.
*Ethnic groups: Primarily German; Danish minority in the north, Sorbian (Slavic) minority in the east; 7.3 million foreign residents.
*Religions: Protestants (26 million); Roman Catholics (26 million); approximately 3.2 million Muslims.
*Language: German.
*Education: Years compulsory—9-13 (depending on the Land); attendance—100%; literacy—99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--4.12/1,000; life expectancy (2006 est.)--women 81.96 years, men 77.81 years.
*Persons employed (2006 avg.): 39.08 million; unemployed (2006 avg.): 9.8% of labor force.

==Government==
===Executive Branch===
[[File:Merkel.jpg|thumb|Angela Merkel.]]
Germany has a president as [[head of state]]. The president's powers are essentially representative.
The current president is Frank-Walter Steinmeier, succeeding [[Joachim Gauck]].

The actual political power and head of government is the chancellor ("Bundeskanzler"), who is elected by federal parliament ("Bundestag"). The chancellor is typically elected in the first session of a newly elected Bundestag for the entire legislative period of four years. The parliament can only force the chancellor to resign in a ''constructive motion of no-confidence'', if it elects at the same time a new Chancellor. The current chancellor is [[Angela Merkel|Dr. Angela Merkel]]. The current government is a coalition between the Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD).
{{Clear}}

===Legislative Branch===
[[File:Bonn Bundestag Plenarsaal Germany.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Bundestag Plenarsaal at Bonn.]]
Germany has a bicameral system with a federal parliament ("Bundestag") and a representation of the states ("Bundesrat"). The members of Bundestag in elected every four years, using a personalized proportional system. The members of the Bundesrat are representatives of the state governments, and the delegations of each state are required to vote as a bloc on behalf of their governments. Each delegation has between 3 and 6 members, depending on the size of the represented state. The position of president of the Bundesrat rotates on an annual basis between the prime ministers of the states.
{{Clear}}

===Judicative Branch===
The German constitution provides for an independent jurisdiction. The highest appeals court in Germany is the Federal Court of Justice ("Bundesgerichtshof"), which is seated in the Southwestern city of [[Karlsruhe]]. Members of the Federal court are elected by a committee, with 16 delegates from the states, one from each state, appointed by the state governments, and 16 delegates appointed by the federal parliament. The Federal Constitutional Court ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") is the highest court to review decisions and acts by the executive and legislative branches of government. It can be called to determine whether public acts are unconstitutional and can render them ineffective if they are not. This court is also seated in city of Karlsruhe, and it members are elected by the Bundesrat and Bundestag, and need a 2/3 majority in each.

===Political Parties===
====Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU)====
[[File:Germ-vote-2009.jpg|200px|thumb|Exit polls from Sept. 2009 election won by the conservative coalition CDU and FDP]]
:''Main article: [[Christian Democratic Union]] and [[Christian Social Union]]
An important aspect of postwar German politics was the emergence of a moderate, ecumenical Christian party—the Christian Democratic Union (CDU)--operating in alliance with a related Bavarian party, the Christian Social Union (CSU). Although each party maintains its own structure, the two form a common caucus in the Bundestag and do not run opposing campaigns. The CDU/CSU has adherents among Catholics, Protestants, rural interests, and members of all economic classes. It is generally conservative on economic and social policy and more identified with the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches.

The September 2009 elections were a major win for the conservative forces led by Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], breaking a stalemate and opening the way for more conservative economic policies. Previously since an indecisive election in 2005 the Christian Democrats ([[CDU]]) (on the center-right) formed a "grand coalition" with the Social Democrats ([[SPD]]) (on the center-left). From 2009 to 2013 Merkel and her CDU formed a coalition with the libertarian, pro-business [[Free Democratic Party|Free Democrats]] (FDP). Left in the cold was the SPD, the [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Greens]], and the ex-Communists who remain strong in the former East Germany under the name "[[The Left]]". Merkel moved forward on tax cuts, reform of the tax code, reduction of bureaucracy and a possible extension of the time that nuclear power plants can continue to operate.<ref>Craig Whitlock, "Germany's Merkel Reelected Easily, Will Form New Coalition," [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/27/AR2009092700631.html?nav=emailpage ''Washington Post'' Sept. 28, 2009]</ref> Merkel's program announced as she took office Oct. 28 includes $36 billion in income tax cuts, lower business taxes, and higher family benefits. The budget will be in deficit for the next four years, as the government believes the economy is too fragile for spending cuts and that more stimulus is needed to end the recession. By law the budget must be balanced by the year 2016. Nuclear power plants will be given an extension, and Merkel wants to move more of the welfare costs from corporations to households.

The CDU has the greatest base of faithful voters, but is recently struggling to maintain majorities in big cities.

====Free Democratic Party (FDP)====
:''Main article:'' [[Free Democratic Party]]
The FDP has traditionally been composed mainly of middle and upper class Protestants who consider themselves heirs to the European libertarian tradition. It supports free trade and reducing the role of the state in economic policy. It is libertarian on social issues. The party has participated in all but three postwar federal governments but had not been in federal government from 1998 to 2009.

====Social Democratic Party (SPD)====
[[File:German party SPD.jpg|140px|left]]
:''Main article:'' [[SPD]]
The SPD is one of the oldest organized political parties in the world. It originally advocated Marxist principles, but in the 1959 Godesberg Program abandoned the concept of a "class party" while continuing to stress social welfare programs. Under the leadership of Gerhard Schroeder, the SPD-Greens government implemented in 2003 the centrist Agenda 2010 reforms, designed to modernize the country's social system and labor market. The SPD has a powerful base in the bigger cities and industrialized states.

After the FDP, the partner of the CDU, left the parliament, Merkel created a "grand coalition" with the SPD.
{{Clear}}

====The Left====
:''Main article:'' [[The Left]]
The PDS (for 'Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus'; "Party of Democratic Socialism", the renamed communist party of the former East Germany, and follow-up of the [[SED]]) and the WASG (for 'Wahlalternative Arbeit und Soziale Gerechtigkeit'; "Voting alternative work and social justice" composed of west-German leftists) merged in June 2007 to form a party simply known as "[[The Left]]." The party's foreign policy is largely shaped by its rigid opposition to foreign military deployments, for example in [[Afghanistan]], and insists on an immediate pull-out. On domestic policy, the party opposes economic and social reforms, such as Hartz IV, which aim to increase free markets and reduce unemployment benefits. The Left proposes to weaken the free market system with a new orientation to democratic socialist principles. The Left also experienced a lot of criticism due to its communist wing, the 'communist platform' which makes up 4.4% of the national vote, an insufficient total to clear the 5 percent hurdle.<ref>[http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl_electoral_system.htm German Culture.com; Electoral System of Germany (next to last paragraph)]</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Alliance 90/Greens====
:''Main article:'' [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
In the late 1970s, environmentalists organized politically as the Greens. Opposition to nuclear power, military power, and certain aspects of highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. In the December 1990 all-German elections, the Greens merged with the Eastern German Alliance 90, a loose grouping of civil rights activists with diverse political views. The Greens joined a federal government for the first time in 1998, forming a coalition with the SPD.

In 2012 they took advantage of the Fukushima nuclear plant desaster in Japan, allowing them to form the government of the state of Baden-Württemberg in a coalition with the SPD, which is the smaller partner this time.

====Alternative for Germany====
The [[Alternative for Germany]] (AfD) is a right-wing party that was founded to in February 2013 as a reaction to the Financial crisis in Europe. A main theme area of the party is the rejection of [[Illegal Immigration]].

====Other parties====
[[File:German communist logo.jpg|thumb|200px|The logo of the German Communist Party]]
Because of the instability caused by the need for multi-party coalitions in the Weimar Republic, Germany's Basic Law today requires parties reach 5% of the vote to win seats in the Bundestag. In addition to those parties that won representation in the Bundestag in 2005, a variety of minor parties won a cumulative 2.7% of the vote, down from 3.0% in 2002. Several other parties were on the ballot in one or more states but did not qualify for representation in the federal Bundestag.

Another important party is the [[Pirate Party]] (PIRATEN).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Frank-Walter Steinmeier
*President of the Bundestag—Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU)
*Chancellor—Angela Merkel (CDU)
*Vice Chancellor and Minister of Finance—Olaf Scholz (SPD)
*Minister of Interior—[[Horst Seehofer]] (CSU)
*Minister of Minister of Foreign Affairs—Heiko Maas (SPD)
*Minister of Economic Affairs and Energy—Peter Altmaier (CDU)
*Minister of Justice—Katarina Barley (SPD)
*Minister of Labor and Social Affairs—Hubertus Heil (SPD)
*Minister of Defense—Ursula von der Leyen (CDU)
*Minister of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection—Julia Klöckner (CDU)
*Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth—Franziska Giffey (SPD)
*Minister of Health—Jens Spahn (CDU)
*Minister of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs—Andreas Scheuer (CSU)
*Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety—Svenja Schulze (SPD)
*Minister of Education and Research—Anja Karliczek (CDU)
*Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development—Gerd Müller (CSU)
*Head of the Federal Chancellery and Minister for Special Tasks—Helge Braun (CDU)

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:German Foreign Minister Welcomes Ukrainian President Yanukovych.jpg|thumb|340px|Former German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle welcomes former Ukrainian President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] in Berlin, 2010.]]
Germany continues to emphasize close ties with the United States, membership in NATO, and the "deepening" of integration among current members of the EU. The Federal Republic of Germany took part in all of the joint postwar efforts aimed at closer political, economic, and defense cooperation among the countries of western Europe. Germany has been a large net contributor to the EU budget. Germany also is a strong supporter of the United Nations and of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

During the postwar era, the Federal Republic of Germany also sought to improve its relationship with the countries of Central Europe freed from communism, first establishing trade agreements and, subsequently, diplomatic relations. With unification, German relations with the restored democracies in central and eastern Europe intensified. On November 14, 1990, Germany and Poland signed a treaty confirming the Oder-Neisse border. They also concluded a cooperation treaty on June 17, 1991. Germany concluded four treaties with the Soviet Union covering the overall bilateral relationship, economic relations, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the former G.D.R., and German support for those troops. Russia accepted obligations under these treaties as successor to the Soviet Union. Germany continues to be active economically in the states of central and eastern Europe and to actively support the development of democratic institutions, bilaterally and through the EU.

====Relations with the United States====
[[File:Nazi crowd salute.jpg|thumb|300px|Nazi crowd salute.]]
U.S.-German relations have been a focal point of American involvement in Europe since the end of World War II. Germany stands at the center of European affairs and is a key partner in U.S. relations with Europeans in NATO and the European Union.

German-American ties extend back to the colonial era. More than 7 million Germans have immigrated over the last three centuries, and today nearly a quarter of U.S. citizens claim German ancestry. In recognition of this heritage and the importance of modern-day U.S.-German ties, the U.S. President annually has proclaimed October 6, the date the first German immigrants arrived in 1623, to be "German-American Day."

U.S. policy toward Germany remains the preservation and consolidation of a close and vital relationship with Germany, not only as friends and trading partners, but also as allies sharing common institutions. During the 45 years in which Germany was divided, the U.S. role in Berlin and the large American military presence in West Germany served as symbols of the U.S. commitment to preserving peace and security in Europe. Since German unification, the U.S. commitment to these goals has not changed. The U.S. made significant reductions in its troop levels in Germany after the Cold War ended, and, on July 12, 1994, President Clinton "cased the colors" at the Berlin Brigade's deactivation ceremony. The U.S., however, continues to recognize that the security and prosperity of the United States and Germany significantly depend on each other.

As allies in NATO, the United States and Germany work side by side to maintain peace and freedom. This unity and resolve made possible the successful conclusion of the 1987 U.S.-U.S.S.R. Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), the Two-plus-Four process—which led to the Final Settlement Treaty—and the November 1990 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty.
[[File:President and First Lady Obama with Chancellor Merkel.jpg|thumb|left|320px|President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama are welcomed by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and her husband, professor Joachim Sauer, to Rathaus in Baden-Baden, Germany, 2009.]]
More recently, the two allies have cooperated closely in peacekeeping efforts in the Balkans and have worked together to encourage the evolution of open and democratic states throughout central and eastern Europe. Germany is also a strong contributor to our common effort to secure peace and stability in Afghanistan, contributing almost 3,000 troops to the NATO ISAF mission.

Following the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC, Germany has been a reliable U.S. ally in the campaign against terrorism. As two of the world's leading trading nations, the United States and Germany share a common, deep-seated commitment to an open and expanding world economy. Personal ties between the United States and Germany extend beyond immigration to include intensive foreign exchange programs, booming tourism in both directions, and the presence in Germany of large numbers of American military personnel and their dependents.

The United States and Germany have built a solid foundation of bilateral cooperation in a relationship that has changed significantly over nearly six decades. The historic unification of Germany and the role the United States played in that process have served to strengthen ties between the two countries.

German-American political, economic, and security relationships continue to be based on close consultation and coordination at the most senior levels. High-level visits take place frequently, and the United States and Germany cooperate actively in international forums.

====War on Terror====
Germany currently contributes troops to the NATO-led ISAF operation in [[Afghanistan]], but did not support the invasion of [[Iraq]]. German military participates in NATO Force Protection Program, protecting US military bases located in Germany.

====Libya====

[[Libyan uprising 2011]]

<blockquote>
Germany’s Defense Minister Thomas de Maziere has criticized NATO’s controversial military operation in Libya and lack of foresight when it comes to intervening in the North African country. [http://2012indyinfo.wordpress.com/2011/06/19/presstv-germany-slams-nato-mission-in-libya/]
</blockquote>

==Economy==
[[Image:The_castle3.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Neuschwanstein Castle, a popular tourist destination.]]
Germany is the world's fourth-largest economy and is currently the largest economy in Europe. From the 1948 currency reform until the early 1970s, West Germany experienced almost continuous economic expansion. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth slowed down, and even declined, from the mid-1970s through the recession of the early 1980s. The economy then experienced 8 consecutive years of growth that ended with a downturn beginning in late 1992. Since unification, Germany has seen annual average real growth of only about 1.5% and stubbornly high unemployment. In 2006, Germany had its best year since 2000 with 2.7% growth; for 2007, growth was at 2.5% despite a 3 percentage point VAT hike at the beginning of the year. The government forecasts 1.7% growth in GDP for 2008. Unemployment in 2007 dropped to an annualized average of 9.0% nationwide, but it is still significantly higher—15.1%--in the German states that make up the former East Germany.

Germans often describe their economic system as a "social market economy." The German Government provides an extensive array of social services. The state intervenes in the economy by providing subsidies to selected sectors and by owning some segments of the economy, while promoting competition and free enterprise. The government has restructured the railroad system on a corporate basis, privatized the national airline, and is privatizing telecommunications and postal services.

The German economy is heavily export-oriented, with exports accounting for more than one-third of national output. As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion, accounting for over half of the economic growth in recent years. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined within the European Union (EU). Germany uses the common European currency, the euro, and the European Central Bank sets monetary policy.
[[File:German transmission lines.jpg|thumb|left|340px|Transmission lines and generating stations.]]
In the early-mid 2000s, Germany adopted a complex set of labor/social welfare reforms to overcome structural weaknesses of the German welfare state and to create policies more conductive to employment. Defying a skeptical German public, the coalition government of Chancellor Angela Merkel initiated additional reform measures, such as the gradual increase in the mandatory retirement age from 65 to 67—a move that would add 2.5 million to the workforce by 2030. Subsequently, however, there has been active political debate and some rollback of these labor reforms; most notably the government decided to extend the payment period of unemployment benefits to older workers in early 2008.

Fifteen years after reunification (October 3, 1990), Germany had made great progress in raising the standard of living in eastern Germany, introducing a market economy and improving its infrastructure. At the same time, the process of convergence between east and west is taking longer than originally expected and, on some measures, has stagnated since the mid-1990s. Eastern economic growth rates have been lower than in the west in recent years, unemployment is twice as high, prompting many skilled easterners to seek work in the west, and productivity continues to lag. Eastern consumption levels are dependent on public net financial transfers from west to east totaling about $13 billion per year. In addition to social assistance payments, the government will extend funds to promote eastern economic development through 2019.

The United States is Germany's second-largest trading partner, and U.S.-German trade has continued to grow strongly. Two-way trade in goods totaled $184 billion in 2007. U.S. exports to Germany were $71 billion while U.S. imports from Germany were more than $113 billion. At nearly $45 billion, the U.S.'s fifth-largest trade deficit is with Germany. Major U.S. export categories include aircraft, electrical equipment, telecommunications equipment, data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. German export sales are concentrated in metalworks, motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals and heavy electrical equipment. Much bilateral trade is intra-industry or intra-firm.

Germany has a liberal foreign investment policy. For 2005, the most recent year for which statistics are available, German investment in the U.S. amounted to 233 billion euros (29% of all German foreign direct investment, or FDI; the U.S. is the number-one destination for German FDI), while U.S. investment in Germany was 45 billion euros (11.5% of all FDI invested in Germany; U.S. is third-largest source of FDI in Germany).

U.S. firms employ about 510,000 people in Germany; whereas German firms likewise employ about 746,000 people in the United States.

Despite persistence of some structural rigidities in the labor market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive. Although production costs are very high, Germany is still an export powerhouse, and unit labor costs have decreased in the last 10 years. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, social security, and financial sector reforms.
*GDP (2007 est.): $3.1 trillion.
*Annual growth rate: (2006) 2.7%; (2007) 2.5%.
*Per capita income (PPP, 2006): $31,900.
*Inflation rate (consumer prices, 2007): 2.2%.
*Natural resources: Iron, hard coal, lignite, potash, natural gas.
*Agriculture (0.9% of GDP): Products—corn, wheat, potatoes, sugar, beets, barley, hops, viticulture, forestry, fisheries.
*Industry (29.1% of GDP): Types—car-making; mechanical, electrical, and precision engineering; chemicals; environmental technology; optics; medical technology; biotech and genetic engineering; nanotechnology; aerospace; logistics.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$1.03 trillion: chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, manufactured goods, electrical products. Major markets—France, U.S., and U.K. Imports--$844 billion: food, petroleum products, manufactured goods, electrical products, motor vehicles, apparel. Major suppliers—France, Netherlands, U.S.

The German economy showed substantial improvement in 2007 at 2.5% growth due to the effect of recent economic reforms and strong global economic growth. The export-led recovery is now filtering through to the domestic economy where private consumption has long been at a low level.

=== Economic History ===

In the 1960s, Germany had (ones of) hundreds of billions of dollars in GDP<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref>, being the third-largest economy, only next to the United States and the Soviet Union. However, in 1970, Germany had a $210 billion dollar economy, still being the 3rd largest economy, but being closely approached by Japan. The Germans climbed up to $475 billion in 1975, but got bumped down to fourth by the booming Japanese economy. In 1980, Germany went up to $920 billion, but still kept fourth place. Germany suffered a crash to $660 billion in 1985, still being fourth. In 1990, Germany exploded to $1.6 trillion, compared to the Soviet Union (3rd)'s $2.6 trillion. However, Germany went up to $2.6 trillion, overtaking the crashing Russian economy, and thus getting third place. In 2000, Germany went down to $1.95 trillion, still keeping third. Germany went to $2.875 trillion, being closely approached by the booming Chinese economy. Germany went to $3.3 trillion in 2015, but got bumped again to fourth, because of China's rapidly-growing economy. However, Germany grew slightly faster, when Germany got to $3.4 trillion in 2015. Germany now has a $4 trillion economy (as of 2020), but may be bumped down by 2025 by India's $3 trillion economy, which is booming dramatically.

=== Crisis of 2008 ===

The worldwide [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit Germany in the summer, revealing high risk policies pursued by numerous large banks looking for high rates of return outside Germany. In September the government unveiled a $635-billion bailout package for its floundering banks. Economic growth for 2009 is forecast to be an anemic 0.2%.

Automobile manufacturing is a major sector, but the financial crisis caused credit to be harder to obtain; many families postponed purchases. Auto exports fell 10% in October 2008 from October 2007; domestic sales dropped 8%. In contrast 2007 was a record year with production of 12.1 million vehicles and employment of 756,000 workers; an eighth of those jobs were created in the last five years alone.

The German economy has since recovered and the impact of the ongoing euro crisis isn't being noticed yet.

==History==
See [[German History]]

== Sports ==
[[File:Sunken Village by Timm Ulrichs Munich.JPG|thumb|Architectural sculpture "Sunken Village" by Timm Ulrichs, and in the back Allianz Arena, Munich.]]
[[Association Football]] is the most popular sport by far, followed by [[Team Handball]] (not to be confused with [[American handball]]). Basketball and (ice) hockey play a minor role, whereas baseball and American football are, despite being organized, hardly being noticed by the general public.

The most popular non-sport-games are [[chess]] and [[skat]], both being organized in [[bundesligas]].

Germany was the winner of the 2014 [[FIFA World Cup]].

==The states (Bundesländer) and their capitals==
[[File:Frankfurt skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|Frankfurt am Main, Hesse.]]
(In alphabetical order)
* [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]]: [[Stuttgart]]
* [[Bavaria]] (''Bayern''): [[München]]
* [[Berlin]]: [[Berlin]]
* [[Brandenburg]]: [[Potsdam]]
* [[Bremen]]: [[Bremen]]
* [[Hamburg]]: [[Hamburg]]
* [[Hesse]] (''Hessen''): [[Wiesbaden]]
* [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]: [[Schwerin]]
* [[Lower Saxony]] (''Niedersachsen''): [[Hannover]]
* [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] (''Nordrhein-Westfalen''): [[Düsseldorf]]
* [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] (''Rheinland-Pfalz''): [[Mainz]]
* [[Saarland]]: [[Saarbrücken]]
* [[Saxony]] (''Sachsen''): [[Dresden]]
* [[Saxony-Anhalt]] (''Sachsen-Anhalt''): [[Magdeburg]]
* [[Sleswick-Holsatia]] (''Schleswig-Holstein''): [[Kiel]]
* [[Thuringia]] (''Thüringen''): [[Erfurt]]

==Famous Germans==
{|
|-
|
*[[Konrad Adenauer]]
*[[Hannah Arendt]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Boris Becker]]
*[[Pope Benedict XVI]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Otto von Bismarck]]
*[[Heinrich Böll]]
*[[Willy Brandt]]
*[[Wernher von Braun]]
*[[Bertolt Brecht]]
*[[Dietrich Buxtehude]]
*[[Marlene Dietrich]]
*[[Albrecht Dürer]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Roland Emmerich]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Daniel Fahrenheit]]
*[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
|
*[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Günter Grass]]
*[[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]]
*[[Johannes Gutenberg]]
*[[Georg Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Otto Hahn]]
*[[Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Ernst August von Hannover]]
*[[Karl August von Hardenberg]]
*[[Friedrich Hegel]]
*[[Werner Heisenberg]]
*[[Heinrich Hesse]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Adolf Hitler]]
*[[Oliver Kahn]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]]
*[[Helmut Kohl]]
*[[Käthe Kollwitz]]
|
*[[Otto Kretschmer]]
*[[Karl Liebknecht]]
*[[Loriot]]
*[[Martin Luther]]
*[[Rosa Luxemburg]]
*[[Thomas Mann]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*Angela Merkel
*[[Lise Meitner]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Nena]]
*[[Dirk Nowitzki]]
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
*[[Erwin Rommel]]
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]]
*[[Friedrich Schiller]]
*[[Gerhard Schröder]]
*[[Heinrich Schliemann]]
*[[Michael Schumacher]]
*[[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
*[[Wim Wenders]]
|}

==Further reading==
* Schafers, Bernha, ''The State of Germany Atlas'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/State-Germany-Atlas-Bernha-Schafers/dp/0415188261/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Schulte-Peevers, Andrea, et al. ''Lonely Planet Germany'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Germany-Andrea-Schulte-Peevers/dp/1740599888/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

===Since 1990===
* Alba, Richard. Peter Schmidt, and Martina Wasmer. ''Germans or Foreigners?: Attitudes Toward Ethnic Minorities in Post-Reunification Germany'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/Germans-Foreigners-Minorities-Post-Reunification-Transition/dp/1403963789/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324886&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]
* Berghahn, Volker Rolf. ''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) [http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.01673 ACLS E-book]
* Buse, Dieter K. ed. ''Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871-1990'' (2 vol 1998)
* Kahn, Charlotte. ''Ten Years of German Unification: One State, Two Peoples'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/23486249 online edition]
* Larres, Klaus. ''Germany Since Unification: The Development of the Berlin Republic'' (2nd ed. 2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Germany-Since-Unification-Second-Development/dp/0333919998/ref=sr_1_28?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-28 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and society===
* Siebert, Horst. ''The German Economy: Beyond the Social Market'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/German-Economy-Beyond-Social-Market/dp/0691096643/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328508&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zimmermann, Klaus F. et al. ''Immigration Policy and the Labor Market: The German Experience and Lessons for Europe'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Immigration-Policy-Labor-Market-Experience/dp/354068381X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328716&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]

====Politics====
* Green, Simon, and William E. Paterson. ''Governance in Contemporary Germany: The Semisovereign State Revisited'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Governance-Contemporary-Germany-Semisovereign-Revisited/dp/0521848814/ref=sr_1_25?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-25 excerpt and text search]
* Hancock, M. Donald, ''Politics in Europe: An Introduction to the Politics of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Politics-Europe-Introduction-Kingdom-Germany/dp/1933116455/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Schmidt, Manfred G. ''Political Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany'' (2003) ISBN 0198782594

==See also==
*[[Refugee]]s
*[[Atheistic Germany and alcoholism]]
*[[Atheistic Germany and loneliness]]
*[[Bavaria]]
*[[Bestiality and Germany]]
*[[Communist East Germany and alcoholism]]
*[[German Painting]]
*[[Gallery of German Masterpieces]]
*[[Prussia]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.justgermany.org/germany/germany-facts.asp Germany Basic Facts.]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

 
===Sources===
* source: [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3997.htm US State Department Country Study]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:German History]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Japan

2020-12-07T13:33:43Z

United States: adding!

{{Country
|name =Japan
|map =Japan rel96.jpg
|map2 =Japan location.png
|flag =Flag of Japan.png
|arms =Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg
|capital =Tokyo
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy; Constitutional Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Japanese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =Emperor [[Naruhito]]
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =[[Yoshihide Suga]]
|area =377,832 sq. miles
|pop =125,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$5,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$40,000 (2020)
|currency =Yen
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Japan''' is a nation that consists of a group of islands off the eastern coast of [[Asia]]. Its capital, [[Tokyo]], is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 36 million people. Japan is divided into a total of 47 [[prefecture]]s.<ref>Demographia - 50 Largest World Metropolitan Areas Ranked:
2000 Estimates,[http://www.demographia.com/db-world-metro2000.htm]</ref>

Japan has long suppressed [[Christianity]] and is now paying a hefty price for that, by suffering from a long-term population and economic decline, and thereby allowing [[China]] to replace Japan as [[Asia]]'s largest economy.

In the August 2009 national elections, the [[Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) suffered a massive defeat as voters blamed it for the poor economy, numerous corruption scandals and Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]]'s uninspiring leadership. The LDP has ruled Japan for nearly all of the last 50 years and is generally conservative, but it lost two-thirds of its seats.

The opposition [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) swept the nation, winning 302 of the 480 seats in the powerful lower house, compared to only 112 seats before. DPJ leader [[Yukio Hatoyama]] was installed as prime minister but was replaced by [[Naoto Kan]] in June 2010. Kan was succeeded by Yoshihiko Noda in September 2011.

The DPJ has promised massive spending programs will cost 16.8 trillion yen ($177 billion) annually when they are fully operational in 2013. That is a huge burden for a country that has a large and rapidly growing fiscal deficit caused by stimulus packages and bailouts that never seem to work. Japan's national debt has soared to nearly 190% of its annual GDP (gross domestic product). The nation was ranked #4 in the world in per capita income in 1989, just before its slump began; it is now down to #14. India, with ten times as many people, has almost the same total GDP and will soon surpass Japan, in about ten years, becoming the world's third-largest economy and Asia's second-largest economy.

{{language box
|kanji=日本国
|romaji=Nihon-koku
}}
==Geography==
[[Image:Cherry Blossom Japan.jpg|thumb|Cherry Blossoms and Mt. Fuji.]]
The islands of Japan are scattered between 24ºN and 45ºN latitude (roughly 1,800 miles, or [[Florida]] to [[Maine]]). As a result, the climate varies greatly. Japan extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The four main islands, running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Okinawa]] Island is about 380 miles south-west of Kyushu. About 3,000 smaller islands are included in the archipelago. In total land area, Japan is slightly smaller than California. About 73% of the country is mountainous, with a chain running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is the world-famous [[Mount Fuji]] (or ''Fuji-san'') at 12,385 feet. Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the summits. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific depth, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.

Temperature extremes are less pronounced than in the United States, but the climate varies considerably. Sapporo, on the northernmost main island, has warm summers and long, cold winters with heavy snowfall. Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe, in central and western parts of the largest island of Honshu, experience relatively mild winters with little or no snowfall and hot, humid summers. Fukuoka, on the island of Kyushu, has a climate similar to that of Charleston, South Carolina, with mild winters and wet summers. Okinawa is subtropical.

The cherry blossom (Sakura) is Japan's unofficial national flower. It has been celebrated for many centuries and takes a very prominent position in [[Mono no aware|Japanese culture]].<ref>[http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2011.html Cherry Blossom]</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
Japan's population, currently 125 million, has experienced a phenomenal growth rate during the past 100 years as a result of scientific, industrial, and sociological changes, but this has ended because of falling birth rates and a lack of immigration. In 2006, Japan's population declined for the first time, two years earlier than predicted. High sanitary and health standards and a diet of fish and rice produce a life expectancy exceeding that of the United States. However, the population of Japan is expected to fall to only 107 million in 2050, and by 2100, it would be down to 75 million, falling below the United Kingdom.

===Decline===
[[File:Niños japoneces.jpg|left]]
Japan's population peaked in 2006; the following year saw the second consecutive decline, with an official population of 127,053,471. The [[birth rate]] has now increased from 2006's record low, but this has been offset by an all-time-high in the [[death rate]]. 51% of the population is female, and people over 65 now make up 26.4% of the country.<ref>''[[Japan Times]]'': '[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nn20070803a2.html Population shrinks again despite increase in births]'. 3rd August 2007; "Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

In 1947 the proportion of Japanese over 65 was around 5% of the population, well below that in Britain, France or America. Today the elderly account for one-fifth of the population, and average lifespans have grown remarkably. Life expectancy today is 82, up from a little over 50 in 1947.

The baby boom came in 1947-1949, when 2.7m children a year were born. In 2007 the baby-boom generation began to retire (60 is the mandatory retirement age at most companies). Japan's birth rate fell below the replacement rate of 2.1 in the early 1970s. It slid to a low of 1.26 in 2005. In 2005 the population began to fall in absolute terms, despite increasing life expectancy. It is now shrinking at a pace unprecedented for any nation in peacetime. The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research estimates a total population of 95m by 2050, compared to 127m in 2007, with the elderly accounting by then for two-fifths of the total.<ref>"Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

===Policies===
The DPJ, elected in a landslide in 2009, has promised an ambitious social-spending plan that includes a child allowance of $3,300 a year. It is designed to encourage more births as a solution to Japan's declining population and rising average population age, as well as being a stimulus to spending to get the economy out of its long slump.

===Cities===
[[File:Kobe port.jpg|thumb|Port of Kobe.]]
Japan is an urban society with only about 4% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshu and in northern Kyushu. Major population centers include: Metropolitan Tokyo with approximately 12.5 million; Yokohama with 3.6 million; Osaka with 2.6 million; Nagoya with 2.2 million; Sapporo with 1.9 million; Kyoto and Kobe with 1.5 million each; Kawasaki and Fu''''kuoka with 1.4 million each, and Saitama with 1.2 million. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: overcrowded cities, congested roads, air pollution, and rising juvenile delinquency.
*Population (2007 est.): 127.5 million.
*Population growth rate (2007 est.): -0.088%.
*Ethnic groups: Japanese; Korean (0.5%).
*Religions: Shinto and Buddhist; Christian (about 0.7%).
*Language: Japanese.
*Education: Literacy—99%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate—2.8/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 85 yrs.
*Work force (67 million, 2003): services—42%; trade, manufacturing, mining, and construction—46%; agriculture, forestry, fisheries—5%; government—3%.

===Religion===
[[Image:Nara.jpg|thumb|Great Buddha at Nara]]

Historically, the Japanese government has shifted between no official religion, [[Shinto|Shintō]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="WebJapanFactSheet">[http://web-japan.org/factsheet/ Web Japan Fact Sheet], sponsored by the [http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan]</ref> Modern Japan has no state religion.<ref>Article 20 of the [[Current Constitution of Japan (Full Text)|Japanese Constitution]] erects a legal barrier between political and religious entities.</ref>

Shintoism and Buddhism are Japan's two principal religions. Shintoism is founded on myths and legends emanating from the early animistic worship of natural phenomena. Since it was unconcerned with problems of afterlife which dominate Buddhist thought, and since Buddhism easily accommodated itself to local faiths, the two religions comfortably coexisted, and Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples often became administratively linked. Today many Japanese are adherents of both faiths. From the 16th to the 19th century Shintoism flourished.

Adopted by the leaders of the Meiji restoration, Shintoism received state support and was cultivated as a spur to patriotic and nationalistic feelings. Following World War II, state support was discontinued, and the emperor disavowed divinity. Today Shintoism plays a more peripheral role in the life of the Japanese people. The numerous shrines are visited regularly by a few believers and, if they are historically famous or known for natural beauty, by many sightseers. Many marriages are held in the shrines, and children are brought there after birth and on certain anniversary dates; special shrine days are celebrated for certain occasions, and numerous festivals are held throughout the year. Many homes have "god shelves" where offerings can be made to Shinto deities.
[[File:Daibutsu-den in Todaiji Nara.jpg|thumb|330px|left|Temple Daibutsu-den in Todaiji, [[Nara]].]]
Buddhism first came to Japan in the 6th century and for the next 10 centuries exerted profound influence on its intellectual, artistic, social, and political life. Most funerals are conducted by Buddhist priests, and many Japanese visit family graves and Buddhist temples to pay respects to ancestors.

Confucianism arrived with the first great wave of Chinese influence into Japan between the 6th and 9th centuries. Overshadowed by Buddhism, it survived as an organized philosophy into the late 19th century and remains today as an important influence on Japanese thought and values.

Christianity, first introduced into Japan in 1549, was virtually stamped out by the government a century later; it was reintroduced in the late 1800s and has spread slowly. Today Christianity has an estimated 3 million adherents throughout Japan.

Beyond the three traditional religions, many Japanese today are turning to a great variety of popular religious movements normally lumped together under the name "new religions." These religions draw on the concept of Shinto, Buddhism, and folk superstition and have developed in part to meet the social needs of elements of the population. The officially recognized new religions number in the hundreds, and total membership is reportedly in the tens of millions.

Japan has also spawned its share of [[cults]], including the exceptionally lethal but fortunately short-lived [[Aum Shinrikyo]] movement of the early 1990s, which in 1994 became the first non-state organization to kill people with [[nerve gas]].

== Art ==
[[Image:Birds Japanese painting.jpg|180px|right|Birds, Japanese painting]]
[[Image:Hokusai Sea Wave Kanagawa.jpg|180px|right|Behind the Great Wave off Kanagawa]]
Japanese art comes from prehistoric times. It has been influenced by [[Chinese]] art and Zen Buddhism, as well as by Western art. Painting (絵画) is one of the oldest Japanese art, and the most popular one. Main Painting Schools are: Suibokuga, Kanō, Rimpa, Tosa-ha, Nanga and Shijo.

Japanese interpretations and painters may be studied in the following periods:

* Ancient Japan
* [[Nara]] period
* Heian and [[Kamakura]] periods
* Muromachi period
: Josetsu (如拙) (1405 – 1423), the father of Japanese ink painting.
* Azuchi-Momoyama period
: Kanō Eitoku (狩野永徳) (1543 - 1590), prominent patriarch of the Kanō School.
* Edo period
: Tawaraya Sōtatsu (俵屋宗達) (c. 1600s), co-founder of the Rimpa School.
: [[Katsushika Hokusai]] (葛飾北斎) (1760 — 1849), Ukiyo-e (浮世絵) genre painter and printmaker. "Behind the Great Wave at Kanagawa" (c.1829) is one of the most renowned Japanese paintings.
* Meiji period
* Taisho period
* Showa period
: Ogura Yuki (小倉遊亀) (1895 - 2000), traditional female painter.
* Contemporary period
: Shinoda Toko (篠田桃紅) (b. 1913), female painter, sumi (ink) paintings and prints.
{{Clear}}

==Tourism==
Japan is a country that offers the tourist exotic beauty and marvelous attractions. It has so many outstanding places to visit that it is difficult to choose among them. Examples are [[Tokyo]] the capital, [[Nikko]], a pilgrimage site, [[Kamakura]], with one of Japan's best collections of shrines, temples, and monuments, [[Kyoto]] "The Thousand Year Capital", which was Japan's capital for years, [[Osaka]], [[Hiroshima]], [[Nara]], [[Nagasaki]] and [[Sapporo]]. It is said that the three most scenic spots of Japan are [[Itsukushima Shrine|Miyajima]] (Shrine Island), Amano Hashidate, located on the Tango Peninsula in the northern part of [[Kyoto]] Prefecture, and Matsushima, located in Miyagi Prefecture (3 hours from Tokyo); (Miyagi Prefecture (宮城県, Miyagi-ken) is located in the Tōhoku Region on [[Honshu]] island, northeastern Japan; [[Sendai]] is its capital).<ref>[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]</ref>

<center>
<gallery>
File:Japan Miyajima s.jpg|Torii of [[Itsukushima Shrine]].
File:Amano Hasidate Japan.jpg|Amano Hasidate.
File:Matsushima Japan.jpg|Matsushima.
</gallery>
</center>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. There is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested in the Japanese people, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
[[File:National Diet Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The National Diet, Tokyo.]]
Japan's Government is a parliamentary democracy, with a House of Representatives and a House of Councillors. Executive power is vested in a cabinet composed of a prime minister and ministers of state, all of whom must be civilians. The prime minister must be a member of the [[National Diet|Diet]] and is designated by his colleagues. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The judiciary is independent.

The five major political parties represented in the National Diet are the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ), the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP), the New Clean Government Party (Komeito), the [[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP).

Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese constitution includes a bill of rights similar to the U.S. Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.

Japan does not have a federal system, and its 47 prefectures are not sovereign entities in the sense that U.S. states are. Most depend on the central government for subsidies. Governors of prefectures, mayors of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected to 4-year terms.

====Recent Political Developments====
The post-World War II years saw tremendous economic growth in Japan, with the political system dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). That total domination lasted until the Diet lower house elections in July 1993, in which the LDP failed for the first time to win a majority. The LDP returned to power in 1994, with majorities in both houses of the Diet. In elections in July 2007, the LDP lost its majority in the upper house, with the DPJ now holding the largest number of seats but with no party possessing a clear majority. Currently, the LDP maintains a majority in the lower house.

Shinzo Abe was elected Prime Minister in a Diet vote in September 2006. Abe was the first prime minister to be born after World War II and the youngest prime minister since the war. However, Abe resigned abruptly on September 12, 2007, not long after the LDP lost control of the upper house in the July 2007 elections in which the LDP's handing of domestic issues was a leading issue. Yasuo Fu''''kuda of the LDP was elected prime minister by the Diet on September 25, 2007, to replace Abe. Fu''''kuda, whose father served as prime minister in the late 1970s, is known as a moderate and for his experience building consensus behind the scenes.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:Emperor Akihito Japan.jpg|thumb|Emperor Akihito.]]
*Head of State—Emperor Naruhito
*Prime Minister (Head of Government)--Yoshihide Suga
*Cabinet Secretary Takeo Kawamura
*Finance Minister Shoichi Nakagawa
*Defense Minister Yasukazu Hamada,
*Minister of Foreign Affairs Hirofumi Nakasone
*Permanent Representative to the UN Kenzo Oshima
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
Japan is the world's third-largest economy and a major economic power both in Asia and globally. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the United Nations since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
[[File:Japanese sailors.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Japanese sailors.]]
In recent years, the Japanese public has shown a substantially greater awareness of security issues and increasing support for the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to the Self Defense Forces' success in disaster relief efforts at home, and its participation in peacekeeping operations such as in Cambodia in the early 1990s and Iraq in 2005-2006. However, there are still significant political and psychological constraints on strengthening Japan's security profile. Although a military role for Japan in international affairs is highly constrained by its constitution and government policy, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation or revision of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Prime Minister Abe made revising or reinterpreting the Japanese constitution a priority of his administration. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the Mutual Security Treaty for strategic protection.

While maintaining its relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After the signing of a peace and friendship treaty with China in 1978, ties between the two countries developed rapidly. Japan extended significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects and supported Chinese membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Japan's economic assistance to China is now declining. In recent years, however, Chinese exploitation of gas fields in the East China Sea has raised Japanese concerns given disagreement over the demarcation of their maritime boundary. Prime Minister Abe's October 2006 visits to Beijing and Seoul helped improve relations with China and South Korea that had been strained following Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine. At the same time, Japan maintains economic and cultural but not diplomatic relations with Taiwan, with which a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.

Japanese officials believe the February 25, 2008 inauguration of Republic of Korea President Lee Myung-bak marks a "new era" in Japan-South Korea relations, as Tokyo and Seoul look to develop "future-oriented" ties while avoiding contentious historical differences. Those historical differences include territorial disputes involving the Liancourt Rocks, use of Korean females as "Comfort Women" during World War II, and historical and ethnic animosities that continue to complicate Japan's political relations with South Korea despite growing economic and cultural ties.

A surprise visit by Prime Minister Koizumi to Pyongyang, North Korea on September 17, 2002, resulted in renewed discussions on contentious bilateral issues—especially that of abductions to North Korea of Japanese citizens—and Japan's agreement to resume normalization talks in the near future. In October 2002, five abductees returned to Japan, but soon after negotiations reached a stalemate over the fate of abductees' families in North Korea. Japan's economic and commercial ties with North Korea plummeted following Kim Jong-il's 2002 admission that D.P.R.K. agents abducted Japanese citizens. Japan strongly supported the United States in its efforts to encourage Pyongyang to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In 2006, Japan responded to North Korea's July missile launches and October nuclear test by imposing sanctions and working with the United Nations Security Council. The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, and Japan participates in the Six-Party Talks to end North Korea's nuclear arms ambitions. Tokyo, however, refuses to provide assistance called for under the February 13, 2007 Six-Party Talks agreement until North Korea takes satisfactory steps to resolve the abduction issue.

Japan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the islands that make up the Northern Territories (Southern Kuriles) seized by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II. The stalemate over territorial issues has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war between Japan and Russia. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Russian Coast Guard boats sometimes seize Japanese fishing vessels operating in waters surrounding the disputed area. In August 2006, a Russian patrol shot at a Japanese fishing vessel, claiming the vessel was in Russian waters, killing one crewmember and taking three seamen into custody. In October 2007, Russia raised objections to U.S.-Japan cooperation on missile defense, and in February 2008, Tokyo protested the incursion into Japanese airspace of a Russian bomber. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories and other disputes, however, Japan and Russia continue to develop other aspects of the overall relationship, including two large, multibillion-dollar oil-natural gas consortium projects on Sakhalin Island.

Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the Middle East, which provides most of its oil, and has been the second-largest assistance donor (behind the U.S.) to Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2006, Japan's Ground Self Defense Force completed a successful two-year mission in Iraq, and the Diet extended the Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law which allowed for Japan's Maritime Self Defense Force refueling activities in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the Indian Ocean. On July 10, 2007, the Japanese Government decided to extend the Air Self-Defense Force's (ASDF) airlift support mission in Iraq to July 31, 2008. Under the Iraq Special Measures Law a wing of the ASDF's C-130 transport planes, based in Kuwait, will continue to carry personnel and supplies for the U.S.-led multinational forces and the United Nations in Iraq. The law has been extended to July 31, 2009, and will be voted on again in 2008.

Japan increasingly is active in Africa and Latin America—recently concluding negotiations with Mexico and Chile on an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)--and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions.

[[File:Mexico - Japan Business.jpg|center|thumb|280px|Mexico-Japan Business.]]
<blockquote>
Mexico and Japan implemented an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) on April 1st , 2005. The EPA is a comprehensive free trade agreement that has contributed to the expansion of commerce, investment, and tourism between the two countries. Japan represents the most important market for Mexican exports in Asia; and, Mexico is the most important destination for Japanese exports in Latin America. Moreover, cumulative Japanese company investments in Mexico total more than US$ 10 billion for the past decade, in sectors as diverse as automotive, electronics, electric, energy, agribusiness, transportation, real estate, and services.<ref>[http://www.mexicotradeandinvestment.com/]</ref>
</blockquote>

A Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998. Japan's economic engagement with its neighbors is increasing, as evidenced by the conclusion of an EPA with Singapore and the Philippines, and its ongoing negotiations for EPAs with Thailand and Malaysia.

In May 2007, just prior to the G8 Summit in Heiligendamm, Prime Minister Abe announced an initiative to address greenhouse gas emissions and seek to mitigate the impact of energy consumption on climate. At the January 2008, [[World Economic Forum]] in Davos, Switzerland, Prime Minister Fu''''kuda reiterated his commitment to this plan. As host of the G8 Summit in July 2008, Japan will focus on four themes: environment and climate change, development and Africa, the world economy, and political issues including non-proliferation.

===Relations with the United States===
The U.S.-Japan alliance is the cornerstone of U.S. security interests in Asia and is fundamental to regional stability and prosperity. Despite the changes in the post-Cold War strategic landscape, the U.S.-Japan alliance continues to be based on shared vital interests and values. These include stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the preservation and promotion of political and economic freedoms, support for human rights and democratic institutions, and securing of prosperity for the people of both countries and the international community as a whole.
[[File:Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.]]
Japan provides bases and financial and material support to U.S. forward-deployed forces, which are essential for maintaining stability in the region. Under the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, Japan hosts a carrier battle group, the III Marine Expeditionary Force, the 5th Air Force, and elements of the Army's I Corps. The United States currently maintains approximately 50,000 troops in Japan, about half of whom are stationed in Okinawa.

Over the past decade the alliance has been strengthened through revised Defense Guidelines, which expand Japan's noncombatant role in a regional contingency, the renewal of our agreement on Host Nation Support of U.S. forces stationed in Japan, and an ongoing process called the Defense Policy Review Initiative (DPRI). The DPRI redefines roles, missions, and capabilities of alliance forces and outlines key realignment and transformation initiatives, including reducing the number of troops stationed in Okinawa, enhancing interoperability and communication between our respective commands, and broadening our cooperation in the area of ballistic missile defense.

Implementation of these agreements will strengthen our capabilities and make our alliance more sustainable. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, Japan has participated significantly with the global war on terrorism by providing major logistical support for U.S. and coalition forces in the Indian Ocean.

Because of the two countries' combined economic and technological impact on the world, the U.S.-Japan relationship has become global in scope. The United States and Japan cooperate on a broad range of global issues, including development assistance, combating communicable disease such as the spread of HIV/AIDS and avian influenza, and protecting the environment and natural resources. Both countries also collaborate in science and technology in such areas as mapping the human genome, research on aging, and international space exploration. As one of Asia's most successful democracies and its largest economy, Japan contributes irreplaceable political, financial, and moral support to U.S.-Japan diplomatic efforts. The United States consults closely with Japan and the Republic of Korea on policy regarding North Korea. In Southeast Asia, U.S.-Japan cooperation is vital for stability and for political and economic reform. Outside Asia, Japanese political and financial support has substantially strengthened the U.S. position on a variety of global geopolitical problems, including the Gulf, Middle East peace efforts, and the Balkans. Japan is an indispensable partner on UN reform and the second largest contributor to the UN budget. Japan broadly supports the United States on nonproliferation and nuclear issues. The U.S. supports Japan's aspiration to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.

== Economy ==
Japan was devastated by [[World War II]].<ref>World War II wiped out many of the gains Japan had made since 1868. About 40 percent of the nation's industrial plants and infrastructure were destroyed, and production reverted to levels of about fifteen years earlier.[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7176.html Japan - Patterns of Development]</ref>

Yet Japan's economy recovered over the years 1950-1980 through a partnership between government and industry. The goal in 1950 was to become the world leader in textiles, which was achieved by 1959. The goal in 1960 was to become the world's top producer in steel by 1970, and the goal in 1970 was to become the world's leader in the production of automobiles. Each goal was achieved within one year of the target date.<ref>[http://www.nightingale.com/Offers/ziglar-goalsvideo.html?promo=intgooga660&org=intgooga660&gclid=CIPP8tG736QCFUpe7AodkGqbKw Source: Zig Ziglar's motivational talk on goal setting]</ref>
[[File:Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tokyo.]]

Now Japan's industrialized, free market economy is the third-largest in the world. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is far lower in protected areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the highest economic growth rates in the world from the 1960s through the 1980s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early 1990s, when the "bubble economy" collapsed, marked by plummeting stock and real estate prices. Together with the impact of the worldwide [[recession of 2008]], Japan's status as a global economic power is slipping fast, with [[China]] already surpassing Japan in 2011, thus becoming Asia's largest economy, and with India poised to surpass Japan as the world's third-largest economy by the late 2020s.

Japan's reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.

Japan's long-term economic prospects are considered good, and it has largely recovered from its worst period of economic stagnation since World War II. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1% yearly in the 1990s, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. The Japanese economy is now in its longest postwar expansion after more than a decade of stagnation. Real growth in 2006 was 2.2% and was 1.9% in 2007.
*GDP (2007 est.): $5.103 trillion (official exchange rate); $4.34 trillion (PPP).
*Real growth rate (2007 est.): 1.9%.
*Per capita GDP (2007 est. PPP): $33,800.
*Natural resources: Fish and few mineral resources.
*Agriculture: Products—rice, vegetables, fruit, milk, meat, silk.
*Industry: Types—machinery and equipment, metals and metal products, textiles, autos, chemicals, electrical and electronic equipment.

=== Economic History ===
In 1960, with a GDP with over $40 billion,<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> Japan was the ninth-largest economy, below the United States, the Soviet Union, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, China, and Canada. Because of economic reforms and economic freedom set out by the Japanese government, Japan boomed to $90 trillion in 1965, getting to sixth. The booming economy of Japan was doubling in less than five years, and got to fourth place with $200 billion in 1970. It went to $512.5 billion in 1975, becoming the third-largest economy. In 1980, Japan again more than doubled, with a $1.1 trillion GDP. Experts predicted another more-than-double in 1985. That wasn't the case. Instead, Japan went to $1.4 trillion in 1985, slowing down a little bit. In 1990, Japan had a $3.15 trillion GDP, more-than-doubling again, and now overtaking the Soviet Union's economy, and thus getting to 2nd. In 1995, Japan exploded to 5.5 trillion dollars, and experts thought Japan would overtake the US.<ref>https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1995-04-10-9504100029-story.html</ref> But Japan slowed down in 2000, going down to $4.9 trillion, but keeping second place. In 2005, Japan went down further to $4.75 trillion, still being second. But, in 2010, Japan was a $6 trillion dollar economy, tying with China. In 2015, Japan was down to 3rd, with $4.4 trillion. Japan is now a very risky investment, barely getting to $5 trillion in 2020.

===Agriculture, Energy, and Minerals===
Only 15% of Japan's land is arable. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per hectare crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 40% on fewer than 5.6 million cultivated hectares (14 million acres). Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans, primarily from the United States. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports.

Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 52% in 2000. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Today Japan enjoys one of the most energy-efficient developed economies in the world.

Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. Iron ore, [[Coke from coal|coke]], copper, and bauxite must be imported, as must many forest products.

===Labor===
Japan's labor force consists of some 66.07 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership was estimated to be about 10 million in 2006.

===U.S./Japanese Economic Relations===
U.S. economic policy toward Japan is aimed at increasing access to Japan's markets and two-way investment, stimulating domestic demand-led economic growth, promoting economic restructuring, improving the climate for U.S. investors, and raising the standard of living in both the United States and Japan. The U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship—based on enormous flows of trade, investment, and finance—is strong, mature, and increasingly interdependent. Further, it is firmly rooted in the shared interest and responsibility of the United States and Japan to promote global growth, open markets, and a vital world trading system. In addition to bilateral economic ties, the U.S. and Japan cooperate closely in multilateral fora such as the WTO, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, and regionally in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).
[[File:Japan US relations Obama Naoto.jpg|thumb|left|300px|President Obama and Prime Minister Naoto Kan.]]
Japan is a major market for many U.S. products, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, films and music, commercial aircraft, nonferrous metals, plastics, and medical and scientific supplies. Japan also is the largest foreign market for U.S. agricultural products, with total agricultural exports valued at $10.1 billion in 2007, a 20% increase over the $8.39 billion in agricultural exports recorded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2006. Revenues from Japanese tourism to the United States reached nearly $13 billion in 2005.

Trade between the United States and Japan remained strong in 2006. Total trade grew about 0.2% year-on-year. U.S. exports to Japan reached $62.7 billion in 2007, up from $59.6 billion in 2006. U.S. imports from Japan totaled $145.5 billion in 2007 ($148.1 billion in 2006).

U.S. foreign direct investment in Japan reached $91.8 billion in 2006, up from $79.3 billion in 2005, according to data compiled by the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis. New U.S. investment was especially significant in financial services, Internet services, and software, generating new export opportunities for U.S. firms and employment for U.S. workers.

==History==
[[File:Samourai photo 1867 PD.jpg|thumb|Samurai, photo 1867.]]
See [[History of Japan]]
====20th century====
The Showa Period (1926–89), under Emperor [[Hirohito]], was an era of incredible change from traditional villages to modern cities, from a great empire and early success in [[World War II]] to utter ruin and surrender. In 1931 seized Japan [[Manchuria]], and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of [[History of China|China]]. The U.S. vehemently protested and insisted that Japan pull back, but it refused, so the U.S. stopped shipping it oil. Japan responded by attacking the U.S. at [[Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941, and soon conquered much of East and Southeast Asia. In a series of spectacular naval battles, such as the [[Battle of Midway]] (June 1942), Japan lost control of the Pacific and was subject to massive air raids culminating in nuclear attacks on [[Hiroshima]] and Nagasaki.

Japan, in utter ruins, was occupied by the U.S. until 1951, as Emperor Hirohito led a regime that Americanized the nation, modernized and liberalized its economy and polity, and become an economic superpower, staunch American ally, and a democracy that gave up all its empire and its military power. The emperor stepped down from his traditional godly status but remains the powerful symbol of national identity and unity. Political power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asia and globally.

====Current Status====
Japan's modern economy has many world leading industries and companies, being driven by exports and a mastery of high technology. However, in the 1990s, the economy underwent a major slowdown in part because of overinvestment and an asset price [[economic bubble|bubble]] during the late 1980s. Japan has a huge government debt, which exceeds the Gross Domestic product (176% of GDP) and also faces the challenge of a low birth rate, low immigration and an aging of the population which will further increase the debts. [[China]] also is becoming a larger economy and a bigger international trading partner than Japan.

====2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami ====
[[File:Japan quake sendai.jpg|left|200px]]
A massive 9.0-magnitude earthquake and several powerful aftershocks struck the eastern coast of Japan on March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. in Washington), triggering a [[tsunami]] that devastated the coastline north of [[Tokyo]] with waves up to 20 meters (66 ft.) high. The earthquake epicenter was in the western Pacific Ocean, 130 kilometers east of [[Sendai]], [[Honshu]] island. The earthquake occurred along the subduction zone between two tectonic plates.
[[File:Japan radiation 2011.jpg|right|140px|Japanese radiation, 2011.]]
The Japan Meteorological Agency said the earthquake was the strongest in the country's history;<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2011/03/11/ST2011031100651.html?sid=ST2011031100651 Japan Quake - Tsunami]</ref> the death toll is around 16,000 people; Prime Minister Naoto Kan called it the nation's worst crisis since World War II.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-03-13-japan-earthquake_N.htm</ref>

The [[earthquake]] has caused three nuclear power plant cooling systems to fail and those affected reactors. Thousands of residents were evacuated.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/03/11/japan-issues-emergency-nuke-plant-leak Radiation Levels Surge Outside Two Nuclear Plants in Japan.]</ref>
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Arbol japon.jpg|right|Japanese landscape]]
*[[Japan and America]]
*[[World War II]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Matthew Perry]]
*[[Nikko]]
*[[Ainu]]
*[[Aomori]]
*[[Geisha]]
*[[Japanese painting]]
*[[Gallery of Japanese Painting]]
*[[Japanese dates]]
*[[Bonseki]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.japan-guide.com/ Traveling and living.] Japan - Guide.
*[http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h207_2002/jecontakeoff.htm Japanese economic takeoff after 1945]
*[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]
*[http://explainedwithmaps.com/japan-a-vanishing-nation/ Explained With Maps: Japan, a vanishing nation] (video documentary)

[[File:Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine main shrine.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine.]]

{{Clear}}

==Basic further reading==
{{See also|Bibliography of Japan}}

===References===
* Huffman, James L., ed. ''Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 316 pp.
* Itasaka, Gen, ed. ''Japan Encyclopedia,'' 9 vols. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983. with beautiful pictures
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori.'' (1991). 410 pp.
* Stockwin, J. A. A. ''Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Japan.'' (2003). 291pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107546295# online edition]

===Guides===
* DK, '' Japan'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Japan-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0756628768/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Reiber, Beth, and Janie Spencer. ''Frommer's Japan'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Japan-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0471763918/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Rowthorn, Chris et al. ''Lonely Planet Japan'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Japan-Chris-Rowthorn/dp/1740599241/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
===History===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History.'' (1999). 259 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Columbia-Guide-Modern-Japanese-History/dp/0231111444/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Japan's Postwar History.'' (2nd ed 2004). 208 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Postwar-History-Second-Allinson/dp/0801489121/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Gordon, Andrew. ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103548936 online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-History-Japan-Tokugawa-Present/dp/0195110617/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394957&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hane, Mikiso. ''Modern Japan: A Historical Survey'' (2nd ed 1992), 474pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=57239340 online edition]
* Perez, Louis G. ''The History of Japan'' (1998) 244pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=93932879 online edition]

==References==
<references/>

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some content for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]

Japan

2020-12-07T13:29:44Z

United States: adding!

{{Country
|name =Japan
|map =Japan rel96.jpg
|map2 =Japan location.png
|flag =Flag of Japan.png
|arms =Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg
|capital =Tokyo
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy; Constitutional Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Japanese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =Emperor [[Naruhito]]
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =[[Yoshihide Suga]]
|area =377,832 sq. miles
|pop =125,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$5,000,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$40,000 (2020)
|currency =Yen
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Japan''' is a nation that consists of a group of islands off the eastern coast of [[Asia]]. Its capital, [[Tokyo]], is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 36 million people. Japan is divided into a total of 47 [[prefecture]]s.<ref>Demographia - 50 Largest World Metropolitan Areas Ranked:
2000 Estimates,[http://www.demographia.com/db-world-metro2000.htm]</ref>

Japan has long suppressed [[Christianity]] and is now paying a hefty price for that, by suffering from a long-term population and economic decline, and thereby allowing [[China]] to replace Japan as [[Asia]]'s largest economy.

In the August 2009 national elections, the [[Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) suffered a massive defeat as voters blamed it for the poor economy, numerous corruption scandals and Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]]'s uninspiring leadership. The LDP has ruled Japan for nearly all of the last 50 years and is generally conservative, but it lost two-thirds of its seats.

The opposition [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) swept the nation, winning 302 of the 480 seats in the powerful lower house, compared to only 112 seats before. DPJ leader [[Yukio Hatoyama]] was installed as prime minister but was replaced by [[Naoto Kan]] in June 2010. Kan was succeeded by Yoshihiko Noda in September 2011.

The DPJ has promised massive spending programs will cost 16.8 trillion yen ($177 billion) annually when they are fully operational in 2013. That is a huge burden for a country that has a large and rapidly growing fiscal deficit caused by stimulus packages and bailouts that never seem to work. Japan's national debt has soared to nearly 190% of its annual GDP (gross domestic product). The nation was ranked #4 in the world in per capita income in 1989, just before its slump began; it is now down to #14. India, with ten times as many people, has almost the same total GDP and will soon surpass Japan, in about ten years, becoming the world's third-largest economy and Asia's second-largest economy.

{{language box
|kanji=日本国
|romaji=Nihon-koku
}}
==Geography==
[[Image:Cherry Blossom Japan.jpg|thumb|Cherry Blossoms and Mt. Fuji.]]
The islands of Japan are scattered between 24ºN and 45ºN latitude (roughly 1,800 miles, or [[Florida]] to [[Maine]]). As a result, the climate varies greatly. Japan extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The four main islands, running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Okinawa]] Island is about 380 miles south-west of Kyushu. About 3,000 smaller islands are included in the archipelago. In total land area, Japan is slightly smaller than California. About 73% of the country is mountainous, with a chain running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is the world-famous [[Mount Fuji]] (or ''Fuji-san'') at 12,385 feet. Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the summits. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific depth, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.

Temperature extremes are less pronounced than in the United States, but the climate varies considerably. Sapporo, on the northernmost main island, has warm summers and long, cold winters with heavy snowfall. Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe, in central and western parts of the largest island of Honshu, experience relatively mild winters with little or no snowfall and hot, humid summers. Fukuoka, on the island of Kyushu, has a climate similar to that of Charleston, South Carolina, with mild winters and wet summers. Okinawa is subtropical.

The cherry blossom (Sakura) is Japan's unofficial national flower. It has been celebrated for many centuries and takes a very prominent position in [[Mono no aware|Japanese culture]].<ref>[http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2011.html Cherry Blossom]</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
Japan's population, currently 125 million, has experienced a phenomenal growth rate during the past 100 years as a result of scientific, industrial, and sociological changes, but this has ended because of falling birth rates and a lack of immigration. In 2006, Japan's population declined for the first time, two years earlier than predicted. High sanitary and health standards and a diet of fish and rice produce a life expectancy exceeding that of the United States. However, the population of Japan is expected to fall to only 107 million in 2050, and by 2100, it would be down to 75 million, falling below the United Kingdom.

===Decline===
[[File:Niños japoneces.jpg|left]]
Japan's population peaked in 2006; the following year saw the second consecutive decline, with an official population of 127,053,471. The [[birth rate]] has now increased from 2006's record low, but this has been offset by an all-time-high in the [[death rate]]. 51% of the population is female, and people over 65 now make up 26.4% of the country.<ref>''[[Japan Times]]'': '[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nn20070803a2.html Population shrinks again despite increase in births]'. 3rd August 2007; "Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

In 1947 the proportion of Japanese over 65 was around 5% of the population, well below that in Britain, France or America. Today the elderly account for one-fifth of the population, and average lifespans have grown remarkably. Life expectancy today is 82, up from a little over 50 in 1947.

The baby boom came in 1947-1949, when 2.7m children a year were born. In 2007 the baby-boom generation began to retire (60 is the mandatory retirement age at most companies). Japan's birth rate fell below the replacement rate of 2.1 in the early 1970s. It slid to a low of 1.26 in 2005. In 2005 the population began to fall in absolute terms, despite increasing life expectancy. It is now shrinking at a pace unprecedented for any nation in peacetime. The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research estimates a total population of 95m by 2050, compared to 127m in 2007, with the elderly accounting by then for two-fifths of the total.<ref>"Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

===Policies===
The DPJ, elected in a landslide in 2009, has promised an ambitious social-spending plan that includes a child allowance of $3,300 a year. It is designed to encourage more births as a solution to Japan's declining population and rising average population age, as well as being a stimulus to spending to get the economy out of its long slump.

===Cities===
[[File:Kobe port.jpg|thumb|Port of Kobe.]]
Japan is an urban society with only about 4% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshu and in northern Kyushu. Major population centers include: Metropolitan Tokyo with approximately 12.5 million; Yokohama with 3.6 million; Osaka with 2.6 million; Nagoya with 2.2 million; Sapporo with 1.9 million; Kyoto and Kobe with 1.5 million each; Kawasaki and Fu''''kuoka with 1.4 million each, and Saitama with 1.2 million. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: overcrowded cities, congested roads, air pollution, and rising juvenile delinquency.
*Population (2007 est.): 127.5 million.
*Population growth rate (2007 est.): -0.088%.
*Ethnic groups: Japanese; Korean (0.5%).
*Religions: Shinto and Buddhist; Christian (about 0.7%).
*Language: Japanese.
*Education: Literacy—99%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate—2.8/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 85 yrs.
*Work force (67 million, 2003): services—42%; trade, manufacturing, mining, and construction—46%; agriculture, forestry, fisheries—5%; government—3%.

===Religion===
[[Image:Nara.jpg|thumb|Great Buddha at Nara]]

Historically, the Japanese government has shifted between no official religion, [[Shinto|Shintō]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="WebJapanFactSheet">[http://web-japan.org/factsheet/ Web Japan Fact Sheet], sponsored by the [http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan]</ref> Modern Japan has no state religion.<ref>Article 20 of the [[Current Constitution of Japan (Full Text)|Japanese Constitution]] erects a legal barrier between political and religious entities.</ref>

Shintoism and Buddhism are Japan's two principal religions. Shintoism is founded on myths and legends emanating from the early animistic worship of natural phenomena. Since it was unconcerned with problems of afterlife which dominate Buddhist thought, and since Buddhism easily accommodated itself to local faiths, the two religions comfortably coexisted, and Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples often became administratively linked. Today many Japanese are adherents of both faiths. From the 16th to the 19th century Shintoism flourished.

Adopted by the leaders of the Meiji restoration, Shintoism received state support and was cultivated as a spur to patriotic and nationalistic feelings. Following World War II, state support was discontinued, and the emperor disavowed divinity. Today Shintoism plays a more peripheral role in the life of the Japanese people. The numerous shrines are visited regularly by a few believers and, if they are historically famous or known for natural beauty, by many sightseers. Many marriages are held in the shrines, and children are brought there after birth and on certain anniversary dates; special shrine days are celebrated for certain occasions, and numerous festivals are held throughout the year. Many homes have "god shelves" where offerings can be made to Shinto deities.
[[File:Daibutsu-den in Todaiji Nara.jpg|thumb|330px|left|Temple Daibutsu-den in Todaiji, [[Nara]].]]
Buddhism first came to Japan in the 6th century and for the next 10 centuries exerted profound influence on its intellectual, artistic, social, and political life. Most funerals are conducted by Buddhist priests, and many Japanese visit family graves and Buddhist temples to pay respects to ancestors.

Confucianism arrived with the first great wave of Chinese influence into Japan between the 6th and 9th centuries. Overshadowed by Buddhism, it survived as an organized philosophy into the late 19th century and remains today as an important influence on Japanese thought and values.

Christianity, first introduced into Japan in 1549, was virtually stamped out by the government a century later; it was reintroduced in the late 1800s and has spread slowly. Today Christianity has an estimated 3 million adherents throughout Japan.

Beyond the three traditional religions, many Japanese today are turning to a great variety of popular religious movements normally lumped together under the name "new religions." These religions draw on the concept of Shinto, Buddhism, and folk superstition and have developed in part to meet the social needs of elements of the population. The officially recognized new religions number in the hundreds, and total membership is reportedly in the tens of millions.

Japan has also spawned its share of [[cults]], including the exceptionally lethal but fortunately short-lived [[Aum Shinrikyo]] movement of the early 1990s, which in 1994 became the first non-state organization to kill people with [[nerve gas]].

== Art ==
[[Image:Birds Japanese painting.jpg|180px|right|Birds, Japanese painting]]
[[Image:Hokusai Sea Wave Kanagawa.jpg|180px|right|Behind the Great Wave off Kanagawa]]
Japanese art comes from prehistoric times. It has been influenced by [[Chinese]] art and Zen Buddhism, as well as by Western art. Painting (絵画) is one of the oldest Japanese art, and the most popular one. Main Painting Schools are: Suibokuga, Kanō, Rimpa, Tosa-ha, Nanga and Shijo.

Japanese interpretations and painters may be studied in the following periods:

* Ancient Japan
* [[Nara]] period
* Heian and [[Kamakura]] periods
* Muromachi period
: Josetsu (如拙) (1405 – 1423), the father of Japanese ink painting.
* Azuchi-Momoyama period
: Kanō Eitoku (狩野永徳) (1543 - 1590), prominent patriarch of the Kanō School.
* Edo period
: Tawaraya Sōtatsu (俵屋宗達) (c. 1600s), co-founder of the Rimpa School.
: [[Katsushika Hokusai]] (葛飾北斎) (1760 — 1849), Ukiyo-e (浮世絵) genre painter and printmaker. "Behind the Great Wave at Kanagawa" (c.1829) is one of the most renowned Japanese paintings.
* Meiji period
* Taisho period
* Showa period
: Ogura Yuki (小倉遊亀) (1895 - 2000), traditional female painter.
* Contemporary period
: Shinoda Toko (篠田桃紅) (b. 1913), female painter, sumi (ink) paintings and prints.
{{Clear}}

==Tourism==
Japan is a country that offers the tourist exotic beauty and marvelous attractions. It has so many outstanding places to visit that it is difficult to choose among them. Examples are [[Tokyo]] the capital, [[Nikko]], a pilgrimage site, [[Kamakura]], with one of Japan's best collections of shrines, temples, and monuments, [[Kyoto]] "The Thousand Year Capital", which was Japan's capital for years, [[Osaka]], [[Hiroshima]], [[Nara]], [[Nagasaki]] and [[Sapporo]]. It is said that the three most scenic spots of Japan are [[Itsukushima Shrine|Miyajima]] (Shrine Island), Amano Hashidate, located on the Tango Peninsula in the northern part of [[Kyoto]] Prefecture, and Matsushima, located in Miyagi Prefecture (3 hours from Tokyo); (Miyagi Prefecture (宮城県, Miyagi-ken) is located in the Tōhoku Region on [[Honshu]] island, northeastern Japan; [[Sendai]] is its capital).<ref>[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]</ref>

<center>
<gallery>
File:Japan Miyajima s.jpg|Torii of [[Itsukushima Shrine]].
File:Amano Hasidate Japan.jpg|Amano Hasidate.
File:Matsushima Japan.jpg|Matsushima.
</gallery>
</center>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. There is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested in the Japanese people, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
[[File:National Diet Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The National Diet, Tokyo.]]
Japan's Government is a parliamentary democracy, with a House of Representatives and a House of Councillors. Executive power is vested in a cabinet composed of a prime minister and ministers of state, all of whom must be civilians. The prime minister must be a member of the [[National Diet|Diet]] and is designated by his colleagues. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The judiciary is independent.

The five major political parties represented in the National Diet are the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ), the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP), the New Clean Government Party (Komeito), the [[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP).

Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese constitution includes a bill of rights similar to the U.S. Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.

Japan does not have a federal system, and its 47 prefectures are not sovereign entities in the sense that U.S. states are. Most depend on the central government for subsidies. Governors of prefectures, mayors of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected to 4-year terms.

====Recent Political Developments====
The post-World War II years saw tremendous economic growth in Japan, with the political system dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). That total domination lasted until the Diet lower house elections in July 1993, in which the LDP failed for the first time to win a majority. The LDP returned to power in 1994, with majorities in both houses of the Diet. In elections in July 2007, the LDP lost its majority in the upper house, with the DPJ now holding the largest number of seats but with no party possessing a clear majority. Currently, the LDP maintains a majority in the lower house.

Shinzo Abe was elected Prime Minister in a Diet vote in September 2006. Abe was the first prime minister to be born after World War II and the youngest prime minister since the war. However, Abe resigned abruptly on September 12, 2007, not long after the LDP lost control of the upper house in the July 2007 elections in which the LDP's handing of domestic issues was a leading issue. Yasuo Fu''''kuda of the LDP was elected prime minister by the Diet on September 25, 2007, to replace Abe. Fu''''kuda, whose father served as prime minister in the late 1970s, is known as a moderate and for his experience building consensus behind the scenes.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:Emperor Akihito Japan.jpg|thumb|Emperor Akihito.]]
*Head of State—Emperor Naruhito
*Prime Minister (Head of Government)--Yoshihide Suga
*Cabinet Secretary Takeo Kawamura
*Finance Minister Shoichi Nakagawa
*Defense Minister Yasukazu Hamada,
*Minister of Foreign Affairs Hirofumi Nakasone
*Permanent Representative to the UN Kenzo Oshima
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
Japan is the world's third-largest economy and a major economic power both in Asia and globally. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the United Nations since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
[[File:Japanese sailors.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Japanese sailors.]]
In recent years, the Japanese public has shown a substantially greater awareness of security issues and increasing support for the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to the Self Defense Forces' success in disaster relief efforts at home, and its participation in peacekeeping operations such as in Cambodia in the early 1990s and Iraq in 2005-2006. However, there are still significant political and psychological constraints on strengthening Japan's security profile. Although a military role for Japan in international affairs is highly constrained by its constitution and government policy, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation or revision of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Prime Minister Abe made revising or reinterpreting the Japanese constitution a priority of his administration. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the Mutual Security Treaty for strategic protection.

While maintaining its relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After the signing of a peace and friendship treaty with China in 1978, ties between the two countries developed rapidly. Japan extended significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects and supported Chinese membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Japan's economic assistance to China is now declining. In recent years, however, Chinese exploitation of gas fields in the East China Sea has raised Japanese concerns given disagreement over the demarcation of their maritime boundary. Prime Minister Abe's October 2006 visits to Beijing and Seoul helped improve relations with China and South Korea that had been strained following Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine. At the same time, Japan maintains economic and cultural but not diplomatic relations with Taiwan, with which a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.

Japanese officials believe the February 25, 2008 inauguration of Republic of Korea President Lee Myung-bak marks a "new era" in Japan-South Korea relations, as Tokyo and Seoul look to develop "future-oriented" ties while avoiding contentious historical differences. Those historical differences include territorial disputes involving the Liancourt Rocks, use of Korean females as "Comfort Women" during World War II, and historical and ethnic animosities that continue to complicate Japan's political relations with South Korea despite growing economic and cultural ties.

A surprise visit by Prime Minister Koizumi to Pyongyang, North Korea on September 17, 2002, resulted in renewed discussions on contentious bilateral issues—especially that of abductions to North Korea of Japanese citizens—and Japan's agreement to resume normalization talks in the near future. In October 2002, five abductees returned to Japan, but soon after negotiations reached a stalemate over the fate of abductees' families in North Korea. Japan's economic and commercial ties with North Korea plummeted following Kim Jong-il's 2002 admission that D.P.R.K. agents abducted Japanese citizens. Japan strongly supported the United States in its efforts to encourage Pyongyang to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In 2006, Japan responded to North Korea's July missile launches and October nuclear test by imposing sanctions and working with the United Nations Security Council. The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, and Japan participates in the Six-Party Talks to end North Korea's nuclear arms ambitions. Tokyo, however, refuses to provide assistance called for under the February 13, 2007 Six-Party Talks agreement until North Korea takes satisfactory steps to resolve the abduction issue.

Japan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the islands that make up the Northern Territories (Southern Kuriles) seized by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II. The stalemate over territorial issues has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war between Japan and Russia. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Russian Coast Guard boats sometimes seize Japanese fishing vessels operating in waters surrounding the disputed area. In August 2006, a Russian patrol shot at a Japanese fishing vessel, claiming the vessel was in Russian waters, killing one crewmember and taking three seamen into custody. In October 2007, Russia raised objections to U.S.-Japan cooperation on missile defense, and in February 2008, Tokyo protested the incursion into Japanese airspace of a Russian bomber. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories and other disputes, however, Japan and Russia continue to develop other aspects of the overall relationship, including two large, multibillion-dollar oil-natural gas consortium projects on Sakhalin Island.

Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the Middle East, which provides most of its oil, and has been the second-largest assistance donor (behind the U.S.) to Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2006, Japan's Ground Self Defense Force completed a successful two-year mission in Iraq, and the Diet extended the Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law which allowed for Japan's Maritime Self Defense Force refueling activities in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the Indian Ocean. On July 10, 2007, the Japanese Government decided to extend the Air Self-Defense Force's (ASDF) airlift support mission in Iraq to July 31, 2008. Under the Iraq Special Measures Law a wing of the ASDF's C-130 transport planes, based in Kuwait, will continue to carry personnel and supplies for the U.S.-led multinational forces and the United Nations in Iraq. The law has been extended to July 31, 2009, and will be voted on again in 2008.

Japan increasingly is active in Africa and Latin America—recently concluding negotiations with Mexico and Chile on an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)--and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions.

[[File:Mexico - Japan Business.jpg|center|thumb|280px|Mexico-Japan Business.]]
<blockquote>
Mexico and Japan implemented an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) on April 1st , 2005. The EPA is a comprehensive free trade agreement that has contributed to the expansion of commerce, investment, and tourism between the two countries. Japan represents the most important market for Mexican exports in Asia; and, Mexico is the most important destination for Japanese exports in Latin America. Moreover, cumulative Japanese company investments in Mexico total more than US$ 10 billion for the past decade, in sectors as diverse as automotive, electronics, electric, energy, agribusiness, transportation, real estate, and services.<ref>[http://www.mexicotradeandinvestment.com/]</ref>
</blockquote>

A Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998. Japan's economic engagement with its neighbors is increasing, as evidenced by the conclusion of an EPA with Singapore and the Philippines, and its ongoing negotiations for EPAs with Thailand and Malaysia.

In May 2007, just prior to the G8 Summit in Heiligendamm, Prime Minister Abe announced an initiative to address greenhouse gas emissions and seek to mitigate the impact of energy consumption on climate. At the January 2008, [[World Economic Forum]] in Davos, Switzerland, Prime Minister Fu''''kuda reiterated his commitment to this plan. As host of the G8 Summit in July 2008, Japan will focus on four themes: environment and climate change, development and Africa, the world economy, and political issues including non-proliferation.

===Relations with the United States===
The U.S.-Japan alliance is the cornerstone of U.S. security interests in Asia and is fundamental to regional stability and prosperity. Despite the changes in the post-Cold War strategic landscape, the U.S.-Japan alliance continues to be based on shared vital interests and values. These include stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the preservation and promotion of political and economic freedoms, support for human rights and democratic institutions, and securing of prosperity for the people of both countries and the international community as a whole.
[[File:Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.]]
Japan provides bases and financial and material support to U.S. forward-deployed forces, which are essential for maintaining stability in the region. Under the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, Japan hosts a carrier battle group, the III Marine Expeditionary Force, the 5th Air Force, and elements of the Army's I Corps. The United States currently maintains approximately 50,000 troops in Japan, about half of whom are stationed in Okinawa.

Over the past decade the alliance has been strengthened through revised Defense Guidelines, which expand Japan's noncombatant role in a regional contingency, the renewal of our agreement on Host Nation Support of U.S. forces stationed in Japan, and an ongoing process called the Defense Policy Review Initiative (DPRI). The DPRI redefines roles, missions, and capabilities of alliance forces and outlines key realignment and transformation initiatives, including reducing the number of troops stationed in Okinawa, enhancing interoperability and communication between our respective commands, and broadening our cooperation in the area of ballistic missile defense.

Implementation of these agreements will strengthen our capabilities and make our alliance more sustainable. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, Japan has participated significantly with the global war on terrorism by providing major logistical support for U.S. and coalition forces in the Indian Ocean.

Because of the two countries' combined economic and technological impact on the world, the U.S.-Japan relationship has become global in scope. The United States and Japan cooperate on a broad range of global issues, including development assistance, combating communicable disease such as the spread of HIV/AIDS and avian influenza, and protecting the environment and natural resources. Both countries also collaborate in science and technology in such areas as mapping the human genome, research on aging, and international space exploration. As one of Asia's most successful democracies and its largest economy, Japan contributes irreplaceable political, financial, and moral support to U.S.-Japan diplomatic efforts. The United States consults closely with Japan and the Republic of Korea on policy regarding North Korea. In Southeast Asia, U.S.-Japan cooperation is vital for stability and for political and economic reform. Outside Asia, Japanese political and financial support has substantially strengthened the U.S. position on a variety of global geopolitical problems, including the Gulf, Middle East peace efforts, and the Balkans. Japan is an indispensable partner on UN reform and the second largest contributor to the UN budget. Japan broadly supports the United States on nonproliferation and nuclear issues. The U.S. supports Japan's aspiration to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.

== Economy ==

Japan was devastated by [[World War II]].<ref>World War II wiped out many of the gains Japan had made since 1868. About 40 percent of the nation's industrial plants and infrastructure were destroyed, and production reverted to levels of about fifteen years earlier.[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7176.html Japan - Patterns of Development]</ref>
Yet Japan's economy recovered over the years 1950-1980 through a partnership between government and industry. The goal in 1950 was to become the world leader in textiles, which was achieved by 1959. The goal in 1960 was to become the world's top producer in steel by 1970, and the goal in 1970 was to become the world's leader in the production of automobiles. Each goal was achieved within one year of the target date.<ref>[http://www.nightingale.com/Offers/ziglar-goalsvideo.html?promo=intgooga660&org=intgooga660&gclid=CIPP8tG736QCFUpe7AodkGqbKw Source: Zig Ziglar's motivational talk on goal setting]</ref>
[[File:Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tokyo.]]
Now Japan's industrialized, free market economy is the second-largest in the world. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is far lower in protected areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the highest economic growth rates in the world from the 1960s through the 1980s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early 1990s, when the "bubble economy" collapsed, marked by plummeting stock and real estate prices. Together with the impact of the worldwide [[recession of 2008]], Japan's status as a global economic power is slipping fast, with China poised to supplant Japan as the world' second-largest economy by 2010 or 2011.

Japan's reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.

Japan's long-term economic prospects are considered good, and it has largely recovered from its worst period of economic stagnation since World War II. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1% yearly in the 1990s, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. The Japanese economy is now in its longest postwar expansion after more than a decade of stagnation. Real growth in 2006 was 2.2% and was 1.9% in 2007.
*GDP (2007 est.): $5.103 trillion (official exchange rate); $4.34 trillion (PPP).
*Real growth rate (2007 est.): 1.9%.
*Per capita GDP (2007 est. PPP): $33,800.
*Natural resources: Fish and few mineral resources.
*Agriculture: Products—rice, vegetables, fruit, milk, meat, silk.
*Industry: Types—machinery and equipment, metals and metal products, textiles, autos, chemicals, electrical and electronic equipment.

=== Economic History ===
In 1960, with a GDP with over $40 billion,<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> Japan was the ninth-largest economy, below the United States, the Soviet Union, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, China, and Canada. Because of economic reforms and economic freedom set out by the Japanese government, Japan boomed to $90 trillion in 1965, getting to sixth. The booming economy of Japan was doubling in less than five years, and got to fourth place with $200 billion in 1970. It went to $512.5 billion in 1975, becoming the third-largest economy. In 1980, Japan again more than doubled, with a $1.1 trillion GDP. Experts predicted another more-than-double in 1985. That wasn't the case. Instead, Japan went to $1.4 trillion in 1985, slowing down a little bit. In 1990, Japan had a $3.15 trillion GDP, more-than-doubling again, and now overtaking the Soviet Union's economy, and thus getting to 2nd. In 1995, Japan exploded to 5.5 trillion dollars, and experts thought Japan would overtake the US.<ref>https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1995-04-10-9504100029-story.html</ref> But Japan slowed down in 2000, going down to $4.9 trillion, but keeping second place. In 2005, Japan went down further to $4.75 trillion, still being second. But, in 2010, Japan was a $6 trillion dollar economy, tying with China. In 2015, Japan was down to 3rd, with $4.4 trillion. Japan is now a very risky investment, barely getting to $5 trillion in 2020.

===Agriculture, Energy, and Minerals===
Only 15% of Japan's land is arable. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per hectare crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 40% on fewer than 5.6 million cultivated hectares (14 million acres). Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans, primarily from the United States. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports.

Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 52% in 2000. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Today Japan enjoys one of the most energy-efficient developed economies in the world.

Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. Iron ore, [[Coke from coal|coke]], copper, and bauxite must be imported, as must many forest products.

===Labor===
Japan's labor force consists of some 66.07 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership was estimated to be about 10 million in 2006.

===U.S./Japanese Economic Relations===
U.S. economic policy toward Japan is aimed at increasing access to Japan's markets and two-way investment, stimulating domestic demand-led economic growth, promoting economic restructuring, improving the climate for U.S. investors, and raising the standard of living in both the United States and Japan. The U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship—based on enormous flows of trade, investment, and finance—is strong, mature, and increasingly interdependent. Further, it is firmly rooted in the shared interest and responsibility of the United States and Japan to promote global growth, open markets, and a vital world trading system. In addition to bilateral economic ties, the U.S. and Japan cooperate closely in multilateral fora such as the WTO, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, and regionally in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).
[[File:Japan US relations Obama Naoto.jpg|thumb|left|300px|President Obama and Prime Minister Naoto Kan.]]
Japan is a major market for many U.S. products, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, films and music, commercial aircraft, nonferrous metals, plastics, and medical and scientific supplies. Japan also is the largest foreign market for U.S. agricultural products, with total agricultural exports valued at $10.1 billion in 2007, a 20% increase over the $8.39 billion in agricultural exports recorded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2006. Revenues from Japanese tourism to the United States reached nearly $13 billion in 2005.

Trade between the United States and Japan remained strong in 2006. Total trade grew about 0.2% year-on-year. U.S. exports to Japan reached $62.7 billion in 2007, up from $59.6 billion in 2006. U.S. imports from Japan totaled $145.5 billion in 2007 ($148.1 billion in 2006).

U.S. foreign direct investment in Japan reached $91.8 billion in 2006, up from $79.3 billion in 2005, according to data compiled by the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis. New U.S. investment was especially significant in financial services, Internet services, and software, generating new export opportunities for U.S. firms and employment for U.S. workers.

==History==
[[File:Samourai photo 1867 PD.jpg|thumb|Samurai, photo 1867.]]
See [[History of Japan]]
====20th century====
The Showa Period (1926–89), under Emperor [[Hirohito]], was an era of incredible change from traditional villages to modern cities, from a great empire and early success in [[World War II]] to utter ruin and surrender. In 1931 seized Japan [[Manchuria]], and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of [[History of China|China]]. The U.S. vehemently protested and insisted that Japan pull back, but it refused, so the U.S. stopped shipping it oil. Japan responded by attacking the U.S. at [[Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941, and soon conquered much of East and Southeast Asia. In a series of spectacular naval battles, such as the [[Battle of Midway]] (June 1942), Japan lost control of the Pacific and was subject to massive air raids culminating in nuclear attacks on [[Hiroshima]] and Nagasaki.

Japan, in utter ruins, was occupied by the U.S. until 1951, as Emperor Hirohito led a regime that Americanized the nation, modernized and liberalized its economy and polity, and become an economic superpower, staunch American ally, and a democracy that gave up all its empire and its military power. The emperor stepped down from his traditional godly status but remains the powerful symbol of national identity and unity. Political power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asia and globally.

====Current Status====
Japan's modern economy has many world leading industries and companies, being driven by exports and a mastery of high technology. However, in the 1990s, the economy underwent a major slowdown in part because of overinvestment and an asset price [[economic bubble|bubble]] during the late 1980s. Japan has a huge government debt, which exceeds the Gross Domestic product (176% of GDP) and also faces the challenge of a low birth rate, low immigration and an aging of the population which will further increase the debts. [[China]] also is becoming a larger economy and a bigger international trading partner than Japan.

====2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami ====
[[File:Japan quake sendai.jpg|left|200px]]
A massive 9.0-magnitude earthquake and several powerful aftershocks struck the eastern coast of Japan on March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. in Washington), triggering a [[tsunami]] that devastated the coastline north of [[Tokyo]] with waves up to 20 meters (66 ft.) high. The earthquake epicenter was in the western Pacific Ocean, 130 kilometers east of [[Sendai]], [[Honshu]] island. The earthquake occurred along the subduction zone between two tectonic plates.
[[File:Japan radiation 2011.jpg|right|140px|Japanese radiation, 2011.]]
The Japan Meteorological Agency said the earthquake was the strongest in the country's history;<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2011/03/11/ST2011031100651.html?sid=ST2011031100651 Japan Quake - Tsunami]</ref> the death toll is around 16,000 people; Prime Minister Naoto Kan called it the nation's worst crisis since World War II.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-03-13-japan-earthquake_N.htm</ref>

The [[earthquake]] has caused three nuclear power plant cooling systems to fail and those affected reactors. Thousands of residents were evacuated.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/03/11/japan-issues-emergency-nuke-plant-leak Radiation Levels Surge Outside Two Nuclear Plants in Japan.]</ref>
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Arbol japon.jpg|right|Japanese landscape]]
*[[Japan and America]]
*[[World War II]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Matthew Perry]]
*[[Nikko]]
*[[Ainu]]
*[[Aomori]]
*[[Geisha]]
*[[Japanese painting]]
*[[Gallery of Japanese Painting]]
*[[Japanese dates]]
*[[Bonseki]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.japan-guide.com/ Traveling and living.] Japan - Guide.
*[http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h207_2002/jecontakeoff.htm Japanese economic takeoff after 1945]
*[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]
*[http://explainedwithmaps.com/japan-a-vanishing-nation/ Explained With Maps: Japan, a vanishing nation] (video documentary)

[[File:Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine main shrine.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine.]]

{{Clear}}

==Basic further reading==
{{See also|Bibliography of Japan}}

===References===
* Huffman, James L., ed. ''Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 316 pp.
* Itasaka, Gen, ed. ''Japan Encyclopedia,'' 9 vols. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983. with beautiful pictures
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori.'' (1991). 410 pp.
* Stockwin, J. A. A. ''Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Japan.'' (2003). 291pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107546295# online edition]

===Guides===
* DK, '' Japan'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Japan-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0756628768/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Reiber, Beth, and Janie Spencer. ''Frommer's Japan'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Japan-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0471763918/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Rowthorn, Chris et al. ''Lonely Planet Japan'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Japan-Chris-Rowthorn/dp/1740599241/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
===History===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History.'' (1999). 259 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Columbia-Guide-Modern-Japanese-History/dp/0231111444/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Japan's Postwar History.'' (2nd ed 2004). 208 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Postwar-History-Second-Allinson/dp/0801489121/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Gordon, Andrew. ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103548936 online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-History-Japan-Tokugawa-Present/dp/0195110617/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394957&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hane, Mikiso. ''Modern Japan: A Historical Survey'' (2nd ed 1992), 474pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=57239340 online edition]
* Perez, Louis G. ''The History of Japan'' (1998) 244pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=93932879 online edition]

==References==
<references/>

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some content for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]

User:LT/mail

2020-12-07T13:22:29Z

United States: fixing grammar!

{|cellpadding="5" cellspacing="3" border="4" style="background:#00ff77; margin-bottom:1em; text-align:center" align="center"
|'''<big><big><big><big>NOTE: TEMPORARILY SEMI-INACTIVE FROM CONSERVAPEDIA
|}

<big><big><big><big><center>'''[http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:Liberaltears/mail&action=edit&section=new Click here to post a new message]'''</center></big></big></big></big>

<div style="background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: .3em;">

=== Please read this ===
The editor using the [[User:Liberaltears]] account will be checking this message area. You can leave a message in the message area below.

If you want to provide feedback concerning content created using the User: Liberaltears account at Conservapedia, please use the talk pages of the respective articles.

If you need assistance sooner, there is a list of Conservapedia administrators [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&group=sysop HERE]
</div>
 

__TOC__

Hi Liberal Tears. I saw the page: https://www.conservapedia.com/Conservapedia:Unofficial_2020_Senate_predictions. Let me know if you would like to collaborate on similar predictions for the presidential election - state by state, we can look at the best polls and simulate electoral college totals.

God Bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 15:03, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

:That does sound like a great idea! Do you want to start the page for the presidential election predictions by state? --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User talk:Liberaltears|Your reminder that Biden committed quid pro joe]]''''' 15:14, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

I'd love to, LT. Though I'm not sure what would be the right title? Shall I call it, "Conservapedia:Unofficial 2020 Presidential election predictions"? [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 15:25, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

:That's a great suggestion, and I would personally remove the capitalization for "Presidential". --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User talk:Liberaltears|Your reminder that Biden committed quid pro joe]]''''' 15:29, 14 May 2020 (EDT)
:Also, since the presidential election is technically one election divided in 51 (fifty states plus DC), I would remove the "s" from "predictions". --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User talk:Liberaltears|Your reminder that Biden committed quid pro joe]]''''' 15:31, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

Great! It's done: https://www.conservapedia.com/Conservapedia:Unofficial_2020_presidential_election_predictions this is going to be an exciting project! I hope it's good to start off with. If we need to make any editions, and for future additions, I hope we can make it there. God Bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 15:35, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

== Post your message below ==
Liberaltears, I set up your talk page in a way that will prevent vandalism to your talk page and I locked it.

You can see what I did at: [[User talk:Liberaltears]].

If you didn't like what I did, you can get an admin to revert it.[[User:Conservative|Conservative]] ([[User talk:Conservative|talk]]) 22:33, 7 May 2020 (EDT)

Liberal Tears, I'm going to create a Table (first in Excel, then later, if it is good, we'll add it to the article) with Columns "State, Electoral college votes, 2016 result, 2016 popular vote tally, projected 2020 result, projected 2020 popular vote tally". Do you think that is workable? If you have an email id, I will share it with you on Excel when it is done. And if you like it, I will make the table here in the article. Thoughts? [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 15:45, 14 May 2020 (EDT)
:Sorry for not responding earlier. So I'm not exactly sure about having it shared to me via Excel, do you think you can mention your thoughts on the project talk page? --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User talk:Liberaltears|Your reminder that Biden committed quid pro joe]]''''' 23:19, 14 May 2020 (EDT)

No worries. I'll post it there when it's done. God Bless [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 11:15, 15 May 2020 (EDT)
:Alright. And God bless you too! --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|Just say no to quid pro joe!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Free Roger Stone!]]''''' 11:19, 15 May 2020 (EDT)

Hi. Can you take a look at the page? I got popular vote, electoral vote data for 2016 for all 50 states. I just filled in for 10 states. Do you want me to fill for the remaining forty? I believe the final tally was 307-230. So once 2016 is done, we'll do for 2020 similarly based on projections. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 13:53, 15 May 2020 (EDT)
:I saw your edits, and they seem great! About the remaining forty, I may perhaps do some, as my focus is largely on the Senate elections. Unfortunately, I have some other problems at the moment, and it may be harder to do as much CP editing as I usually do as of right now. --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|Just say no to quid pro joe!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Free Roger Stone!]]''''' 14:02, 15 May 2020 (EDT)

Hey, thanks for the quick reply. Glad you like it; I can finish the 50, no problem, if that's cool with you. I have all the data on my computer. You can edit it afterward for any corrections. For the next 50, the 2020 predictions, when you're free next time, we can put our heads together. Based on the cumulative polling, we can arrive at the closest projections possible, drawn from the latest data. Thanks for all your efforts, I've seen many of the great articles you've authored or edited for Conservapedia. The election can be so close, you never know. A Presidential election may be won by a single state. Then think how glad we'll be on Nov. 3rd for all our efforts! Similarly a single seat more in the senate may give us the key vote necessary for very important legislation. Our liberal friends will weep, and we will laugh, when it comes to that! [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 14:14, 15 May 2020 (EDT)

Hi again LT. Have you any thoughts or data on how we can estimate likely numbers of the electorate in each state? Last time it was close to 140 Million, this time they say it'll be over 155 million nationwide. I'll finish filling in some of the college votes for states in some time. Since most are winner take all, that's relatively easier to project, at least in states where there is a clear majority. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 12:38, 16 May 2020 (EDT)
:Unfortunately, I dunno much about estimating the hard numbers. I'm not entirely sure where to gather the data on voter registration, and I tend to focus more on the general likeliness of certain states to vote either [[Republican]] or [[Democrat]] based on the incumbent officeholders, their popularity, enthusiasm, etc, their opponent(s), as well as trends and polling. --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|Just say no to quid pro joe!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Free Roger Stone!]]''''' 13:43, 16 May 2020 (EDT)

No worries. I'm sure we'll get there in the end. We have 5 1/2 months to spur interest and hopefully have an impact on voter turnout. I think turnout will be key for Repbulicans this time. I'll be adding a bit more to the article from time to time. This is a liberal site, but it mentions the likely increase in turnout in 2020: https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2019/06/2020-election-voter-turnout-could-be-record-breaking/591607/ Some 10 million voters voted for a third party candidate who had no chance of winning. We should try to discourage that by emphasizing that that is foolish. If Trump wins anything like 80 million votes overall, I'm sure he will pull through successfully. Dems are worried many new voters will vote for him.

One possible method of proceeding would be seeing what polls were saying last election around this time. If they indicated roughly the same numbers we see now, and the ratio of voters in the state was e.g. 60% Trump, we can estimate it will be around the same. The net increase in voting population for each state will have to be factored in. Those are just some preliminary thoughts to proceed, we'll figure out the number-crunching as we go on. God bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 14:00, 16 May 2020 (EDT)

Hello again. Made three important changes thus far, on California, Texas and Ohio. Also computed provisional totals with Trump at 74 and Biden at 55 (California) with 7 states computed so far. Arizona is still uncertain, and is a toss-up as you mentioned in the comment. We'll get down to more exact predictions later on, combining everything from support, enthusiasm, expectation etc. Let's try to fill the easier states with clearer outcomes first. I'll be continuing and let you know if anything in particular comes up or I have any question. Hope you are well. God Bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 11:52, 17 May 2020 (EDT)

Hello Liberal Tears. Hope you are well. Been busy with other things for a while, but just updated the numbers for Oklahoma, not based on a poll, but based on the massive enthusiasm for the Trump Rally there. I think Trump will carry the state with great ease, especially in light of 2016 numbers. Also, I was thinking - it's estimated there will be a 10% increase in turnout overall in 2020, close to around 150 million votes overall. So, as a beginning strategy for estimating numbers in each and every state, do you think starting out with 10% increases on 2016 numbers for both candidates would be a good way to begin? If you agree, please let me know. I can do it on Excel and will copy it to Conservapedia after that. God Bless.

By way of example, if Trump got 1 million votes and Clinton 400 K in a state, we will project, if all else is same, Trump 1.1 M and Biden as 440 K. Progressive adjustments will be made to the number after that, in light of new data, if polling or enthusiasm etc suggsts it is required.[[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 22:38, 17 June 2020 (EDT)

:Good analysis, NishantXavier! In regards to your question about voter turnout, I suppose adding 10% is a good place to start, though I don't know too much about projecting such. To make good predictions on that, I would really attention to primary turnout numbers, as I've mentioned in an example [[Talk:Main_Page#Two_important_highlights...|here]]. By the way, can you also see if you can add any good analyses to [[Conservapedia:Unofficial 2020 Senate predictions|this prediction page]] as well if you have time? While there are certain things I can catch up on right now, I don't exactly have the sufficient time to add major updates yet, and it may take two weeks before I finish up some annoying tasks I'm occupied with currently. Thanks! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 22:59, 17 June 2020 (EDT)

Hi again Liberal Tears. I changed the 1 million thing since it didn't materialize; it was a liberal prank. Anyway, analyzing the primaries is a great suggestion. Would you happen to have primary information in a readily accessible source? I will definitely take a look, and try to improve, the predictions for the Senate elections too when I have time. I'm closely following the Senate races and as we know they were very important for the Supreme Court. God Bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 00:31, 22 June 2020 (EDT)

:For all primary election information this year, I recommend using [https://www.politico.com/2020-election/results/ this (browse to the bottom of the page for state by state)], although I should note the only problem is that no hard number of votes are given for unopposed candidates. Also, about the Senate races, here are five quick "pop quiz"-style questions if you want to answer them for fun:

# Which Democrat-held seat is nearly guaranteed to flip?
# Why might [[John Hickenlooper]] lose the upcoming [[Democrat]] primary in vying to challenge [[Cory Gardner]]?
# Why is [[Steve Daines]]' seat vulnerable despite running for re-election in a solid red state?
# Who are the mainstream Democrats cheering on to challenge [[Mitch McConnell]]?
# Should current polling with low sample sizes be absolutely trusted? (Hint: they were wrong in 2016)

:—[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 00:59, 22 June 2020 (EDT)

Thanks, Liberal Tears. I've completed 13 States and plan to do about 2-3 states daily. So I should be finished in another 12-18 days if I keep up to that; maybe by the end of the month. The polls are a little tricky for some of the reasons you mention. I think rally size in the state and "enthusiasm" of voters recorded in the polls may be better gauges. For e.g. there is a huge enthusiasm gap between Trump and Biden in some states. Anyway, I plan to have delegates for all 50 states awarded based on projections by Aug 3 so we have 3 months to see how it pans out. Arriving at final numbers for each state will be a little more difficult; but I will begin with adding 10% and then use some of the suggestions you mentioned as well. We'll see how that goes. That should be done by next month end. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 11:30, 8 July 2020 (EDT)
:Okay, thank you NishantXavier! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 12:23, 9 July 2020 (EDT)

Hello again Liberal Tears. Congratulations to you on all your hard work for Conservapedia, and for being promoted! You truly deserve it! I really pray for great things for Conservapedia in the years to come, that OUr Good Lord Jesus will use this Encyclopedia mightily for His Cause, to promote the Gospel and the Conservative worldview, throughout the world.

Anyway, just wanted to congratulate you, and to note that, since I also can now use the other time as well, I should be able to complete 5 states a day. So in about 5-6 days now (quite the increase from the 12-18 earlier!) I should be completing all 50 states, and then we can discuss further on the improvements you suggested and any change of delegates as well.

Hope all is well.
In Jesus and Mary,
Nishant Xavier. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 01:41, 10 July 2020 (EDT)

:Thanks NishantXavier, and congratulations in regards to your promotion as well! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 01:45, 10 July 2020 (EDT)

Thanks, Liberal Tears! Btw, I completed 30 states! So it looks like we're ahead of schedule. I should be able to do 40 tomorrow, and complete it the day after that. So we were thinking of Aug 3rd, but now it'll be done by July 13th. That's good. I wanted to ask your opinion on the Arizona poll. It sounds like good news. Do you think it suggests President Trump has a solid ground game in the state? Poll: https://d2pggiv3o55wnc.cloudfront.net/oann/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Arizona-OANN-June-28-2020-v3.pdf [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 11:23, 11 July 2020 (EDT)
:Hi NishantXavier, nice job on your work for the predictions! And thanks for reminding me about that Gravis/[[OANN]] poll, I'm thinking about potentially doing an essay on thoroughly analyzing it sometime. I've seen most of the data there, and I unfortunately have some high suspicions due to the low sample size, high margin of error at ±4.3%, and under-sampling of 2016 Hillary voters. However, I think there were several parts they probably got right; for one, the 2016 [[Gary Johnson]] voters may be more inclined to vote for Trump this year. Also, some interesting side notes:

:*if Republicans are doing this well with Asian voters, then no wonder the Democrats are panicking and resorting to desperate race-baiting tactics amidst the [[CCP pandemic]], such as whining over jokes like "kung flu"
:*If McSally actually wins a majority of the black vote, it will become much harder for Kelly to win the general election
:*unlike what liberals are spewing in mocking the poll simply because they see "OANN", the latter group only paid for it to be conducted by Gravis Marketing
:*there is a chance that Sen. McSally may lose the Republican primary in early August because her opponent there is telling voters that she's somehow a swampy [[establishment]] "RINO"

:—[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 11:51, 11 July 2020 (EDT)

Hi Liberal Tears, thanks for the feedback. As an Asian who has worked for American companies, I know many Indian-Americans who support Trump. "President Trump is incredibly grateful for the widespread support he has received from the people of India and from millions of Indian-Americans across the United States. https://www.wionews.com/world/donald-trump-is-grateful-for-indian-americans-support-white-house-309041 I think most Americans of whatever background are attracted by the proposition of Making America Great Again and not attracted by the opposition's policies.

I'm at 34 states now, hope to finish 40 by end of today. Can I ask, how is the Senate election predictions coming along? Are there 33 Senate seats up for election this year, if I recall right?

Also, another thing, I want to start a Project Page for Conservapedia's own "Project 100 Million" i.e. websites dedicated to winning 100 million souls for Christ over the next decade. Network 211, on which Conservapedia has reported, has one such plan. But we have had more page visits than they do! If they can do it, then we can and will too! [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 05:14, 12 July 2020 (EDT)

With 50 state results, and 33 Senate seats, let's aim to get at least 80% correct results! We'll then have some 65 entries for Conservapedia proven right! Will be difficult, as that is a high target, but it can be done. Let's get to work and be motivated to complete this, rejoicing on election day when the race is over, and the results turn out well by God's Grace. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 05:34, 12 July 2020 (EDT)

:Hi NishantXavier, I unfortunately will not be able to get to any updates on the Senate/House elections until I get out of the way some tedious work I currently have to be occupied with in my life. I already got one rather annoying part done, and there are two parts left that I need to finish. That's why for now, I have mostly worked on some other topics throughout [[CP]] here and also went on talk pages somewhat too much. I know that there's obviously the Senate election in [[Colorado]] that I need to update since it's now after the primary, as well as primaries for House elections in many states. If you have the time right now, do you suppose you could add updates for the unofficial Senate predictions page [[Conservapedia:Unofficial_2020_Senate_predictions|here]]? It's fine if you don't, it's just that right now hasn't been the best time for me to get to those. Also, about the number of Senate elections, there are 33 normal elections and two special elections (one in [[Arizona]] and one in [[Georgia]]). Thank you and God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 11:35, 12 July 2020 (EDT)

Hi Liberal Tears. I've finished 46 out of 50 states. Trump is winning 325 to 188 XD. So that's awesome. I just have to complete a few others. 2 are liberal states. I'll complete them today or tomorrow. So we have ample time after that. I finished 4 or 5 of the Senate seats. Do you think we should try to predict the primary winner; I believe Susan Collins' opponent will be decided on 14th. For two others, I have. I'll have to think about this and decide whether to do so or not on this third later. Your thoughts are appreciated. Thanks and God Bless. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 00:24, 14 July 2020 (EDT)

:So for Maine in the Democrat primary, the party establishment has hand-picked [[Sara Gideon]], so she's most likely going to win by a large margin over the other candidates. When it comes to primaries for the Senate elections, it's important to remember that the two big ones to watch for are the ones for Alabama (which is tomorrow, and will decide whether Sessions or Tuberville is the nominee to face Doug Jones) and Arizona; for the latter, I made [[Talk:Main_Page#McSally_primary_challenger|this relevant post here]], which unforunately no one else responded to. Hope this helps, and God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 00:52, 14 July 2020 (EDT

Right, LT. One other thing. Can you tell me how to add a user box, "this user has more than 500 edits. I tried adding yours, but I think it automatically took the number 2500 instead of 500. Does every 500 have a different userbox or will the same suffice? [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 08:46, 14 July 2020 (EDT)

:Sorry for not responding to this sooner. So with the way I used that userbox, you start with <code><nowiki>{{Userbox|</nowiki></code>. Then enter in the word for the color you want the left cell to be. So if you want a gray color like I did for the one on my user page, then add <code><nowiki>gray|</nowiki></code>, and you should now have <code><nowiki>{{Userbox|gray|</nowiki></code>. Next, specify the color you want for the right cell. Assuming that you want it to be white as I did for mine, it should now look like this: <code><nowiki>{{Userbox|gray|white|</nowiki></code>. Next, add in the text you want to appear on the left side, add another vertical bar (no space needed), and finally add in the text you want to appear on the right side. So it seems that you want your userbox to be <code><nowiki>{{Userbox|gray|white|500+|This user has made over 500 edits to [[Conservapedia]].}}</nowiki></code> Hope this helps NishantXavier! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 14:31, 15 July 2020 (EDT)

Thanks, Liberal Tears. I added it as 750. Thanks for your help on all this. I also saw the improvements to the Senate election predictions page. Looks great. I'm almost done with the presidential election, just some finishing touches remain. Then we can really get down to analyzing both the mainstream media projection and arrive at Conservapedia's own projection for each state in the presidential and senate election races. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 17:40, 15 July 2020 (EDT)
:Alright, awesome! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 17:46, 15 July 2020 (EDT)

All 50 states done in presidential election! Please review and see if anything needs to be added. Senate elections are next. We should be done in 3 to 4 days for those as well. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 05:01, 16 July 2020 (EDT)
:Alright, I just reviewed what you did for the presidential election predictions by state, and they seem great! I would note that Nevada and New Hampshire have a strong chance of favoring Trump this time around; Trump only barely lost New Hampshire in 2016, and with Republican [[Chris Sununu]] being the governor of the state and holding a high popularity there, that could potentially carry Trump over the finish line. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 10:43, 16 July 2020 (EDT)

== Project 150 Million Souls for Christ the King in the next 10 to 15 years ==

Hi Liberal Tears. On Conservapedia, we now have a project: https://www.conservapedia.com/Conservapedia:150_Million_Souls_for_Christ_the_King dedicated to sharing our testimonies for Christ our King. We would like thousands of people to sign up on Conservapedia and share their testimony - it can be a brief testimony, however long or short; from a few sentences to several paragraphs - and it would be great if longstanding members could give their support to this project. Andy approved of the project and asked me to create the page, as I did. Could you help us? The Bible tells us the day is coming one day when every knee will bow and acknowledge Jesus as King. And Christ Our Lord also tells us that everyone who confesses Him before men, He Himself will confess before His Father in heaven, so that we will be saved, because Jesus our Advocate pleads for us. Kindly consider giving your testimony. Thank you. In Our Lord Jesus, Nishant X. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 07:20, 15 July 2020 (EDT)
:Hi NishantXavier, I added my story [[Conservapedia:150_Million_Souls_for_Christ_the_King#Liberaltears.27_story|here]]. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 12:23, 15 July 2020 (EDT)

THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR THIS!! Really, I'm so grateful to you, Liberal Tears, and I'm sure Our Lord Jesus is as well. May Our Good Lord amply and richly reward you for your courageous testimony for Him, with every abundant blessing in this life, and with life everlasting in the world to come in eternity. God Bless you. [[User:NishantXavier|NishantXavier]][[User talk:NishantXavier|For Christ the King]] 17:42, 15 July 2020 (EDT)

:You're welcome, and God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]]''''' 17:46, 15 July 2020 (EDT)

==Thanks==
Thanks for reverting the latest string of rubbish. I was again distracted, and slow on the draw. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 17:53, 20 May 2020 (EDT)

:Yep, no problem! I just went one by one, clicked on the "View history" for all the vandalized pages, found the revisions just prior to being vandalized by the troll, and simply published those. --[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|Just say no to quid pro joe!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Free Roger Stone!]]''''' 18:10, 20 May 2020 (EDT)

==That Catholic vs Protestant argument on the talk pages is OVER==
All discussions have been properly moved to the [[https://www.conservapedia.com/Debate:Does_the_Catholic_Church_have_the_biblical_authority_of_Christ_Himself_to_preach_and_to_teach_the_truth_forever%3F debate page]]. The discussion has calmed down and become more orderly. You're the one who keeps picking at scabs. I stopped talking about getting night editing rights when Andy finally responded, you're the one who keeps bringing it up, let it go already. Stop playing the victim, the Catholics have done just as much pushing and have been just as argumentative, and so have you, stop playing innocent. [[User:Shobson20|Shobson20]] ([[User talk:Shobson20|talk]]) 16:47, 23 July 2020 (EDT)

==Dataclarifier does a kamikaze dive==
Jesus said, ''Search the scriptures; for in them ye think ye have eternal life: and they are they which testify of me.'' DC thinks it's Peter. So, no. Knowledge and understanding are still two different things. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 01:24, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

:Are you still going to try rebuking Dataclarifier? Your harshness towards him at times probably didn't do much good, and I can't help but wonder if you ever used the same sleazy strawman tactics against him as you did towards me. Now there's a possibility he may never come back, and I may as well just be sad, lonely, and depressed for the rest of my life.
:And here's something I don't believe I've ever fully mentioned before: I stumbled upon this site around over a year ago, thought it was really cool, and wanted to participate. Then fast forward to when 1990'sguy pretty much left early this year, and I thought that I ought to try editing much more where I could. As I did more and more, I realized that this was the best thing giving me a sense of meaning in a life I was getting more and more miserable in. After trying to understand the disputes between you and Dataclarifier, I felt that he might've been treated unfairly and harshly, especially noticing your harshness at times. After NishantXavier was engaging in discussions, especially after he posted a link on his user page to a [[OnePeterFive]] webpage, I saw the increasing contempt some editors here had for him over strongly Catholic viewpoints. And after going through a pathetic while in the past few weeks, I hope everyone else is satisfied; I'm certainly not. I'll still stay on this site to contribute good content, but I'll be more inclined to just be a sad and bitter guy from now on. I've dealt with more nonsense than I could handle at all over the past few years, and I'm now probably hitting a long-term low point in life. If you profess to be a Christian, then I hope you can try to understand some of my problems; not many in my life were sympathetic, unfortunately. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 01:44, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

:Oh, and just in case, please don't issue a block over this. I'm now always becoming apprehensive on whether I'll get blocked or not over certain comments some assistant sysops may not like. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 01:50, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

::My harshness? Everytime I cited the Bible, he told me I'm going to hell. Get your facts straight. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 11:04, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

::I think you have trouble with the English language. You have made the claim, no less than 4 or 5 times, that people "selectively" use the Bible to condemn pedophilia. If there is support for pedophilia within the Bible, I think you need to ante up those scriptures, or just plain shut up and stop making stupid, spurious accusations. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 11:10, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

:::Alright, I should've specified when you were harsh (asides from disputes with Dataclarifier). I remember one time you threatened to delete one of Progressingamerica's pages (finding the exact diff will be hard, since it was a few months ago), calling it "bull" and something along the lines of commie propaganda. And there was [[Talk:DIAN|this time]] as well when you initially marked one of my pages for a speedy deletion before I explained my points clearly. Can you please quit being extremely uncivil and using strawman attacks? As I've said, I might be hitting a long-term low point in life, and the last thing I need to read on my mail page is a repetition of the same smear you used. Since you profess to be a Christian, I'm puzzled (or perhaps maybe not) at your choosing of engaging in attacks over showing the type of compassion that God would want to see more of in this world. It's frankly sad to see so many editors here throw me under the bus for defending myself against lies; I don't know if I should even be surprised or not, as so many have betrayed me in my life. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 11:50, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

::::Well, duh. Are your criticizing negotiation and consultation now? Do prefer unilateral action without consultation? Posting comments and consulting with others is kinda how the process works, sheesh.

::::As you reach this low point, remember, the ''Lord is nigh unto them who are of a broken heart'' (Ps 34:18). ''A broken heart thou wilt not despise'' (Psalm 51:17, easy to remember 17x3=51). God has guaranteed he will not reject us when everyone else has. It is our pride - original sin - that inhibits repentance. This is the problem with Roman Catholic doctrine, it teaches your pride was washed away with infant baptism. I know, I've been there. Me and all my brothers, as well. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 11:54, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

:::::God didn't reject me before? Prior to this month, here's basically what happened in my life: I had tedious nonsense to deal with, and was really losing my long-term patience. Every time I just wanted to take a real break, it felt like I was getting cursed with short-term bad luck (like accidentally knocking down my pencil sharpener and creating a mess on the floor); it seemed to me as if I was supposed to just "gag and get it done" when I could barely think straight. The reason I would lose my long-term patience was because, growing up, I had always maintained some sense of objective-based integrity, and that was really tested in middle school as well as early high school. If you didn't grow up in an era filled with profanity and pornography glamorized as part of "maturity", then consider yourself much, much more luckier than I was. After losing good friends from elementary school because of how out-of-touch and nasty they got and seeing what had happened to peers as they became more cold-hearted and deceptive really had broke me on the inside. Realizing the self-recognizable nature of objective morality and that it comes to people's minds as they move from barbaric animal instincts to rational, civilized thinking was what eventually brought me from atheism to Christianity, but there's still a long way. And while some things in my life may strongly point towards it, I don't know how much God has done to reach out towards me. Too many times I've felt all alone, too many times being only able to rely on what I can salvage of the last bit of courage left in myself. I'm sorry if I sound selfish saying all this, given so many in the world who live far worse than I do. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 12:19, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

::::You need to stand on the rock of Christ. God says, ''Behold, there is a place by me, and thou shalt stand upon a rock.'' That was DC's problem, he insisted the rock was a man - Peter, not Jesus Christ. God is not the author of confusion. He has not given us the spirit of fear; but of power, love, and a sound mind. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 12:58, 6 August 2020 (EDT)

==You are invited to continue our sharing the Gospel of Salvation==
Dataclarifier evidently found our discussion ''a stone of stumbling, and a rock of offense'' (1 Peter 2:8) and removed it. [https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Dataclarifier&curid=160561&diff=0&oldid=1675214] We can continue it here if you like. [[User_talk:RobSmith#The_Gospel_of_Salvation]]. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 15:16, 8 August 2020 (EDT)

==Reply==
Hi, in response to earlier, I can only say that I don't know exactly how it works. For the most part, it just does. There may be some specific way in which it goes, but it has not been clearly disclosed in any detail. So all I can say is that it generally works itself out eventually. Once in awhile though, the process seems to just stop for some. I can't say why for sure, although typically I have my suspicions for each case. I don't think timing has much to do with it, but perhaps a little in some cases. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 16:25, 26 August 2020 (EDT)

:Thank you for replying, DavidB4! It just seems to me that some are vastly luckier than others, which ends up being a disappointment for those who work hard but aren't noticed as much. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 16:55, 26 August 2020 (EDT)

==Dataclarifier update: new Debate page==

Evening "LT" (sounds like military casual nickname for "lieutenant"!). Thanks for your prayers. I just set up another Debate page for others to participate in. For myself and IndependentSkeptic, we just don't have the energy any more. Just take a look at it, but don't get involved unless you really feel you should. We feel we shouldn't be obligating our friends in any way–it's just not fair. The title of the debate already implies the only possible answer.
:*[[Debate: Have the gates of hell prevailed against the church Jesus founded on a rock, when He Himself said it could never happen? Did Christ who cannot lie fail to fulfill his promise?]]
Peace be with you. We are well, just feeling old. I still lift light dumbbells for exercise. My mother is 93 and amazingly alert. She says, "Just don't say that "O" word. ("Old"). Stay safe buddy. --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 22:33, 26 August 2020 (EDT)
:Thank you Dataclarifier! Since I don't want to lose contact with you, do you you suppose you can email NishantXavier for now, and once I get a good chance to email him, I can get in direct contact with you? This way, you don't need to publicly post your email anywhere or register it here if you don't want to, as he has posted his email information [[User_talk:NishantXavier/Archive_1#Follow_me_on_Twitter|here]] and [https://onepeterfive.com/author/nxavier/ here]. God Bless, it's great to hear you guys are doing well, and thank you for posting here! Also, I'm really honored to hear that my nickname almost sounds like a military ranking position! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 22:51, 26 August 2020 (EDT)
::''10-4'' LT. We'll just post here. By the way, already got a hot response on the Debate page and its Talk page. Do you know why some metal wires get hotter than others? ''Resistance''. John 3:19-21. The truth can really burn. Peace be with you. Amen. --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 23:00, 26 August 2020 (EDT)
:::Great to hear about that debate page! And can you please consider my proposal on emailing NishantXavier for now? If there's a way to contact you privately, then we can keep in touch if you decide to permanently leave CP anytime soon. I really ask you consider it, as I'd hate to ever be left alone not knowing how you, your mother, and IndependentSkeptic are doing. There's just something about you and your contributions here that leaves a special mark inside me that I can't forget and always think about, and it would be very sad if I one day lose all means of talking to you. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 23:17, 26 August 2020 (EDT)
::::It's the Holy Spirit Himself using me in my contributions, the effect of the Holy Sacrament of Confirmation by the laying on of the hands of the Bishop representing the whole Body of Christ Himself that makes the mark inside you. Not I but Christ in me. Loneliness Prescription Rx: Pray the recommended prayers of the Church to God the Holy Spirit, especially "O God, Who by the light of Thy Holy Spirit didst instruct the hearts of Thy faithful people, grant that we may be truly wise and ever rejoice in His consolations and power, through Christ Our Lord. ''Send forth Thy Spirit and they shall be created, and Thou shalt renew the face of the earth.''" Or this one: "Lord, please console me." Read the Catechism of the Catholic Church daily, Knowing Jesus is by your side as you read in the very room with you lovingly watching you read it, until you've read it cover to cover seven times. Attend daily Mass, in person, or online EWTN live 0700, 1100, 1800, or 2300 hrs CST/CDT. Open the Bible and read one whole book of the scriptures simply because it is holy, or if it's long, one-third or one half of one. But before you do any reading, get quiet, close your eyes and ask Jesus to be present to you, and let him touch your soul. "O Jesus, as I cannot now receive Thee in holy Communion, I beg You to come spiritually into my heart, and make it your own forever. Never, never let me ever be parted from you, my Lord and my God. I love you, my Jesus." Finally, if the nearest Catholic Church to you offers Adoration, go and kneel in silent adoration (wearing a protective mask). I suggest beginning with the prayer of St. Thomas Aquinas, whispered quietly or mouthed in silence (mentally only){{quotation|O Godhead here in hiding / Whom I do adore / masked by these bare shadows / shape and nothing more / See, O see before You / here lies low a heart / lost, all lost in wonder / at the God thou art / Seeing, touching, tasting / are in Thee deceived / What says trusty hearing / That shall be believed / What God's Son says truly / take for truth I do / Truth Himself speaks truly / or there's nothing true ! }}Also at least one Hail Mary, said thoughtfully, from the heart, not recited, but addressed directly to her about every 3 hours, and once before bed and once upon rising. Peace be with you and all whom you love and care about. ''Semper fidelis ! '' --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 00:02, 27 August 2020 (EDT)
:::::Thank you very much for the advice if I go to a Catholic church anytime soon, but can you please answer regarding about possibly using email as a means for contact in the long run? I haven't got a complete answer on that, and it's really important to at least know how you're doing from time to time. God Bless, and thank you for wishing me well, as always! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 00:08, 27 August 2020 (EDT)
::::::We won't be using email. We've had lots of trouble from junk mail and simply delete it, some days up to 500 emails you wouldn't believe. So I guess you'll have to be content for now that you can post something either at my talk page or on Dataclarifier's, since we're in the same house, and we will get back to you here on your own talk page. God bless. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 09:24, 27 August 2020 (EDT)
:::::::Ah, I see what you mean about junk mail and excessive spam that piles up. If you'd prefer I talk to you and D.C. for now on your talk pages, then I suppose that's the best (and only) idea for now. God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 10:34, 27 August 2020 (EDT)
::::::::Dataclarifier just now blanked his talk page as promised at the end of the week. He'll check it once a month for any messages that might be left there. After posting this message to you here, I will do the same on my talk page if it's not already blank, and I'll check it end of every month. Regarding your offer above, we would both prefer you post your communications to us on my talk page. May your own sweet and powerful guardian angel and the Holy Spirit of Almighty God and His Son give you healing and peace and consolation through the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the Sacred Heart of Jesus Our Lord and God. Amen. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 19:08, 29 August 2020 (EDT)
:::::::::Thank you IndependentSkeptic, and God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Saturday, 19:11, 29 August 2020 (EDT)

== Re M.A. Mendoza ==

Hi there.

I, like many other God fearing conservatives were disappointed and surprised with Mendoza, yet, I wanted to show the bias on Wikipedia. Nishidani who wrote the same silly stuff, is a 14 years veteran on Wikipedia. It seems.
I'm going to remove the content from Ann Mary Mendoza, if you feel it isn't neccessary. If you reconsider, please let me know.
God bless.[[User:LaMarina|LaMarina]] ([[User talk:LaMarina|talk]]) 18:00, 28 August 2020 (EDT)
:Hi LaMarina, I made a reply to this message on your talk page. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Friday, 18:06, 28 August 2020 (EDT)

== Your proposed posting to an alternative Catholic-oriented site ==
::'''Liberaltears''', the site recommended by you as one that "'''''seems''''' [to you] a more Catholic-oriented alternative to Conservapedia" opposes Catholic doctrine regarding the Pope, the Magisterium, and the authority of the ''Ecumenical Councils'' of [[Council of Trent|Trent]] through [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]]. As for feeling that "debating other editors here" gets "nowhere", you totally miss the fact that a firm defense of the truth of the doctrine of the Church on Conservapedia is not for the purpose "winning" a debate or getting people ignorant of the actual doctrine to admit they were in error (perhaps misinformed by others who did not really know what they were talking about, or perhaps reaching erroneous conclusions on their own based on a badly uninformed reading of the Bible without knowledge of what the original language texts really say by not knowing that some words are not metaphors but only literal in meaning—like ''trogon'' in John 6 "eat, chew, gnaw, crunch my flesh"). Conservapedia "welcomes all points of view" ''officially'', but too often some of the Sysops/administrators are hostile even to the point of violating Conservapedia standards in order to ridicule, insult, and drive the Catholic contributors away by a vigorous vendetta against Catholicism, by using insults and outrageous misrepresentations based on [[Confirmation bias]], making Conservapedia more and more Protestant than it was ten years ago (''according to Dataclarifier''—he says it was more friendly then). Occasionally postings and contributions have been utterly deleted as being intolerable spamming with "irrelevant Catholic garbage". But most of the time not, just being treated with bullying contempt and hostility instead. "Catholics not wanted" is the hidden message. And it's pervasive. Much of what Dataclarifier has contributed has survived almost intact. My own brief contribution to some of the articles on the popes, and what I did adapting the Harmony of the Gospel conservative version to audio read aloud, has apparently been left untouched. So, if what I've edited or contributed to Conservapedia does in fact convince anyone that the actual Catholic doctrine of the ''Catechism'' is from the guidance of the Holy Spirit working through them leading into all the truth, that is the work of the Holy Spirit. Dataclarifier says he was too zealous for the Church when he first entered, and that Father Nelo Leto asked him, "Were you talking with anyone when you decided to become Catholic?" and he said, "No." And Father Leto said, "Then why don't you let the Spirit do his work? I don't really think He needs your help." So, whether or not it "gets nowhere" is moot, because after I finish up with the Debate on whether the gates of hell prevailed against the church Jesus founded or not, both Dataclarifier and me will retire from Conservapedia for the most part. He didn't want to "butt heads" with anti-Catholics on that Debate page but just wanted to see what would happen. When I looked at it I couldn't stand the fact that no one was defending the Church and the "No, it hasn't happened" section was empty. As I said, he didn't want to participate, but I sure did! And so it's reached a point where there's no point to it. '''Conservative''' wanted Debate pages to be organized with straightforward "Yes" and "No" sections, each one presenting a particular side of the the Debate and leaving it at that. But it got bogged down and obscured by constant interruptions of inserted opposing comments and insults and scriptures cited again and again and contradictions with scriptures cited in opposition to other scriptures again and again and each side denounced by the other as posting "irrelevant spam intended to obscure the purpose of the debate and deflect it into other issues not relevant to the stated topic of the debate in violation of the rules of the debate" (''whew, that's a mouthful''). OK that brings us to today. I will go ahead this afternoon with what I recommended ("24 hours after making the Recommendation) and revise the layout of the Debate page,
::*getting rid of unnecessary repetitious "spam" and disruptive insertions into contributing users' arguments that chopped them up by cutting and interrupting their text at multiple places above the contributing user's signature line and essentially obscuring the point being made,
::*and moving comments "yay" to the now named "Protagonist" section, and comments "nay" to the now-named "Antagonist" section of the Debate. That should streamline the whole page.
::If it's promptly reverted afterward I won't be at all surprised, even if the revised layout '''''is''''' according to the form Conservative insisted should be maintained for a debate page. If it is, I won't stick around to contest it. A reversion would only prove that revision of the page into the form of a fair debate clearly stated without obscuring the topic is unacceptable to someone. '''''Nuff said!''''' (too much!) --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 15:11, 31 August 2020 (EDT)

:::Oh, alright then. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Monday, 16:09, 31 August 2020 (EDT)
===Update: hospitalization===
This morning Dataclarifier's mother was admitted to Mercy Hospital because of severe nausea and weakness and lightheadedness near to fainting and almost passing out beginning 3 AM. When asked if she needed to go to the ER, she finally decided to have the EMT's called. She was admitted 6:30 AM for 2-days' observation. No visitors. Phone calls allowed once a day. We'll keep in touch with her nurse by phone, and her as well. When she's released, we'll bring her home. Would appreciate your prayers. Meanwhile, stay safe. Look at my last entry my Talk page ["Frequent purging of junk this page"]. God bless. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 10:54, 2 September 2020 (EDT) Just got a call from the doctor on staff. Her CAT scan showed nothing obviously wrong. All her lab work showed nothing seriously wrong. Thank God! They're going to keep her under observation to see if any cause was overlooked. She wasn't in any pain during all this. Just frightened by what happened. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 11:12, 2 September 2020 (EDT)
:Sorry to hear about what had happened to D.C.'s mother. I'll definitely send my prayers today; given the seriousness of what initially was going on, I genuinely apologize for not seeing this message sooner. Thank you for telling me, and may the Lord protect her! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 14:49, 2 September 2020 (EDT)
====Update: home from hospital====
D.C.'s mother discharged about 1:50 PM. Diagnosis inner-ear disorder. The small stones inside the cochlea that change position with movement to stimulate the "hairs" inside the inner ear for orientation of balance were not functioning properly, causing dizziness and nausea. She's had a history of motion-sickness in darkened movie-theaters and during airflight. This is worse in its effect. But it's not life-threatening, unless she falls. Prescription for alleviation of the symptom. We brought her home. Meanwhile will check my talk page once a day after dealing with our emails at home computer. God Bless. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 16:38, 3 September 2020 (EDT)
:Well, it's good to hear that she's been discharged from the hospital, and I'm sorry if she isn't all well yet. I'll continue sending my prayers, and I wish her the best! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Thursday, 16:45, 3 September 2020 (EDT)
::The three of us thank you together. God bless. May God be with you. ''Pax vobiscum''. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 23:19, 3 September 2020 (EDT) Mrs. Mullin, and Dataclarifier.
:::You're welcome! And how's D.C.'s mother doing at the very moment? —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Friday, 23:32, 3 September 2020 (EDT)
::::Asleep.
::::Dataclarifier recommends you add the following link (with audio) to your "Favorites" file so you can pray with the whole Church in worship of God at night, before dawn, morning, at midday, and in the evening before or after sunset. '''https://divineoffice.org/''' —God Bless. Good night. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 01:13, 4 September 2020 (EDT)
:::::Okay, thank you for replying, IndependentSkeptic! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Friday, 01:17, 4 September 2020 (EDT)

== Political Cartoons==
Not gonna lie, you're pretty much a role model to me. May we collaborate to expand the [[political cartoon]] page? There is a lot of great potential there, such as Garrison, Ramirez and the McCoys. I also think it'd fit your name pretty perfectly.--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:10, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
:I'm honored to hear that! About expanding the political cartoon page, that sounds like a great idea; do you want to start off with it, then maybe I can add on to the article in your preferred style? —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 23:15, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
::I've collected what I believe to be the best of the best over quite some time. I would like for you to give whatever your discretion sees fit, be it commentary and especially formatting, as I yield to your seniority. Are more private communications allowed here, or shall I simply post the compilation right here?--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:22, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
:::The whole thing, admittedly going back a while. Or not, sorry.
https://imgur.com/a/CGdgKXM
--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:26, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
::::Is that link correct? I clicked on it, but only saw a blank screen. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 23:47, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
:::::There's a thunderstorm going on where I am. My ability to edit this is a small miracle. That link should've led to 5/43 comics I intended to upload.--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 23:50, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
::::::Is the content in the link only accessible from a private account or can it be seen by anyone publicly? Also, about uploading (correct me if I'm wrong), are you referring to uploading them as files to CP here? —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 23:55, 1 September 2020 (EDT)
:::::::It's public, and keeps failing after five or so, regardless of my order. I don't know how to upload pictures to CP directly- that would certainly help.
This should finally work. https://imgur.com/a/dyaECV0[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 00:05, 2 September 2020 (EDT)
:Hmm, I'm still getting a blank screen when opening the link. By the way, about uploading images to CP, that requires either the "Upload" or "Administrator" tag; the good news is that I was very fortunate to be promoted to "Upload" abilities by Andy today, so if you ever want any work of yours to be uploaded here, I'll likely be able to do it. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 00:19, 2 September 2020 (EDT)
::That's pretty great for you! That link actually does work- I tried Ctrl+F5 (force-reloading) a few times, and yeah, it's there. I have no artistic works of my own to upload, but I shall remember the offer. If I have to submit pictures to upload to the site individually, how do I?--[[User:LawfulLibertarian|LawfulLibertarian]] ([[User talk:LawfulLibertarian|talk]]) 00:29, 2 September 2020 (EDT)
:::Thank you! About the link, I did try force-reloading with Ctrl+F5 a couple times, but it didn't work, and I'll try again sometime else. And about submitting images to upload, I believe you're looking for [[Conservapedia:Image upload requests]] ([[CP:IUR]]). Also, I need to head to sleep right now, and I'll likely be back in around six to seven hours. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier be well!]] | [[Special:Contributions/Liberaltears|Don't be an anti-Catholic zealot!]]''''' Wednesday, 00:45, 2 September 2020 (EDT)

hey liberaltears! I saw you updating the leftist violence in the Trump era page! I love it! I'm currently working on a project to catalog all of the instances of black lives matter protests turning violent throughout the summer. I want to combat that fake report that 93% of protests are peaceful

anyway I was wondering if you would already have any of this cataloged or if you'd be interested in helping? I'm also working on a political violence map but right now I want to catalog every instance of black lives matter violence to see what the true percentage is..

lemme know! {{unsigned|Mikephshdj}}

:Since I'm listing [[BLM]] violence in [[Left-wing violence in the Trump era (2020)|this page]], it's technically cataloged with other specific topics. It's important to note that when getting the information, I mainly use the [[Gateway Pundit]] since they report on incidents very quickly, though I do also use [[Breitbart]] and [[Townhall]]; this means that I'm likely to catch up on most news but maybe not all. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier's mother be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 21:53, 5 September 2020 (EDT)

==I saw your edit my talk page==
We are all right. I donated some of my dumbbell free weights to the Boys and Girls Club of America here in Des Moines 30# to 60#, and kept the 3# through 25# weights and my incline-decline exercise bench with leg curl and extension attachment with plates. The representative was delighted!

I read your edit and ignored RobSmith's posting, and then deleted the page content, as I said I would. Peace be with you. --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 14:12, 10 September 2020 (EDT)

:THANK YOU VERY MUCH for replying on my user mail page here, Dataclarifier! It's great to hear that you guys are alright, and I was worried for a little while that you and I.S. may have permanently left already. God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier's mother be all well!]]''''' Thursday, 14:27, 10 September 2020 (EDT)

Addendum: I posted the following on the Debate Talk page Have the gates of hell...

A story is told about St. Francis of Assisi. There was, during St. Francis’ time, a priest who was
a scandal to his parish. He was living with a woman in sin and nothing could convince the wayward priest to change his ways. He tried to change, but the sinful habit of sex outside of marriage
had a strangle hold on the priest.
The parish decided to take action so one night they went to the priest’s house carrying torches
and clubs ...they would convince the priest to change his ways one way or another. After
pounding on the door, the wayward priest appeared and St. Francis stepped forward to confront
him. Both the priest and the mob thought that Francis would verbally chastise him but, to the
surprise of all, the holy St. Francis fell to his knees before the fallen priest. Francis took the
priest’s hands and kissed them...“Sinner or no.” Francis said, “I kiss the hands of this man whom
God has gifted with the power to change bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ...The
hands of the one who has the power to forgive sins in God’s name.” The wayward priest fell to
his knees too and began to sob uncontrollably. The scandalous priest there,
kneeling with the saint, repented of his sins and turned his life back over to Christ. The priest
who had believed he was defeated by his sexually scandalous life, found victory that night. The
parish that had given up on the wayward pastor and wanted vengeance found victory too as they
witnessed Christ’s mercy melt the heart of a hardened sinner. --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 14:12, 10 September 2020 (EDT)

In case you're wondering about the woman, I added on the Debate Talk page what Paul Harvey calls "the rest of the story":
:When the woman herself saw that "''the parish that had given up on the wayward pastor and wanted vengeance found victory too as they witnessed Christ’s mercy melt the heart of a hardened sinner''", her heart too was stricken and melted along with the parishioners, and she fell down and repented, and confessed that she had seduced the priest, and she received absolution, and from that moment in sorrow for her sins turned her life over to Christ and lived apart, dedicating herself to a life of poverty and prayer for sinners in penance and fasting and chastity in reparation to Christ for her sins. The Poor Clares ministered to her needs along with some of the parishioners of the town.
I'll get back in a month or so. ''Pax vobis''. --[[User:Dataclarifier|Dataclarifier]] ([[User talk:Dataclarifier|talk]]) 20:25, 10 September 2020 (EDT)
:Interesting story. Thank you for sharing, and God Bless! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May Dataclarifier's mother be all well!]]''''' Friday, 21:10, 10 September 2020 (EDT)

== Section for I.S. to post updates ==

IndependentSkeptic, if you see this, the following space below the line is for you to post updates on how you, D.C., and his mother are doing. Thank you very much! —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 12:55, 12 September 2020 (EDT)
----
You said on my talk page "see here". I C U C We C. "''All hands! Now see this!'' That is all." I'll now go back and delete my Talk page content. House is asleep. God Bless.--[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 13:04, 12 September 2020 (EDT) Oh, by the way, look at the Debate Talk page at the bottom [Debate: Have the gates of hell...] warning about RobSmith's lies. --[[User:IndependentSkeptic|IndependentSkeptic]] ([[User talk:IndependentSkeptic|talk]]) 13:05, 12 September 2020 (EDT)
:Whoops, sorry for the late reply. Also, I saw your warning on the debate talk page, and I'm aware of what you mean. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 18:07, 12 September 2020 (EDT)

==imgs==
[https://www.conservapedia.com/Special:Log/upload There. I think I got all the ones that needed cropping.] [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Live Free or Die]] 02:07, 7 June 2020 (EDT)

==Edit warring==
There proper place to discuss the [https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Cafeteria_Christianity&diff=1669727&oldid=1669720 serious problems with this paragraph] is on talk. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 11:18, 20 July 2020 (EDT)
:Give me one scripture that selectively supports pedophilia, as you allege? [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 11:21, 20 July 2020 (EDT)

===You owe me an apology===
*''Blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose '''sin is covered.'''''
I covered the sin of pedophile priests, and you lied about me. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 00:04, 21 July 2020 (EDT)

===There you go lying again===
I didn't attack Nishant; I attacked the CBP and praised Dataclarifier for steering clear of it. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 15:07, 23 July 2020 (EDT)

You should read up a bit on [[Flame war]]s before starting another one. Here's [https://www.bsd.org/bdgtti/bdgtti_8.html a good primer] better than Wikipedia's page on it. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Trump 2Q2Q]] 15:16, 23 July 2020 (EDT)

==Templates==
There has to be two separate Templates:
*[[Template:QuoteBox‎]]
*[[Template:QuoteBox-float]]
The Redirect screwed up formatting on hundreds, if not thousands of pages. I think I fixed it all by creating the floating Temp and revert to the original quotebox.

I left the two unlocked for editing by autoconfirmed users for tweaking. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 15:31, 5 September 2020 (EDT)‎

== Re: Checkmate atheist ==

You wrote: "So you concede? Checkmate atheist! LTMay Dataclarifier be well! 20:05, 10 September 2020 (UTC)"
[[File:Matador1.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Olé! Olé! Olé!]]
I smiled when I saw this post of yours to RW admin Ace McWicked. I give it 3 Olés! Olé! Olé! Olé!

When it comes to Christianity vs. atheism debate, Ace McWicked couldn't debate his way out of a wet paper bag. And the this is due to the fact that atheism has no proof, evidence or logic behind it (see: [[Atheist apologetics]] and [[Atheism and logic]] and [[Rebuttals to atheist arguments]]).

Atheists have a very poor track record when it comes to being effective at debating - especially against Christians. See: [[Atheism debates]] and [[Atheism vs. Christianity debates]].

Today, I created this article: [[Atheist Samuel Porter Putnam vs. Baptist J.N. Hall debate]].

By the way, I added some material to the [[Irreligion/religion and war]] article which will put another bee under RW editor ShabiDOO's bonnet. Like most atheists, RW editor ShabiDOO's knowledge of history is pretty poor (see also: [[Atheists and historical illiteracy]] and [[Atheism and historical revisionism]]). Perhaps, ShabiDOO was educated in one of America's failing public schools.[https://www.thebalance.com/the-u-s-is-losing-its-competitive-advantage-3306225][[User:Conservative|Conservative]] ([[User talk:Conservative|talk]]) 06:40, 13 September 2020 (EDT)

:I was getting somewhat bored that day, and posted the comment there just for humor. Also, you're right about atheism having no proof for it. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 11:29, 13 September 2020 (EDT)
::It's easy to get bored during a pandemic. Many people have "cabin fever". I went through a stage of this, but I decided to set some goals and fill my life with activities to achieve those goals. And to get over the cabin fever, I will take walks in scenic areas.

::I am trying to find a church that is meeting outdoors, but I live in a fairly non-innovative area so that might be hard! The "We have never done it that way" attitude is widespread in my area.[[User:Wikignome72|Wikignome72]] ([[User talk:Wikignome72|talk]]) 17:39, 13 September 2020 (EDT)

:::Hmm, interesting. Do you live in a state run by a Democrat or totalitarian Republican governor? —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be ll well!]]''''' Sunday, 18:26, 13 September 2020 (EDT)

== RationalWiki ==
RationalWiki seems to be winning over us, they have an extremely long page about us, but we don't even have a page about them! - User:Punish China
:From my understanding, CP had a policy for a while against giving them free publicity, since their website was originally created to mock what we do. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 14:53, 20 September 2020 (EDT)
But I think we may need a page for them, not mocking them, but exposing them, who is willing to make such a page? -User:Punish China
:If you want to create the page, you'll have to request an administrator remove the protection for it, [https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=RationalWiki&action=edit as the title has been locked by Wikignome72]. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 15:05, 20 September 2020 (EDT)
:By the way, I think the reason you were blocked was because you inserted the word "R*******Wiki", which you shouldn't directly mention on this site most of the time. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 15:08, 20 September 2020 (EDT)
::According to Alexa, CP is gaining on RW rapidly for its U.S. ranking. CP was 50,000 a month ago; today's its at 14,000. RW was at 13,000 a month ago, today is at 12,000. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 16:56, 20 September 2020 (EDT)

Great, is RationalWiki a curse word like f**k, a*s, s**t, or p**n??? I feel like it is, since you use the * symbol. Also, we should make a page about them that begins like:
RationalWiki is a encyclopedia, unlike Wikipedia who criticizes to conservatives, RationalWiki mocks them instead. They also attempt to connect conservatives with Nazis and liberals with clean science. - [[User:Punish China]]
:It's better to avoid directly mentioning that term on this site, as doing so will just give them unnecessary publicity when this is meant as an educational encyclopedia. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 14:50, 21 September 2020 (EDT)

== Minuteman ==
I didn't know you can't insert the word "R******lWiki" here. How can that be? I don't really understand it😞😞😞 {{unsigned|Punish China}}
:Regarding the general policy surrounding that, an administrator like Andy or Karajou can give more details on it. —[[User:Liberaltears|Liberaltears]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 15:19, 20 September 2020 (EDT)
:We're building an educational encyclopedia here. Thanks.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] ([[User talk:Aschlafly|talk]]) 16:51, 20 September 2020 (EDT)
I will just call RationalWiki "RadicalWiki" from now on. - User:Punish China

== NBA and Black Lives Matter ==
Obviously, these two are connected. Can you or anyone put this, because I'm afraid I will mess it up (don't worry; I will edit it, such as fixing grammar errors or adding new, sourced data). {{unsignedf}}
:Suggestion: Write up a paragraph or two (a paragraph can be two or three sentences) with one or two credible cites you wish to use, put it on the Talk page at [[BLM]], and we can find placement for it within the article. It can be expanded and improved from there. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 17:08, 20 September 2020 (EDT)

But can you put it, I feel like your version may be better than mine! Put the square of NBA BLM BIDEN and COMMUNISM, someone please.

== Quick note ==

You probably want to avoid discussing CP business with other CP editors at RW cause it just gives them one more thing to accuse you of that you may have to defend yourself against. You can email me in the future if you have problems accessing this site. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 20:38, 24 September 2020 (EDT)

:For example, I've been infinitely blocked 3 times in the past 3 days, although I can unblock myself.They probably just want a heads up that I'm coming, so they can monitor my posting. If I say something inappropriate it can be rv'd right away. Like the other day, somebody was looking for a physician who does tranny operations and I suggested prayer. That didn't go over well. So we learn from our mistakes. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 20:50, 24 September 2020 (EDT)

::See what I mean [https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?action=historysubmit&type=logging&revisiondelete=1&ids%5B2154059%5D=1&ids%5B2154046%5D=1] [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 20:00, 26 September 2020 (EDT)
::Both those blocks were by Moderators in a relatively short span of time, so you can't just ignore the warning. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 20:05, 26 September 2020 (EDT)

== re: server issues ==

Hi LiberalTears, 
FYI, I have been seeing issues like this too...they prevented me from replying to you on the Community Portal sooner. It is a known problem from an external source, and I'm sure it will get worked out. There are people who would like us to be removed from the web, but that's not how the Internet was designed to work. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 22:45, 24 September 2020 (EDT)
:By the way, the hide/delete revisions function still isn't working for me. I guess maybe I need a higher permission level. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 23:38, 24 September 2020 (EDT)

::I think the two methods you mentioned are indeed different. I get a script (not permission) error when I try either one. However, I do get a permission error when trying to access that log. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 02:38, 25 September 2020 (EDT)

:::I got your note. The email service you mentioned is not my favorite due to their data/privacy practices, but it will work. I prefer services like ProtonMail and Tutinota, since they respect their users privacy, but others will work. They can only sell the data you give them.
:::Some things can't be easily discussed without email. --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 13:56, 26 September 2020 (EDT)

== Upload rights ==

I would like to request upload rights, since I am really trying to get the flagicons from Wikipedia from Conservapedia, to show the small flag icons, like <nowiki>{{USA}} or {{CHN}}</nowiki>. I have one more step, and that is uploading flags, but I can't do it, since it says "You do not have permission to upload this file, for the following reason:

The action you have requested is limited to users in one of the groups: Administrators, Upload.".

Another reason is I am making my own sandbox here: https://www.conservapedia.com/User:Punish_China/GDP_(PPP)_milestones_by_countries. I really need the flagicon to show the flags, but it says to upload the .svg files. I have the files, but I can't upload them, since it says I need upload rights. I would appreciate if I get upload rights. Thanks, and have a good day! - [[User:Punish China]]

:Hi Punish China, regarding "Upload" rights, they're usually granted to editors who've been on CP for a while and have made at least a few thousand edits. If you want the pictures uploaded to Conservapedia, I might be able to upload the files once I can log in to my normal account, as this is a temporary sock account. Also, please ''don't'' copy/paste from Wikipedia, even if they're templates. [[User:TemporarysockofLT|TemporarysockofLT]] ([[User talk:TemporarysockofLT|talk]]) 17:06, 27 September 2020 (EDT)

I am just trying to improve the template, since I will put it in Wikipedia, when my IP is unblocked. My IP was blocked because I was not a liberal. I don't have any plagiarism intention, I am just trying to, as I said, make the economy (GDP milestones) into long-term up to 2060, which Wikipedia doesn't have, and put it there when my IP was unblocked. And, another reason is that it is in my own sandbox. Thanks! - [[User:Punish China]]
:What happens if a nuclear war or pandemic hits? It would kina throw you projects off, maybe? [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 20:30, 30 September 2020 (EDT)

== Trump Tests Positive for the Chinese COVID-19, Biden, Media, and Xi Mocks Him!!! ==

Why Is the WP, both Wikipedia and the Washington Post, Twitter, the NYT, the CNN, the MSNBC, and the Mainstream media mocking Trump for the virus! (https://www.chicagotribune.com/sns-201910291703--tms--lpittsctnwl-a20191030-20191030-column.html), (https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/02/media/hannity-fox-trump-covid/index.html), and (https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/10/02/trump-covid-positive-coronavirus-health/). This is shocking! What can we do! Now nearly all of Pence's workers have COVID, and now Pelosi is next to be president! - [[User:Punish China]]

:Given the Left's utter hatred and contempt for Trump, I personally didn't find it particularly shocking that they would respond so cheaply, though it is pathetic and disgusting. As for what we can do, sending some prayers never hurts. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Friday, 10:27, 2 October 2020 (EDT)
:Also, can you show me the specific part where Wikipedia is mocking Trump over testing positive for the CCP virus? —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Friday, 10:28, 2 October 2020 (EDT)

Wikipedia is so anti-Trump in Trump's article they put "Trump reacted slowly to the COVID-19 pandemic; he minimized the threat, ignored or contradicted many recommendations from health officials, and promoted false information about unproven treatments and the availability of testing. Both Trump and the First Lady later tested positive for COVID-19" and in China's, they say "The COVID-19 pandemic originated with a cluster of mysterious, suspected pneumonia cases in the city of Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. A Wuhan hospital notified the local center for disease control and prevention (CDC) and health commissions on 27 December 2019." and "On 25 February, the number of newly confirmed cases outside mainland China exceeded those from within for the first time; the WHO praised the effectiveness of measures taken in the country.", and also this article is clearly biased. The article link is here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China.

== Put this in the "In the News" section of Conservapedia's main page: ==

https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/519296-chinese-state-media-mocks-trumps-positive-coronavirus-test-paid-the {{unsigned|Punish China}}

:Editing the Main Page is limited to Administrators, and I'm not an admin. If you want certain details put there, enter a request in a new section on [[Talk:Main Page]] and someone like RobSmith may do it. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 22:25, 2 October 2020 (EDT)

== Examples of Bias in Wikipedia ==

Do you think we can move the Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez section to the Liberal politicians section? Thanks. I also think that it is clearly notable, since Wikipedia sympathizes with that socialist. Thanks! - [[User:Punish China]]

:Sure, I suppose that'd be fine if you want to do that. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 21:27, 3 October 2020 (EDT)

== LOOK AT THIS: ==

In the User talk:EL C page (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:El_C), there is a portrait of Che Guevara! Just see it for yourself! My other Wikipedia accounts, which is, me myself, tried removing it, but I got permanently banned!!! And El C seems to undo any balanced edits about Communism, like that "Liberals argue that Communism provides", rather "Communism provides". However, I think the El C is El Che Guevara. - [[User:Punish China]]
:That user account [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:El_C&dir=prev&action=history goes back to 2004]; it's a longtime member of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Rouge_admin Rouge Admin cabal]. I doubt you'll be able to do anything about it. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 17:29, 5 October 2020 (EDT)
But, why they have the Che Guevara, who is a mass-murderer, as their "hero"? - [[User:Punish China]]
:Cause he or the people running the account are communists. That means he fits right in with WP's ruling cabal. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 22:06, 5 October 2020 (EDT)

== Recent liberal vandal ==

You're IP blocking the F Breeona Taylor dude right? how is he making new alts? {{unsigned|Sievert 81}}

:While autoblocks do last for a maximum of 24 hours, some vandals likely use a proxy and thus under a different IP address each time to create socks. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 01:37, 7 October 2020 (EDT)
::LT, check your email. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 01:43, 7 October 2020 (EDT)
:::Alright, I saw your email and replied. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 01:50, 7 October 2020 (EDT)

Hello! I apologize for being quick to accuse you guys of censorship and appreciate the speedy response.

Regarding the image ownership, these images were uploaded by me and the original scans are on my computer. Thank you. {{unsigned|Voshbed}}

:Since I've only had upload abilities for a month and a half now and am not completely familiar with everything related to assuming permissions when uploading files from the internet, especially given that the site you linked to doesn't specify exactly who uploaded the images and when, I'd personally wait for someone like RobSmith or DavidB4 for further input. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Thursday, 23:10, 14 October 2020 (EDT)

== Left Fox News Polls ==
A website to put in the main page news: Democrat Fox News Polls! https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2020/09/04/fox-news-battleground-state-polls-that-show-joe-biden-leads-oversample-democrats/
:The article is almost two months ago, and I can't post on MPR because I'm not an administrator. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 22:52, 26 October 2020 (EDT)

== Evil Obama ==
I have the link: https://creationsciencestudy.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/evil-obama-n.jpg. Can you please use a different name, and upload the file, and it would look good seeing it in one of the Template:User 's. - [[User:United States]]
:Where did the image exactly come from and who specifically is the author? —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 22:23, 31 October 2020 (EDT)
I guess Jim Solouki, who runs the website, and who is pro-Trump and pro-Evangelical, made it. - [[User:United States]]
:Alright, [[:File:Evil-obama.jpg|here it is]]. I'd prefer not to make these types of uploads in the future, though. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 23:46, 31 October 2020 (EDT)

== Conservapedia Presidential Election Prediction Maps ==
Please upload these maps and put in that prediction page:

The Fake News Map: https://www.270towin.com/maps/yp7Gk.png
The Real Clear Politics Map: https://www.270towin.com/maps/yp7Nx.png
The Conservapedia Map: https://www.270towin.com/maps/38bzZ.png

- [[User:United States]]

:Did you create those maps? —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 23:50, 31 October 2020 (EDT)

Yes, for this wiki to have in the page. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

:Alright, the images are respectively [[:File:2020prediction1.png|here]], [[:File:2020predictionRCP.png|here]], and [[:File:2020prediction2.png|here]]. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 11:18, 1 November 2020 (EST)

::You could add 1 elector from Maine for the win. <S>And MN, NC, and AZ in the too close to call.</s> [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 13:28, 1 November 2020 (EST)

== Conservapedia's Endorsement of Trump ==
I know that you can't edit the main page, but can you request an administrator, that Conservapedia officially endorses Trump for president? - [[User:United States]]

:I think that can mostly be inferred by readers. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 17:34, 1 November 2020 (EST)

Well, I mean the website, not the readers. - [[User:United States]]

:If we were going to make an official statement about it, we probably would've done such sooner. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 17:39, 1 November 2020 (EST)

OK, but can we do it now, with only 2 days till the election, before the election is over? It should be official, since Trump is truly a great president, and Biden is pro-China, pro-Jinping. - [[User:United States]]

== Ilhan Omar Al Qaeda ==
Omar was at an Somali Al Qaeda training camp. Here is the photo: https://bloximages.chicago2.vip.townnews.com/madison.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/e/74/e749e2a0-a17a-530f-97bf-dc9bc097c11c/5d608255b2ed4.image.jpg?resize=1024%2C1691 There is evidence here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFdGe_b7Slo

However, the media blatantly defend Omar by saying that it is false.

:I'll look into that sometime, maybe a little bit later. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 20:05, 1 November 2020 (EST)

== Will Trump win 2020???😔😔😔 ==

I see polls that show Trump trails double-digits, 20 points, but I really want Trump re-elected. Can he win NC, PA, and other key states😔😔😔??? - [[User:United States]]

:Well, we'll see. I wouldn't trust many of the polls. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 18:17, 3 November 2020 (EST)

Why? Is it because polls are lying? - [[User:United States]]

:Do you think that polls showing Trump down ten points in swing states are being truthful? Do you really believe that independent voters are going to break for Biden over Trump by a twenty-five percent margin? —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 19:05, 3 November 2020 (EST)

Probably, it will be crucially close among independents, but can Trump take Pennsylvania's 20 electoral votes? In the real polls, it is less than 3 points for Biden. - [[User:United States]]

== Trump News ==

Trump and Biden are now tight, no one is clearly winning. But, can Trump win NC, AZ, PA, MN, or NV? - [[User:United States]]

:I think NC will go to Trump by a narrow margin. As for the rest, I dunno at the moment. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 22:53, 3 November 2020 (EST)

== How Can Trump Win 2020??? ==

In the 6 states not yet called, he is leading only in Alaska. And if Biden wins only one state, he wins 270. How can Trump win, despite the Democrat's fraud??? - [[User:United States]]

:Some lawsuits may have been filed on the matter. I dunno too much about it, as that's what RobSmith is focusing on. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 11:31, 7 November 2020 (EST)

==You've been cooped==
You ought to have the right to face your accusers if there is any due process. [https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/RationalWiki:Chicken_coop#LiberalTears] [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 00:48, 9 November 2020 (EST)
:Due process on RW? I kind of doubt it. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 01:12, 9 November 2020 (EST)
::Are you able to edit there? [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 17:11, 9 November 2020 (EST)
:::Nope, the block on RW still remains. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 17:17, 9 November 2020 (EST)
::::Sorry for interfering here, RationalWiki said that I am LT. Admins, please read the [[User:United States/Troll IP]] page, in order to prevent the trolls from RationalWiki to stop causing IP trouble<ref>https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-jun-19-na-schlafly19-story.html</ref>, like the one today. Go to the LA Times article, and find the term cyber-vandalism, which has something to do to RationalWiki users. --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 19:46, 2 December 2020 (EST)
:::::I think the term was cyber-terrorism. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 10:45, 3 December 2020 (EST)
::::::Great term! Be on the lookout for the block logs and IDs to stop such trolls. Thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 11:44, 3 December 2020 (EST)

== Doug Collins Or Kelly Loeffer ==

Who is better? I like both agendas of the candidates. - [[User:United States]]

:I prefer Doug Collins, though he finished third place in the jungle primary, so he's now out of the special election unfortunately. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 20:03, 13 November 2020 (EST)

Why? - [[User:United States]]

:So here's the story: Sen. [[Johnny Isakson]], who was re-elected in 2016, resigned in December 2019. Under Georgia law, whenever an incumbent senator resigns, an interim is to be appointed by the governor, though there must be an election to be held in the nearest election cycle in the form of a jungle primary to determine who finishes the term or serves for a full six-year term, depending on what cycle that jungle primary takes place in. That "primary" is just an election coinciding with all other general elections where every candidate's name is placed next to each other on the ballot, and if no one receives a majority of the vote, then a runoff is to be held between the top two. It was requested that Brian Kemp appoint [[Doug Collins]] to the Senate seat, but he decided to appoint [[Kelly Loeffler]]. Collins later in January 2020 announced his run, and other candidates such as Matt Lieberman and Raphael Warnock did too. Initially it was kind of a four-way tie, but after Loeffler came under fire over allegations of insider trading amidst the [[CCP pandemic]], Collins took a sharp lead that held for a few months. During this time, Lieberman and Warnock also roughly were split among Democrat support. However, as time went on, Collins began to trail in the polling and kept on hovering between 2nd/3rd place. The Democrat establishment backed Warnock, and Lieberman's support evaporated due to that as well as coming under controversy for writing a racist book. The GOP establishment and even many conservatives like [[Marsha Blackburn]] backed Loeffler; thus, Warnock won the jungle primary with a plurality, Loeffler trailed in second place, and Collins in third place. Now Loeffler and Warnock are headed to the runoff in January 2021, where it could be a tossup. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 20:17, 13 November 2020 (EST)

I see, but who's more conservative? - [[User:United States]]

:Probably Collins, as he seems to have a strong record in the House. The problem is that we don't know enough about Loeffler. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 22:29, 13 November 2020 (EST)

==Your turn==
It's your turn to address the abuse of rights case you created on Andy's talk page. It's quickly devolved into a smear against me for "defeatism". [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|Free Kyle!]] 12:25, 15 November 2020 (EST)
:I just posted a reply there. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Sunday, 12:37, 15 November 2020 (EST)

==Nice job==

Nice job catching all that vandalism from those 3 accounts. I got the infinitly loading glitch after reverting 2 of his edits, so I couldn't revert any more. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 17:33, 16 November 2020 (EST)

:Thanks! I do wish I could get rollback abilities sometime soon, though, as that would definitely make the process much quicker for me. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 17:35, 16 November 2020 (EST)

::Same, with block abilites. That way I could have blocked the guy before he made all those edits. [[User:Sievert 81|Sievert 81]] ([[User talk:Sievert 81|talk]]) 18:08, 16 November 2020 (EST)

== Oklahoma can't be one of the 5 most Republican States ==

Oklahoma has big cities, OKC and Tulsa, which is bigger than ND, SD, NE, and KS's largest cities, and Oklahoma ''is'' safely Republican, but not one of the most solid Republican. Do you agree? - [[User:United States]]

:I'd say Oklahoma would be among the most solidly Republican states because they're not as likely as many other red states to elect Democrats for their state elections; Kansas elected Democrat [[Laura Kelly]] in the 2018 gubernatorial election, and the gubernatorial race in South Dakota that year got quite close. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 08:11, 24 November 2020 (EST)

But, how about in the presidential level? How about the big cities there? - [[User:United States]]

:Oklahoma still would be one of the most red states at the presidential level. And as for the big cities, I don't know too much about them specifically. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 08:34, 24 November 2020 (EST)

== Blue Texas??? ==

I feel like TX will lean Democrat in 2030. TX was solidly red from 2000 to 2012, likely red in 2016, and leaning red in 2020. Based on the trends, TX will clearly turn blue in 2030, even if we slightly overestimate Republicans in swing areas. Could TX turn blue in your opinions? It is my state, and we are voting for Republicans, but how about the other people??? How to stop TX from turning blue??? - [[User:United States]]

:Increasing black/Latino support for Republicans will buffer the blue trends occurring in certain areas like Pete Sessions' old district. For example, [[Tony Gonzales]] won the general election to succeed [[Will Hurd]] in a liberal-leaning district despite every election rating site (with the exception of RCP) considering it "Lean D". The reason for Texas not being as Republican as before, along with Arizona and Georgia, are the affluent voters living in the urban/suburban areas. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 18:43, 24 November 2020 (EST)

I know urban areas are making states more liberal, but can Texas ever turn blue??? The media clearly rates Texas toss-up to slight Democrat leads, especially during quarantine.<ref>https://www.dallasnews.com/news/public-health/2020/07/12/joe-biden-builds-lead-over-donald-trump-in-reliably-red-texas-as-voters-sour-on-handling-of-virus/</ref> Is Texas really a swing state? - [[User:United States]]

:That mostly depends on what elections you're talking about and the circumstances for them. In the [[2018 Midterms]], Cruz only narrowly won over O'Rourke, but Abbott easily was re-elected by a handy margin. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 18:57, 24 November 2020 (EST)

I mean in the presidential election, the media makes TX look like toss-up to tilting Democrat. Why? - [[User:United States]]

:It's the [[MSM]], and they've got an agenda to push. Not that the nonsense they're spewing is in line with reality much. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 19:01, 24 November 2020 (EST)

I see, but would you give TX toss-up, Tilt R, Lean R, Likely R, or Safe R? - [[User:United States]]

:In general, I'd say Lean R. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 19:06, 24 November 2020 (EST)

I can give Likely R, since it elects Republicans often. But, here is my message to Republicans: Don't abandon Texas, or you will miss the 38 electoral votes in the Lone Star State of Texas! Keep TX red! If Texas loses the conservatism, America loses the conservatism! - [[User:United States]]

:Amen! —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 19:19, 24 November 2020 (EST)

== [[Eric Garcetti]] and [[Sylvester Turner]] ==

Can someone make these articles longer, as they are the (liberal Democrat) mayors of America's 2nd and 4th largest cities? - [[User:United States]]

:I'll see if I can expand those pages sometime soon. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 18:11, 25 November 2020 (EST)

Thanks!!! - [[User:United States]]

== What's going on ==

There are 403.shtml and 504 Gateway Timeouts popping up all over the place, even sometimes saying that Conservapedia is experiencing technical and graphic difficulties. Why? - [[User:United States]]

:From what I know, it could be some modifications with the server/database causing the issue. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Thursday, 13:28, 26 November 2020 (EST)

== Sylvester Turner Image ==

I screenshotted this image from a YouTube video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HeD6EsuIJHg&ab_channel=ABC13Houston, then you can download it, since I can't upload images, put in your folder, then upload the image into Conservapedia. It is just a small image included, nothing else. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

The link: http://www.mediafire.com/file/8un43wp48d8gagg/Sylvesterturner.png/file

It is not any folder. It is just a file. Go to your Downloads folder, get the file, then upload it to Conservapedia.

:While I might be able to upload the image under fair use, I have some doubts about it. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 13:12, 28 November 2020 (EST)

::Why? - [[User:United States]]

:::Wait, a better version of the image is here. Use Sylvesterturner.png as the file name instead of Screenshot7, so we can use it in the article. https://i.ibb.co/fdgGqKK/Screenshot-7.png. This is an easier version. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

::::Alright, here's the file: [[:File:SylvesterTurner.png]]. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 18:14, 28 November 2020 (EST)

:::::Oh, thanks a lot Liberaltears!!! - [[User:United States]]

::::::No problem! —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Saturday, 18:22, 28 November 2020 (EST)

== Kate Gallego Image ==

Here: https://i.ibb.co/nsK61V4/Kate-Gallego.jpg

I have a more suitable image of Kate Gallego here. I'm sorry I have to ask you this, we need the images for the articles. I would do it by myself, if I had upload rights, I just don't have upload rights. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

:Where did the image originate from? —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Monday, 18:37, 30 November 2020 (EST)

::Do we know who took this photo, and/or who owns the copyright? --[[User:DavidB4|DavidB4]] ([[User talk:DavidB4|TALK]]) 18:39, 30 November 2020 (EST)

:::Here: https://ktar.com/story/2355519/phoenix-mayoral-candidate-kate-gallego-wants-suns-to-pay-for-arena/ - [[User:United States]]

::::We can't upload files from the [[Associated Press]]. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 19:07, 30 November 2020 (EST)

:::::Okay, I see, but why? - [[User:United States]]

::::::We don't have permission to upload their images under fair use nor any other license, as mentioned [[CP:IUR|here]]. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 19:11, 30 November 2020 (EST)

:::::::Okay, I understand, but, if another source has an AP image, is it okay to upload it? Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

::::::::No, that wouldn't mean that we have permission to upload it. If another source, especially a news source, uses an AP file, they must've had permission to do so. From my knowledge, we don't have direct permission from the Associated Press to republish/reuse their images. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 19:18, 30 November 2020 (EST)

:::::::::Okay, I will just look for a different image of Kate Gallego somewhere, that is not AP, then let you know here. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

::::::::::Here! https://i.ibb.co/6mCfNR1/Kate-Gallego.png I screenshoted this from the video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pQdvFixOkW4&ab_channel=GreenBiz, cropped it, uploaded it here: https://imgbb.com/, then the website gave me a link, which is right here: https://i.ibb.co/6mCfNR1/Kate-Gallego.png.

:::::::::::If that video is only available on YouTube, I don't know whether I can upload the file under fair use. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Tuesday, 16:57, 1 December 2020 (EST)

::::::::::::I guess you should ask Aschlafly, or check the owner of the video. Thanks! - [[User:United States]]

:::::::::::::Alright, I'll look into the copyright details sometime. —[[User:Liberaltears|<code>'''LT'''</code>]]'''''[[User:Liberaltears/mail|May D.C., his mother, and I.S. be all well!]]''''' Wednesday, 19:13, 1 December 2020 (EST)

::::::::::::::Okay, let me know, then you search the copyright details. Thanks alot! - [[User:United States]]

== Biden and China ==

I feel really disturbed; I have a headache. Biden said that China will never be punished; it is clear; but they must play by WHO rules, but WHO is China themselves. What else is possible to keep America first? --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 19:17, 5 December 2020 (EST)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Karen St. Germain

2020-12-07T13:05:47Z

United States: fixing cite error!

{{Infobox officeholder
|name= Karen Gaudet St. Germain
|office=[[Louisiana]] State Representative for District 60
|term_start=January 2004
|term_end=January 2016
|preceded=Emma Jean Devillier
|succeeded=Chad M. Brown
|birth_date=July 16, 1955
|birth_place=Place of birth missing
|residence=Plaquemine, Iberville Parish, Louisiana
|party= [[Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|alma_mater=[[Louisiana State University]]
|spouse=Kenneth Jude St. Germain
|children=Three sons
}}

'''Karen Gaudet St. Germain''' (born July 16, 1955),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mylife.com/karen-stgermain/e310252204386|title=Karen St. Germain|publisher=Mylife.com|accessdate=December 7, 2020}}</ref> is a [[Democratic Party|Democrat]] former state representative from Plaquemine, [[Louisiana]], who iserved in District 60 in Iberville and Assumption parishes in the southern portion of her state.
<ref name=kgstg>{{cite web|url=https://house.louisiana.gov/H_PDFdocs/HouseMembership_History_CURRENT.pdf|title=Karen St. Germain|publisher=Louisiana House of Representatives|accessdate=December 7, 2020}}</ref> She held the seat from 2004 until she was term-limited in the nonpartisan blanket [[primary]] held on October 24, 2015.

==Background==

Born Karen Gaudet, to Gibson and Alize Breaux Gaudet, she attended Assumption High School in Napoleonvillle,<ref name="Leesville Daily Leader">{{cite web|url=http://www.leesvilledailyleader.com/article/20131031/NEWS/131039885|title=Karen Gaudet St. Germain – A strong leader with deep Iberville roots|publisher=''Leesville (Louisiana) Daily Leader''accessdate=November 10, 2015}}</ref> then attended [[Louisiana State University]] in [[Baton Rouge]] and studied as a paralegal.<ref name=kgstg/> She was formerly employed by the Louisiana Orthopaedic Association. She is a former resident of Victorville and San Bernardino, [[California]], and [[Richmond]], [[Virginia]], dates unavailable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intelius.com/results.php?ReportType=1&formname=name&qf=Karen&qmi=G&qn=Germain&qcs=Plaquemine%2C+LA&focusfirst=1|title=Karen St. Germain|publisher=intelius.com|accessdate=April 21, 2015}}</ref>

She and her husband, Kenneth Jude St. Germain (born June 3, 1957), have three sons.<ref>"Leesville Daily Leader"</ref>

==Political career==

In the legislative runoff election on November 15, 2003, St. Germain unseated her fellow Democrat Emma Jean Devillier (born December 1962), also of Plaquemine, 9,325 votes (52 percent) to 8,605 (48 percent).<ref>Louisiana Secretary of State, Election Returns, November 15, 2003.</ref> She was unopposed for her second term in the nonpartisan blanket primary held on October 20, 2007. On October 22, 2011, she scored her third and final term by handily defeating a [[Republican Party|Republican]] challenger, Jason Morris, 14,783 (86.1 percent) to 2,393 (13.9 percent).<ref>Louisiana Secretary of State, Election Returns, October 22, 2011.</ref>

Representative St. Germain was a member of the Louisiana Rural Caucus, the Acadiana delegation, and the Democratic Caucus. She is chaed two committees: (1) Transportation, Highways, and Public Works and (2) Atchafalaya Basin Program Oversight. She also sat on other committees: (1) Executive, 2) Joint Legislative on Capital Outlay, and (3) Homeland Security.<ref name=kgstg/>

St. Germain's legislative ratings ranged from 49 to 84 percent from the Louisiana Association of Business and Industry. She is ranked 92 percent by the Louisiana Association of Educators. In 2005, she was ranked 75 percent by the Louisiana Hospital Association for her votes on health care issues. In 2006 and 2007, St. Germain was rated 55 percent by the Humane Society. In 2013 and 2014, the [[conservative]] Louisiana Family Forum scored her 78 and 43 percent, respectively. She has been rated from 89 to 100 percent by Louisiana [[Right to Life]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://votesmart.org/candidate/evaluations/35434/karen-st-germain#.VTbHbMstEqQ|title=Karen St. Germain's Ratings and Endorsements|publisher=Project Vote Smart|accessdate=December 7, 2020}}</ref> and voted for the 2014 requirement that [[abortion]] providers have hospital admitting privileges near their clinics; the measure passed the House, 88-5.<ref name=votingrecords>{{cite web|url=http://votesmart.org/candidate/key-votes/35434/karen-st-germain#.VTbAq8stEqQ|title=Karen St. Germain's Voting Records|publisher=Project Vote Smart|accessdate=December 7, 2020}}</ref>

In 2014, St. Germain voted to extend the time for implementation of the [[Common Core]] State Standards Initiative. She supported the prohibition of the transportation of dogs in the bed of a pick-up truck on interstate highways. She voted to repeal anti-sodomy laws, but the measure failed, 27-67, in the House. In 2013, St. Germain voted to reduce penalties for possession of [[marijuana]]; two years earlier, she had opposed drug testing for welfare recipients. She opposed lifetime concealed carry gun permits but voted to allow the taking of weapons into restaurants. She opposed making information about permit holders a matter of public record. In 2012, she voted to prohibit the use of [[telephone]]s while driving. She opposed the reduction of the number of hours that polling locations remain open. Louisiana has traditionally had 14-hour polling days. In 2011, she voted for a permanent tax on [[cigarette]]s and for the congressional redistricting bill in which the state lost another seat in the [[United States House of Representatives]].<ref name=votingrecords/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:St. Germain, Karen}}
[[Category:Louisiana People]]
[[Category:Business People]]
[[Category:Politicians]]
[[Category:Democrats]]

Government of the United States

2020-12-07T13:03:18Z

United States: new redirect!

#REDIRECT [[United States Government]]

Government of China

2020-12-07T13:02:45Z

United States: new redirect!

#REDIRECT [[Chinese Communist Party]]

User:United States

2020-12-07T12:55:12Z

United States: adding!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship, as I told the admins to be neutral, and they called me a "far-right white-supremacist".

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}

France

2020-12-07T12:51:25Z

United States: adding!

{{Country
|map =France rel94.JPG
|name =French Republic ''République Française''
|map2 =France location.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =Armoirie France.png
|capital =Paris
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Emmanuel Macron
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Jean Castex
|pm-raw =
|area =260,558 sq mi
|pop =66,666,667 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$2,750,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$41,250 (2020)
|currency =euro
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on France and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
'''France''' is a republic in [[Europe]] and is about the size of Texas. It has the second largest population in Western Europe, behind Germany. The elected president is the dominant figure in the country's politics. The French national currency, or franc, was phased out and replaced by the euro in 1999-2002. France is the world's most popular tourist destination with 80 million visitors in 2011.<ref>"[http://geography.about.com/od/economic-geography/a/20-Most-Popular-Countries-As-Tourist-Destinations.htm 20 Most Popular Countries as Tourist Destinations]".</ref> The Eiffel Tower in Paris is world's most visited tourist attraction. Nuclear power produces 78 percent of the country's electricity.

In ancient times, the area that is today France was included in the Roman province of Gaul. Together with Germany and Northern Italy, it was part of the Carolingian Empire. The earliest document attesting to a distinct French language is the Oaths of Strassbourg of 842. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun divided the Carolingian Empire into French, German, and Italian kingdoms.

France has played a significant role in world events since the era of Cardinal Richelieu in the mid-seventeenth century. The monarchy lasted until the [[French Revolution]] of 1789-1799. [[Napoleon|Napoleon I]] ruled France and much of Europe as emperor in 1804–1815. Since 1870, France has been a republic with the motto "liberty, equality, fraternity." The country was occupied by Germany in World War II.

France is a leading member of the [[European Union]], an economic and political union founded in 1952 as the European Coal and Steel Community. France's current constitutional structure, called the Fifth Republic, was introduced by President [[Charles de Gaulle]] in 1958. It features a strong president elected to a five-year term of office.

==Geography==
[[File:Harbour of Marseille France.jpg|thumb|left|The Harbour of Marseille.]]
*Total area: 674,843 km2. (260,558 sq. mi.); largest Western European country, about the size of [[Texas]].
*Cities: Capital (and largest city)--[[Paris]]. Major cities--[[Marseille]], [[Lyon]], [[Toulouse]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Nice]], [[Rennes]], [[Lille]], [[Bordeaux]].
*Terrain: Varied.
*Climate: Temperate.
*Population : 63 136 180 (January 2011 INSEE est.) excluding overseas territories.

==History==
[[File:Palacio del Luxemburgo ELUE Romero.jpg|thumb|left|Luxembourg Palace.]]
See: [[History of France]]
{{Clear}}

==People==
Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, travel, and migration. Three basic European ethnic stocks—Celtic, Latin, and Teutonic (Frankish)--have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. France's birth rate was among the highest in Europe from 1945 until the late 1960s. Since then, its birth rate has fallen but remains higher than that of most other west European countries. Traditionally, France has had a high level of [[immigration]]. More than 1 million [[Muslims]] immigrated in the 1960s and early 1970s from [[North Africa]], especially [[Algeria]]; their numbers are now above 5 million (2004 figure).

===Education===
[[File:Pascal by Augustin Pajou Louvre PD WC.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of [[Blaise Pascal]] by Augustin Pajou, Le Louvre.]]
Education is free, beginning at age 3 (sometimes 2), and mandatory between ages 6 and 16. The [[public education]] system is highly centralized. Private schools are primarily Roman Catholic, with some of them still run by religious orders historically involved in the French educational system. Almost all schools welcome students from all denominations.

In France, teachers abide by the state-chosen educational program, with the science curriculum based on [[Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin's]] [[Theory of Evolution]]. [[Creationism]] can be referenced for cultural and philosophical values.
[[Image:Gtr7564.jpg|left|150px|thumb|[[René Descartes]], French philosopher & scientist]]
====Higher education====
Higher education in France began with the founding of the [[University of Paris]] in 1150. It now consists of 91 public universities and 175 professional schools, including the post-graduate Grandes Ecoles. Private, college-level institutions focusing on business and management with curricula structured on the American system of credits and semesters have been growing in recent years.

France has an elaborately stratified system of higher education; nearly all schools are controlled and funded by the government. There are few private foundations or endowments, but some research money comes from American foundations. Most scholars and scientists at all levels are civil servants with lifetime tenure. Rigid hierarchies ensure that young researchers pay their dues before moving up the ladder to supervisory roles. Paris decides what areas of research are high priorities, which laboratories will be “centers of excellence,” and how many people will be hired in what fields. It also classifies France's top educational and research institutions as ''grands organismes'', ''grands établissements'', and ''grandes écoles'', with bureaucratic strictures ensuring that there will be little contact between the different groups.<ref>Fred Schwarz, "The Uncertainty Principle: America dominates science with a classic American formula: freedom," ''National Review'', Dec. 21, 2009</ref>

The University of Vincennes (currently known as Paris VIII) was formed as a result of [[May 1968 riots|the Student Protests during May 1968]]. It later became particularly infamous for its radical [[philosophy]] department, which had been organized by and led at the time by [[Michel Foucault]], with his also participating in a 500-man student protest at the school and hurling projectiles at the police to resist. This radicalization also led to the firing of Judith Miller due to both her giving credit to a student she just met on the bus, and her tacit admission in a radio interview that she was deliberately causing the college to function as badly as possible due to it being a "capitalist" institution.

===Language===
The French language derives from the vernacular Latin spoken by the Romans in [[Gaul]], although it includes some Celtic and Germanic words. Historically, French has been used as the international language of diplomacy and commerce. Today it remains one of six official languages at the [[United Nations]] and has been a unifying factor in Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Caribbean.
[[Image:Sacre Coeur.jpg|thumb|Le Sacre Coeur.]]
The French language is controlled by the French Academy (''L'Académie française''). Members of the Academy are appointed for life so there is a very conservative approach to the changing demands on the language even going as far as banning words with an English origin. The French people (and other French speakers) often ignore the "correct" French and adopt modern English words. This can cause an even wider gap opening up between the cultural elite, who prefer to follow the official French even if it is many years and even decades out of date, and ordinary French speakers who prefer to have a more useful language. There have even been arguments between the government and the Academy over the introduction of "foreign" French words from countries like Belgium and Canada which the government is keen to use. Some even say that this painfully slow and traditional organization is strangling the French language.
=== Other French government efforts to protect French culture ===

In 2014, the website WorldPolicy.org reported:
{{Cquote|The concept of “Exception Culturelle” (cultural exception) was a term first introduced by France during the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade negotiations in 1993. It refers to the fact that cultural goods and services should not be treated as regular goods in trade agreements and at the World Trade Organization. This concept allows countries to implement indirect trade barriers, such as quotas for the diffusion of foreign artistic work or subsidies to the local cultural sector. If it was initially meant to protect French culture from the foreign—mostly English language—content flooding the market, it is truly outdated and needs to evolve.

The tensions between a protectionist French government and the Hollywood film industry sums up two radically different views: the U.S. considers arts as an industry making profits, whereas Europe considers culture as the product of ideas that extend beyond strict commercial value. Jack Valenti, former head of the Motion Picture Association of America, once said during the Uruguay round, “Culture is like chewing-gum, a product like any other.” Contrastingly, French President Francois Mitterrand once said, “The mind’s creations are no mere commodities and can’t be treated as such.” Moreover, the notion of cultural diversity, a rich intellectual and artistic debate without profit-making consideration, is crucial in Europe...

The future of the French cultural exception is uncertain. On the positive side, the unexpected success of the Korean film industry should inspire European leaders.<ref>[https://worldpolicy.org/2014/11/03/france-ending-the-cultural-exception/ FRANCE: ENDING THE CULTURAL EXCEPTION], WorldPolicy.org</ref>}}

In 1996, the ''New York Times'' reported:
{{Cquote|The French Government, on a crusade to safeguard the country's culture from marauding forces of commercialism, has risen yet again to defend the national patrimony, setting up a foundation to involve the citizens directly in trying to protect some of the things that make France French.

Legislation to create the foundation was first introduced several years ago, as reports spread that Italian and Russian organized crime barons were buying up villas and other handsome properties in southern France.

The plans were approved last week by the Cabinet and are expected to be passed by the Parliament this spring, speeded by the news that a Japanse real estate magnate had bought nine castles in northern France, stripped some of their furnishings and, claiming bankruptcy, allowed all of them to decay.

The Culture Ministry says the aim of the new Heritage Foundation, which would begin its work next year, is to protect or manage those parts of the national patrimony that do not already have Government protection -- not the great cathedrals, palaces and mansions, but France's many chapels, mills, markets, country inns and landscapes. The ministry calculates that there may be 400,000 such spots.<ref>[France to Form New Body To Further Protect Culture], ''New York Times'', 1996</ref>}}

=== French cuisine ===

''See also:'' [[French cuisine]]

The [[French]] are well known for their culinary achievements.<ref>[https://www.thespruceeats.com/introduction-to-french-food-and-cooking-1375348 A Brief Introduction to French Food and Cooking] BY Rebecca Franklin</ref>

Rebecca Franklin in her article entitled ''A Brief Introduction to French Food and Cooking'' wrote:
{{Cquote|French food and cooking are generally considered the backbone and underpinning of many cuisines across the Western world. The influence and recognition of classical French cooking techniques are legendary. This status is precisely why French cuisine can be intimidating for a beginner to learn.

French food leaves many cooks feeling that they have to live up to a certain unattainable elegance and flair. In the U.S. that may come mainly from the influence of Julia Child, the well-known writer (and later television personality) who brought French cooking to the American public. Mastering the Art of French Cooking (the title of Ms. Child's famous book) is considered by many to be the pinnacle of her culinary achievement and helped make classic French cuisine more well-known to American home cooks.<ref>[https://www.thespruceeats.com/introduction-to-french-food-and-cooking-1375348 A Brief Introduction to French Food and Cooking] BY Rebecca Franklin</ref>}}

==== Immigrants to France and French cuisine ====

''See also:'' [[French cuisine#Desecularization, immigrants and French cuisine|Immigrants and French cuisine]]

France has had a significant amount of [[evangelical Christian]] and Islamic immigrants in recent years. Many of France's immigrants are from former French colonies in Africa and Asia. According the ''Seattle Times'' article ''French cuisine, shaped by the immigrant experience'', immigration is having an influence on French cuisine.<ref>[https://www.seattletimes.com/life/food-drink/french-cuisine-shaped-by-the-immigrant-experience/ French cuisine, shaped by the immigrant experience], ''Seattle Times''</ref>

===Religion===

Partially as a result of the French Revolution, the French state is non-religious - it has no sanctioned religion and is forbidden to do so by law, a practice which commonly referred to as ''laicité''. Since the beginning of the 20th century, state banning of religion in education and other state-funded activities created a large proportion of people who are atheists. It was common for teachers to preach atheism at schools and classroom prayer was forbidden.
[[File:Notre-dame.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Notre Dame.]][[File:La Mosquée de Paris.jpg|thumb|left|125px|La Mosquée de Paris.]]
[[File:Muslims in Europe map.jpg|thumb|290px|Muslims in Europe by country.]]
In a January 2012 poll, 31% percent of respondents indicated they were Roman Catholic, including those who never attend religious services. Of Catholics, only 4% went to Church regularly—mainly to Sunday Mass or christenings. There is a cultural particularism in France : a large percentage (30%) of people, calling themselves Catholics, don't believe in God, nor in any kind of spiritual lifeforce. They endorse Catholicism's moral teachings, and view Catholic dogma as a tradition. There are an estimated 4 million to 5 million Muslims (6 to 8% of the population), although estimates of how many of these are practicing vary widely. According to a January 17, 2008 survey in the Catholic daily ''La Croix,'' 29% of Muslims surveyed said they observed Islam's five prayers daily, an decrease from 31% in 1994. Mosque attendance for Friday prayers rose to 19%, up from 16 percent in 1994, while Ramadan observance reached 45% compared to 42% in 1994. Drinking alcohol, which [[Islam]] forbids, also declined to 34% from 39% in 1994.<ref>Data reported by [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108446.htm U.S. State Department, 2008]</ref>
Protestants make up 3% of the population, Jewish and Buddhist religious groups 1% each, and Sikhs less than 1 percent.

In 2015, it was estimated that at least 29% of France's population identifies as atheists and 63% identifies as non-religious.<ref>[http://rue89.nouvelobs.com/2015/01/18/carte-latheisme-monde-france-numero-4-257171 La carte de l’athéisme dans le monde : la France numéro 4], L'Obs, 2015</ref> See also: [[French atheism]]

Irreligious/nonreligious countries/populations have sub-replacement levels of births and over time this can have a significant effective in terms of [[desecularization]] (see: [[Atheism and fertility rates]]).

In April 2010, the British academic and [[agnosticism|agnostic]] [[Eric Kaufmann]] declared that "the rate of secularisation has flattened to zero in most of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Europe]] and France."<ref>[http://questionevolution.blogspot.com/2013/03/british-academic-eric-kaufmann-says.html British academic Eric Kaufmann says "the rate of secularisation has flattened to zero in most of Protestant Europe and France". Also, Kaufmann writes that secularism "appears exhausted and lacking in confidence"]</ref> See also: [[European desecularization in the 21st century]]

In April 2008 a practicing Buddhist claimed the current estimate of 600,000 Buddhists strongly underrepresents the actual number of adherents; however, he acknowledged the difficulty in distinguishing between practicing Buddhists and the much larger number of persons who characterize themselves as sympathetic to certain Buddhist principles. Scholars distinguish between "sympathizers" (approximately 5 million), "associates" (defined as having a certain degree of proximity to Buddhism and estimated to number between 100,000 and 150,000), and "practitioners" (approximately 12,000). The biggest Buddhist meditation center in the West is in the region of Touraine, and two Tibetan monasteries in the Auvergne region have trained the largest number of Buddhist monks outside Asia, according to 2002 statistical data.

The Jewish community numbers approximately 600,000. According to press reports, at least 60% of Jews are not highly observant, celebrating at most only the High Holy Days. The large majority of observant Jews are Orthodox. There are small Conservative and Reform congregations as well.

Jehovah's Witnesses reported that 148,263 persons attend their services either regularly or periodically.

Orthodox Christians number between 80,000 and 100,000; the vast majority are associated with the Greek or Russian Orthodox Churches.

Other religious groups include Evangelicals, Christian Scientists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Membership in evangelical churches is growing (with as many as 400,000 adherents, according to February 2007 press reports), including African-style "prosperity" churches, especially in the suburbs of Paris, in large part because of increased participation by African and Antillean immigrants. According to the press, there are approximately 31,000 Mormons. The Church of Scientology has an estimated 5,000 to 20,000 members.

==Government==
[[File:Delacroix La liberte guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorating the July Revolution of 1830: [[Eugene Delacroix]], ''La liberte guidant le peuple''.]]
The [[constitution]] of the Fifth Republic was approved by public referendum on September 28, 1958. It greatly strengthened the powers of the president in relation to those of Parliament. Under this constitution, presidents have been elected directly for a 7-year term since 1958. Beginning in 2002, the presidential term of office was reduced to 5 years. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties. Traditionally, presidents under the Fifth Republic have tended to leave day-to-day policy-making to the Prime Minister and government; the five-year term of office is expected to make presidents more accountable for the results of domestic policies.

The president can submit questions to a national referendum and can dissolve the National Assembly. In certain emergency situations, with the approval of parliament, the president may assume [[dictator]]ial powers and rule by decree. The main components of France's executive branch are the president, the prime minister and government, and the permanent bureaucracies of the many ministries. Led by a prime minister, who is the head of government, the cabinet is composed of a varying number of ministers, ministers-delegate, and secretaries of state. Parliament meets for one 9-[[month]] session each year. Under special circumstances the president can call an additional session.

Under the Constitution, the legislative branch has few checks on executive power; nevertheless, the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. The Parliament is [[bicameral]] with a National Assembly and a Senate. The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its deputies are directly elected to 5-year terms, and all seats are voted on in each election. Senators are chosen by an electoral college and, under new rules passed in 2003 to shorten the term, serve for six years, with one-half of the Senate being renewed every three years. (As a transitional measure in 2004, 62 Senators were elected to 9-year terms, while 61 were elected to 6-year terms; subsequently, all terms will be six years.) The Senate's legislative powers are limited; the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can declare a bill to be a question of confidence, thereby linking its continued existence to the passage of the legislative text; unless a motion of censure is introduced and voted, the text is considered adopted without a vote.

A distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that the Constitutional Council protects basic rights when they might be potentially violated by new laws and the Council of State protects basic rights when they might be violated by actions of the state. The Constitutional Council examines legislation and decides whether it conforms to the constitution. Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, it considers only legislation that is referred to it by Parliament, the prime minister, or the president. Moreover, it considers legislation before it is promulgated. The Council of State has a separate function from the Constitutional Council and provides recourse to individual citizens who have claims against the administration. The Ordinary Courts—including specialized bodies such as the police court, the criminal court, the correctional tribunal, the commercial court, and the industrial court—settle disputes that arise between citizens, as well as disputes that arise between citizens and corporations. The Court of Appeals reviews cases judged by the Ordinary Courts.

Traditionally, decision-making in France has been highly centralized, with each of France's departments headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. In 1982, the national government passed legislation to decentralize authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March 1986, regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of decentralization continues, albeit at a slow pace.
===Principal Government Officials===
See [[List of French Presidents]].
*President—François Hollande
*Prime Minister—Manuel Valls
*Foreign Minister—Laurent Fabius
*Ambassador to the United States—François Delattre
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Gérard Araud

===Political Conditions===
[[File:French Market.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Improving French Market.]]
Since his inauguration in May 2007 as France's sixth president under the Fifth Republic, Nicolas Sarkozy focused his first months in office on improving the performance of France's economy through liberalization of labor markets, higher education and taxes. In the April 22, 2007 first round of presidential elections, Sarkozy, the leader of the center-right, union for a popular Movement (UMP) party, placed first; Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal placed second; centrist François Bayrou placed third; and extremist Jean-Marie Le Pen placed fourth out of a field of 12 candidates. Sarkozy prevailed in the May 6, 2007 second round, defeating Royal by a 53.06% to 46.94% margin. Royal's loss marked the third straight defeat for the Socialist candidate in presidential elections.

President Sarkozy assumed office on May 16, 2007, the last day of Jacques Chirac's official term. Sarkozy named François Fillon Prime Minister. Jean-Louis Borloo, the second highest ranking figure in the government, presides over an expanded Ministry of Environment.. Legislative elections held on June 10 and 17, 2007 gave the UMP a large parliamentary majority. In 2007, key ministers included: Jean-Louis Borloo, Ecology and Sustainable Planning; Michèle Alliot-Marie, Interior; Bernard Kouchner, Foreign Affairs; Christine Lagarde, Economy; Brice Hortefeux, Immigration; Rachida Dati, Justice; and Hervé Morin, Defense.

In electing Nicolas Sarkozy, French voters endorsed the wide-ranging program of reforms—including market-oriented social and economic reforms—that were the focal point of Sarkozy's campaign, implicitly giving him the green light to try and implement these reforms quickly, and allowing a way forward for overcoming France's 2005 rejection of the EU constitutional treaty. By embracing a figure long tagged as "pro-American," French voters also expressed their desire to renew trust in the U.S.-France relationship. During the campaign Sarkozy often ended his stump speeches—evoking Martin Luther King—by calling for a "French dream" of social equality, social mobility, and equal opportunity; and his first speech as President-elect assured his "American friends" that they could rely on France's friendship.

Shortly after taking office, President Sarkozy went to work on a series of reforms to address mounting pressure for short- and long-term restructuring, including reduced government spending, flexibility in the implementation of the 35-hour work week, more labor-market flexibility, less taxation, and further privatization and liberalization of the business sector. French and EU analysts stress that longer-term measures must focus on reducing the future burden of ballooning public pension and health care budgets, as well as reducing labor-related taxes. Government action to initiate such reforms may have contributed to the center-right's poor showing in 2004 regional and European Parliamentary elections, and continues to spark periodic strikes and work stoppages throughout France.

It should be noted that France is, in many ways, much more left-wing and socialist than the U.S.A. Even with what the French would call a right-wing president, there are differences fundamental between the right-wing in France and America. France has a very large state and employs a near majority of the workforce directly and indirectly (like state-owned private companies). France also has a very strong welfare state and comprehensive cover for health, unemployment, pensions, etc. This is expensive and so taxes are relatively high. So while President Chirac and his successor President Sarkozy are right-wing, they are not looking to dismantle these policies even if the latter wants to make them more efficient. Compared to America, Sarkozy would be roughly equivalent to a Democrat. The Socialist Party, the opposition political party at the moment, is very strong. There is no comparison to a main American political party.

<blockquote>
During his first year and a half in office, Sarkozy eliminated income taxes on overtime hours, lengthened the contribution period for retirees to receive full pensions, and established a "minimum service" requirement on strike days, among other reforms. He also completed a major revision of the French constitution, which made the president more accountable to Parliament and strengthened the power of the legislature. French and EU analysts stress that longer-term reform measures must focus on reducing the future burden of ballooning public pension and health care budgets, as well as reducing labor-related taxes.
<ref>[http://aadorjan.com/Moin/index.cgi/Political_Structure Political Structure]</ref>
</blockquote>

[[François Hollande]], a socialist, won the 2012 presidential election. [[Emmanuel Macron]], a liberal [[globalist]], won the 2017 presidential election, defeating populist [[Marine Le Pen]].

===Foreign Relations===
A charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies. France is also America's oldest ally; French military intervention was instrumental in helping Britain's American colonies establish independence. Because many battles in which the United States was involved during World War I and World War II took place in France, more American soldiers have been killed on French soil than on that of any other foreign country.
[[File:France Mexico relations.jpg|thumb|270px|A court decision has weakened Mexico-France diplomatic relations.]]
France is a leader in Western Europe because of its size, location, and large economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture, and energetic diplomacy. France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the EU and its role in common European defense. It views Franco-German cooperation and the development of a European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) with other EU members, as the foundation of efforts to enhance European security.

France supports Quartet (U.S.-EU-Russia-UN) efforts to implement the Middle East roadmap, which envisions establishment of a Palestinian state, living side-by-side in peace and security with Israel. Recognizing the need for a comprehensive peace agreement, France supports the involvement of all Arab parties and Israel in a multilateral peace process.

Since 2003, France has supported four UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions on Iraq, including UNSCR 1546, which laid out a timetable for Iraq's political transition and reaffirmed UNSC authorization for a Multinational Force in Iraq, at the invitation of the Iraqi government, to stabilize the country. France contributed to the 230 million euro EU contribution to Iraq reconstruction in 2003. After the Iraqi Interim Government took power, France agreed to substantial debt relief and offered police training to Iraqi security forces. In 2006, France and the U.S. collaborated closely to create a consensus in the UN to adopt UNSCR 1696 demanding action from Iran to end its enrichment-related and preprocessing activities.

France continues to play an important role in Africa, especially in its former colonies, through aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact. In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France has supported political, military, and social stability. France maintains permanent military bases in Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Gabon, and Senegal, and has maintained a long-term military presence in Chad. An attack on French forces in Côte d'Ivoire in 2004 led to the departure of thousands of French nationals from that country. France responded to the crisis in Côte d'Ivoire by dispatching Operation Unicorn, which has worked with UN forces to help stabilize Côte d'Ivoire. In 2011, during the conflict opposing Gbagbo and Ouattara following the presidential elections, France fully supported Ouattara. France has also deployed forces to Togo (in support of Operation Unicorn in Côte d'Ivoire) and to the Central African Republic, where French forces have assisted government forces in deterring rebel elements. France with EU partners, participated in an international military operation (EUFOR) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2006, which played an important presence during in elections that year in the D.R.C. France was instrumental in organizing the June 2007 ministerial conference on Darfur and has shown leadership in increasing international interest and involvement in Chad and the Central African Republic, both of which are affected by the crisis in Darfur.

France has extensive political and commercial relations with Asian countries, including China, Japan, and Southeast Asia as well as an increasing presence in regional fora. France is seeking to broaden its commercial presence in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in aerospace, high-tech, and luxury markets. In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the 1991 Paris Accords, which ended the conflict in Cambodia.

===Relations with the United States===

Relations between the United States and France are active and cordial. Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted frequently. Bilateral contact at the cabinet level has traditionally been active. France and the United States share common values and have parallel policies on most political, economic, and security issues. Differences are discussed frankly and have not generally been allowed to impair the pattern of close cooperation that characterizes relations between the two countries.
[[File:President Obama and President Sarkozy 2009.jpg|thumb|320px|President Obama and President Sarkozy, 2009.]]
France is one of NATO's top three troop contributors. The French support NATO modernization efforts and are leading contributors to the NATO Response Force (NRF). France is keen to build European defense capabilities, including through the development of EU battle-group sized force packages and joint European military production initiatives. Defense Minister Morin supports development of a European defense that must complement, not compete with, NATO, which remains at the core of transatlantic security. French resistance, however, to efforts to reinforce NATO's reach beyond the North Atlantic region remain a source of contention.

France is a close partner with the U.S. in the war on terror. It cooperates with the U.S. to monitor and disrupt terrorist groups and has processed numerous U.S. requests for information under the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty. French security and intelligence services have rounded up hundreds of extremists in the past year. The French judiciary has upheld the pre-trial detainment of the four French former Guantanamo detainees. France is a strong partner in multiple non-proliferation fora and is a key participant in the Proliferation Security Initiative. Through the "EU3" (France, the U.K., and Germany), France is working to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.

France opposed the use of force in Iraq in March 2003 and did not join the U.S.-led coalition that liberated the country from the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein with whom they, like other countries had close economic ties, especially in the supply of nuclear technology.Donald Rumsfeld famously quipped that "going to war without the French is like going on a duck hunt without an accordion".

Americans generally took France's refusal to join in the war very badly. Many politicians, especially Republicans, were incensed and even started campaigns to ridicule France and its military. There was even a campaign to change the name of French fries to Freedom fries, which is in effect to this day. Since no weapons of mass destruction were found after the Iraq war, some have speculated that France was right all along. But many Americans still take a very negative view of the French generally and old stereotypes of rude, unwashed, horse-eating and cowardly French remain a popular vision.

Despite differences over Iraq, the U.S. and France continue to cooperate closely on many issues, most notably the global war on terrorism, efforts to stem the [[proliferation]] of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and on regional problems, including in Africa, Lebanon, and Kosovo. On Iraq, the French agreed to generous debt relief for Iraq in Paris Club negotiations and have accepted the establishment of a NATO training mission there.

In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, France seeks robust U.S. engagement in the peace process. France is working to contain the Hamas-led challenge to the Palestinian Authority. President Sarkozy, like his predecessor, President Chirac, is committed to keeping France in supportive relations with Israel.

The U.S. and France have worked closely to support a sovereign and independent Lebanon, free of Syrian domination, having fought with uncharacteristic tenacity to keep the British out in World War II, but without success.
The U.S. and France co-sponsored in September 2004 UNSCR 1559, which called for full withdrawal of Syrian forces, a free and fair electoral process, and disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias. In the wake of the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri in February 2005, the U.S. and France reiterated calls for a full, immediate withdrawal of all Syrian troops and security services from Lebanon. France also co-sponsored UNSCR 1701 and was one of the leading countries in Europe working to end hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah in 2006 by committing 2,000 troops to UNIFIL-plus. Strong French backing led to adoption of UNSCR 1757 establishing a Special Tribunal for Lebanon to prosecute the perpetrators of the Hariri assassination and other killings of critics of Syria's interference in Lebanon. Foreign Minister Kouchner is working hard to help competing Lebanese political factions agree to a framework for governing the country in accordance with the country's constitution and free from external interference. France also participates in the U.S. Broader Middle East and North Africa initiative.

Trade and investment between the U.S. and France are strong. On average over $1 billion in commercial transactions take place between France the U.S. every day. In 2006 U.S. exports to France totaled over 24.2 billion euros and U.S. imports from France were valued at 37.1 billion euros. France is the eighth partner for total trade of goods (imports plus exports) and the tenth-ranked supplier worldwide to the U.S. and its 10th largest customer. The U.S. is France's third-ranked supplier and its fifth largest customer. There are approximately 2,300 French subsidiaries in the U.S., providing more than 481,100 jobs and generating an estimated $178 billion turnover. U.S. companies in France employ about 603,400 French citizens. The U.S. is the top destination for French investments worldwide.

Relations at a cultural and popular level are complex. While many Americans see the French as too quick surrender in the face of military conflict, many French people view suspiciously America's willingness to go to war. There are suspicions that America will only fight to secure wealth primarily oil or its ideology of the US version of liberty with disregard for other nation's views. Americans often view French culture as being very elitist and overly reliant on the high arts while some French take exception to American "cultural imperialism" even though the French are keen consumers of American-style fast food, cinema and modern music. The French are generally proud of the donation of the Statue of Liberty but can sometimes appear ungrateful for the help America and other Allies gave in World War 2.

==Security Issues==
[[File:French July 14.jpg|right|200px]]
French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, [[nuclear weapon]]s deterrence, and military sufficiency. France is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]), and has worked actively with Allies to adapt NATO, internally and externally, to the post-Cold War environment. However, in 1966, the French withdrew from NATO's military bodies while remaining full participants in the alliance's political councils. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee. France remains a firm supporter of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other efforts at cooperation.

Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in a variety of peacekeeping/coalition efforts in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, often taking the lead in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include reducing personnel, bases, and headquarters and rationalizing equipment and the armament industry. French active-duty military in June 2007 numbered about 350,000 (including Gendarmes), of which nearly 34,000 were deployed outside of French territory. France completed the move to all-professional armed forces when conscription ended on December 31, 2002.
[[File:Nato - airpower.jpg|thumb|left|300px|NATO-airpower.]]
France places a high priority on arms control<ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/11/10/151219.shtml French Arms Sales to China]</ref> and non-proliferation. After conducting a final series of six nuclear tests, the French signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel landmines and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. France is an active participant in the major supplier regimes designed to restrict transfer of technologies that could lead to proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Australia Group (for chemical and biological weapons), the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the Missile Technology Control Regime. France participates actively in the Proliferation Security Initiative, and is engaged with the U.S., both bilaterally and at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), to curb nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) proliferation from the D.P.R.K., Iran, Libya, and elsewhere. France has joined with the U.S., Germany, and the other three permanent members of the UN Security Council to offer a package of incentives and disincentives to Iran to halt its uranium enrichment activities. France has also signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. France maintains a color-coded security system, similar to that of the U.S., consisting of yellow, orange, red and scarlet threat levels.

At least 62 French soldiers have been killed in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] since its inception in 2001.<ref>[http://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/afghanistan/in-memoriam/in-memoriam In Memoriam]</ref>

===Gun control and Islamic terrorism===
Despite having very strict [[gun control]] laws, there have been many [[List of Islamist terrorist attacks|Islamic terrorist attacks]] in France.<ref>Hawkins, Awr (April 21, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2017/04/21/france-2015-to-present-strict-gun-control-a-paper-tiger/ France 2015 to Present: Strict Gun Control a Paper Tiger]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 22, 2017.</ref>

== Economy ==

[[File:Paris-13eme - panorama banlieues.jpg|center|Paris.]]
With a GDP of approximately $2.75 trillion, France is the seventh-largest economy. It has substantial agricultural resources, a large industrial base, and a highly skilled work force. A dynamic services sector accounts for an increasingly large share of economic activity and is responsible for nearly all job creation in recent years. GDP growth was 1.1% in 2003, after two years of steady decline from 3.9% in 2000. GDP growth was 1.7% in 2005, down from 2.5% in 2004 (2000 price basis).

Government economic policy aims to promote investment and domestic growth in a stable fiscal and monetary environment. Creating jobs and reducing the high unemployment rate through recovery-supportive policy has been a top priority. French unemployment dropped from a high of 12% to 8.7% in the late 1990s, and after hovering around 10% during the 2000s, unemployment slipped once again to 8.0% in July 2007. France joined 10 other European Union countries in adopting the euro as its currency in January 1999. Since then, monetary policy has been set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. On January 1, 2002, France, along with the other countries of the euro zone, dropped its national currency in favor of euro bills and coins.

Despite significant reform and privatization over the past 15 years, the government continues to control a large share of economic activity: Government spending, at 53.5% of GDP in 2006, is among the highest in the G-7. Regulation of labor and product markets is pervasive. The government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications.
[[File:Chenonceaux France.jpg|thumb|260px|Chenonceaux.]]
Legislation passed in 1998 shortened the legal work week from 39 to 35 hours for most employees effective January 1, 2000. Recent assessments of the impact of work week reduction on growth and jobs have generally concluded that the goal of job creation was not met. The former administration introduced increasing flexibility into the law, returning the country to a de facto (if not de jure) 39-hour work week in the private sector. Under President Nicolas Sarkozy's impetus, overtime work will be exempt from income taxes on October 1, 2007, a move to encourage work and to increase work duration.

Membership in France's labor unions accounts for approximately 5% of the private sector work force and is concentrated in the manufacturing, transportation, and heavy industry sectors. Most unions are affiliated with one of the competing national federations, the largest and most powerful of which are the communist-dominated General Labor Confederation (CGT), the Workers' Force (FO), and the French Democratic Confederation of Labor (CFDT).

France has been very successful in developing dynamic telecommunications, aerospace, and weapons sectors. With virtually no domestic oil production, France has relied heavily on the development of nuclear power, which now accounts for about 80% of the country's electricity production.

According to the [[OECD]] in 2018, France was the most heavily-taxed wealthy country in the world.<ref>Hannon, Paul (December 5, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/france-becomes-the-worlds-most-heavily-taxed-country-1544004004 France Tops OECD Table as Most Taxed Country]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 5, 2018. See also:
*[https://www.wsj.com/articles/all-the-taxes-in-france-1544226179 All the Taxes in France]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. December 7, 2018. Retrieved December 8, 2018.</ref>

=== Economic History ===

In 1960, France was the fifth-largest economy, with a GDP of $60 billion. It was behind the United States, the Soviet Union, Germany, and the United Kingdom. In 1965, France surpassed the United Kingdom's economy, with a GDP of $102.5 billion, getting to fourth! In 1970, France got bumped by the booming Japanese economy to fifth, with a GDP of $150 billion. In 1975, France had a $350 billion GDP; in 1980, it had a $700 billion GDP; in 1985, it had a $555 billion GDP; and in 1990, it had a $1.275 trillion GDP. In all these years, France stayed at fifth place. But, in 1995, the Russian economy collapsed, and France went to fourth place again, with a GDP of $1.6 trillion! Anyways, in 2000, France went to $1.333 trillion, and went back to fifth place, this time being surpassed by the United Kingdom. In 2005, the French economy went to $2.2 trillion, but was down at sixth place, mostly due to China's economic explosion. In 2010, France went to $2.55 trillion, again surpassing the UK, but this time, being in fifth place. In 2015, the UK again surpassed the $2.425 trillion French economy, which was now in sixth place. In 2020, the booming Indian economy got France, then, despite going to $2.75 trillion, France was in a record-low: seventh place.

===Trade===

[[Image:French-Perfume.jpg|right|280px]]
France is the second-largest trading nation in Western Europe (after Germany). France ran a $33.7 billion deficit in 2006. Total trade for 2006 amounted to $1,013.5 billion, over 45% of GDP 75.0% of which was with EU-24 countries. In 2003, U.S.-France trade in goods and services totaled $80.3 billion. U.S. industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronic components, telecommunications, computer software, computers and peripherals, analytical and scientific instrumentation, medical instruments and supplies, broadcasting equipment, and programming and franchising are particularly attractive to French importers. Total French trade of goods and services was $1,001 billion in 2006.

Principal French exports to the United States are [[aircraft]] and [[engine]]s, beverages, electrical equipment, chemicals, cosmetics, and luxury products. France is the ninth-largest trading partner of the United States. France, as an U.S. ally, continues to trade with the United States.

===Agriculture===

[[File:Basque Country France.jpg|left|200px]]
France is the world's second-largest agricultural producer, after the United States. However, the destination of 70% of its exports is other EU member states. Wheat, beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products are the principal exports. The United States, although the second-largest exporter to France, faces stiff competition from domestic production, other EU member states, and third countries. U.S. agricultural exports to France, totaling $464 million in 2003, consist primarily of soybeans and products, feeds and fodders, seafood, and consumer oriented products, especially snack foods and nuts. French agricultural exports to the United States are mainly cheese, processed products, and wine. They amount to about $3.327 billion (2006) annually.

France accounts for about one-third of all agricultural land within the EU. Northern France is characterized by large wheat farms. Dairy products, pork, poultry, and apple production are concentrated in the western region. Beef production is located in central France, while the production of fruits, vegetables, and wine ranges from central to southern France. France is a large producer of many agricultural products and is expanding its forestry and fishery industries. The implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Uruguay Round of the GATT Agreement resulted in reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy. Continued revision of the CAP and reforms agreed under the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) will further change French agriculture. France remains Europe's strongest opponent of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and often assumes an agricultural position at the EU Council to promote this policy.

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of French Masterpieces]]
*[[Famous French paintings]]
*[[French Still Life Painting]]
*[[French terms]]
* [[Nuclear target structures]]
*[[Libyan uprising 2011]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)|http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3842.htm}}

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Australian economy

2020-12-07T12:49:45Z

United States: adding delete request: it is already in the Australia article!

{{outdated|2011}} 
{{delete}}
[[Australia]] is a developed country with a capitalist economy. It has a very small population compared to other Western countries like the [[USA]] and the [[UK]] but despite this it is in the top 15 countries by Gross Domestic Product (a measure of wealth of a nation).

==Exports and Imports==
The economy of Australia is very different to that of other developed countries. For example, there is a nearly equal amount of exports compared to imports, which is generally not seen in Western Economies. This is mainly due to the fact that Australia is vast and rich in natural resources, and exports items such as coal, gold, meat, wool, iron ore, wheat and machinery. Australia has maintained trade links with various countries throughout history, but more recently with the economic boom of China and India exports (especially natural resources) have experienced a spike in growth. In 2008, China was 2nd while India was 4th on the Australian exports list, and China was 1st on Australia’s Imports list.

==Strong growth==
Australia’s strong trade market is generally attributed to its 2 decades of continuous growth at above average rates. This is really remarkable after considering the fact that there have been 2 recessions in that time frame (the early 2000s recession and the current recession). Australia is the only western nation that isn’t in recession currently due to the Global Economic crisis. Australia’s GDP reached over $1 trillion in the mid - late 2000’s and this has been the result of the booming trade in some states like Western Australia where the exports account for twice as much value than their imports.

==Businesses==
Businesses are attracted to Australia for a number of factors which include:

* The fact that Australia is the fastest place in the world in which to start a business (according to the World Bank)

* Strategic location in the fast-growing Asia–Pacific region

* Economic and political stability

* And a good and stable financial and legal system.

==Unemployment==
The unemployment rate in Australia is currently 5.5% and despite the global financial crisis, the unemployment rate had never gone over 6%, instead peaking at at only 5.8% in October 2009. This is unlike the US where the unemployment rate went over 10% despite massive stimulus. [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/markets/total-employment-soars-by-35200-amid-consensus-for-10000-australian-bureau-of-statistics/story-e6frg926-1225819149211] [http://www.news.com.au/business/jobless-rate-falls-to-55pc-in-december/story-e6frfm1i-1225819147794]

==Further reading==
* Official Statistics -- [http://www.dfat.gov.au/GEO/fs/aust.pdf]
* General Overview -- [http://www.traveldocs.com/au/economy.htm]
* Detailed overview -- [http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/global_economy.pdf]
* CIA World Factbook -- [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/as.html]

[[Category:Australia]]

Australia

2020-12-07T12:49:20Z

United States: fixing!

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Scott Morrison
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =25,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$52,941 (2020)
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of '''Australia''' is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast facing [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

Politically, Australia shifted towards [[Leftism]] as the result of enacting [[gun control]] in the wake of an isolated mass shooting in 1996, the Port Arthur massacre. In contrast, the [[United States]] has remained more [[conservative]] by rejecting that totalitarian approach urged by the [[liberal media]].

In 2020, [[China]] bullied, and sanctioned, Australia. Australia paid the price, then stood up to China. [[Joe Biden]] is expected to do nothing.

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney Harbour Bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent,<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref> the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 km2). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and two internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre).<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

Water is somewhat scarce and some cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]]. Contrary to that, young earth creation scientists assert that the entire subset animals that are all the Earth's species of kangaroos, wallabies and other similar creatures travelled together to Australia following the Great Flood. It is not known whether they communicated the idea amongst themselves or all went the same way by chance.

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2017 est.): 24.7 million.<ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory—to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy—over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—4.7/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture—3.3%; mining—1.5%; manufacturing—9.8%; retail trade—11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety—6%; construction—9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants are a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders (ATSI). Although evolutionary theorists purport that native Australians arrived more than 40,000 years ago, this view rejects the Biblical account of Noah as historic and is based on the old-earth paradigm. Aborigines arrived in Australia some time after the events at the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons—their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise, most of the "Kanakas"—Polynesians—who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

In 2017, the Australian government adopted measures to conduct extreme vetting of immigrants, particularly Muslims, to ensure that radical Islamists do not enter the country, and it reformed its [[H-1B visa]].<ref>Munro, Neil (April 20, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/04/20/australian-government-adopts-immigration-vetting-guest-worker-reforms/ Australian Gov’t Adopts ‘Extreme Vetting’ for Islamic Migrants, Reforms Foreign Worker Visas]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> In 2018, the government stated it would refuse to sign the UN global migration compact because of its negative effect on Australian [[sovereignty]].<ref>Multiple references:
*Remeikis, Amy (July 24, 2018). [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jul/25/dutton-says-australia-wont-surrender-our-sovereignty-by-signing-un-migration-deal Dutton says Australia won't 'surrender our sovereignty' by signing UN migration deal]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Riordan, Primrose (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/peter-dutton-says-he-will-not-sign-un-agreement-on-migration-in-its-current-form/news-story/953fcb518c3ac46d69f50034f08b0faf Peter Dutton says he will not sign UN agreement on migration ‘in its current form’]. ''The Australian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Kan, Janita (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/australia-will-not-sign-un-global-migration-agreement-in-its-current-form_2603283.html Australia Will Not Sign UN Global Migration Agreement ‘In Its Current Form’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.</ref> In November 2018, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] promised he would reduce immigration levels,<ref>Kent, Simon (November 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2018/11/19/enough-enough-enough-australia-ready-to-slash-migrant-intake/ ‘Enough, Enough, Enough’: Australia Ready to Slash Migrant Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 19, 2018.</ref> and he implemented that promise in March 2019.<ref>Packham, Colin (March 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration-idUSKCN1R10A5 Australia cuts annual immigrant cap, puts key cities off-limits to some]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 30, 2019. See also:
*Kelly, Lidia (October 26, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration/australia-to-settle-more-immigrants-outside-major-cities-idUSKBN1X501K Australia to settle more immigrants outside major cities]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 26, 2019.
*Koziol, Michael (November 22, 2019). [https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/government-wants-half-of-new-refugees-to-be-settled-in-regional-australia-by-2022-20191121-p53ct1.html Government wants half of new refugees to be settled in 'regional' Australia by 2022]. ''The Sydney Morning Herald''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.</ref> Because of Australia's conservative immigration policies, permanent migration in 2019 fell to the lowest level in a decade.<ref>Kent, Simon (September 5, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/09/05/skilled-workers-preferred-permanent-migration-to-australia-falls-to-lowest-level-in-a-decade/ Skilled Workers Preferred: Permanent Migration To Australia Falls to Lowest Level in a Decade]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.</ref> Australia's government advocated for integrating migrants into Australia's culture.<ref>Kent, Simon (December 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/immigration/2019/12/04/australia-wants-migrants-to-speak-english-fully-integrate-and-pledge-allegiance/ Australia Wants Migrants to Speak English, ‘Fully Integrate’ and Pledge Allegiance]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 4, 2019.</ref>

====Illegal immigration====
In 1999, there was a surge in illegal immigration to Australia.<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Stephan (August 28, 2015). [https://ricochet.com/archives/how-australia-stopped-illegal-immigration/ How Australia Stopped Illegal Immigration]. ''Ricochet''. Retrieved August 18, 2016.</ref> The Liberal (the conservative party) prime minister [[John Howard]] cracked down on illegal immigration and by 2002, there was virtually no illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2007, [[Kevin Rudd]] of the Labor party was elected prime minister, and because of his government's lenient immigration policy, the number of illegal immigrants skyrocketed, reaching over 20,000 people and 300 boats in the year 2013 alone.<ref name="Dawson"/> However, the government did not acknowledge that its lax policies were the reason for the growth in illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2013, the Liberal Party was voted back into the government, and again instituted strict (and thus, controversial) policies again, and illegal immigration dropped to virtually zero, with only one boat arriving in 2014, and zero in 2015.<ref name="Dawson"/>

Australia continued enacting additional border security measures which resulted in all forms of migration falling even further by 2018.<ref>Kent, Simon (May 30, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/05/30/toughened-border-security-drives-plunge-in-australias-migration-intake/ Toughened Border Security Drives Plunge in Australia’s Migration Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</ref> Because of its immigration policies, Australia's migration levels reached a 10-year low in 2017.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 13, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/07/13/tougher-border-controls-crash-australias-migrant-numbers-to-10-year-low/ Tougher Border Controls Crash Australia’s Migrant Numbers to 10-Year Low]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 13, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, [[Scott Morrison]], who created the country's tough immigration policy, became prime minister.<ref>Kent, Simon (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/24/hardline-border-security-advocate-scott-morrison-australias-new-pm/ Hardline Border Security Advocate Scott Morrison Australia’s New PM]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref><ref>Pannett, Rachel (August 24, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/scott-morrison-to-be-australias-next-prime-minister-1535080332 Australia Ousts Another Prime Minister as Ruling Party Shifts Right]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref>

In 2019, facing a very thin Liberal Party majority, Australia's parliament undermined the country's tough immigration policies, though foreign countries such as [[Nauru]] took some steps to preserve it.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/nauru-could-thwart-refugee-medical-transfers-to-australia-idUSKCN1Q813G Nauru could thwart refugee medical transfers to Australia]. ''Reuters''. February 19, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2019.</ref> However, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]]'s tough immigration policies helped him win the 2019 federal elections.<ref>Pinkerton, James P. (May 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/19/pinkerton-immigration-curbs-key-to-conservative-victory-in-australia-and-a-lesson-for-trump/ Pinkerton: Immigration Curbs Key to Conservative Victory in Australia and a Lesson for Trump]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</ref> After the election, Australia's government refused to soften the policy.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/07/17/australia-rejects-call-to-open-borders-soften-illegal-immigration-stand/ Australia Rejects Call to Open Borders, Soften Illegal Immigration Stand]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 17, 2019.</ref> It also succeeded in repealing some of the weakened policies pushed by Parliament earlier in the year.<ref>Packham, Colin (December 3, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/australia-restricts-medical-transfer-of-refugees-from-pacific-camps-idUSKBN1Y8058 Australia restricts medical transfer of refugees from Pacific camps]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</ref>

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four—of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.
(Requires mathematic correction)
According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services.<ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref> See also: [[Irreligion in Australia]]
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The [[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[Formula One]], [[V8 Supercars]], [[netball]] and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen at betting on horse races, with the Melbourne Cup<ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states and new teams from each have seen an increase in interest.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

====Gun control====
In response to the 1996 Port Arthur massacre in which 35 people were killed (23 wounded) by a gunman, Australia introduced strict gun control laws. Due to bipartisan support the laws were quickly passed and a "gun buy-back" scheme was imposed, gun owners were forced to surrender their guns to the government in exchange for monetary compensation. As there is little to no "gun culture" in Australia, these measures were widely accepted and even welcomed. Since 1997 both the homicide rate and gun death rate in Australia have fallen dramatically. {{cn}}

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the Prime Minister of Australia. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison who is the leader of the Liberal Party (a right-leaning political party).

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref>[http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power (since the 2013 Federal Election) is the Liberal National Party Coalition. The Labor Party is also in government in Queensland and South Australia and ACT. NSW, Tasmania and the Northern Territory are governed by conservatives . The Prime Minister is the Liberal, Malcolm Turnbull.

Conservative Queensland politician and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectively represented by the major parties. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—[[Queen Elizabeth II]]
*Governor General—David Hurley
*Prime Minister—[[Scott Morrison]]
*Deputy Prime Minister—Michael McCormack
*Treasurer—Josh Frydenberg
*President of the Senate—Scott Ryan
*Leader of the Government (Senate)—Mathias Cormann
*Manager of Government Business (Senate)—Anne Ruston
*Leader of the Opposition (Senate)—Penny Wong
*Manager of Opposition Business (Senate)—Katy Gallagher
*Speaker of the House of Representatives—Tony Smith
*Leader of the House of Representatives—Christian Porter
*Manager of Opposition Business (House)—Tony Burke
*Chief Justice—Susan Kiefel

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia's troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea—it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States—Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group—countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations—and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018—and 2.2% annual real growth beyond—to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia's long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia's submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army's armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]
For more see: [[Australian economy]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets—Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers—China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (May 2011): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

Australia is a developed country with a capitalist economy. It has a very small population compared to other Western countries like the [[USA]] and the [[UK]] but despite this it is in the top 15 countries by Gross Domestic Product (a measure of wealth of a nation).

===Exports and Imports===
The economy of Australia is very different to that of other developed countries. For example, there is a nearly equal amount of exports compared to imports, which is generally not seen in Western Economies. This is mainly due to the fact that Australia is vast and rich in natural resources, and exports items such as coal, gold, meat, wool, iron ore, wheat and machinery. Australia has maintained trade links with various countries throughout history, but more recently with the economic boom of China and India exports (especially natural resources) have experienced a spike in growth. In 2008, China was 2nd while India was 4th on the Australian exports list, and China was 1st on Australia’s Imports list.

===Strong growth===
Australia’s strong trade market is generally attributed to its 2 decades of continuous growth at above average rates. This is really remarkable after considering the fact that there have been 2 recessions in that time frame (the early 2000s recession and the current recession). Australia is the only western nation that isn’t in recession currently due to the Global Economic crisis. Australia’s GDP reached over $1 trillion in the mid - late 2000’s and this has been the result of the booming trade in some states like Western Australia where the exports account for twice as much value than their imports.

===Businesses===
Businesses are attracted to Australia for a number of factors which include:

* The fact that Australia is the fastest place in the world in which to start a business (according to the World Bank)

* Strategic location in the fast-growing Asia–Pacific region

* Economic and political stability

* And a good and stable financial and legal system.

===Unemployment===
The unemployment rate in Australia is currently 5.5% and despite the global financial crisis, the unemployment rate had never gone over 6%, instead peaking at at only 5.8% in October 2009. This is unlike the US where the unemployment rate went over 10% despite massive stimulus. [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/markets/total-employment-soars-by-35200-amid-consensus-for-10000-australian-bureau-of-statistics/story-e6frg926-1225819149211] [http://www.news.com.au/business/jobless-rate-falls-to-55pc-in-december/story-e6frfm1i-1225819147794]

=== Resources ===

Australia has lots of natural resources; they especially have a high number of energy.

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia's energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country's power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref>See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world's largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia's prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia's 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5% of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living there. The great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self-image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref>The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic—a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system—whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==

* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]
* [[Australia, irreligion and obesity]]
*[[Irreligious Australia and alcoholism]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [https://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' (1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Australia

2020-12-07T12:49:06Z

United States: /* Economy */: merging the other page.

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Scott Morrison
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =25,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$52,941 (2020)
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of '''Australia''' is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast facing [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

Politically, Australia shifted towards [[Leftism]] as the result of enacting [[gun control]] in the wake of an isolated mass shooting in 1996, the Port Arthur massacre. In contrast, the [[United States]] has remained more [[conservative]] by rejecting that totalitarian approach urged by the [[liberal media]].

In 2020, [[China]] bullied, and sanctioned, Australia. Australia paid the price, then stood up to China. [[Joe Biden]] is expected to do nothing.

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney Harbour Bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent,<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref> the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 km2). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and two internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre).<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

Water is somewhat scarce and some cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]]. Contrary to that, young earth creation scientists assert that the entire subset animals that are all the Earth's species of kangaroos, wallabies and other similar creatures travelled together to Australia following the Great Flood. It is not known whether they communicated the idea amongst themselves or all went the same way by chance.

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2017 est.): 24.7 million.<ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory—to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy—over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—4.7/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture—3.3%; mining—1.5%; manufacturing—9.8%; retail trade—11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety—6%; construction—9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants are a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders (ATSI). Although evolutionary theorists purport that native Australians arrived more than 40,000 years ago, this view rejects the Biblical account of Noah as historic and is based on the old-earth paradigm. Aborigines arrived in Australia some time after the events at the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons—their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise, most of the "Kanakas"—Polynesians—who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

In 2017, the Australian government adopted measures to conduct extreme vetting of immigrants, particularly Muslims, to ensure that radical Islamists do not enter the country, and it reformed its [[H-1B visa]].<ref>Munro, Neil (April 20, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/04/20/australian-government-adopts-immigration-vetting-guest-worker-reforms/ Australian Gov’t Adopts ‘Extreme Vetting’ for Islamic Migrants, Reforms Foreign Worker Visas]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> In 2018, the government stated it would refuse to sign the UN global migration compact because of its negative effect on Australian [[sovereignty]].<ref>Multiple references:
*Remeikis, Amy (July 24, 2018). [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jul/25/dutton-says-australia-wont-surrender-our-sovereignty-by-signing-un-migration-deal Dutton says Australia won't 'surrender our sovereignty' by signing UN migration deal]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Riordan, Primrose (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/peter-dutton-says-he-will-not-sign-un-agreement-on-migration-in-its-current-form/news-story/953fcb518c3ac46d69f50034f08b0faf Peter Dutton says he will not sign UN agreement on migration ‘in its current form’]. ''The Australian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Kan, Janita (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/australia-will-not-sign-un-global-migration-agreement-in-its-current-form_2603283.html Australia Will Not Sign UN Global Migration Agreement ‘In Its Current Form’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.</ref> In November 2018, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] promised he would reduce immigration levels,<ref>Kent, Simon (November 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2018/11/19/enough-enough-enough-australia-ready-to-slash-migrant-intake/ ‘Enough, Enough, Enough’: Australia Ready to Slash Migrant Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 19, 2018.</ref> and he implemented that promise in March 2019.<ref>Packham, Colin (March 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration-idUSKCN1R10A5 Australia cuts annual immigrant cap, puts key cities off-limits to some]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 30, 2019. See also:
*Kelly, Lidia (October 26, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-politics-immigration/australia-to-settle-more-immigrants-outside-major-cities-idUSKBN1X501K Australia to settle more immigrants outside major cities]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 26, 2019.
*Koziol, Michael (November 22, 2019). [https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/government-wants-half-of-new-refugees-to-be-settled-in-regional-australia-by-2022-20191121-p53ct1.html Government wants half of new refugees to be settled in 'regional' Australia by 2022]. ''The Sydney Morning Herald''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.</ref> Because of Australia's conservative immigration policies, permanent migration in 2019 fell to the lowest level in a decade.<ref>Kent, Simon (September 5, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/09/05/skilled-workers-preferred-permanent-migration-to-australia-falls-to-lowest-level-in-a-decade/ Skilled Workers Preferred: Permanent Migration To Australia Falls to Lowest Level in a Decade]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.</ref> Australia's government advocated for integrating migrants into Australia's culture.<ref>Kent, Simon (December 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/immigration/2019/12/04/australia-wants-migrants-to-speak-english-fully-integrate-and-pledge-allegiance/ Australia Wants Migrants to Speak English, ‘Fully Integrate’ and Pledge Allegiance]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 4, 2019.</ref>

====Illegal immigration====
In 1999, there was a surge in illegal immigration to Australia.<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Stephan (August 28, 2015). [https://ricochet.com/archives/how-australia-stopped-illegal-immigration/ How Australia Stopped Illegal Immigration]. ''Ricochet''. Retrieved August 18, 2016.</ref> The Liberal (the conservative party) prime minister [[John Howard]] cracked down on illegal immigration and by 2002, there was virtually no illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2007, [[Kevin Rudd]] of the Labor party was elected prime minister, and because of his government's lenient immigration policy, the number of illegal immigrants skyrocketed, reaching over 20,000 people and 300 boats in the year 2013 alone.<ref name="Dawson"/> However, the government did not acknowledge that its lax policies were the reason for the growth in illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2013, the Liberal Party was voted back into the government, and again instituted strict (and thus, controversial) policies again, and illegal immigration dropped to virtually zero, with only one boat arriving in 2014, and zero in 2015.<ref name="Dawson"/>

Australia continued enacting additional border security measures which resulted in all forms of migration falling even further by 2018.<ref>Kent, Simon (May 30, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/05/30/toughened-border-security-drives-plunge-in-australias-migration-intake/ Toughened Border Security Drives Plunge in Australia’s Migration Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</ref> Because of its immigration policies, Australia's migration levels reached a 10-year low in 2017.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 13, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/07/13/tougher-border-controls-crash-australias-migrant-numbers-to-10-year-low/ Tougher Border Controls Crash Australia’s Migrant Numbers to 10-Year Low]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 13, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, [[Scott Morrison]], who created the country's tough immigration policy, became prime minister.<ref>Kent, Simon (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/24/hardline-border-security-advocate-scott-morrison-australias-new-pm/ Hardline Border Security Advocate Scott Morrison Australia’s New PM]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref><ref>Pannett, Rachel (August 24, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/scott-morrison-to-be-australias-next-prime-minister-1535080332 Australia Ousts Another Prime Minister as Ruling Party Shifts Right]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref>

In 2019, facing a very thin Liberal Party majority, Australia's parliament undermined the country's tough immigration policies, though foreign countries such as [[Nauru]] took some steps to preserve it.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/nauru-could-thwart-refugee-medical-transfers-to-australia-idUSKCN1Q813G Nauru could thwart refugee medical transfers to Australia]. ''Reuters''. February 19, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2019.</ref> However, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]]'s tough immigration policies helped him win the 2019 federal elections.<ref>Pinkerton, James P. (May 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/19/pinkerton-immigration-curbs-key-to-conservative-victory-in-australia-and-a-lesson-for-trump/ Pinkerton: Immigration Curbs Key to Conservative Victory in Australia and a Lesson for Trump]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</ref> After the election, Australia's government refused to soften the policy.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/07/17/australia-rejects-call-to-open-borders-soften-illegal-immigration-stand/ Australia Rejects Call to Open Borders, Soften Illegal Immigration Stand]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 17, 2019.</ref> It also succeeded in repealing some of the weakened policies pushed by Parliament earlier in the year.<ref>Packham, Colin (December 3, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-immigration/australia-restricts-medical-transfer-of-refugees-from-pacific-camps-idUSKBN1Y8058 Australia restricts medical transfer of refugees from Pacific camps]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</ref>

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four—of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.
(Requires mathematic correction)
According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services.<ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref> See also: [[Irreligion in Australia]]
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The [[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[Formula One]], [[V8 Supercars]], [[netball]] and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen at betting on horse races, with the Melbourne Cup<ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states and new teams from each have seen an increase in interest.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

====Gun control====
In response to the 1996 Port Arthur massacre in which 35 people were killed (23 wounded) by a gunman, Australia introduced strict gun control laws. Due to bipartisan support the laws were quickly passed and a "gun buy-back" scheme was imposed, gun owners were forced to surrender their guns to the government in exchange for monetary compensation. As there is little to no "gun culture" in Australia, these measures were widely accepted and even welcomed. Since 1997 both the homicide rate and gun death rate in Australia have fallen dramatically. {{cn}}

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the Prime Minister of Australia. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison who is the leader of the Liberal Party (a right-leaning political party).

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref>[http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power (since the 2013 Federal Election) is the Liberal National Party Coalition. The Labor Party is also in government in Queensland and South Australia and ACT. NSW, Tasmania and the Northern Territory are governed by conservatives . The Prime Minister is the Liberal, Malcolm Turnbull.

Conservative Queensland politician and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectively represented by the major parties. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—[[Queen Elizabeth II]]
*Governor General—David Hurley
*Prime Minister—[[Scott Morrison]]
*Deputy Prime Minister—Michael McCormack
*Treasurer—Josh Frydenberg
*President of the Senate—Scott Ryan
*Leader of the Government (Senate)—Mathias Cormann
*Manager of Government Business (Senate)—Anne Ruston
*Leader of the Opposition (Senate)—Penny Wong
*Manager of Opposition Business (Senate)—Katy Gallagher
*Speaker of the House of Representatives—Tony Smith
*Leader of the House of Representatives—Christian Porter
*Manager of Opposition Business (House)—Tony Burke
*Chief Justice—Susan Kiefel

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia's troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea—it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States—Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group—countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations—and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018—and 2.2% annual real growth beyond—to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia's long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia's submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army's armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]
For more see: [[Australian economy]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets—Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers—China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (May 2011): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

[[Australia]] is a developed country with a capitalist economy. It has a very small population compared to other Western countries like the [[USA]] and the [[UK]] but despite this it is in the top 15 countries by Gross Domestic Product (a measure of wealth of a nation).

===Exports and Imports===
The economy of Australia is very different to that of other developed countries. For example, there is a nearly equal amount of exports compared to imports, which is generally not seen in Western Economies. This is mainly due to the fact that Australia is vast and rich in natural resources, and exports items such as coal, gold, meat, wool, iron ore, wheat and machinery. Australia has maintained trade links with various countries throughout history, but more recently with the economic boom of China and India exports (especially natural resources) have experienced a spike in growth. In 2008, China was 2nd while India was 4th on the Australian exports list, and China was 1st on Australia’s Imports list.

===Strong growth===
Australia’s strong trade market is generally attributed to its 2 decades of continuous growth at above average rates. This is really remarkable after considering the fact that there have been 2 recessions in that time frame (the early 2000s recession and the current recession). Australia is the only western nation that isn’t in recession currently due to the Global Economic crisis. Australia’s GDP reached over $1 trillion in the mid - late 2000’s and this has been the result of the booming trade in some states like Western Australia where the exports account for twice as much value than their imports.

===Businesses===
Businesses are attracted to Australia for a number of factors which include:

* The fact that Australia is the fastest place in the world in which to start a business (according to the World Bank)

* Strategic location in the fast-growing Asia–Pacific region

* Economic and political stability

* And a good and stable financial and legal system.

===Unemployment===
The unemployment rate in Australia is currently 5.5% and despite the global financial crisis, the unemployment rate had never gone over 6%, instead peaking at at only 5.8% in October 2009. This is unlike the US where the unemployment rate went over 10% despite massive stimulus. [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/markets/total-employment-soars-by-35200-amid-consensus-for-10000-australian-bureau-of-statistics/story-e6frg926-1225819149211] [http://www.news.com.au/business/jobless-rate-falls-to-55pc-in-december/story-e6frfm1i-1225819147794]

=== Resources ===

Australia has lots of natural resources; they especially have a high number of energy.

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia's energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country's power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref>See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world's largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia's prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia's 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5% of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living there. The great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self-image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref>The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic—a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system—whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==

* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]
* [[Australia, irreligion and obesity]]
*[[Irreligious Australia and alcoholism]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [https://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' (1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Conservapedia:AFD Economy of India

2020-12-07T12:46:28Z

United States: adding deletion request :)

I think it should be deleted; all the content of the page is in the Economy heading in the page [[India]]. Thanks! --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 07:46, 7 December 2020 (EST)

Afghanistan

2020-12-07T12:44:34Z

United States: fixing!

{{country
|map=Txu-oclc-310605662-afghanistan rel 2008.jpg
|map2=Afghanistan location.png
|flag=Flag of Afghanistan.jpg
|capital=Kabul
|government=Islamic republic
|language=Dari, Pashto
|monarch=
|president=Ashraf Ghani
|chancellor=
|pm=
|area=652,230 sq. mi.
|pop=39,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp-year=$27.36 billion
|gdp-pc=
|currency=afghani
|idd=+93
|tld=.af
}}
'''Afghanistan''' ([[Pashto]]/[[Dari]]: افغانستان), officially the '''Islamic Republic of Afghanistan''',<ref>http://www.president.gov.af/</ref> is a landlocked country in [[South Asia]] which borders [[Pakistan]] to the south and east and [[Iran]] to the west. Afghanistan was the scene of the defeat of the [[Soviet Union]] in the [[Soviet-Afghan war]] of 1979–1988. In the 1990s an extremist Islamic [[Taliban]] movement took control and allowed Osama bin-Laden and his Al-Qaeda to operate there and plan the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the U.S. An international invasion led by the U.S. overthrew the Taliban in 2001, but they have rebuilt strongholds in the south, along the Pakistan border, and have escalated the insurgency.

Elections for a new government held in summer 2009 were clouded by serious charges of irregularity. In September 2009 the issue was whether to expand the American military presence to engage in more nation building.

In Aug. 2009, General [[Stanley A. McChrystal]], the top U.S. and NATO commander in Afghanistan, said the Afghan government was riddled with corruption and NATO was being undermined by tactics that alienate civilians. He called the Taliban insurgency "a muscular and sophisticated enemy" that uses modern propaganda and systematically reaches into Afghanistan's prisons to recruit members and even plan operations. He said official corruption is as much of a threat as the insurgency to the mission of the '''International Security Assistance Force''', or ISAF, as the U.S.-led NATO coalition is widely known. The weakness of state institutions, malign actions of power-brokers, widespread corruption and abuse of power by various officials, and ISAF's own errors, have given Afghans little reason to support their government," McChrystal reported.

McChrystal told Washington that he urgently needs more forces within the next year; without them, he warned, the eight-year conflict "will likely result in failure." By November no decision had been made on the urgent request.<ref>Bob Woodward, "McChrystal: More Forces or 'Mission Failure'' [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/20/AR2009092002920.html ''Washington Post,'' Sept 21, 2009]</ref>

For recent American and NATO involvement see [[Afghanistan War]].

The 2009 presidential election was badly tainted by fraud. Former foreign minister Abdullah Abdullah, the main opponent of President [[Hamid Karzai]], pulled out of the runoff in November, and Karzai was declared reelected for another five-year term. His legitimacy and support was seriously weakened by the election frauds, but the U.S., [[NATO]], and the [[United Nations|UN]] have agreed to keep him in power. Since 2014 Afghanistan is ruled by [[Ashraf Ghani]].

== Weaknesses ==
The pro-Karzai Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazara Shiites and Uzbeks that form the ruling coalition are not united, and the government they dominate is extremely weak and poverty-stricken. The Afghan government controls only 30% of the country. The country is resource-poor—there is no oil—and the only rich resource is opium poppies. There is no educated base for a competent bureaucracy, and the army is little more than an amateur collection of tribal militias. 90% of the soldiers are illiterate, making them very hard to train to modern standards.
[[File:Destroyed village Afghanistan.jpg|right|280px]]
The rebels in the southern provinces come from the Pashtuns tribes, which form 44% of the population. Only a minority of Pashtuns support the rebels. The Taliban have a significant presence in many Pashtun villages, as well as a sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan. The number of armed insurgents has grown from 3,000 in 2006 to 15,000- 20,000 in 2009. They are locals who know the hiding places in the extremely difficult terrain, and receive protection support from some Pashtun tribes.

The Afghans have a 2500-year tradition of strongly distrusting—and fighting—armed outsiders.

Since 1978, Afghanistan has experienced an unprecedented demographic catastrophe, with millions killed, wounded, or displaced. The Soviet invasion and occupation slaughtered 1,750,000 Afghans (from a range of 1.5-2 million killed).<ref>“Communism in Afghanistan,” in Stephane Courtois, ed., The Black Book of Communism,
(Harvard University Press, 1999), p725</ref><ref>http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Afghanistan</ref> This is surely conservative when one considers all those killed by the Afghan Communists from 1978 to 1992. The subsequent civil wars (89-92 and 92-96) resulted in the deaths of another 400,000 Afghans (according to the Christian Science Monitor), with at least 50,000 killed in Kabul alone.<ref>http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Afghanistan</ref> The Taliban seized power in 1996, and subsequently slaughtered hundreds of thousands. According to UNICEF figures, in 5 years of Taliban rule, over 600,000 Afghans died just from Taliban restrictions on access to healthcare for women (120,000 per year).<ref>New York Times, February 1, 2002</ref> The Taliban also executed tens of thousands throughout the country, and caused potentially scores of thousands of deaths through refusal to allow foreign aid and through miscellaneous "excess deaths." In all, the Taliban was likely responsible for over 750,000 deaths (150,000 per year) on top of nearly half a million in the civil war. The turmoil in Afghanistan from 1978 to 2001 killed nearly 3,000,000 Afghans, with 5,000,000 displaced.

== Geography ==
The country is known for its mountainous terrain. The huge Hindu Kush mountains form a barrier between the Northern provinces and the rest of the country. This mountain range has also divided Afghanistan int three very different geographic regions known as; The Central Highlands, The Northern Plains, and the Southwestern Plateau. The altitude, climate, and soil conditions in Afghanistan varies greatly on where in the country you are. [http://www.afghan-web.com/geography/lr.html]

== People ==
[[File:Afghan girls.jpg|right|240px]]
Afghanistan's ethnically and linguistically mixed population reflects its location astride historic trade and invasion routes leading from Central Asia into South and Southwest Asia. While population data is somewhat unreliable for Afghanistan, Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group at 38-44% of the population, followed by Tajiks (25%), Hazaras (10%), Uzbek (6-8%), Aimaq, Turkmen, Baluch, and other small groups. Dari (Afghan Farsi) and Pashto are official languages. Dari is spoken by more than one-third of the population as a first language and serves as a lingua franca for most Afghans, though Pashto is spoken throughout the Pashtun areas of eastern and southern Afghanistan. Tajik and Turkic languages are spoken widely in the north. Smaller groups throughout the country also speak more than 70 other languages and numerous dialects.

Afghanistan is an Islamic country. An estimated 80% of the population is Sunni, following the Hanafi school of jurisprudence; the remainder of the population—and primarily the Hazara ethnic group—predominantly Shi'a. Despite attempts during the years of communist rule to secularize Afghan society, Islamic practices pervade all aspects of life. In fact, Islam served as a principal basis for expressing opposition to communism and the Soviet invasion. Islamic religious tradition and codes, together with traditional tribal and ethnic practices, have an important role in personal conduct and dispute settlement. Afghan society is largely based on kinship groups, which follow traditional customs and religious practices, though somewhat less so in urban areas.

== Government and Political Conditions ==
[[File:Inauguration of President Hamid Karzai Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Inauguration of former President Hamid Karzai, Dec. 7, 2004.]]
On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan held its first national democratic presidential election. More than 8 million Afghans voted, 41% of whom were women. Hamid Karzai was the winner and was inaugurated on December 7 for a five-year term as Afghanistan's first democratically elected president.

An election was held on September 18, 2005 for the “Wolesi Jirga” (lower house) of Afghanistan's new bicameral National Assembly and for the country's 34 provincial councils. Turnout for the election was about 53% of the 12.5 million registered voters. The first democratically elected National Assembly since 1969 was inaugurated on December 19, 2005.

The government's authority is weak; its ability to deliver necessary social services remains largely dependent on funds from the international donor community. Between 2001 and 2006, the United States committed over $12 billion to the reconstruction of Afghanistan. At an international donors' conference in Berlin in April 2004, donors pledged a total of $8.2 billion for Afghan reconstruction over the three-year period 2004–2007. At the end of January 2006, the international community gathered in London and renewed its political and reconstruction support for Afghanistan in the form of the Afghanistan Compact.

With international community support, including more than 40 countries participating in Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the government's capacity to secure Afghanistan's borders to maintain internal order is increasing. Responsibility for security for all of Afghanistan was transferred to ISAF in October 2006. As of November 2006, some 40,000 Afghan National Army (ANA) soldiers had been trained along with some 60,000 police, including border and highway police. American observers give them low marks for competence and loyalty to the national government.

A program called "Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration" (DDR) has also helped to further establish the authority of the Afghan central government by disarming 63,000 tribal militia by June 2006. A follow-on program targeting illegal militias, the Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups (DIAG), was begun in 2005, under the joint auspices of Japan and the United Nations. The DIAG program is still ongoing.

In 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] was elected as new president of Afghanistan.

=== Principal Government Officials ===
*President--[[Ashraf Ghani]]
*First Vice President—Abdul Rashid Dostum
*Second Vice President—Sarwar Danesh
*Chief Executive Officer—Abdullah Abdullah
*Speaker of the House of Elders—Fazel Hadi Muslimyar
*First Deputy Speaker—Mohammad Alam Izdyar
*Second Deputy Speaker—Mohammad Asif Sediqi
*Speaker of the House of the People—Mir Rahman Rahmani
*First Deputy Speakers—Amir Khan Yar and Ahmad Shah Ramazan
*Secretary—Mirdad Khan Nejrabi
*Deputy Secretary—Irfanullah Irfan

=== Foreign Relations ===
[[File:Afghan RCD.gif|right]]
Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Most Western countries, including the United States, maintained small diplomatic missions in Kabul during the Soviet occupation. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy Afghanistan's seat at the UN and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) were unsuccessful.

The fall of the Taliban in October 2001 opened a new chapter in Afghanistan's foreign relations. Afghanistan is now an active member of the international community, and has diplomatic relations with countries from around the world. In December 2002, the six nations that border Afghanistan signed a ‘Good Neighbor' Declaration, in which they pledged to respect Afghanistan's independence and territorial integrity. In 2005 Afghanistan and its South Asia neighbors held the first annual Regional Economic Cooperation Conference (RECC) promoting intra-regional relations and economic cooperation.

==== Pakistan ====
The 1978 Marxist coup strained relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan initially developed close ties to the Taliban regime, and extended recognition in 1997. Pakistan dramatically altered its policy after September 11, 2001 by closing its border and downgrading its ties. Afghanistan and Pakistan are engaged in dialogue to resolve these bilateral issues.

====Iran====
Afghanistan's relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention. Following the Soviet invasion, which Iran opposed, relations deteriorated. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Iran still provides refuge to Afghan ex-patriots. Following the emergence of the Taliban and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up assistance to the Northern Alliance. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in Mazar-e-Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats. Since the fall of the Taliban, Afghanistan's relations with Iran have improved. Iran has been active in Afghan reconstruction efforts, particularly in the western portion of the country.

====Russia====
During the reign of the Taliban, Russia became increasingly disenchanted over Taliban support for Chechen rebels and for providing a sanctuary for terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself, and therefore provided military assistance to the Northern Alliance. Since the fall of the Taliban, the Karzai government has improved relations with Russia, but Afghanistan's outstanding foreign debt to Russia still continues to be a source of contention.

====Tajikistan====
Afghanistan's relations with Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Also disenchanted by the Taliban's harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. The Karzai government has sought to establish closer ties with its northern neighbor in order to capitalize on the potential economic benefits of increased trade.

====UN Efforts====
The United Nations was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the 1988 Geneva Accords. In the aftermath of the Accords, the United Nations assisted in the repatriation of refugees and provided humanitarian aid such as food, health care, educational programs, and support for mine-clearing operations. From 1990 to 2001, the UN worked to promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid. Since October 2001, the UN has played a key role in Afghanistan through the UN Assistance Mission to Afghanistan (UNAMA), including spearheading efforts to organize the Afghan presidential elections held in October 2004 and National Assembly elections held in 2005.

===Relations with the United States===
The first extensive American contact with Afghanistan was made by Josiah Harlan, an adventurer from Pennsylvania who was an adviser in Afghan politics in the 1830s and reputedly inspired Rudyard Kipling's story "The Man Who Would be King." After the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1934, the U.S. policy of helping developing nations raise their standard of living was an important factor in maintaining and improving U.S.-Afghan ties. From 1950 to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500 million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government administration.

In the 1950s, the U.S. declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure—roads, dams, and power plants. Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979.
[[File:MI-35 helicopters Afghan Army Air Corps.jpg|thumb|270px|MI-35 helicopters Afghan Army Air Corps.]]
After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph "Spike" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnapers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the December 1979 Soviet invasion.

Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed to increase Afghan self-sufficiency and help Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and economic assistance to Afghans and the resistance movement.

The U.S. supports the emergence of a broad-based government, representative of all Afghans and actively encourages a UN role in the national reconciliation process in Afghanistan. Today, the U.S. is assisting the Afghan people as they rebuild their country and establish a representative government that contributes to regional stability, is market friendly, and respects human rights. In May 2005, President Bush and President Karzai concluded a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship.

==Economy==
In the 1930s, Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program. The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent students abroad for education.

Historically, there has been a dearth of information and reliable statistics about Afghanistan's economy. The 1979 Soviet invasion and ensuing civil war destroyed much of the country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity. Gross domestic product had fallen substantially because of loss of labor and capital and disruption of trade and transport. Continuing internal strife hampered both domestic efforts at reconstruction as well as international aid efforts. However, Afghanistan's economy has grown at a fast pace since the 2001 fall of the Taliban, albeit from a low base. In 2004, Afghanistan's GDP grew 17%, and in 2005 Afghanistan's GDP grew approximately 10%.

In June 2006, Afghanistan and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program for 2006-2009 that focuses on maintaining macroeconomic stability, boosting growth, and reducing poverty. Afghanistan is also rebuilding its banking infrastructure, through the Da Afghanistan National Bank. Several government-owned banks are also in the process of being privatized.

===Agriculture===
The main source of income in the country is agriculture, and during its good years, Afghanistan produces enough food and food products to provide for the people, as well as to create a surplus for export. The major food crops produced are: corn, rice, barley, wheat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. In Afghanistan, industry is also based on agriculture, and pastoral raw materials. The major industrial crops are: cotton, tobacco, madder, castor beans, and sugar beets. The Afghan economy continues to be overwhelmingly agricultural, despite the fact that only 12% of its total land area is arable and less than 6% currently is cultivated. Agricultural production is constrained by an almost total dependence on erratic winter snows and spring rains for water; irrigation is primitive. Relatively little use is made of machines, chemical fertilizer, or pesticides.

Overall agricultural production dramatically declined following severe drought as well as sustained fighting, instability in rural areas, and deteriorated infrastructure. The easing of the drought and the end of civil war produced the largest wheat harvest in 25 years during 2003. Wheat production was an estimated 58% higher than in 2002. However, the country still needed to import an estimated one million tons of wheat to meet its requirements for the 2003 year. Millions of Afghans, particularly in rural areas, remained dependent on food aid.
[[File:Afghanistan opium.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Opium cultivation in Afghanistan.]]
Opium has become a source of cash for many Afghans, especially following the breakdown in central authority after the Soviet withdrawal, and opium-derived revenues probably constituted a major source of income for the two main factions during the civil war in the 1990s. Opium is easy to cultivate and transport and offers a quick source of income for impoverished Afghans. Afghanistan produced a record opium poppy crop in 2006, supplying 91% of the world's opium. Much of Afghanistan's opium production is refined into heroin and is either consumed by a growing regional addict population or exported, primarily to Western Europe.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5308180.stm</ref>

Afghanistan has begun counter-narcotics programs, including the promotion of alternative livelihoods, public information campaigns, targeted eradication policies, interdiction of drug shipments, as well as law enforcement and justice reform programs. These programs were first implemented in late 2005. In June 2006, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that the Afghan Government eradicated over 15,000 hectares of opium poppy.
{{Clear}}

===Trade and Industry===
Afghanistan is endowed with natural resources, including extensive deposits of [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barite]]s, [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron ore]], [[salt]], and precious and semiprecious stones. Unfortunately, ongoing instability in certain areas of the country, remote and rugged terrain, and inadequate infrastructure and transportation network have made mining these resources difficult, and there have been few serious attempts to further explore or exploit them. Coal deposits have been widely exploited.

The most important resource has been natural gas, first tapped in 1967. At their peak during the 1980s, natural gas sales accounted for $300 million a year in export revenues (56% of the total). Ninety percent of these exports went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts. However, during the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, Afghanistan's natural gas fields were capped to prevent sabotage by the mujahidin. Restoration of gas production has been hampered by internal strife and the disruption of traditional trading relationships following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Trade in smuggled goods into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, and still figures as an important element in the Afghan economy, although efforts are underway to formalize this trade.

===Transportation===
In the 1960s, the United States helped build a highway connecting Afghanistan's two largest cities. It began in Kabul and wound its way through five of the country's core provinces—skirting scores of isolated and otherwise inaccessible villages; passing through the ancient market city of Ghazni; descending through Qalat; and eventually reaching Kandahar, founded by Alexander the Great. More than 35% of the country's population lives within 50 kilometers of this highway, called, appropriately, modern Afghanistan's lifeline. In 1978, the Soviet Union invaded. By the time its forces withdrew more than a decade later, more than 1 million Afghans had been killed and 5 million had fled. Civil war followed. The Taliban emerged, controlling all but the remote, northern regions. Afghanistan was terrorized by this group, which was dogmatically opposed to progress and democracy. More than two decades of war had left the Kabul-Kandahar highway devastated, like much of the country's infrastructure. Little could move along the lifeline that had provided so many Afghans with their means of livelihood and their access to healthcare, education, markets, and places of worship.

'''Reviving the Road''': Restoration of the highway has been an overriding priority of President Hamid Karzai. It is crucial to extending the influence of the new government. Without the highway link, Afghanistan's civil society and economy would remain moribund and prey to divisive forces. The economic development that the highway makes possible will help guarantee the unity and long-term security of the Afghan people. The restored highway is a visually impressive achievement whose symbolic importance should not be underestimated. It marks a palpable transition from the recent past and represents an important building block for the future. Recently, an official in Herat likened the ring road to veins and arteries that nourish and bring life to the "heart" of Kabul and the body of the country. The highway will not end in Kandahar: there are plans to complete the circuit, extending it to Herat and then arcing it back through Mazar-e Sharif to Kabul. The route is sometimes referred to as the Ring Road. As of December 2006, three-quarters of the Ring Road had been funded, with plans to be completed in 2007.

Landlocked Afghanistan has no functioning railways, but the Amu Darya (Oxus) River, which forms part of Afghanistan's border with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, has barge traffic. During their occupation of the country, the Soviets completed a bridge across the Amu Darya. The United States, in partnership with Norway, has agreed to reconstruct this bridge, which will stretch more than 650 meters over the Amu Darya/Pyandzh River between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, near Pyanji Poyon (Tajikistan) and Shir Khan Bandar (Afghanistan). The bridge is set for completion in 2007.

Afghanistan's national airline, Ariana, operates domestic and international routes, including flights to New Delhi, Islamabad, Dubai, Moscow, Istanbul, Tehran, and Frankfurt. A private carrier, Kam Air, commenced domestic operations in November 2003. Many sections of Afghanistan's highway and regional road system are undergoing significant reconstruction. The U.S. (with assistance from Japan) completed building a highway linking Kabul to the southern regional capital, Kandahar. Construction is soon to begin on the next phase of highway reconstruction between Kandahar and the western city of Herat. The Asian Development Bank is also active in road development projects, mainly in the border areas with Pakistan.

==Humanitarian Relief==
Many nations have assisted in a great variety of humanitarian and development projects all across Afghanistan since the fall of the Taliban in 2001. The United Nations, World Bank, Asian Development Bank and other international agencies have also given aid. Schools, clinics, water systems, agriculture, sanitation, government buildings and roads are being repaired or built.

===De-mining===
Afghanistan is one of the most heavily mined countries in the world; mine-related injuries number up to 100 per month, and an estimated 200,000 Afghans have been disabled by landmine/unexploded ordinances (UXO) accidents. As of March 2005 the United Nations Mine Action Program for Afghanistan had approximately 8,000 Afghan personnel, 700 demobilized soldiers, 22 international staff, and several NGOs deployed in Afghanistan. The goal of the program is to remove the impact of mines from all high-impact areas by 2007 and to make Afghanistan mine-free by 2012. Between January 2003 and March 2005 a total of 2,354,244 mines and pieces of UXOs were destroyed. Training programs are also being used to educate the public about the threat and dangers of land mines. The number of mine victims was reduced from approximately 150 a month in 2002 to less than 100 a month in 2004.

===Refugees and Internally Displaced People===
Afghanistan has had the largest refugee repatriation in the world in the last 30 years. The return of refugees is guided by the Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MORR) and supported by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), International Organization of Migration (IOM), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Program (WFP), the World Health Organization (WHO) and a number of other national and international NGOs. As of December 2006, approximately 3 million Afghans remained in neighboring countries. The U.S. provided more than $350 million to support Afghan refugees, returnees, and other conflict victims between September 2001 and March 2006. Since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the country's non-opium economy has grown significantly and has allowed approximately 3 million people to return home.<ref>http://www.control-risks.com/default.aspx?page=605</ref>

===Health===
In response to a strategy outlined by the Ministry of Health, the international community is supporting the government in rebuilding the primary health-care system. Tuberculosis remains a serious public health problem in Afghanistan. Since this strategy was outlined, the Afghan Government with support from the World Health Organization (WHO) has established 162 health facilities in 141 districts across the country. The treatment success rate in 2002 was 86%. WHO is also assisting the Ministry of Health and local health authorities to combat malaria where the disease is widespread. Through this project, 600,000 individuals are receiving full treatment for malaria every year. In addition 750,000 individuals are protected from malaria by sleeping under special nets provided under the project.

===Education===
There were 45,000 children enrolled in school in 1993, 19% were girls. The latest official statistics show there are now 64,000 children in school, one third are girls. In addition 29% of the teachers in the province are women, compared with 15% in 1993. Effort is being made to ensure that teachers receive salaries on time and increasing the attendance of girls in school. The total enrollment rate for Afghan children between 7 and 13 years of age has increased to 54% (67% for boys and 37% for girls). A number of factors such as distance to schools, poor facilities and lack of separate schooling for boys and girls continue to be challenges to higher enrollment.

==History==
[[File:Friday - Mosque Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|260px|Friday-Mosque.]]
Afghanistan, often called the crossroads of Central Asia, has had a turbulent history. In 328 BC, Alexander the Great entered the territory of present-day Afghanistan, then part of the Persian Empire, to capture Bactria (present-day Balkh). Invasions by the Scythians, White Huns, and Turks followed in succeeding centuries. In AD 642, Arabs invaded the entire region and introduced Islam.

Arab rule gave way to the Persians, who controlled the area until conquered by the Turkic Ghaznavids in 998. Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazni into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into India. Following Mahmud's short-lived dynasty, various princes attempted to rule sections of the country until the destructive Mongol invasion of 1219 led by Genghis Khan.

Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, a succession of petty chiefs and princes struggled for supremacy until late in the 14th century, when one of his descendants, Tamerlane, incorporated Afghanistan into his own vast Asian empire. Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and the founder of India's Moghul dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital of an Afghan principality.

In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of what is known today as Afghanistan, established his rule. A Pashtun, Durrani was elected king by a tribal council after the assassination of the Persian ruler Nadir Shah at Khabushan in the same year. Throughout his reign, Durrani consolidated chieftainships, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.

===European Influence===
During the 19th century, collision between the expanding British Empire in the subcontinent and czarist Russia significantly influenced Afghanistan in what was termed "The Great Game." British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars. The first (1839–42) resulted not only in the destruction of a British army, but is remembered today as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule. The second Anglo-Afghan war (1878–80) was sparked by Amir Sher Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman to the Afghan throne. During his reign (1880-1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan through the demarcation of the Durand Line. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs.

Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, despite German encouragement of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of British India. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, however.

Habibullah, Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in 1919, possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the third Anglo-Afghan war with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 19 as their Independence Day.

===Reform and Reaction===
King Amanullah (1919–29) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and Turkey—during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by Atatürk—introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by Bacha-i-Saqao, a Tajik brigand. Prince Nadir Khan, a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and, with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King Nadir Shah. Four years later, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a Kabul student.

Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a two-chamber legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction headed by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin and supported by elements within the military, and the Parcham (Banner) faction led by Babrak Karmal. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society.

Zahir's cousin, Sardar Mohammad Daoud, served as his Prime Minister from 1953 to 1963. During his tenure as Prime Minister, Daoud solicited military and economic assistance from both Washington and Moscow and introduced controversial social policies of a reformist nature. Daoud's alleged support for the creation of a Pashtun state in the Pakistan-Afghan border area heightened tensions with Pakistan and eventually resulted in Daoud's dismissal in March 1963.

===Daoud's Republic (1973-78) and the April 1978 Coup===
Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime Minister Daoud seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Zahir Shah fled the country, eventually finding refuge in Italy. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.

Seeking to exploit more effectively mounting popular disaffection, the PDPA reunified with Moscow's support. On April 27, 1978, the PDPA initiated a bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of his family. Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.
===Afghanistan War===
see also [[Afghanistan War]]

Opposition to the Marxist government emerged almost immediately. During its first 18 months of rule, the PDPA brutally imposed a Marxist-style "reform" program, which ran counter to deeply rooted Afghan traditions. Decrees forcing changes in marriage customs and pushing through an ill-conceived land reform were particularly misunderstood by virtually all Afghans. In addition, thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia were imprisoned, tortured, or murdered. Conflicts within the PDPA also surfaced early and resulted in exiles, purges, imprisonments, and executions.

By the summer of 1978, a revolt began in the Nuristan region of eastern Afghanistan and quickly spread into a countrywide insurgency. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin, who had earlier been Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, seized power from Taraki after a palace shootout. Over the next 2 months, instability plagued Amin's regime as he moved against perceived enemies in the PDPA. By December, party morale was crumbling, and the insurgency was growing.

===The Soviet Invasion===
The Soviet Union moved quickly to take advantage of the April 1978 coup. In December 1978, Moscow signed a new bilateral treaty of friendship and cooperation with Afghanistan, and the Soviet military assistance program increased significantly. The regime's survival increasingly was dependent upon Soviet military equipment and advisers as the insurgency spread and the Afghan army began to collapse.

By October 1979, however, relations between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union were tense as Hafizullah Amin refused to take Soviet advice on how to stabilize and consolidate his government. Faced with a deteriorating security situation, on December 24, 1979, large numbers of Soviet airborne forces, joining thousands of Soviet troops already on the ground, began to land in Kabul under the pretext of a field exercise. On December 26, these invasion forces killed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction, bringing him back from Czechoslovakia and making him Prime Minister. Massive Soviet ground forces invaded from the north on December 27.

Following the invasion, the Karmal regime, although backed by an expeditionary force that grew as large as 120,000 Soviet troops, was unable to establish authority outside Kabul. As much as 80% of the countryside, including parts of Herat and Kandahar, eluded effective government control. An overwhelming majority of Afghans opposed the communist regime, either actively or passively. Afghan freedom fighters (mujahidin) made it almost impossible for the regime to maintain a system of local government outside major urban centers. Poorly armed at first, in 1984 the mujahidin began receiving substantial assistance in the form of weapons and training from the U.S. and other outside powers.

In May 1985, the seven principal Peshawar-based guerrilla organizations formed an alliance to coordinate their political and military operations against the Soviet occupation. Late in 1985, the mujahidin were active in and around Kabul, launching rocket attacks and conducting operations against the communist government. The failure of the Soviet Union to win over a significant number of Afghan collaborators or to rebuild a viable Afghan army forced it to bear an increasing responsibility for fighting the resistance and for civilian administration.

<blockquote>
In the mid-nineteen-eighties, when [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] came to power in the Soviet Union, he inherited a deteriorating war in Afghanistan. He wanted out but he was boxed in by hardliners in his Politburo and military. Gradually, however, he constructed an exit strategy from Afghanistan. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/stevecoll/2009/09/gorbachev-was-right.html]
</blockquote>

Soviet and popular displeasure with the Karmal regime led to its demise in May 1986. Karmal was replaced by Muhammad Najibullah, former chief of the Afghan secret police (KHAD). Najibullah had established a reputation for brutal efficiency during his tenure as KHAD chief. As Prime Minister, Najibullah was ineffective and highly dependent on Soviet support. Undercut by deep-seated divisions within the PDPA, regime efforts to broaden its base of support proved futile.

===The Geneva Accords and Their Aftermath===
By the mid-1980s, the tenacious Afghan resistance movement—aided by the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others—was exacting a high price from the Soviets, both militarily within Afghanistan and by souring the U.S.S.R.'s relations with much of the Western and Islamic world. Informal negotiations for a Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan had been underway since 1982. In 1988, the Governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan, with the United States and Soviet Union serving as guarantors, signed an agreement settling the major differences between them. The agreement, known as the Geneva accords, included five major documents, which, among other things, called for U.S. and Soviet noninterference in the internal affairs of Pakistan and Afghanistan, the right of refugees to return to Afghanistan without fear of persecution or harassment, and, most importantly, a timetable that ensured full Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989. About 14,500 Soviet and an estimated one million Afghan lives were lost between 1979 and the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.

Significantly, the mujahidin were party neither to the negotiations nor to the 1988 agreement and, consequently, refused to accept the terms of the accords. As a result, the civil war continued after the Soviet withdrawal, which was completed in February 1989. Najibullah's regime, though failing to win popular support, territory, or international recognition, was able to remain in power until 1992 but collapsed after the defection of Gen. Abdul Rashid Dostam and his Uzbek militia in March. However, when the victorious mujahidin entered Kabul to assume control over the city and the central government, a new round of internecine fighting began between the various militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation. With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious, and personality differences surfaced, and the civil war continued.

Seeking to resolve these differences, the leaders of the Peshawar-based mujahidin groups established an interim Islamic Jihad Council in mid-April 1992 to assume power in Kabul. Moderate leader Prof. Sibghatullah Mojaddedi was to chair the council for 2 months, after which a 10-member leadership council composed of mujahidin leaders and presided over by the head of the Jamiat-i-Islami, Prof. Burhanuddin Rabbani, was to be set up for 4 months. During this 6-month period, a Loya Jirga, or grand council of Afghan elders and notables, would convene and designate an interim administration which would hold power up to a year, pending elections.

But in May 1992, Rabbani prematurely formed the leadership council, undermining Mojaddedi's fragile authority. In June, Mojaddedi surrendered power to the Leadership Council, which then elected Rabbani as president. Nonetheless, heavy fighting broke out in August 1992 in Kabul between forces loyal to President Rabbani and rival factions, particularly those who supported Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami. After Rabbani extended his tenure in December 1992, fighting in the capital flared up in January and February 1993. The Islamabad Accord, signed in March 1993, which appointed Hekmatyar as Prime Minister, failed to have a lasting effect. A follow-up agreement, the Jalalabad Accord, called for the militias to be disarmed but was never fully implemented. Through 1993, Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami forces, allied with the Shi'a Hezb-i-Wahdat militia, clashed intermittently with Rabbani and Masood's Jamiat forces. Cooperating with Jamiat were militants of Sayyaf's Ittehad-i-Islami and, periodically, troops loyal to ethnic Uzbek strongman Abdul Rashid Dostam. On January 1, 1994, Dostam switched sides, precipitating large-scale fighting in Kabul and in northern provinces, which caused thousands of civilian casualties in Kabul and elsewhere and created a new wave of displaced persons and refugees. The country sank even further into anarchy, forces loyal to Rabbani and Masood, both ethnic Tajiks, controlled Kabul and much of the northeast, while local warlords exerted power over the rest of the country.

===The Taliban===
The Taliban had risen to power in the mid 90's in reaction to the anarchy and warlordism that arose after the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Many Taliban had been educated in madrassas in Pakistan and were largely from rural southern Pashtun backgrounds. In 1994, the Taliban developed enough strength to capture the city of Kandahar from a local warlord and proceeded to expand its control throughout Afghanistan, occupying Kabul in September 1996. By the end of 1998, the Taliban occupied about 90% of the country, limiting the opposition largely to a small mostly Tajik corner in the northeast and the Panjshir valley.

The Taliban sought to impose an extreme interpretation of Islam—based upon the rural Pashtun tribal code—on the entire country and committed massive human rights violations, particularly directed against women and girls. The Taliban also committed serious atrocities against minority populations, particularly the Shi'a Hazara ethnic group, and killed noncombatants in several well-documented instances. In 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two Buddha statues carved into cliff faces outside of the city of Bamiyan.

From the mid-1990s the Taliban provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national who had fought with the mujahideen resistance against the Soviets, and provide a base for his and other terrorist organizations. Bin Laden provided both financial and political support to the Taliban. Bin Laden and his Al-Qaida group were charged with the bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam in 1998, and in August 1998 the United States launched a cruise missile attack against bin Laden's terrorist camp in southeastern Afghanistan. Bin Laden and Al-Qaida have acknowledged their responsibility for the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States.
[[Image:Afghanistan violence.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Journalist Jenny Hoff, 2007.]]
Following the Taliban's repeated refusal to expel bin Laden and his group and end its support for international terrorism, the U.S. and its partners in the anti-terrorist coalition began a military campaign on October 7, 2001, targeting terrorist facilities and various Taliban military and political assets within Afghanistan. Under pressure from U.S. military and anti-Taliban forces, the Taliban disintegrated rapidly, and Kabul fell on November 13, 2001.

Afghan factions opposed to the Taliban met at a United Nations-sponsored conference in Bonn, Germany in December 2001 and agreed to restore stability and governance to Afghanistan—creating an interim government and establishing a process to move toward a permanent government. Under the "Bonn Agreement," an Afghan Interim Authority was formed and took office in Kabul on December 22, 2001 with Hamid Karzai as Chairman. The Interim Authority held power for approximately 6 months while preparing for a nationwide "Loya Jirga" (Grand Council) in mid-June 2002 that decided on the structure of a Transitional Authority. The Transitional Authority, headed by President Hamid Karzai, renamed the government as the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (TISA). One of the TISA's primary achievements was the drafting of a constitution that was ratified by a Constitutional Loya Jirga on January 4, 2004.

==See also==
* [[Soviet-Afghan War]]
* [[Afghanistan War]]
* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[socialist]] [[Nanny state]], leads to [[communist]] [[Police state]] - Don't think [[Communism]] is incompatible with [[Islam]].
* [[Gun control]] - key element to create a police state
* [[Asian painting]]
{{Clear}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/ Afghanistan Online.]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/09/02/2674562.htm Afghan opium crop in decline.]

==Further reading==
* Jones, Seth. ''In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Graveyard-Empires-Americas-War-Afghanistan/dp/0393068986/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1253093556&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

===America's role in their defeat===

The book ''[[Horse Soldiers]]'' describes the previously secret 5-week campaign, materially aided by the [[CIA]] and [[Special Forces]]. [http://features.csmonitor.com/books/2009/09/08/horse-soldiers/]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm]

{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Afghanistan War]]

{{Terrorism}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Police State]]
[[Category:Gun Control]]
[[Category:Oppression]]

Talk:CreationWiki

2020-12-07T12:42:54Z

United States: reply!

People are always bashing creationists :-(. To be clear, I mean this to compliment DanH on blocking the recent vandalism. -[[User:Phoenix|Phoenix]] 19:22, 10 June 2007 (EDT)

== Problems logging in to CreationWiki ==
::Is there something wrong with that site right now? Everytime I try to go to it I get an "Error: 403 Forbidden" message. Is anyone else having this problem? '''Scorpion'''[[User_Talk:Scorpion|Vote for Pedro]] 22:23, 26 August 2007 (EDT)

:::Per your concern, I just tried to logon. It came up for me. Sometimes sites are down for temporary time periods. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 02:38, 27 August 2007 (EDT)

::That seems to happen a lot, because I can't access it again, only this time it says "Internet Explorer Cannot Display the Webpage". I wonder if it's under attack '''Scorpion'''[[User_Talk:Scorpion|Vote for Pedro]] 14:10, 3 November 2007 (EDT)

:::Be advised that several servers in the CreationWiki server cluster have had a crash today (3 November 2007). Re-installation is required and in progress at this time. The administration of CreationWiki apologizes for the inconvenience.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]][[User talk:TerryH|Talk]] 16:13, 3 November 2007 (EDT)
::::Thanks for the advice. I had logged in there for the first time in a month or two, and it happened after I logged in. No, I'm sure I'm not responsible for the crash! :-) [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 05:04, 4 November 2007 (EST)

Update: The current message is that the servers are "taking too long to respond." That's a slight change from "Unable to connect," a flat-out refusal that occurred in less than one second. This one takes more than a minute. My read: they're getting somewhere, but they're not fully reinstalled yet.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]][[User talk:TerryH|Talk]] 09:00, 4 November 2007 (EST)

Further update: CreationWiki is back on-line, but all changes made since late Friday evening have been lost--and in fact the site seems to have suffered some "retrograde amnesia." That sort of thing is unavoidable when a server cluster suffers multiple crashes since the last backup.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]][[User talk:TerryH|Talk]] 14:53, 4 November 2007 (EST)

Anyone know what happend to it this time? The site has been down for at least the last 2 weeks. [[User:DanCon|DanCon]] 01:24, 19 February 2008 (EST)
: See [[User talk:Scorpion#CreationWiki|here]]. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 03:14, 19 February 2008 (EST)

== Why was this removed? ==

Why was [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=CreationWiki&diff=1290736&oldid=1242041 this] removed? It seems relevant to the article. --[[User:1990'sguy|1990'sguy]] ([[User talk:1990'sguy|talk]]) 21:05, 22 November 2016 (EST)

== Unable to access CreationWiki this period ==

For some days or weeks it seems that CreationWiki is down with the message "Sorry! This site is experiencing technical difficulties." Does anyone know what happened to CreationWiki.org and why is it not accessible for such a long time, was it under some sort of attack or something. It says "Try waiting a few minutes and reloading." but it has been weeks since the problem. -- [[User:Kirkagure]]

:I don't know; I can't access it as well. --[[User:United States|United States]] ([[User talk:United States|talk]]) 07:42, 7 December 2020 (EST)

User:United States

2020-12-07T02:49:23Z

United States: fixing!

{{Userboxtop}}
{{Userbox|navy|white|United States|This is [[User:United States]].}}
{{Userbox|blue|white|1,600+|This user has made over 1,600 edits on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/Special:UserProfile/United_States</ref>}}
{{Userbox|red|white|25+|This user has created over 25 content pages on [[Conservapedia]].<ref>https://conservapedia.com/User:United_States/My_Pages</ref>}}
{{Userbox|white|white|20+|This user has created over 20 redirects on [[Conservapedia]].}}
{{User United States}}
{{User United States Born}}
{{User American}}
{{User Texas}}
{{User Needs Christianity}}
{{User Republican}}
{{User Trump}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User John Cornyn}}
{{User Ted Cruz}}
{{User Gardner}}
{{User McSally}}
{{User Doug Collins}}
{{User Doug Jones}}
{{User patriot}}
{{User parties didn't switch}}
{{User Not Democrat}}
{{User Not the Squad}}
{{User Not Biden}}
{{User Iran Obama}}
{{User Obama acronym}}
{{User Not Obama}}
{{User Not Osama}}
{{User Not Hillary}}
{{User Not Pelosi}}
{{User Not Sanders}}
{{User Not Bloomberg}}
{{User Not Warren}}
{{User CPLeader|[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]]}}
{{User cpoverother}}
{{User Liberal Facist}}
{{User GunControLovedByTotalitarians}}
{{User anti-fake news}}
{{User anti-pot}}
{{User USConstitution}}
{{User male}}
{{User marriage}}
{{User prolife}}
{{User progun}}
{{User noracists}}
{{User Godbigbang}}
{{User environment}}
{{User Soccer1}}
{{Userboxbottom}}

[[File:50 star flag.png|1000px]]

'''United States'''

Hi! I am User:United States! If you want to tell me something, feel free to tell me in my talk page! I reply very often! I will help Conservapedia boom and I am an American patriot!

We should vote for Republicans, in order to avoid Communist China and its leader, Xi Jinping, from taking over the United States and its freedoms.

== Useful Links ==
{{useful links}}

== My Ban in Wikipedia ==
My Wikipedia account, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:World_Population_7,800,000,000, was banned and hacked, for being pro-right. I told the admins not to be biased but to be neutral, and then they called me a far-right racist. Then, they mixed it with mass vandals and lied about it. My IP is banned forever on Wikipedia! That is what happens if you are conservative in a website with a lack of free speech!

== Sandbox ==
[[User:United States/Sandbox]]

== Me ==
I am a pro-Republican I am against those Democrat racists, I will put salt in the Democrat plantation just like Abimelech did with Shechem, and I will fight for Conservapedia and for President Trump! I am anti-Communist! All of you, accept Jesus as your Savior and vote for Trump!

== This Website ==
This website, Conservapedia, is an honest, Christian, Republican, and a trustworthy website.

== Wikipedia ==
I got blocked from the pro-Democrat Wikipedia. I felt like that I was in a dictatorship.

== Coronavirus ==
Follow the experts' guidelines to prevent the Chinese virus from spreading and infecting you. The Fake News says Trump and CDC are enemies, even though the NYT hates both!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFREmfL4ark The Fake News insists that China warned us in December 31, 2019, and Trump downplayed the scientists, even though he banned travel from China.

== News ==

*25 RINOs: https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1335281344302104577

== Web Archive ==
Go here, http://web.archive.org/web/20200911180042/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China, go to History, and find out that Wikipedia likes China, as shown here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China. They call criticizing China "vandalism".

== References ==
{{reflist}}