Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Ted Haggard

2007-05-17T15:11:26Z

Theodosius:

'''Ted Haggard''' is a former [[Pastor]] of the [[New Life Church]] in [[Colorado Springs]], [[Colorado]] and a founder of the [[Association of Life-Giving Churches]]. He was leader of the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] from 2003 until November 2006 when he stepped down after a scandal.

In November 2006, he was removed or resigned from his leadership positions after allegations of [[homosexual]] sex and drug abuse were made by [[Mike Jones]], a male [[prostitute]]. Originally, Haggard denied even knowing Mike Jones, but due to an investigation he was forced to acknowledge that some accusations, such as his purchasing [[methamphetamine]], were true. He later confessed to "sexual immorality" as well.

:"The fact is I am guilty of sexual immorality. And I take responsibility for the entire problem. I am a deceiver and a liar. There's a part of my life that is so repulsive and dark that I have been warring against it for all of my adult life," he said.<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=2630268] Ousted Evangelist Confesses to Followers</ref>

The man who accused him was quoted as saying afterwards<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,227159,00.html] Evangelical Leader Admits to Buying Meth, Receiving Massage From Gay Escort</ref> "It made me angry that here's someone preaching about gay marriage and going behind the scenes having gay sex,". (It should be noted that Haggard supported homosexual civil unions, but not marriage.)<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2004/06/04/groups_gay_marriage_issue_not_congresss] Gay marriage issue not Congress's</ref>

Mike Jones, for his part, was given a lie detector test. He passed the section about Ted Haggard's drug use, but showed deception when it came to the claim of actual homosexual sex.<ref>[http://www.denverpost.com/ci_4597552] Haggard's accuser fails lie detector</ref>

On February 6, 2007, Tim Ralph, one of four ministers who oversaw three weeks of intensive counseling for Haggard, stated that Haggard "is completely heterosexual." Ralph later explained himself further saying that therapy "gave Ted the tools to help to embrace his heterosexual side." The long-term efficacy of such therapy, however, is yet to be established.

==References==
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,227159,00.html
<references />

[[Category:Religious people|Haggard, Ted]]

Atheism

2007-05-17T15:02:12Z

Theodosius:

'''Atheism''', as defined by the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' and the ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', is the denial of the existence of any [[God]]. <ref>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/</ref> <ref>http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1998</ref>

Well-known atheists include [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Ayn Rand]], [[Stephen Jay Gould]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Douglas Adams]], [[William Borden]], [[Christopher Hitchens]] and [[Sam Harris]].

== Atheist morality ==

Atheists typically hold that no religious text can be our only source of morality, although they may contain useful ideas or principles. As atheists do not believe in any form of deity, books purported to be based upon the revealed words of such deities are not considered to have any more inherent moral authority than books written by people. For instance, it may be claimed that events in the Bible itself even encourage immoral behavior, such as the Israelite expulsion of heathen nations from Canaan, the stoning to death of [http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/gay/long.htm those practicing homosexuality], poor treatment of women, and the institution of [http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/says_about/slavery.html slavery]. [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologetists]] claim, however, that these objections to the goodness of God are invalid. <ref>http://www.tektonics.org/lp/outrage.html</ref> <ref>http://www.comereason.org/bibl_cntr/con030.asp</ref> <ref>http://www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslave.html</ref> <ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/feedback/2007/0202.asp</ref>

The study of morality outside of a theistic framework falls under the [[Philosophy| Philosophical]] topic of [[Ethics]]{{fact}}.

=== Christian View of Origins ===

It is difficult to trace the origins of atheism as a result of the incomplete historic record. It is known that ancient Greece produced a theory of materialism as early as the 5th century BC. Materialism is a philosophical position that the material is all that exists. Therefore, it automatically excludes immaterial beings. In addition to materialism the Greeks also considered Spiritualism, in which the material world is an illusion and only spirit exists, as well as dualism, in which both the material and the spiritual exist (e.g. Christianity). It is important to note that while many atheists are strict materialists, some are not. As an example, some philosophical systems generally regarded as religions (i.e. Buddhism) lack deities and thus could be regarded as "atheistic faiths."

The writer of the Book of Psalms knew of atheists and atheism and registered disapproval in Psalm 14: "The Fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." The book of Psalms precedes the 5th century BC by hundreds of years {{fact}}.

== Atheist Population ==

In the [[Great Britain]] 2001 census, 15.5% of the population identify themselves as having no religious beliefs [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 2001 Census]. This category included [[agnostics]], atheists, [[heathens]] and those who wrote [[Jedi Knight]]. However other articles [http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 suggest] a much higher rate of around 52% in the UK once agnostics have been considered.

More specific research on atheists conducted in 2006 [http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 suggests] that the true proportion of Atheists is 4% in the United States, 17% in Great Britain and 32% in France. The Christian research organization, the Barna Group, [http://www.barna.org/FlexPage.aspx?Page=BarnaUpdate&BarnaUpdateID=160 reports] that 12% of Americans are atheist or agnostic. Given that the methodology of the Barna Group study does not distinguish between atheists and agnostics, it is impossible to say if their results support, or contradict, the 4% figure. Estimates of the prevalence in atheism in the United States are, however, almost always much lower than comparable estimates from Europe.

It is important to keep in mind that surveys containing an option for "no religion" are not necessarily identifying atheists. Indeed, many individuals may believe strongly in some form of god but not subscribe to any particular religion, and as a result could enter a response of "no religion" on surveys. As an example, 14.39% of the respondents to the 2004 General Social Survey in the United States claim to have "no religion." Of a subsample (197 respondents) of those persons with no religion who answered a second question on the origins of man, 19.80% believe that God created man while an additional 43.15% believe that God created man by guiding evolution over time. Thus, cumulatively 62.95% of those with "no religion" still believe that God was directly responsible for the creation of man. Clearly, many of those claiming to have "no religion" are not atheists. [http://sda.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/hsda?harcsda+gss04 GSS Data Online]. It is also possible some atheists consider atheism to be a religion and will choose "other" instead of "no religion" on surveys. It is even possible that selecting a theistic religion does not mean a belief in God; a poll conducted in the [[United Kingdom]] in April 2006 indicated that 63% of Christians believed in a "God or higher spiritual force" and 14% did not<ref>http://www.communicateresearch.com/poll.php?id=77 Communicate Research poll for Premier Radio and the Evangelical Alliance (April 2006)</ref>.

== Public Disapproval of Atheists in America ==

Research by Penny Edgell, Joseph Gerteis and Douglas Hartmann in the American Sociological Review [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/asoca/asr/2006/00000071/00000002/art00003 indicates] that most Americans would be more willing to vote for a homosexual or Muslim presidential candidate than an atheist. The same study indicates that 47.6% of Americans would disapprove of their child marrying an atheist. More recent [http://www.galluppoll.com/content/default.aspx?ci=26611&pg=1 Gallup polls] confirm this finding and indicate that atheists are among the most disliked minorities in the United States. In addition, former President George H.W. Bush has previously [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/ghwbush.htm stated] that he does not believe atheists should be considered citizens of the United States.

<b>Edgell, Gerteis & Hartmann 2006- Table 1 (Percentage of respondents answering affirmatively):</b>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! This Group Does Not At All Agree with My Vision of American Society:
! I Would Disapprove if My Child Wanted to Marry a Member of This Group:
|-
| Atheist
| 39.6%
| 47.6%
|-
| Muslim
| 26.3%
| 33.5%
|-
| Homosexual
| 22.6%
| NA
|-
|Conservative Christian
| 13.5%
| 6.9%
|-
| Recent Immigrant
| 12.5%
| Not Asked
|-
| Hispanic
| 7.6%
| 18.5%
|-
| Jew
| 7.4%
| 11.8%
|-
| Asian American
| 7.0%
| 18.5%
|-
|African American
| 4.6%
| 27.2%
|-
| White American
| 2.2%
| 2.3%
|}

== The Problem of Evil==

One argument against belief in all-powerful entities ('gods') is the existence of evil. Philosopher and materialist Epicurus (341-270 BC), wrote:

:Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent.
:Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent.
:Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil?
:Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?

[[Theodicy]] is the branch of study in theology and philosophy that defends the goodness of God despite the existence of evil. <ref>http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861719540/theodicy.html</ref> In traditional Christianity and Judaism the book of Job is used to explain the existence of evil. <ref>http://apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/doctrinal_apologetics/bowman-job.html</ref> In recent times [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologetists]] often cite [[Alvin Plantinga]]'s free will defense in regards to the existence of evil. <ref>http://www.xenos.org/essays/evilpo.htm</ref> <ref>http://www3.baylor.edu/~Scott_Moore/handouts/free_will_defense.html</ref> The work of [[St. Augustine]] is also cited in regards to theodicy. <ref>http://www.str.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5124</ref>

== The Problem of Origins==

Arguments against atheism sometimes invoke the Problem of Origins. This problem can be simply stated as:

:All things that exist have causes.
:The universe exists.
:The universe must have a cause.

However, cause does not necessarily mean any form of intelligence or God like being. God, according to atheists is a superfluous addition and completely unnecessary for the explanation of the universe.

Theists often claim that God is the origin of the universe and, thus, that this Problem of Origins is evidence for the existence of God. Atheists use a variety of possible counters to this claim but the simplest is likely that invoking God as "first cause" simply removes the problem one step. So, if the problem of the origin of the universe is solved by attributing it to god, it simply raises the problem of the origin of God. If God can be uncaused then, atheists claim, so can the universe. However, [[Creationism|creationists]] claim that the [[First Law of Thermodynamics|first law of thermodynamics]] and the [[Second Law of Thermodynamics|second law of thermodyamics]] argues against an eternal universe. <ref>http://godevidences.net/space/lawsofscience.php</ref> <ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2329</ref> <ref>http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/AstroPhysicalSciences14.html</ref>

Many leading scientists reject God. <ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v394/n6691/full/394313a0.html</ref>[[Creationism|Creationist]] scientists assert the [[theory of evolution]] is an inadequate explanation for the variety of life forms on earth. <ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref>

Creationists also state that the [[origin of life]] is not possible though natural processes and the origin of life is the result of God. <ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/origin-of-life.html</ref> <ref>http://www.trueorigin.org/abio.asp</ref> <ref>http://www.macrodevelopment.org/library/meyer.html</ref>

==External Links==

*[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-op-harris24dec24,0,3994298.story?coll=la-opinion-rightrail 10 Myths and 10 Truths about Atheism]
*[http://creationwiki.org/Decline_of_atheism Decline of Atheism -CreationWiki]
*[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf European Commission report on Social values, Science and Technology, includes info on Religious beliefs]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Humanism

2007-05-17T15:00:15Z

Theodosius: /* Secular Humanism */

==Christian Humanism==

A movement that developed in [[Renaissance]] Europe, with the rediscovery of classical Greek and Latin works that had been thought lost. Humanism sought to return to "original sources". It argued that the height of western civilization had been in the classical period, and with the fall of Rome, most knowledge had been lost, and the much of the knowledge that remained had been corrupted by false traditions. It was the responsibility of the scholar, therefore, to rediscover the original Greek and Latin texts, and separate real wisdom from false interpretation.

This movement had a profound effect on society, and, with its emphasis on classical texts and the rejection of much of the religious tradition that developed in the Middle Ages, helped lead to the Protestant [[Reformation]], and, in fact, some of the new humanist Bibles, such as [[Erasmus]]'s Greek New Testament, were important sources for both [[Martin Luther]]'s translation of the Bible and the King James Version of the Bible.

Humanists also looked to Ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration as to how to develop society and political structures. The poet [[Petrarch]] rediscovered writings by the ancient Roman orator and politician [[Cicero]], and Cicero's ideas about the role and structure of government inspired the humanists to reconsider established views about society and call for expanded civic participation in the state. In addition to Cicero, other classical sources were also consulted and referred to. [[Niccolo Machiavelli]] wrote his "Discourses on Livy", in which he commented on the history of ancient Rome written by the Roman historian [[Livy]], and used Livy's history to show the virtues of the Roman Republic and how a republican state should behave.

==Secular Humanism==

Philosophy that relies entirely on reason without religion, based originally on Greek philosophy. Humanism rejects the idea that there is a supernatural being responsible for the creation of the universe. Humanists believe instead that man is responsible for his actions and that purpose in the universe is far more complicated than a faith in a God. The IHEU has a Minimum Statement on Humanism:

<blockquote>"Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality."</blockquote>

A principle element of humanism is the assumption of fundamental human rights - which may include a right to life, to liberty, freedom of speech, the right to pursue happiness, a right to a family life, and similar things. Humanism does not claim these rights are given by a God, but are an inherent property of human intelligence and worthy of defending, although the exact definition of rights is not universally agreed upon by humanists.
[[category:philosophy]]

Religion

2007-05-17T14:58:41Z

Theodosius: /* Religions */

A system of belief and practices shared by a community that attempts to answer the ultimate questions of life and death, and, in doing so, goes beyond the verifiable. Religions frequently involve supernatural elements such as gods and goddesses, angels and demons, ancestors, transmigratory souls, and heaven, purgatory and hell. Developed religions generally consist of a central creed or body of beliefs, an ethical component (i.e. a code of morals), a body of literature or holy texts or stories, a set of individual and communal practices. Religion played a major role in all human societies prior to the twentieth century. It is a core belief of Conservatives that the recent decline in religious observation are a key source of the undermining of social and moral order.

Evangelicals disparage the term "religion" as a system of works by which human beings attempt to approach God without a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. For the person who is born again, religion can only interfere and distract from that prayerful union.

== Religions ==

* [[Animism]]
* [[Agnostic]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Bahá'í]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Cao Dai]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Discordianism]]
* [[Hinduism]]
* [[Islam]]
* [[Jainism]]
* [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
* [[Juche]]
* [[Judaism]]
* [[Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|Mormonism]]
* [[New Age]] beliefs
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Rastafari movement]]
* [[Satanism]]
* [[Scientology]]
* [[Shamanism]]
* [[Shintoism]]
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Church of the SubGenius|SubGeniism]]
* [[Wicca]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]

==References==
<references/>

==See Also==
*[[Atheism]], a lack of belief in the existence of a god or gods
*[[Naturalistic religions]]
*[[Secular Humanism]], an approach to moral philosophy
*[[World Religions by Number of Followers]]

[[Category:Religion| ]]

Prostitution

2007-05-17T14:57:29Z

Theodosius:

'''Prostitution''' is the exchange of [[sex]]ual favors for [[money]]. The [[Bible]] in general holds prostitution in contempt, but [[Jesus Christ]] showed considerably more understanding, saving Mary Magdalene from stoning by a mob stating "If any one of you is without sin, let him be the first to throw a stone at her". Also, [[Rahab]] the [[harlot]] is redeemed for receiving two [[espionage|spies]] from [[Joshua]] and allowing them to escape their pursuers.

In certain other [[religion]]s such as [[Hinduism]] and the historical worship of [[Aphrodite]] prostitution formed an integral part of the sacred rites.

In the [[United States]], prostitution is legal in the state of [[Nevada]] but heavily regulated, and outlawed elsewhere. [[Libertarian]]s consider prostitution to be a [[victimless crime]] on the order of using recreational [[drug]]s.

== Prostitution in the Old Testament ==

In the Law of Moses, prostitution is forbidden to the daughters of priests in the Aaronic order and it is forbidden for priests to marry a prostitute ([[Leviticus]] 21:9, 14).

==References==
<references/>

Amsterdam

2007-05-17T14:53:13Z

Theodosius:

'''Amsterdam''' is the capital city of The [[Netherlands]],(North-Holland), although the seat of government is located in [[The Hague]]. Amsterdam is a historic trading center, established on a [[dam]] of artificially raised ground at the mouth of the Amstel river.

It achieved huge prosperity on the back of Dutch independence from Spanish rule (achieved during decades of struggle in the 16th and 17th centuries) and the growth of the Dutch mercantile empire during the'[[Golden Age]]'. It has a wealth of cultural treasures, most notably the works of art, including many by [[Rembrandt]], [[Vermeer]], etc in the Rijksmuseum, and for its charming domestic architecture - long rows of 17th and 18th century houses along the concentric rings of canals that surround the city's heart. A more sombre monument is the Anne Frank House, where the German-Jewish Frank family hid from the [[German occupation]] forces during World War II, and made famous by [[Anne Frank]]'s Diary. Some visitors are more attracted by the notorious Zeedijk [[Red Light District]] where [[prostitution]] is legal, and the "coffee shops" (or "brown cafes") which sell [[marijuana]].

[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2007-05-17T14:41:32Z

Theodosius: /* Modern understanding */

'''DNA''' is an organic [[molecule]] shaped like a ladder that is continuously twisted (see [[double helix]]). Its chemical name is
deoxyribonucleic acid.

It carries the [[genetic]] coding for the [[protein]]s that form the bodies of living [[organism]]s. All living creatures contain DNA, and the DNA of two (sexually reproducing) creatures' offspring is a mix of its parents' DNA.

==History==

In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered several different proteins and an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nucleus]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 two American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophages]] to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that there was always the same amount of A as T and of G as C in cells, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that each pair of genes worked in a group of three making the code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]].

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of information. Scientists do not yet understand all the DNA they see, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==

Small parts of DNA called genes serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to traits such as eye color, hair color, etc. Genes are packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father.

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[Eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends) with the exception of [[Mitochondrial DNA]], which is circular too. DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

DNA changes account for differences between individuals. However, they can also cause medical problems.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[RNA]], which is in turn being [[translation|translated]] into [[Amino Acids]] that that are used to form [[protein]]s which are the building blocks of all living creatures. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complimentary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect is guilty. Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[Tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored eyes, hair and skin, but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s, and 98.6% is the same as a chimpanzee’s.

Every living thing on earth has DNA that uses the same basic chemicals as human DNA, but because their chemicals are in a different order, the DNA of a worm or a tree encodes for different proteins, and those proteins make different cells. Evolutionists believe that all these cells developed from the first single-cell creatures formed three thousand million years ago, evolving gradually into new species to adapt to their environment. Creationists believe that God created all species the way they are now.

Whatever their individual beliefs, only human beings have learned to analyze and use their DNA, and only humans can learn to use that knowledge wisely.

==External links==
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2007-05-17T14:38:29Z

Theodosius:

'''DNA''' is an organic [[molecule]] shaped like a ladder that is continuously twisted (see [[double helix]]). Its chemical name is
deoxyribonucleic acid.

It carries the [[genetic]] coding for the [[protein]]s that form the bodies of living [[organism]]s. All living creatures contain DNA, and the DNA of two (sexually reproducing) creatures' offspring is a mix of its parents' DNA.

==History==

In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered several different proteins and an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nucleus]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 two American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophages]] to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that there was always the same amount of A as T and of G as C in cells, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that each pair of genes worked in a group of three making the code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]].

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of information. Scientists do not yet understand all the DNA they see, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==

Small parts of DNA called genes serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to traits such as eye color, hair color, etc. Genes are packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father.

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[Eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends). DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

DNA changes account for differences between individuals. However, they can also cause medical problems.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[RNA]], which is in turn being [[translation|translated]] into [[Amino Acids]] that that are used to form [[protein]]s which are the building blocks of all living creatures. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complimentary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect is guilty. Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[Tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored eyes, hair and skin, but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s, and 98.6% is the same as a chimpanzee’s.

Every living thing on earth has DNA that uses the same basic chemicals as human DNA, but because their chemicals are in a different order, the DNA of a worm or a tree encodes for different proteins, and those proteins make different cells. Evolutionists believe that all these cells developed from the first single-cell creatures formed three thousand million years ago, evolving gradually into new species to adapt to their environment. Creationists believe that God created all species the way they are now.

Whatever their individual beliefs, only human beings have learned to analyze and use their DNA, and only humans can learn to use that knowledge wisely.

==External links==
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
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[[Category:Genetics]]