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Netherlands

2023-08-11T03:46:46Z

Teakin88: Added to page

{{Country|
|map=Netherlands rel87.jpg
|map2=Netherlands location.PNG
|flag=Netherlandsflag.gif
|arms=
|capital=Amsterdam
|government=Constitutional monarchy
|language=Dutch
|king=Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
|president=
|chancellor=
|pm=Mark Rutte
|area=41,526 km² (18,41% water)
|pop=17,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$900,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$52,478 (2020)
|currency=Euro (€) (EUR)
|idd=31
|tld=.nl
}}
:''For the impact on left-wing policies on the Netherlands and the rest of Europe, see [[European migrant crisis]]''
The '''Netherlands''' (Dutch: ''Nederland''), also known informally as ''Holland'' or ''The Low Countries'', is a country in northwestern Europe. It is the primary component of [[the Kingdom of the Netherlands]], which also includes the [[Caribbean]] countries of [[Aruba]], [[Curaçao]] and [[Sint Maarten]]. It is bordered by [[Belgium]] to the south and [[Germany]] to the east, while facing the [[North Sea]] to the north and west. [[Amsterdam]] is the official capital, while [[The Hague]] is the actual seat of government.

The Netherlands is famous for being a small, low-lying, and densely populated country. Its total area is 16,160 square miles: only 12,900 (82%) of that land, the rest water, and its total population in 2020 was 17.3 million. With aquatic areas excluded, the country has a population density of 1,341/mi², the fifth-highest in the world and the second-highest in the [[European Union]], of which it is a leading member. The land area of the Netherlands would be much smaller if not for a complex process of land reclamation that dates back to the Middle Ages; more than a fourth of the land today is in fact below sea level, protected by a complex of dikes and drainage systems. The very name "Netherlands" almost directly translates as "Low Countries," in reference to its elevation.

Since 1848, the country has been a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a unitary system of government. Of its twelve provinces, the most important historically are North-Holland and South-Holland, which contain the cities of Amsterdam, The Hague, and [[Rotterdam]]. Because of their disproportionate influence, the country is often referred to as "Holland". The official language is [[Dutch]] and the people are referred to in English as Dutchmen or collectively as the Dutch.

The major ethnic groups in the Netherlands are [[Dutch]] 79%, Turks 2%, Surinamese 2%, Moroccans 2%.

The Netherlands has long been notorious for its left-leaning social policies, having in the recent past legalized prostitution, [[euthanasia]], [[gay "marriage"]], and the recreational use of many harmful drugs. Although a traditional adherence to pro-free-market policies has given the country one of the world's highest per-capita incomes, this has been endangered by a leftward drift in economic matters as well, as the ongoing persecution of [[Dutch farmers]] demonstrates. In certain respects, the country should be thought of as a [[technocracy]] rather than a parliamentary democracy.

==History==
See [[History of the Netherlands]]

==Dike system==
The term "Netherlands" means "low country": about a quarter of the land area, containing more than half of the population, is actually below sea level, and would flood if the sea were not held back by a system of [[dike]]s. The Dutch have a saying that "God created the earth, but the Dutch made Holland".

A major breach of the dikes occurred in 1953, killing 1800 people. To avoid a repeat of the disaster the Dutch began construction of the "Delta Project" to protect the country from future inundations. Begun in 1953 and completed in 2002 the Delta Project is considered a modern wonder of civil engineering. After [[Hurricane Katrina]], a delegation of American engineers was invited by the Dutch government to see how the project works and how its technology can be applied in the United States for low-lying cities like [[New Orleans]]. Intentional flooding of the countryside has also been used to halt invading armies, dating back to the 80 years war.

==Major cities==
[[Amsterdam]], named for the Amstel river, is the largest city, and the capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is ringed by an extensive system of concentric canals. The seat of government, however, is located for historical reasons in [[The Hague]] (''Den Haag'').

[[Eindhoven]], a city of the southern province of Brabant, is the location of the giant electronics corporation, '''Philips''' (full name: Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.), with annual revenue equivalent to about $40 billion. (The U.S. corporation [[General Electric]] has revenues of about $150 billion, but much of it is from non-electronics businesses). The Eindhoven area is known for its high concentration of high-tech industires, which include '''ASML''', the world primary producer of lithography system for the production of semiconductors, and '''Océ''', a leading producer of printers and copiers.

[[Groningen]] is home to many branches of ''KPN'', the former state company of Post, Telegraphy and Telephony. It had its headquarters in Groningen when it was still state run, and move to [[The Hague]] since. ''KPN'' stands for ''Koninklijke PTT Nederland'', or ''Royal PTT Netherlands''. Groningen is also home to ''Gasunie'' (Gasunion), a public-private partnership that exploits the natural gas reseves in the province of Groningen and the adjoint [[North Sea]].

[[File:Jongkind A Windmill near Delft 1857.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johan Barthold Jongkind]], A Windmill near Delft, 1857.]]
[[Delft]] is a small town in [[South Holland]], situated between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]]. It is noted for the blue-and-white Delft pottery, and as the home of the great artist [[Jan Vermeer]].

[[Arnhem]] is a city in Gelderland, lying on the north bank of the Lower Rhine river. It was the scene of a major battle during [[Operation Market Garden]] in September 1944, when British and allied paratroop forces captured its strategic road bridge before being overwhelmed by German forces in the area.

[[Leeuwarden]] ([[Frisian]]: ''Ljouwert'') is the capital of the northern province of Friesland; it was also the home town of the spy [[Mata Hari]] and the artist [[M.C. Escher]].
It has a population of 92,000.

[[Utrecht]] is a city of the central province of Utrecht. It is the seat of a bishopric and is a major communications hub and rail center. With a population of 290,000, it is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands.
The city is best known as the site of lengthy peace negotiations to end the [[Wars of Spanish Succession]] in the 18th century. The resulting peace, called the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], was signed in April 1713.

Hoek van Holland ("Hook of Holland", literally 'corner of Holland') is a port in [[South Holland]], and is administratively part of the city of [[Rotterdam]]. It lies at the outflow of the Nieuwe Waterweg [[canal]] and the [[North Sea]], and is the base for ferry services to [[Harwich]] in eastern [[England]].

== Economy ==
The Dutch economy is almost $1 trillion, which is expected to be reached in less than 5 years. It is the 17th largest in the world. It was 10th in 1985, ahead of [[China]] at that time. The Netherlands is a major center of trade among European countries.

*GDP: $900 billion (2020)
*GDP per capita: $52,478 (2020)
*Natural resources: Land, farms, forests, oil.

On July 6, 2022 Dutch police fired on [[Dutch farmers]] protesting environmental regulations attempting to shut down family farms.<ref>https://www.politico.eu/article/police-fire-dutch-farmer-protest-nitrogen-emission-cut/</ref>

==Provinces==

South Holland contains the cities of [[The Hague]] and [[Rotterdam]].

Flevoland is the youngest of the twelve provinces, having the least population (ca. 360,000). It was created in 1986 on two [[polder]]s: just 80 years ago, there was no dry land but the [[Zuiderzee]]. Its capital is [[Lelystad]].

Friesland is a coastal province in the north, home to the [[Frisian]] language and people.

Gelderland borders [[Germany]] to the east, and extends north to the [[Ijsselmeer]]. Gelderland includes the major cities of [[Nijmegen]] and [[Arnhem]], as well as the extensive heathland known as the Veluwe, now a national park.

North Brabant is often referred to as ''Brabant'', as there is no ''south Brabant'' in the Netherlands.
The southern part of the former ''duchy of Brabant'' (including the important cities of [[Antwerp]] and [[Leuven]]) now belongs to Belgium. While [[Eindhoven]] is the biggest city in North Brabant, its capital is [['s-Hertogenbosch]].

==Business==
The Netherlands is the home of the Anglo-Dutch oil company [[Royal Dutch Shell]] . Other well known Dutch or partly Dutch multinationals are [[Unilever]], a company owning many household brands, ''ING Group'', a banking group, ''Ahold'', an international chain of supermarkets, ''Reed Elsevier'', a publishing house, ''Nielsen Company'', owner of the [[Yellow Pages]], and ''Randstad Holding'', a company providing [[human resource services]]. The famous ''Dutch East India Company'', which dominated trade in with South-East Asia in the 17th century, is regarded as the first multinational in history.
The Netherlands has long been famous for its production of flowers, and also for a related economic event, the "[[tulip mania]]" of 1636-1637. [[Tulip]]s were traded on stock exchanges, and bid up to fantastic prices by people who understood that the prices were crazy but hoped to sell at a profit to even crazier investors. Many people mortgaged their homes for a single tulip bulb and in one case an entire brewery was exchanged for a few bulbs. As with all [[economic bubble]]s, when bidding began to lag people tried to sell and the bubble burst with disastrous consequences. Since then the Dutch have been renowned for their carefulness with money and have established a significant presence in the banking and financial sectors.

==King's Day==
April 27 is King's Day - the national holiday to mark the official birthday of the monarch. King's Day is the one day of the year when ordinary Netherlanders are permitted to sell goods on the streets without a license. Consequently, the whole country is turned into a gigantic flea market (garage sale). The primary effect of this is that people buy goods they do not want or need, solely in order to sell them the following year. In an act of patriotism, most of the populace wear orange colored clothing (the national color) to identify with the Royal House Of Orange-Nassau.

Those not involved with selling their surplus belongings celebrate the national holiday at outdoors parties in the cities or with fine weather, spend the free day on a terrace of a pub, or cycle in the national ''Fietsen op Dijken'' tour around the nation's dikes.

==Anne Frank==
[[Anne Frank]] was a famous Jewish girl who hid from Nazis in the house of friends in Amsterdam. She wrote a diary which was later published and became a best seller. Her family left Germany in 1933 because of the Nazis, but the Nazis caught up with her and sent her to Belsen death camp where she died before end of war in 1945. Anne Frank's house in Amsterdam is now a popular tourist attraction.

==Society==
[[Same-sex marriage]] has been recognized by the Dutch government since 2001.<ref>[http://marriage.about.com/cs/samesexmarriage/a/samesex.htm About.com]</ref> Furthermore, legal [[prostitution]], [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]] and its drug policy (see above) make The Netherlands the most liberal country in the world by most standards. Christianity was once the dominant factor in Dutch society and politics, but since the 1970s plays a secondary role in society, with only 15% of the population being [[Protestant]] (2015) and just under 24% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]]. There is a rising [[Muslim]] population (5%) which has caused social strains. An overall decline in religion can be seen as of 2004. These days The Netherlands are considered one of the least churchgoing countries in Europe. However the Dutch does have its own bible belt which is still very conservative.

===Drug policies===
The Netherlands is noted for its low-crime rate (although comparable to other western European nations) and [[libertarian]] legislation. Examples are licensed prostitution in designated areas of major cities, such as Amsterdam's Red Light District, the legal soft [[drugs]] sold in the country's many coffee shops, [[abortion]] rights, [[same-sex marriage]]s and [[euthanasia]].

Consuming and carrying (for personal use only) the "soft drugs" ([[marijuana]], [[hashish]] and [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]]) were made legal in the Netherlands in 1976 in a final attempt to stop drug-related crime in the 1970s. Soft drugs can be legally purchased by individuals over 18 in the famed (licensed) coffee shops, that do sell coffee as well, but are prohibited from serving alcohol.
The Dutch policy regarding soft drugs (and previously prostitution) is called "gedoogbeleid" (condonement policy). This means that although certain behavior is officially prohibited by law, a condonement clause prevents law enforcement agencies from prosecuting this behavior. This clause is, legally speaking, not a law and can be reverted much easier than a regular law.

The main reason for this policy is to try to split the market for "soft drugs" from the one for "hard drugs", this to avoid that users "upgrade" from soft to "hard drugs" (the latter are still illegal). So in short, the law tries to prevent citizen's exposure to hard drugs by providing a legal context in which to purchase cannabis. The policy also allows the police to focus on the war on hard drugs and criminal trade, and avoid the exhaustive bureaucratic costs associated with low-profile possession busts. In fact, most major cities in the world have similar non-prosecution policies, but the Dutch one is the only nationwide one.

Growing marijuana and hashish for commercial purposes is still officially illegal (it is legal to own up to four plants per household), causing coffee shop owners to rely on illegal homegrown products. Only two state run companies are exempted from this rule in order to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes. Leftist movements have stated that the government should make its mind up: "either make growing marijuana and hashish legal, or ban soft drugs altogether".

Some argue that the legal status of soft drugs has had no significant adverse effects on Dutch society.{{who}} This is probably due to the fact that it has become a more or less socially accepted drug like alcohol and tobacco, removing the need for dealers and effectively terminating cannabis' status as an anti-establishment symbol, and in effect diminishing its' popularity somewhat amongst youth. Some disagree:
* {{marijuana-passive-Dutch}}

== See also ==

*[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]
*[[Gallery of Flemish and Dutch painting]]
*[[Flemish School of Painting]]
*[[Gallery of Dutch Still life Masterpieces]]
*[[Countries of the world - Gross Domestic Product per capita]]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Amsterdam'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Amsterdam-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/075662441X/ref=pd_bbs_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* DK. ''Netherlands'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Holland-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Ewart/dp/0789493055/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* ''Lonely Planet the Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Netherlands-Travel-Guides/dp/1741042992/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Michelin the Green Guide Netherlands'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Michelin-Green-Guide-Netherlands-Guides/dp/2067123319/ref=pd_bbs_sr_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443999&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
===Current conditions===
* Delsen, Lei. ''Exit Polder Model? Socioeconomic Changes in the Netherlands'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/113099417?title=Exit%20Polder%20Model%3f%20%20Socioeconomic%20Changes%20in%20the%20Netherlands online edition]
* Mathijs, Ernest, ed. ''The Cinema of the Low Countries.'' (2004). 268 pp.
* Vuijsje, Herman. ''The Politically Correct Netherlands: Since the 1960s.'' (2000). 244 pp.
* White, Colin, et al. ''The Undutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands, Its Culture And Its Inhabitants'' (2005)
===History surveys===
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries.'' (2006). 298 pp.
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Low-Countries-J-Blom/dp/1845452720/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264pp [https://www.amazon.com/History-Holland-Greenwood-Histories-Nations/dp/0313306583/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209805742&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* Israel, Jonathan. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806'' (1995) a major synthesis; [http://www.questia.com/read/91981119?title=The%20Dutch%20Republic%3a%20Its%20Rise%2c%20Greatness%2c%20and%20Fall%2c%201477-1806 complete online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Republic-Greatness-1477-1806-History/dp/0198207344/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209443552&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780-1940'' (1978)
* van Oostrom, Frits, and Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries [http://www.questia.com/read/1276323?title=Belgian%20Democracy%2c%20Its%20Early%20History online free]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5th ed. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. ISBN 9061094402
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/82243176?title=Evolution%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Nation online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://www.iisg.nl/ International Institute of Social History (IISH)]
* [http://www.minbuza.nl/history/en/home History of the Netherlands, introduction from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/dutchrevolt.html Dutch revolt: maps]

==References==
<references/>

{{European Union}}

[[Category:Dutch History]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

The July Crisis

2023-07-30T01:41:47Z

Teakin88:

The '''July Crisis''' is the name given to a period of diplomatic maneuvering and military planning among the Great Powers of Europe in the early summer of 1914, culminating in the outbreak of [[World War I]]. It began on June 28, with the assassination of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia]], and is normally considered to have ended on August 4, with [[Great Britain]]'s declaration of war on [[Imperial Germany|Germany]]. After this date, the [[Triple Entente]] of Britain, [[France]], and [[Russia]] were formally in hostilities with the [[Central Powers]], Germany and [[Austria-Hungary]], with other combatants later joining on both sides.

The crisis was sparked by Austria-Hungary's determination to punish [[Serbia]], which it believed to be behind the assassination of the archduke, which triggered the alliance systems and war plans of the other powers. The degree to which any one power was especially responsible for this chain of events has been hotly debated among historians and politicians since 1914, though Germany is most often singled out for culpability. Because of its results, including the war itself and the later aftermath of that conflict, the crisis is widely regarded as one of the most significant periods in 20th-century European and even world history.

==Background==
''See also: [[Causes of World War I]]''

As 1914 began, the major European powers were divided into two rival alliance systems: the Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia, and the [[Triple Alliance]] of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. (However, the exact nature of these alliances differed from one case to another: Germany and Italy, for example, were only pledged to go to war in support of Austria-Hungary if Austria-Hungary was attacked by another power, not if she herself launched an aggressive war.) These alliances reflected the long-running grievances that existed between many nations: the French, for example, resented German occupation of [[Alsace-Lorraine]], while Germans were angered over what they saw as British efforts to deny them their fair share of colonial territory in Africa. Militant [[nationalism]], naval arms races, and [[imperialism]] all played a role in these tensions.

In the eyes of many statesmen and diplomats, the greatest danger spot was in the [[Balkans]], where the deterioration of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had led to heated competition between Russia and Austria-Hungary to dominate the region. Further complicating matters was the emergence of several small nations from Ottoman control, such as [[Bulgaria]], [[Montenegro]], and above all [[Serbia]], all eager to establish their own position in southeastern Europe. Despite being client states of Russia from time to time, these nations fought a series of conflicts between themselves, known as the Balkan Wars, to gain territory and resources at each other's expense; these had only concluded in autumn 1913. Relations were also severely strained between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, due to the latter's annexation in 1908 of Bosnia, which was multiethnic but included a heavy contingent of Serbs. This complex political situation, and its readiness to break into open conflict at any moment, led some observers to warn that peace on the continent was very precarious, and that it would likely be a Balkan incident which dragged everyone into war. Still, as the summer of 1914 began, a general European war did not seem any more likely than it had in the preceding few years.

==Assassination of Franz Ferdinand==

In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, nephew and designated successor of Emperor Franz Josef I, visited Bosnia to attend military maneuvers and represent the monarchy to its relatively new subjects there. The trip was advertised well in advance, leading members of a quasi-terrorist Serbian nationalist group known as the Black Hand, which advocated Serbian annexation of Bosnia and its heavily Serb population, to plot the archduke's assassination. (Ironically, Franz Ferdinand had opposed Austrian takeover of Bosnia, seeing the region as more trouble than it was worth.)<ref>Sean McMeekin, ''July 1914: Countdown to War''. New York: Basic Books, 2013, p. 5.</ref> Supported by radical elements within the Serbian armed forces, several members of the Black Hand, armed with bombs and pistols, placed themselves in the streets of Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital, as the archduke's motorcade proceeded through the city on the morning of Sunday, June 28.<ref>Sidney Fay, ''The Origins of the World War,'' vol. 2. New York: Macmillan, 1935, p. 89, 117.</ref> An initial attack on the archduke's car with a bomb was unsuccessful, the projectile exploding in the road behind it; a short time later, however, one of the Black Hand conspirators, [[Gavrilo Princip]], finding himself within close range of the vehicle, fired several shots that fatally wounded both Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie. Both would die minutes later.

==Reactions==

Outside of Austria-Hungary, the initial response to the archduke's murder was relatively muted. Many of the Great Powers were dealing with their own internal problems (in France, fallout from recent elections; in Britain, a growing crisis over the extension of [[Home Rule]] to [[Ireland]]), and Russia, whose relations with Austria-Hungary had long been in poor shape, scarcely went to the trouble of expressing official condolences.<ref>McMeekin, ''July 1914'', p. 47-8.</ref> Even within the Austrian court, there was little in the way of personal grief; though he had been friends with the Foreign Minister, Count Leopold von Berchtold, and some other government officials, relations between Franz Ferdinand and Emperor Franz Josef were frosty at best: the monarch's initial response to the news was said to be simply "It is God's will."<ref>Luigi Albertini, ''The Origins of the War of 1914'', trans. Isabella Massey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952, vol. 2, p. 116.</ref> Nonetheless, as Franz Ferdinand had been the heir apparent, his killing was regarded as an outrage by the government, especially as it had come at the hands of Serbian terrorists; now a significant power within the Balkans, Serbia's aggressiveness had exasperated Austrian leaders, many of whom--especially Conrad von Hötzendorf, Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff--had been for years clamoring for a punitive war that would crush Serbia and indirectly reduce Russian influence in the region. As news of the archduke's murder sank in, Franz Josef agreed that some kind of action to punish Serbia was necessary; however, because Russian intervention in favor of Serbia might become a factor, he and his ministers felt it necessary to obtain the support of their more powerful German ally.

'''The "Blank Check"'''

Having had a long personal friendship with Franz Ferdinand and his wife, the Kaiser of Imperial Germany, [[Wilhelm II]], was probably more deeply angered by the news from Sarajevo than any other European sovereign. Though mildly friendly to the Serbs beforehand, he now wrote, just two days after the assassination, that "matters must be cleared up with the Serbs {i.e., by military action}, and that right soon."<ref>McMeekin, ''July 1914'', p. 99.</ref> Thus, when visited on July 5 by Austro-Hungarian ambassador Count Ladislaus de Szögyény-Marich, Wilhelm was prepared to seriously discuss the possibility of punitive war in the Balkans. Although the kaiser warned that he could not give definitive support to such a policy without consulting his Chancellor, Count Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, he added that in his own opinion, Austria ought to undertake military action against Serbia right away, and that if this led to a war with Russia, the Austrians could count on German support. These statements were substantially endorsed by Chancellor Bethmann himself in conversations with Szögyény the following day.<ref>Ibid, 113, 117.</ref> These twin endorsements have since been described by historians as a "blank check" from Germany for Austrian war with Serbia (though it was assumed that the Austrians would launch such a war at once, and that it would be limited to, at the most, a German-Austrian-Russian-Serbian conflict).

==Austrian Ultimatum==

Despite German insistence on the need for a speedy resolution of affairs, officials in Vienna dithered for the next week. Many of the Austrian army's soldiers from rural areas were home on leave to help in the summer harvest, and the Hungarian prime minister, István Tisza, was initially opposed to any kind of war against Serbia. Only on July 14 did Franz Josef's ministers finally agree to send an ultimatum to the Serbian government, stipulating a series of demands it must meet in response to the archduke's assassination. The main points of this ultimatum were that Serbia must suppress all propaganda and other written materials directed against Austria-Hungary; that all persons, in and out of the government and armed forces, who had been involved in the assassination must be arrested and stand trial; and that Austro-Hungarian officials be permitted to take part in both the investigation of the crime and the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda.

Though it was possible Serbia would agree to some of these demands (in fact, it had already begun arresting some of the conspirators), the requirement for involvement of Austrian officials risked compromising the nation's sovereignty to such a degree that this part of the ultimatum would likely be refused. Berchtold and the other ministers, in fact, expected this; at which point, according to their plan, they would launch the war, occupying at least the capital city of [[Belgrade]] and possibly the entire country.

While the sending of this ultimatum was agreed to on the 14th, it was also decided not to actually do so until the 25th, not only to give soldiers on leave time to return to duty, but also because of a summit being held in [[St. Petersburg]], Russia, in the meantime, between Russian Tsar [[Nicholas II]] and French President Raymond Poincaré. By waiting until after the conclusion of this meeting, Berchtold hoped, Austria would deny Russia and France the chance to coordinate a response.

==Franco-Russian Reaction==

Despite the best intentions of Berchtold and his fellow ministers to keep France and Russia in the dark about Austria-Hungary's planned ultimatum, word of it leaked to the Russian embassy in Vienna, and by Saturday, July 18, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov had learned enough to deduce what the Austrians were up to regarding Serbia, and briefed Nicholas II on the unfolding situation the following day.

The day after that--Monday, July 20--French President Poincaré and Premier René Viviani arrived in St. Petersburg on board the battleship ''France''. During the next three days of official ceremonies to mark the alliance between the two nations, Nicholas II and Sazonov brought both men up to date on the possibility of war in the Balkans; tsar and foreign minister expressed confidence in the outcome of a war with Austria, should they intervene on Serbia's behalf, and Poincaré in turn gave assurances that if Germany mobilized its armed forces in support of Austria, France would do the same in support of Russia. Warnings to this effect were conveyed to their potential opponents: Poincaré himself told the Austrian ambassador to Russia that "Serbia has very warm friends in the Russian people. And Russia has an Ally, France. There are plenty of complications to be feared!" Meanwhile, Sazonov informed the German ambassador that "Russia would not be able to endure it if Austria-Hungary issued threatening language to Serbia or undertook military measures....whatever happens there must be no talk of an ultimatum."<ref>Maurice Paléologue, ''An Ambassador's Memoirs'' trans. by F. A. Holt. London: Hutchinson, 1923, vol. 1, p. 18-19.</ref>

==War Plans==

Despite Sazonov's warning (which had not yet been communicated to Vienna anyway), Austria's ambassador to Serbia presented its ultimatum to the government in Belgrade on the evening of Thursday, July 23--the date had been moved up after the timing of the Franco-Russian conference was determined. The ambassador, Baron Giesl von Gieslingen, read out the demands to the Serbian ministers, adding that they were being given forty-eight hours to accept the ultimatum; otherwise Austria would break off diplomatic relations, and war would follow.

News of the ultimatum was received by the Russian government the following morning; at once, Sazonov, who told a subordinate that he now "considered war unavoidable," met with the heads of the Russian armed forces to discuss a "partial" mobilization of the army against Austria-Hungary (though not against Germany), while other officials began withdrawing Russian assets from German banks as a precaution. A partial mobilization was approved by the Council of Ministers that afternoon (pending the Tsar's assent); immediately after which, Sazonov instructed Serbia's ambassador that his country should reject the ultimatum, and that it could count on Russian aid in case of a war: a message then repeated in a meeting with the German ambassador, Count Friedrich Pourtalès. These decisions in Russia on July 24 are regarded as the beginning of the most critical period of the "July Crisis."

Encouraged by Russian promises, the Serbian government announced on July 25 that it would comply only partially with the Austrian ultimatum; some of the measures demanded would be implemented, but the participation of Austrian officials in the criminal investigation was firmly rejected. On receiving Serbia's answer that evening, ambassador Gieslingen immediately left Belgrade, signaling the rupture of diplomatic relations between the two countries. Already that afternoon, Serbia had begun secret mobilization of its armed forces, though this was not yet publicly declared. Surprisingly (due in part to the attempt at secrecy), Austria-Hungary did not immediately mobilize in response, and would not do so until July 28.

==Mediation Attempts==

Prior to the presentation of the Austrian ultimatum, the Sarajevo assassination had faded into the background for most Europeans, including even many governments. Over the 24th and 25th, however, news first of the ultimatum and then of the beginning of Russian mobilization, which arrived in European capitals by Saturday evening, began awakening leaders to the possibility of at least a regional war. At once, proposals for mediating a peaceful end to the crisis, or at least for limiting its extent, were formulated. In Britain, Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey suggested a four-power (Britain, France, Germany, and Italy) mediation between Austria and Russia; the German government, by contrast, favored establishing a general agreement among all the powers to stay out of the conflict between Austria and Serbia--an arrangement that would obviously work to the advantage of Germany's ally, and thus Germany itself. For similarly self-interested reasons, France too rejected the idea of international mediation, as this would wreck the plans it and its Russian ally had worked out.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:World War I]]

James Sevier Conway

2023-02-06T05:08:06Z

Teakin88: Added to page

'''James Sevier Conway''' (1796-1855) was a [[Democratic]] politician in the state of [[Arkansas]] during the antebellum era. He was the first man elected governor of Arkansas following its admission to the Union as a state in 1836. Though enjoying wide name recognition and political support during his career, his term as governor was afflicted by economic troubles, including effects of the [[Panic of 1837]] and a crisis in the state's banking system. Nonetheless, Arkansas enjoyed significant growth during this time.

Conway was born on December 4, 1796 in Greene County, [[Tennessee]], the son of Thomas and Anne (Rector) Conway. The Conways were a relatively wealthy family on the southern frontier, and were related to the Sevier family, which had distinguished itself in the [[American Revolution]]. In 1818, the family moved to [[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], where James was trained as a land surveyor by his maternal uncle, Elias Rector, then surveyor general for Arkansas, [[Illinois]], and Missouri.

Through his uncle's influence, James and his older brother Henry were appointed as public-land surveyors for the Arkansas Territory in 1820, with the specific task of determining its western and southern boundaries. Conway's surveying activity would prove controversial, as he drew the western boundary too far to the west and thus wrongly included some 100,000 acres belonging to the Choctaw nation within the territory, sparking a legal dispute that was not resolved until the 1880s. Simultaneous with performing his duties as a surveyor, Conway obtained a plantation for himself in Lafayette County (eventually expanding to over 2,000 acres, worked by 80 slaves), co-owned a bathhouse in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]], and in 1826 was married to Mary Jane Bradley, daughter of a prominent pioneer family in southwest Arkansas, with whom he would have ten children.

Following the death of his brother Henry in a duel in 1827, Conway became de facto leader of the family, and began the pursuit of a political career. In 1831, he campaigned for and won a seat in the territorial legislature, representing Lafayette and Union Counties, and the following year was named surveyor general of the territory by President [[Andrew Jackson]]. Conway owed his political rise not only to Jackson's patronage, but also to his membership in a network of families interrelated by blood and/or marriage, whose leaders held important a variety of elected and appointed offices. These included the Rectors, the Johnsons, the Seviers, and the Conways themselves. This network, collectively known as "the Family" or "the Dynasty," would dominate Arkansas politics until the eve of the [[Civil War]].<ref>https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/james-sevier-conway-97/</ref>

Immediately following Arkansas' admission to the Union as a state in June 1836, elections were held for its first state government. As a supporter of Jackson, Conway (like the rest of the Family) identified with the Democratic Party, and owing to his political connections and his prominence as surveyor was able to win the party's nomination for governor. Conway chose not to actively campaign in person, instead writing letters to key political figures and [[Little Rock]] newspapers to explain his positions; nonetheless, the Family's political influence, and the popularity of the Democrats within the state, enabled him to win a decisive victory over his [[Whig]] opponent, Absalom Fowler.

As governor, Conway's policies strongly emphasized development of the new state's infrastructure. He supported the creation of a public-education system, lobbied for the establishment of a federal arsenal in Little Rock, and called on the legislature to create a supervisory board of road and canal construction and to establish a commission to oversee the sale of public lands, funds from which would go towards the creation of a state university. The legislature refused to do so, however, and Arkansas would not have a university until after the Civil War.

Conway also promoted the establishment of a state banking system, which would guarantee the stability of state government finances and also promote economic development. The legislature was more cooperative in these efforts, with bills being passed for the creation of a State Bank and a Real Estate Bank. Both institutions proved unstable, however, due to mismanagement by the bank operators (some outright embezzling the money entrusted to them), overextension of credit, and the general economic depression brought on by the Panic of 1837. Fallout from the failure of these banks would plague Arkansas for several decades, and Conway was heavily criticized by some for not providing firmer oversight.

Sick for much of his term, and facing a challenge from popular Congressman Archibald Yell, Conway decided not to seek reelection in 1840. He retired to his plantation in Lafayette County, where he once again became active in local affairs and played a key role in the establishment of Lafayette Academy, an institution of higher education, in 1842. He died on March 3, 1855, after a bout with pneumonia, and was buried on his estate.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Arkansas]]

James Sevier Conway

2023-02-03T05:17:25Z

Teakin88: Created page "James Sevier Conway"

Arkansas

2023-02-03T04:41:37Z

Teakin88: Added link

{{USState
|name=Arkansas
|flag=Flag of Arkansas.png
|motto=Regnat Populus (The People Rule)
|nick=The Natural State
|capital=[[Little Rock]]
|language=English
|governor=Sarah Huckabee Sanders
|gparty=Republican
|senator2=John Boozman
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224 4843
|s2email=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/senators/one_item_and_teasers/Boozman_John.htm Contact
|senator1=Tom Cotton
|s1party=Republican
|s1phone=(202) 224-2353
|s1email=https://www.cotton.senate.gov/?p=contact Contact
|population=3,030,303 (2020)
|date=June 15, 1836 (25th)
}}

'''Arkansas''' became the twenty-fifth state of the Union on June 15, 1836. The capital of Arkansas is [[Little Rock]].

The state Constitution of Arkansas, like all of the other 50 states, acknowledges God or our Creator or the ''Sovereign Ruler of the Universe''. It says:
:''We, the People of the State of Arkansas, grateful to Almighty God for the privilege of choosing our own form of government; for our civil and religious liberty; and desiring to perpetuate its blessings, and secure the same to our selves and posterity; do ordain and establish this Constitution.''

In 2019, Arkansas became the fifth state to enact a law to automatically make [[abortion]] illegal if ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' is reversed.<ref>Multiple references:
*Freiburger, Calvin (February 20, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/arkansas-governor-signs-law-to-automatically-ban-abortion-after-roe-v.-wade Arkansas governor signs law to automatically ban abortion after Roe v. Wade falls]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved February 20, 2019.
*Berry, Susan (February 20, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/02/20/arkansas-becomes-fifth-state-to-make-abortion-automatically-illegal-if-roe-v-wade-is-reversed/ Arkansas Becomes 5th State to Make Abortion Illegal if Roe v. Wade Is Reversed]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved February 21, 2019.
*Gstalter, Morgan (February 19, 2019). [https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/430695-arkansas-governor-signs-trigger-abortion-ban-bill Arkansas governor signs 'trigger' abortion ban bill]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved February 20, 2019.</ref>

==History==
[[File:Bill-clinton-orval-faubus-1991.jpg|left|300px|thumb|[[Bill Clinton]] with [[Orval Faubus]], 1991.]]
While Arkansas was originally a slave state, they did not secede from the Union until May 6, 1861 after [[Abraham Lincoln]] called on troops to respond to the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter.

Arkansas would again make headlines after the [[Supreme Court]] case [[Brown v. Topeka Board of Education]] in 1957. Then Governor [[Orval Faubus]] sent the Arkansas National Guard to prevent [[African American]]s from entering Little Rock's Central High School. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] sent troops to help escort the students into the school.

==Politics of Arkansas==

Arkansas typically votes Republican in presidential elections; George W. Bush won the state 51%-46% in 2000, 54%-45% in 2004 and John McCain 59%-39% in 2008.<ref>http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/results/president/map.html</ref>

Senator Blanche Lincoln, a Democrat who was handley defeated for reelection in 2010, lost favor with the voters, according to polls. Lincoln won the approval of only 36% for the job she did as senator, with 44% disapproving, according to an Aug. 21-24 survey. Her support fell 13 points since March. The poll showed Lincoln running even or even slightly trailing, when matched up against three potential Republican challengers—even though none of them were known statewide. She was dragged down by Obama's falling popularity, as only 30% of Arkansans supported Obama on health care.<ref>Public Policy Polling, "Lincoln looking vulnerable," [http://www.publicpolicypolling.com/pdf/PPP_Release_AR_826424.pdf August 26, 2009 press release]</ref>

Although Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state 37% to 29%, the 33% who are independent are quite conservative—more so than independents in any other state.

Arkansas has historically been a Democrat-controlled state, a part of "The Solid South". However, starting in 2010, there was a massive shift towards the Republican Party. After the 2014 election, Arkansas was completely controlled by the Republican Party, with every statewide office, large majorities in the legislature, both U.S. Senate seats, and all four U.S. House seats for the first time in 141 years.<ref>Brantley, Max (November 4, 2014). [http://www.arktimes.com/ArkansasBlog/archives/2014/11/04/arkansass-new-day-a-historic-republican-victory Arkansas's new day; a historic Republican victory]. ''Arkansas Times''. Retrieved September 19, 2016.</ref><ref>Schwarz, Hunter (November 5, 2014). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2014/11/05/republicans-now-have-every-congressional-seat-for-arkansas-for-the-first-time-in-141-years/ Republicans now have every congressional seat for Arkansas for the first time in 141 years]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved September 19, 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.swtimes.com/elections/election-2014-arkansas-gop-chair-says-tuesday-vote-signals-realignment Election 2014: Arkansas GOP Chair Says Tuesday Vote Signals Realignment]. ''Times Record''. November 5, 2014. September 19, 2016.</ref>

==Economy==
Arkansas is home to the major retailers Tyson Foods, [[Wal-Mart]] and J.B. Hunt.

==Famous Natives==
Former President [[Bill Clinton]] and his wife Sen. [[Hillary Clinton]] are from Arkansas (although Hillary did not grow up in the state). Bill was the 50th governor of the state prior to his run for presidency in 1992. Two time [[Republican]] presidential candidate [[Mike Huckabee]] is also a former two-term governor of Arkansas; his daughter [[Sarah Huckabee Sanders|Sarah]] won election as Governor in 2022, making her the first female Governor and first child of a former Governor to hold the office.

==Elected officials==
===Federal===
*Senator [[John Boozman]] (R)
*Senator [[Tom Cotton]] (R)
*Rep. [[Rick Crawford]] [R, AR–1]
*Rep. [[French Hill]] [R, AR–2]
*Rep. [[Steve Womack]] [R, AR–3]
*Rep. [[Bruce Westerman]] [R, AR–4]

===Statewide===
*Governor [[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]] (R)
*Lt. Governor [[Tim Griffin]] (R)
*Attorney General [[Leslie Rutledge]] (R)
*Secretary of State [[Mark Martin]] (R)
*State Auditor [[Andrea Lea]] (R)
*State Treasurer [[Dennis Milligan]] (R)
*Land Commissioner [[John Thurston]] (R)

==List of Governors==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!#!!Name!!Assumed office!!Left office!!Party!!Lt. Governor!!Major events in term!!Oversaw which historical period
|- {{Party shading/red}}
|1
|[[James Sevier Conway]]
|September 13, 1836
|November 4, 1840
|[[Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|
|
|American [[Slavery]]
|-
|2
|Archibald Yell
|November 4, 1840
|April 29, 1844
|Democrat
|
|Resigned office; won seat in [[United States House of Representatives]]
|Slavery
|-
|—
|Samuel Adams
|April 29, 1844
|November 5, 1844
|Democrat
|
|President of the state senate; served remainder of Yell's term
|Slavery
|-
|3
|Thomas Stevenson Drew
|November 5, 1844
|January 10, 1849
|Democrat
|
|Resigned office
|Slavery
|-
|—
|Richard C. Byrd
|January 10, 1849
|April 19, 1849
|Democrat
|
|President of the state senate; served portion of Drew's term until special election
|Slavery
|-
|4
|John Selden Roane
|April 19, 1849
|November 15, 1852
|Democrat
|
|Special election to serve Drew's unexpired term.
|Slavery
|-
|5
|Elias Nelson Conway
|November 15, 1852
|November 16, 1860
|Democrat
|
|
|Slavery
|-
|6
|Henry Massey Rector
|November 16, 1860
|November 4, 1862
|Democrat
|
|Oversaw the secession of Arkansas from the Union prior to the [[American Civil War]]
|Slavery
|-
|7
|Harris Flanagin
|November 4, 1862
|April 18, 1864
|Democrat
|
|Flanagin fled Little Rock for Washington, Arkansas to run a government-in-exile during [[American Civil War]], September 10, 1863
|Slavery ended by Union force
|-
|8
|Isaac Murphy
|April 18, 1864
|July 2, 1868
|[[Republican Party|Republican]]
|
|Elected provisional governor by pro-Union loyalists, assuming office April 18, 1864
|Ratification of 13th, 14th Amemendments to U.S. Constitution
|-
|9
|Powell Clayton
|July 2, 1868
|March 17, 1871
|Republican
|
|Resigned for seat in the [[United States Senate]]
|Reconstruction
|-
|—
|Ozra Amander Hadley
|March 17, 1871
|January 6, 1873
|Republican
|
|President of the state senate; served remainder of Clayton's term
|Reconstruction
|-
|10
|Elisha Baxter
|January 6, 1873
|November 12, 1874
|Republican
|
|Removed from office; [[Brooks-Baxter War]].
|Reconstruction
|-
|11
|Augustus Hill Garland
|November 12, 1874
|January 11, 1877
|Democrat
|
|Implementation of [[Jim Crow]] laws
|
|-
|12
|William Read Miller
|January 11, 1877
|January 11, 1881
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|13
|Thomas James Churchill
|January 11, 1881
|January 13, 1883
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|14
|James Henderson Berry
|January 13, 1883
|January 17, 1885
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|15
|Simon Pollard Hughes, Jr.
|January 17, 1885
|January 8, 1889
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|16
|James Philip Eagle
|January 8, 1889
|January 10, 1893
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|17
|William Meade Fishback
|January 10, 1893
|January 8, 1895
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|18
|James Paul Clarke
|January 8, 1895
|January 12, 1897
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|19
|Daniel Webster Jones
|January 12, 1897
|January 8, 1901
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|20
|Jeff Davis
|January 8, 1901
|January 8, 1907
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|21
|John Sebastian Little
|January 8, 1907
|February 15, 1907
|Democrat
|
|Resigned; [[nervous breakdown]]
|Jim Crow
|-
|—
|John Isaac Moore
|February 15, 1907
|May 14, 1907
|Democrat
|
|President of the state senate; served portion of Clayton's term until legislature adjurned
|Jim Crow
|-
|—
|Xenophon Overton Pindall
|May 14, 1907
|January 11, 1909
|Democrat
|
|New president of the state senate; acted as governor until expiration of his senate term
|Jim Crow
|-
|—
|Jesse M. Martin
|January 11, 1909
|January 14, 1909
|Democrat
|
|Acting governor for three days between end of Pindall's senate term and next elected governor
|Jim Crow
|-
|22
|George Washington Donaghey
|January 14, 1909
|January 16, 1913
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|23
|Joseph Taylor Robinson
|January 16, 1913
|March 8, 1913
|Democrat
|
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|—
|William Kavanaugh Oldham
|March 8, 1913
|March 13, 1913
|Democrat
|
|President of the state senate; acting governor for six days until election of new senate president
|Jim Crow
|-
|—
|Junius Marion Futrell
|March 13, 1913
|July 23, 1913
|Democrat
|
|President of the senate; acting governor until special election
|Jim Crow
|-
|24
|George Washington Hays
|July 23, 1913
|January 10, 1917
|Democrat
|Office created; left vacant
|Elected in special election to fill remainder of term.
|Jim Crow
|-
|25
|Charles Hillman Brough
|January 10, 1917
|January 11, 1921
|Democrat
|vacant
|
|Jim Crow; [[World War I]]
|-
|26
|Thomas Chipman McRae
|January 11, 1921
|January 13, 1925
|Democrat
|vacant
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|27
|Tom Jefferson Terral
|January 13, 1925
|January 11, 1927
|Democrat
|vacant
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|28
|John Ellis Martineau
|January 11, 1927
|March 4, 1928
|Democrat
|Harvey Parnell (1st Lt. Gov)
|Resigned; Appointed federal judge, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas
|Jim Crow
|-
|29
|Harvey Parnell
|March 4, 1928
|January 10, 1933
|Democrat
|William Lee Cazort
|Became first Lt. Governor to act as governor
|Jim Crow; beginning of [[Great Depression]]
|-
|-
|30
|Junius Marion Futrell
|January 10, 1933
|January 12, 1937
|Democrat
|William Lee Cazort
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|31
|Carl Edward Bailey
|January 12, 1937
|January 14, 1941
|Democrat
|Robert L. Bailey
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|32
|Homer Martin Adkins
|January 14, 1941
|January 9, 1945
|Democrat
|Robert L. Bailey, James L. Shaver
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|33
|Benjamin Travis Laney
|January 9, 1945
|January 11, 1949
|Democrat
|James L. Shaver, Nathan Green Gordon
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|34
|Sid McMath
|January 11, 1949
|January 13, 1953
|Democrat
|Nathan Green Gordon
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|35
|Francis Cherry
|January 13, 1953
|January 11, 1955
|Democrat
|Nathan Green Gordon
|
|Jim Crow
|-
|36
|[[Orval E. Faubus|Orval Faubus]]
|January 11, 1955
|January 10, 1967
|Democrat
|Nathan Green Gordon
|Prevented [[Little Rock Nine]] from entering Central High School, Little Rock; his segregation policies prompted President Eisenhower to send in 101st Airborne to ensure the Nine's safety
|Jim Crow (ends late 1960's); beginnings of [[Civil Rights Movement]] in state
|-
|37
|[[Winthrop Rockefeller]]
|January 10, 1967
|January 12, 1971
|Republican
|Maurice Britt
|First Republican governor of Arkansas since Reconstruction. Liberal Republican and a member of the [[John D. Rockefeller|Reckefeller]] family.
|"New South"
|-
|38
|[[Dale Bumpers]]
|January 12, 1971
|January 3, 1975
|Democrat
|Bob C. Riley
|
|"New South"
|-
|—
|Bob C. Riley
|January 3, 1975
|January 14, 1975
|Democrat
|
|Acting governor for unexpired term.
|"New South"
|-
|39
|[[David Pryor]]
|January 14, 1975
|January 3, 1979
|Democrat
|Joe Purcell
|
|"New South"
|-
|—
|Joe Purcell
|January 3, 1979
|January 9, 1979
|Democrat
|
|Acting as governor for six days
|"New South"
|-
|40
|[[Bill Clinton]]
|January 9, 1979
|January 19, 1981
|Democrat
|Joe Purcell
|
|"New South"
|-
|41
|[[Frank D. White]]
|January 19, 1981
|January 11, 1983
|Republican
|Winston Bryant
|Conservative, Christian governor. Known for signing a bill into law that mandated the teaching of [[creation science]] (alongside evolution) in public schools, which was eventually overturned in a secular-minded court.
|"New South"
|-
|42
|Bill Clinton
|January 11, 1983
|December 12, 1992
|Democrat
|Winston Bryant, Jim Guy Tucker
|Resigned; elected [[President of the United States]]
|"New South"
|-
|43
|Jim Guy Tucker
|December 12, 1992
|July 15, 1996
|Democrat
|[[Mike Huckabee]]
|Resigned; [[felony]] conviction ([[mail fraud]]) in the [[Whitewater scandal]]
|"New South"
|-
|44
|[[Mike Huckabee]]
|July 15, 1996
|January 9, 2007
|Republican
|Winthrop Paul Rockefeller
|Created "Tax-Me-More" fund to highlight Democrat/liberal hypocrisy on tax contributions
|"New South"
|-
|45
|[[Mike Beebe]]
|January 9, 2007
|January 13, 2015
|Democrat
|Bill Halter
|
|
|-
|46
|[[Asa Hutchinson]]
|January 13, 2015
|January 10, 2023
|Republican
|Tim Griffen
|
|
|-
|47
|[[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]]
|January 10, 2023
|Current
|Republican
|Leslie Rutledge
|
|}

==See also==
*[[Arkansas legislature]]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}

[[Category:Red States]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:United States of America]]
[[Category:Arkansas]]
[[Category:Constitutional Carry]]
[[Category:Pro Second Amendment]]
[[Category:The South]]
[[Category:Southern United States]]

Franklin County, Missouri

2023-01-26T22:02:25Z

Teakin88: Added to page

'''Franklin County''' is a county in the east-central part of the state of [[Missouri]], on the western edge of the [[St. Louis]] metropolitan area. It had a population of 104,682 as of the 2020 census.

The county was formed from neighboring [[St. Louis County, Missouri|St. Louis County]] in 1818 and named for American [[Founding Father]] [[Benjamin Franklin]]. It is notable today for its many vineyards, part of the "wine country" in the lower Missouri River valley. [[Union, Missouri|Union]] is the county seat, and [[Washington, Missouri|Washington]] is the largest city.

==Communities==

Franklin County is home to seventeen incorporated communities, including eight cities, five villages, and four census-designated places (CDPs).

===Cities===
{|
|-
|
* [[Berger, Missouri|Berger]]
* [[Gerald, Missouri|Gerald]]
* [[New Haven, Missouri|New Haven]]
* [[Pacific, Missouri|Pacific]] (partly in St. Louis County)
|
|
* [[St. Clair, Missouri|St. Clair]]
* [[Sullivan, Missouri|Sullivan]] (partly in Crawford County)
* [[Union, Missouri|Union]] (county seat)
* [[Washington, Missouri|Washington]]
|}

===Villages===
{|
|-
|
* [[Charmwood, Missouri|Charmwood]]
* [[Leslie, Missouri|Leslie]]
* [[Miramiguoa Park, Missouri|Miramiguoa Park]]
* [[Oak Grove Village, Missouri|Oak Grove Village]]
* [[Parkway, Missouri|Parkway]]
|}

===CDPs===
{|
|-
|
* [[Gray Summit, Missouri|Gray Summit]]
* [[Lake St. Clair, Missouri|Lake St. Clair]]
* [[Stanton, Missouri|Stanton]]
* [[Villa Ridge, Missouri|Villa Ridge]]
|}

[[Category:Missouri]]
[[Category:Counties]]

Jefferson County, Missouri

2023-01-26T21:54:57Z

Teakin88: Added link

'''Jefferson County''' is a county on the west bank of the [[Mississippi River]] in eastern [[Missouri]], immediately south of [[St. Louis County, Missouri]]. Officially organized on December 3, 1818, it was named for former [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Thomas Jefferson]]. Part of the St. Louis metropolitan area, it is largely suburban in nature, with a population of 218,733 at the 2010 census, making it the sixth-largest county in Missouri by population. The county seat is [[Hillsboro, Missouri|Hillsboro]], and [[Arnold, Missouri|Arnold]] is the largest city.

==History==

Before European settlement, various Indian tribes lived in what is now Jefferson County for thousands of years. Archaeological digs in the Kimmswick area have uncovered evidence of native peoples hunting [[Mastodon|mastodons]] and other prehistoric mammals, and extensive artifacts have been found elsewhere in the region.

After the Mississippi Valley became a French (and later Spanish) colonial territory, the first settlements were made farther to the north and south, at [[Ste. Genevieve, Missouri|Ste. Genevieve]] and later [[St. Louis]], but given the distance between these points, it was in the authorities' interest to encourage migration into the territory in between, using large land grants to tempt pioneers. The first known settler in modern Jefferson County was John Hildebrand, who established himself on Saline Creek near present-day Arnold in 1774. This was followed shortly afterward with the opening of salt works near what is now Kimmswick, and the launching of a ferry across the Meramec River. This ferry became part of the El Camino Real (King's Highway), which was completed by 1789 and connected the area with St. Louis, Ste. Genevieve, and other communities to the south. Most of the early inhabitants were French-Canadians; American settlers began arriving by 1800, however, most notably Moses Austin, who in 1808 helped found the city of Herculaneum, the county's oldest surviving community and its chief town for many years; others settled along the Big River further west or its tributary streams.<ref>[https://jeffcomohistory.org/LisasHistoryArticles/JeffCountyHistory.pdf The History of Jefferson County Missouri]. By Lisa Gendron.</ref>

Upon the creation of the Missouri Territory in 1812, the area was included within St. Louis County; however, in 1818 the territorial legislature detached it and organized it as Jefferson County, in honor of Thomas Jefferson, who as President had arranged the [[Louisiana Purchase]] that made Missouri a part of the United States. Slightly larger at the time than its current size, portions of it would later be detached to Ste. Genevieve County and to newer counties to the west, especially Franklin County. Herculaneum was the first county seat, and held that status until 1839, when the court was transferred to the more centrally-located Hillsboro.<ref>https://collections.shsmo.org/manuscripts/columbia/C2366/jefferson-county</ref>

During the antebellum era, Jefferson County thrived thanks to the rich deposits of [[lead]] and other metals and minerals in the St. Francois Mountains to the southwest--the so-called "Lead Belt." Some lead-mining operations were begun in the southern part of the county, while Herculaneum became notable as a smelting center and shipping point for the excavated metal.<ref>http://historic-jeffco.com/data/Document.pdf</ref> Though the construction of the St. Louis and Iron Mountain Railroad in the 1850s bypassed this port to an extent, it also provided opportunities for development for communities in the interior, particularly De Soto. The industrial boom would continue after the [[Civil War]], with the establishment of the St. Joseph Lead Company in Herculaneum in the 1890s and the simultaneous emergence of an important glass-making operation further south, around Festus and Crystal City. By 1900, the county had a population of just over 25,000.<ref>Robert Sidney Douglass, ''History of Southeast Missouri'' (1912), p. 273-76.</ref>

The county's growth stagnated somewhat during the early 20th century, but began to revive following the construction of a system of paved roads in the 1920s and 1930s. This initiated a new wave of expansion after World War II, as families in the St. Louis area sought to move away from the city, and the northern half of the county became a scene of intensive suburban development, which has continued ever since, especially around the Arnold, Byrnes Mill, and House Springs communities. The population surged from 38,000 in 1950 to 105,000 in 1970, and would double again over the next forty years.

Jefferson County celebrated its bicentennial in 2018, with a number of festivities and other events at various communities. Today, it bills itself as "a modern, vibrant county...with pride in our past and a commitment to the future."<ref>[https://jeffcomohistory.org/LisasHistoryArticles/JeffCountyHistory.pdf The History of Jefferson County Missouri]</ref>

==Geography==

Jefferson County is located in eastern Missouri, within the northeastern foothills of the Ozark Mountains. Much of its boundaries is determined by rivers, with the Mississippi making up its entire eastern border, the Meramec (which flows into the Mississippi just east of Arnold) most of its northern boundary, and the Meramec's tributary, the Big River, defining the southwestern corner. It is bordered on the east by the state of [[Illinois]], on the southeast by [[Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri|Ste. Genevieve County]], on the south by [[St. Francois County, Missouri|St. Francois County]], on the southwest by [[Washington County, Missouri|Washington County]], on the west by [[Franklin County, Missouri|Franklin County]], and on the north by [[St. Louis County, Missouri|St. Louis County]].

The county has a total area of 664.29 square miles, including 656.63 of land and 7.66 of water.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20131021170230/http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties_list_29.txt</ref> It is dominated by hilly terrain, some of it comparatively rugged, especially in the east near the Mississippi and in the southwest as an extension of the higher St. Francois Mountains, while other land in the interior is more gently rolling in nature. The highest peak is Vinegar Hill near the St. Francois County line, with a height of 1,060 feet above sea level; the lowest elevations come in the narrow floodplains along the major rivers. Along the bank of the Mississippi in the southeastern corner, it is only about 390 feet.<ref>https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=6570</ref> In recent decades, there has been considerable urban and suburban development in the northern half of the county, particularly around the Arnold area, while the southern half is still much more rural in character.

Jefferson County has one interstate highway, Interstate 55, which hugs its eastern edge from north to south and connects the cities of Arnold, Pevely, Herculaneum, Festus, and Crystal City. U.S. Route 61 closely parallels the interstate the entire way, while U.S. Route 67 runs concurrent with 61 as far south as Crystal City, where it divides and continues southwest into St. Francois County. Other major routes include Missouri State Highway 21 (locally known as Tesson Ferry Road), which follows a north-south path through De Soto and Hillsboro; Missouri State Highway 30 (locally known as Gravois Road), which cuts through the northwestern corner, including the Cedar Hill and High Ridge communities; and Missouri State Highway 141, which has its southern terminus at Arnold and continues northwest into St. Louis County. There are three other numbered highways--109, 110, and 231 (locally known as Telegraph Road)--but they have spans of only a few miles. In addition, Missouri Supplemental Highway M is a controlled-access road from its junction with Highway 21 to just short of its junction with Interstate 55, making it a main east-west road in the county.

==Demographics==

At the 2010 census, Jefferson County had a total population of 218,733, with 81,700 households and 60,031 families; this represented a significant increase from its 2000 population of 198,099. The population density was 329.3 per square mile. There were 87,626 housing units, or about 131.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was about 96.47% White, 0.82% African-American, 0.31% Native American, 0.65% Asian, 0.02% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 0.38% from some other race, and 1.35% from two or more races. Hispanics of any race were 1.56% of the population.<ref>https://mcdc.missouri.edu/applications/census2010/report.php?g=05000US29099|04000US29</ref>

The median age in the county was about 38 years. 25.14% of the population was under the age of 18, 8.31% was between the ages of 18 and 24, 26.78% was between the ages of 25 and 44, 28.63% was between the ages of 45 and 64, and 11.15% was 65 years old or older. The sex ratio was 49.8% male, 50.2% female.<ref>http://censusviewer.com/county/MO/Jefferson</ref>

As of 2018, the median household income in the county was $63,030, and the median family income was $71,849. Males had a median income of $52,676 versus $39,996 for females. The unemployment rate was 5.7%. The per capita income was $28,844. About 10.3% of the population was below the poverty line, including 13.7% of those under the age of 18 and 7.1% of those 65 years old or older.<ref>https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=0400000US29_0500000US29099&d=ACS%205-Year%20Estimates%20Data%20Profiles&tid=ACSDP5Y2018.DP03</ref>

==Communities==

Jefferson County is home to twenty-one incorporated communities, including ten cities, four villages, and seven census-designated places (CDPs).

===Cities===
{|
|-
|
* [[Arnold, Missouri|Arnold]]
* [[Byrnes Mill, Missouri|Byrnes Mill]]
* [[Crystal City, Missouri|Crystal City]]
* [[De Soto, Missouri|De Soto]]
* [[Festus, Missouri|Festus]]
|
|
* [[Herculaneum, Missouri|Herculaneum]]
* [[Hillsboro, Missouri|Hillsboro]] (county seat)
* [[Kimmswick, Missouri|Kimmswick]]
* [[Olympian Village, Missouri|Olympian Village]]
* [[Pevely, Missouri|Pevely]]
|}

===Villages===
{|
|-
|
* [[Cedar Hill Lakes, Missouri|Cedar Hill Lakes]]
* [[Parkdale, Missouri|Parkdale]]
|
|
* [[Peaceful Village, Missouri|Peaceful Village]]
* [[Scotsdale, Missouri|Scotsdale]]
|}

===CDPs===
{|
|-
|
* [[Barnhart, Missouri|Barnhart]]
* [[Cedar Hill, Missouri|Cedar Hill]]
* [[High Ridge, Missouri|High Ridge]]
* [[Horine, Missouri|Horine]]
|
|
* [[Imperial, Missouri|Imperial]]
* [[LaBarque Creek, Missouri|LaBarque Creek]]
* [[Murphy, Missouri|Murphy]]
|}

==Government==

Local government in Jefferson County is provided by the elected officials, which include the county executive, the seven-member county council, representing each of its seven districts, and the county administrators. Traditionally, these positions have been held mostly by members of the [[Democratic]] party, but in recent years the [[Republican]] party has been predominant. <ref>https://www.jeffcomo.org/27/Government</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Countywide official !! Name !! Party
|-
| Assessor || Robert Boyer || Republican
|-
| Auditor || Kristy L. Apprill || Republican
|-
| Circuit Clerk || Michael Reuter || Republican
|-
| Collector || Michelle Worth || Democratic
|-
| County Clerk || Ken Waller || Republican
|-
| County Executive || Dennis Gannon || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 1) || Brian Haskins || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 2) || Renee Reuter || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 3) || Phil Hendrickson || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 4) || Charles Groeteke || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 5) || Tracey Perry || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 6) || Dan Stallman || Republican
|-
| County Council (District 7) || Jim Terry || Republican
|-
| Prosecuting Attorney || Trisha Stefanski || Republican
|-
| Public Administrator || Steve Farmer || Republican
|-
| Recorder || Debbie Dunnegan-Waters || Republican
|-
| Sheriff || Dave Marshak || Republican
|-
| Treasurer || Paula Wagner || Republican
|}

At the state level, Jefferson County is included within seven legislative districts in the Missouri House of Representatives. The northernmost portion, including part of the city of Arnold, is part of the 97th District, which also includes a small part of southern St. Louis County. It is currently represented by Mary Elizabeth Coleman (R-Arnold), who was elected to her second term in November 2020 without opposition.

The northwestern part of the county, including the city of Byrnes Mill and the Cedar Hill and House Springs communities, comprises the 111th District. It is currently represented by Shane Roden (R-Cedar Hill), who was re-elected to his fourth and final term in November 2020, defeating Democratic candidate Daniel Cherry.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Shane Roden || Republican || 13,308 || 70.870%
|-
| Daniel Cherry || Democratic || 5,470 || 29.130%
|}

North-central Jefferson County, including part of the city of Arnold, makes up the 112th District. It is currently represented by Rob Vescovo (R-Arnold), who was elected to his fourth and final term in November 2020 without opposition. Vescovo is the present Speaker of the Missouri House.

The eastern portion of the county as far south as Kimmswick makes up the 113th District. It is currently represented by Dan Shaul (R-Imperial), who was elected to his fourth and final term in November 2020, defeating Democratic candidate Terry Burgess.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Dan Shaul || Republican || 11,150 || 63.105%
|-
| Terry Burgess || Democratic || 6,519 || 36.895%
|}

East-central Jefferson County, including the cities of Pevely, Herculaneum, Festus, and Crystal City, comprises the 114th District. It is currently represented by Becky Ruth (R-Festus), who was elected to her fourth and final term in November 2020 without opposition.

Most of the southern part of the county, including a small portion of the city of Festus, belongs to the 115th District, which also includes parts of St. Francois and Ste. Genevieve Counties. It is currently represented by Cyndi Buchheit-Courtway (R-Festus), who was elected to her first term in November 2020, defeating Democratic candidate Cynthia Nugent.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Cyndi Buchheit-Courtway || Republican || 11,856 || 72.514%
|-
| Cynthia D. Nuget || Democratic || 4,494 || 27.486%
|}

Buchheit-Courtway roughly matched her overall total in Jefferson County, winning 7,300 votes compared to 2,835 for Nugent.

The southwestern part of the county, including the cities of De Soto and Hillsboro, belongs to the 118th District, which also includes part of Washington County. It is currently represented by Mike McGirl (R-[[Potosi, Missouri|Potosi]]), who was elected to his second term in November 2020 without opposition.

In the Missouri State Senate, most of the southern half of Jefferson County is part of the 3rd District, which also includes [[Iron County, Missouri|Iron]], [[Reynolds County, Missouri|Reynolds]], St. Francois, Ste. Genevieve, and Washington Counties. It is currently represented by Elaine Gannon (R-De Soto), who was elected to her first term in November 2020 without opposition.

The northern half of the county makes up the 22nd District. It is currently represented by Paul Wieland (R-Imperial), who was elected to his second and final term in November 2018, defeating Democratic candidate Robert Butler.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Paul Wieland || Republican || 40,556 || 58.323%
|-
| Robert Butler || Democratic || 26,903 || 38.689%
|-
| Richie Camden || Libertarian || 2,078 || 2.988%
|}

At the federal level, Jefferson County is included within three separate U.S. Congressional Districts. A sliver of territory in the northeast belongs to Missouri's 2nd Congressional District, which also includes parts of St. Louis and St. Charles Counties. It is represented by [[Ann Wagner]] (R-Ballwin), who won re-election in November 2020, defeating Democrat Jill Schupp.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Ann Wagner || Republican || 233,157 || 51.888%
|-
| Jill Schupp || Democratic || 204,540 || 45.519%
|-
| Martin Schulte || Libertarian || 11,647 || 2.592%
|}

Wagner somewhat overperformed her average margin in Jefferson County, winning 59.24% of the vote.

Most of the northern half of the county is part of Missouri's 3rd Congressional District, which also includes most of east-central Missouri. It is represented by [[Blaine Luetkemeyer]] (R-St. Elizabeth), who won re-election in November 2020, defeating Democrat Megan Rezabek.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Blaine Luetkemeyer || Republican || 282,866 || 69.441%
|-
| Megan Rezabek || Democratic || 116,095 || 28.50%
|-
| Leonard J. Steinman II || Libertarian || 8,344 || 2.048%
|}

Luetkemeyer slightly underperformed his average margin in Jefferson County, winning 65.689% of the vote.

Most of the southern half is part of Missouri's 8th Congressional District, which includes most of southeast and south-central Missouri. It is represented by [[Jason Smith]] (R-[[Salem, Missouri|Salem]]), who won re-election in November 2020, defeating Democrat Kathy Ellis.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidate !! Party !! Votes !! Vote Percentage
|-
| Jason Smith || Republican || 253,811 || 76.86%
|-
| Kathy Ellis || Democratic || 70,561 || 21.367%
|-
| Tom Schmitz || Libertarian || 5,854 || 1.773%
|}
Smith somewhat underperformed his average margin in Jefferson County, winning 67.378% of the vote.<ref>https://www.sos.mo.gov/elections/s_default</ref>

'''Political Culture'''

Traditionally, Jefferson County has been something of an independent or "swing" county, due to its position at the edge of the St. Louis metropolitan area. The northern part of the county, being heavily suburban, is typically moderate on social and economic issues, while the southern and more rural section tends to resemble more closely the [[Bible Belt]] of southern Missouri, being more socially [[conservative]] and economically [[populist]]; resulting in a complex political character. From the 1930s to the 1960s, it was solidly Democratic on both the federal and state levels; since then it has been more mixed in its results, but was carried by [[Bill Clinton]] in 1992 and 1996 and by [[Barack Obama]] in 2008. Jay Nixon, the Democratic governor of Missouri from 2009 to 2017, is a native of De Soto. More recently, though, it has trended heavily Republican, as its voters have become progressively more alienated by the Democrats' radical policies. In 2016, [[Donald Trump]] achieved a solid win in the county with 64.98% of the vote, increasing his total to 66.03% in the 2020 election.<ref>https://enrarchives.sos.mo.gov/enrnet/CountyResults.aspx</ref>

Jefferson County has similarly been a battleground on state policy issues. In 2004, it voted overwhelmingly in favor of Constitutional Amendment 2, which recognized marriage as between a man and a woman only--the measure passed in Jefferson County with 72.56% support. In 2006, however, it narrowly voted in favor of an amendment to fund embryonic stem-cell research, with 51.85% supporting it; it also passed the state at large by a narrow margin. At the same time, the county regularly supports economic measures that appear to favor the working and middle class. In the November 2006 election, the county, like the state, supported a proposed increase in the state minimum wage, with 79.90% voting in favor; in November 2018, a similar measure (which passed the state at large) received 59.22% of the vote. These results are typical of the suburban culture, and together with its size, make Jefferson County pivotal in many Missouri elections.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Missouri]]
[[Category:Counties]]

2023-01-14T17:28:07Z

Teakin88: Added to page

2022-10-25T20:00:11Z

Teakin88: Added list

{{Country
|name =''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''
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|pop =68,000,000 (2020)
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The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' ('''UK''') is a sovereign [[state]] north-west of mainland [[Europe]]. It comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], which occupy the island of [[Great Britain]], and [[Northern Ireland]] on the island of [[Ireland]]. It attained its current identity in 1922 after most of Ireland was granted independence. The UK, at least in part, has a separate identity from mainland Europe.<ref>Hanson, Victor Davis (September 12, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/victor-davis-hanson-britain-free-market-democratic-world Victor Davis Hanson: Britain's got one last chance to reembrace free-market democratic world it helped create]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved September 13, 2019.</ref>

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Its [[head of state]] is King [[Charles III]], and its [[head of government]] is Prime Minister [[Liz Truss]].

The United Kingdom is a member of the [[United Nations]] and rethinking its commitment to [[NATO]] after the disastrous actions of the U.S. [[Democrat]] [[Biden regime]] culminating in the [[Rape of Afghanistan]].<ref>[https://archive.is/JNSAP Nato allies urge rethink on alliance after Biden’s ‘unilateral’ Afghanistan exit], ''Financial Times'', Helen Warrell in London, Guy Chazan in Berlin and Richard Milne in Stockholm AUGUST 17 2021. </ref><ref>[https://archive.is/KmgYt Tom Tugendhat on Afghanistan: Six decades after Suez, we remain impotent in the face of US policy], August 16 2021, ''The Times''. "The [[fall of Kabul]] is the biggest foreign policy disaster since [[Suez Crisis|Suez]]. The operation to seize the canal in 1956 symbolised the end of Britain’s global ambition and refocused us on Nato and alliances. It showed conclusively that the US could limit our actions and change our policy. The fall of Kabul will be remembered for similar reasons: not just its abject failure, but also because it revealed the nature of US power and our inability to hold a separate line. The redeployment of 2,500 US troops, half as many as it takes to crew a carrier, ended 20 years of British effort in Afghanistan and left thousands of British citizens under Taliban jurisdiction....The longer-term question is: what next? Is Britain’s [[foreign policy]] achievable given the past week? What are the implications for our alliances?...just like in Suez, we need to reset to make sure that a false narrative does not grow, and that means commitment. Cuts to overseas engagement, whether defence, diplomacy, aid or trade, will look different today from how they did a week ago...." Tom Tugendhat is Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee.</small</ref>

British values, culture and institutions were spread throughout many parts of the world during the period of the [[British Empire]], 1600-1960, and British contributions to world culture include the English language, the [[parliament]]ary form of government, the [[Church of England|Anglican]] Church ("Church of England"), a tradition of personal liberty, and the [[common law]] legal system.

==Name==
[[File:London Thames Sunset panorama 2008.jpg|thumb|left|London - Thames panorama.]]
The official name of the nation (since 1927) is ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''.<ref>From 1801 to 1927 the official name was ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland''.</ref> The full official name is seldom used except in very formal or legal documents. The short version for historical topics is either "Britain" or "Great Britain." The short version for recent events (since the 1970s) is "United Kingdom" or "UK" The adjective is always '''"British"'''.

Britain was part of the [[British Empire]], which has become the "British Commonwealth", and is mostly a discussion club. Britain has a few scattered minor possessions, including [[Gibraltar]], but gave up its last important colony—[[Hong Kong]]—in 1997.
[[File:Westminster in the evening.jpg|thumb|280px|Westminster in the evening.]]
* '''England''' is the largest of the four components of the United Kingdom. "England" was often used to stand for the nation in older literature published before 1970. However use of "England" to refer to the entire country is now sometimes considered offensive by many citizens of the other three member countries and is thus discouraged.
* The standard language of the UK is English; [[Welsh]] has parity in Wales, and [[Gaelic]] is widely used on official documents, roadsigns, etc. in remote Gaelic-speaking areas of western Scotland.

MacColl (2008) explores the use of the term 'Britain' in English, French, and Latin texts from the 12th century to the 16th. The term was flexible, used in a variety of ways (geographically, politically, and ethnically), and not always indicative of any specific meaning. The English at first tended to conflate 'Britain' with England or the southern portion of the island of Great Britain, though the term 'Greater Britain' was applied starting in the 14th century to refer to the entire island. The Scottish, beginning in the 15th century, used the term in the modern sense - as reflective of the entire island of Great Britain and the 'polity' of England, Wales, and Scotland. This latter usage paved the way for the relatively smooth ideological transition after the 1707 Acts of Union.<ref>Alan MacColl, "The Meaning of 'Britain' in Medieval and Early Modern England." ''Journal of British Studies'' 2006 45(2): 248-269</ref>

===Anthem===

The national anthem of the UK is currently ''[[God Save the King]]''. Should a female heir accede to the throne, the anthem will become "God Save the Queen".<ref>This same melody is also sung by American schoolchildren (with different words) as "[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]".</ref>

The constituent nations have their own unofficial anthems. In the case of Wales, this is ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau'' (''Land of My Fathers''), and for Scotland it is ''Flower of Scotland''. England does not have its own distinctive anthem in the same way, but at sporting events in which England is competing as a separate nation, [[Edward Elgar]]'s patriotic song ''Land of Hope and Glory'' is sometimes used (although ''God Save the King'' is more commonly used). Additionally the hymn "Jerusalem" has a large number of supporters in England as an alternative to, or replacement for, the national anthem. In Northern Ireland, the Protestant and Catholic communities respectively use ''God Save the King'' and ''Amhran na bhFiann'', the Irish national anthem. ''Londonderry Air'' is often used as the anthem for Northern Ireland competitors in sporting events.

==People==
[[Image:Tower Bridge London.jpg|thumb|340px|Tower Bridge, London.]]
The United Kingdom's population in 2004 surpassed 60 million—Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. Almost one-third of the population lives in England's prosperous and fertile southeast and is predominantly urban and suburban—with about 7.2 million in the capital of London, which remains the largest city in Europe.

A net total of 408,000 people were added to the UK population in 2008, the largest numerical increase since 1972. This was partly due to the highest fertility rate in more than three decades. More than half of the increase in births last year was due to non-UK born mothers.

There is also an ever-increasing aging population with the number of people over 85 now at a record 1.3 million, the equivalent of one in every 50 people.

===Education===
[[File:Royal College of Music 2007.jpg|thumb|left|Royal College of Music.]]
The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900. Education is mandatory from ages 5 through 16, although this is in the process of being raised to 18 for England and Wales. "Public" schools are elite private prep schools, such as [[Eton]] and [[Rugby School|Rugby]], attended by youth whose families can afford to pay high tuition rates.

All state-funded schools in the UK are required to start the day with a collective assembly that is 'wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character',<ref>[http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=387464 Times Educational Supplement]</ref> although this is not always adhered to and there are small numbers of state-funded [[Muslim]], [[Jew]]ish and [[Hindu]] schools.

About thirty-six percent of British students go on to post-secondary education.

Higher education has been a specialty for over 500 years at Oxbridge ([[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]), with new "red brick" universities added in the 19th century and many others in the late 20th century. Universities contribute £33 billion a year to the economy. Britain has a strong attraction for international students, with 342,000 attending in 2007 (compared to 672,000 in the U.S. and 183,000 in Australia). They spend £1.5 billion in tuition in Britain annually, plus another £0.4 billion off campus.

According to an early-2017 report, universities in the UK have high levels of censorship and low levels of [[free speech]].<ref>Singman, Brooke (March 14, 2017). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/03/14/free-speech-under-attack-at-uk-colleges-report-says.html Free speech under attack at UK colleges, report says]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved March 15, 2017.</ref> Additionally, many UK schools (about 120 in May 2017) adopted a program that promotes in indoctrinates students with the [[homosexual agenda]] in all areas of curriculum and in other ways such as unisex uniforms and the removal of terms such as "boy" and "girl" from school vocabulary.<ref>Hale, Virginia (May 17, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2017/05/17/120-uk-schools-lgbt-curriculum/ LGBT Curriculum Programme, Gender Neutral Uniforms Adopted By 120 UK Schools]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 17, 2017.</ref>

===Demographics===
[[File:Youth UK.JPG|thumb|British youth.]]
A group of islands close to continental Europe, the British Isles have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. Contemporary Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended in Great Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who had lived in Northern France. Although Celtic languages persist in Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, as well as Cornwall in south-west England, the predominant language is English, which is primarily a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French.
*Population (2007 est.): 60.8 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2007 est.): 0.275%.
*Major ethnic groups: White British 91%, Irish 2%, West Indian and African 3%, South Asian 3%, others 1%.
*Major religions: Church of England (Anglican), Roman Catholic, Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), Muslim.
*Major languages: English
*Minority languages: Welsh, Gaelic, Lowland Scots (including Ulster Scots), Cornish.
*Education: Years compulsory—12. Attendance—nearly 100%. Literacy—99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2007 est.)--5.01/1,000. Life expectancy (2007 est.)--males 76.23 yrs.; females 81.3 yrs.; total 78.7 years
*Work force (2007, 31.1 million): Services—80.4%; industry—18.2%; agriculture—1.4%.

===Ethnic tensions===

Britain is home to 2.4 million Muslims from numerous ethnicities. This population is growing 10 times faster than the national average. Regarded as one of the most tolerant countries in Europe, Britain struggles with questions of Islamic integration, as well as the psychological aftermath of the July 2005 suicide bombings on London's public transport system carried out by young Britons of Pakistani descent, which left 52 people dead and over 700 injured.

===Religion===

[[File:Canterbury Cathedral.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Canterbury Cathedral (photographed during 1890-1900).]]
Religious faith, according to a 2011 survey, has declined sharply in Britain over the last two decades. Now only 42% of people describe themselves as Christian, as opposed to 66% in 1990. Most of the decline is due to a drift away from the Church of England, it is claimed, with only 20% claiming allegiance, down from 40%.

In 2003 the Office of National Statistics estimated 29% of the population identified with Anglicanism, 10% with the Catholic Church, and 14% with other Protestant churches. A 2007 survey reported that the number of Catholics (mostly Irish) attending Sunday services has overtaken the number of Anglicans doing so. A September 2006 English Church Census reported that Methodists were decreasing as a percentage of the population, while members of the Church of Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Pentecostal churches, many churches from Africa, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, almost entirely immigrants, were increasing.<ref>According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108478.htm U.S. State Department Report, 2008]</ref>

Individuals with no religious belief comprised 21% of the population in 2009. Muslims comprise 3% of the population. The Muslim community is predominantly South Asian in origin, but other groups from the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Levant are represented. In addition, there is a growing number of indigenous converts. Although estimates vary, the Government places the number of mosques in the whole country at one thousand. Groups comprising 1% or less of the population include Hindus, Sikhs, Jews, and Buddhists. Individuals from Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, and Sikh backgrounds are concentrated in London and other large urban areas, primarily in England.

Attendance at religious services was significantly different from the number of adherents. According to a report released on May 8, 2008, by Religious Trends, only 4 million Christians attend services on a regular basis (defined as at least once a month) in the country. These figures do not include Northern Ireland, where higher%ages reportedly attend both Catholic (more than 60%) and Protestant (more than 35%) services. The Religious Trends report stated that more than 50% of Muslims regularly worship at mosques. Figures for Jews and other religious groups were unavailable.

Religious affiliation was not evenly distributed among ethnicities. According to the 2001 census, approximately 70% of the white population described themselves as Christians. Nearly 75% of black Caribbean respondents stated that they were Christians, as did 70% of black Africans. Meanwhile, 45% of Indians were Hindus and 29% were Sikhs. Approximately 92% of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis were Muslims.

In Northern Ireland, where divisions between nationalists and unionists evolved largely along religious lines, the 2001 census showed that 53.1% were Protestants and 43.8% were Catholics. Many Catholics and Protestants continued to live in segregated communities in Northern Ireland, although many middle-class neighborhoods were mixed communities. The policy of the Government remained one of promotion of religious tolerance.

There are two established (or state) churches—The [[Church of England]] (Anglican) and the [[Church of Scotland]] (Presbyterian). The Act of Settlement, enacted in 1688, states that no Catholic, or person married to a Catholic, may ascend the throne.

====Religion in schools====

The Government provides financial support—up to 90% of the total capital costs of the buildings and 100% of running costs, including teachers' salaries - to sectarian educational institutions that are commonly referred to as "faith schools".
[[File:Matthew Boulton College.jpg|thumb|Matthew Boulton College.]]
The Government also helps fund the repair and maintenance of all listed places of worship for religious groups nationwide and contributes to the budget of the Church Conservation Trust, which preserves "redundant" Church of England buildings of architectural or historic significance.

The Government has not classified the Church of Scientology as a religious institution and therefore has not granted the organization recognition for charitable status.

More than 30% of state schools had a religious character. Nearly all of the 6,949 "faith schools" are associated with Christian denominations, although there are 31 Jewish, 7 Islamic, and 2 Sikh schools. An additional two Jewish, three Islamic, and two Sikh schools have also been tentatively approved by the Government to open. In addition, several hundred independent schools of a religious nature receive no state support but must meet government quality standards. Controversy arose in 2006 over 100 Islamic schools when an Office of Standards in Education (Ofsted) evaluation of these schools showed many were "little more than places where the Koran was recited." The schools were given time to correct their deficiencies. A review is due in 2010. Some Christian faith schools also faced controversy. Some were accused of not following the national curriculum in science, teaching creationism instead. During the reporting period, a further controversy erupted when it was learned that some faith schools were not following an "open" admission policy as required by law, denying admission to both special needs children and those outside the faith of the school administrators. The Catholic Church and the Church of England have an agreement to voluntarily accept up to 25% of places for pupils from another religious group or no religious group.

Almost all schools in Northern Ireland receive state support. More than 90% of students attended schools that were either predominantly Catholic or Protestant. Integrated schools served approximately 5% of school-age children whose families voluntarily chose this option, often after overcoming significant obstacles to provide the resources to start a new school and demonstrate its sustainability for 3 years before government funding begins. Demand for places in integrated schools outweighed the limited number of places available. The May 8, 2007, devolution, or granting of power, authorized the Northern Ireland Assembly to decide on academic selection. Now there are more than 50 integrated schools, and the new Government permits existing schools to petition to change from sectarian to integrated. More petition for that status than are granted it. Some have accused the Government of a go-slow approach to avoid sectarian animus.

The law requires religious education for all children, ages 3 to 19, in publicly maintained schools. In England and Wales it forms part of the core curriculum in accordance with the Education Reform Act of 1988. In Scotland, religious education of some sort is mandated by the Education Act of 1980. However, the shape and content of religious instruction throughout the country is decided on a local basis. Locally agreed syllabi are required to reflect the predominant place of Christianity while taking into account the teachings and practices of other principal religions in the country. Syllabuses must be nondenominational and refrain from attempting to convert pupils. Schools with a religious designation follow a syllabus drawn up by the school governors according to the trust deed of the school. All parents have the legal right to request that their children not participate in religious education, but the school must approve this request.

Daily collective prayer or worship of "a wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character" is practiced in schools in England and Wales, a requirement that may be waived for students who obtain permission of the school authorities. The Education and Inspections Act 2006 permits sixth form students (generally 16-19-year-olds) to withdraw themselves from worship without their parents' permission or action. This new law does not exempt sixth form students from religious education classes. Non-Christian worship is permitted with approval of the authorities. Teachers have the right not to participate in collective worship, without prejudice, unless they work for a faith school.

After several controversial court decisions prohibiting full-face veils in school (but not head scarves) and the wearing of a Christian chastity ring, the Department of Education provided guidance that advises schools to "… act reasonably in accommodating religious requirements," under human rights legislation. Some Muslim groups, including the Islamic Human Rights Commission, said it was inappropriate for the Government to provide guidance that regulated Muslim communities in matters concerning the expression of their religious beliefs. But it is also legally possible under the act, according to the guidance, to have a school uniform policy that "restricts the freedom of pupils to manifest their religion" on the grounds of health and safety and the "protection of the rights and freedoms of others." The Government's guidance is meant to remind "head teachers" to act with a degree of sensitivity when considering decisions that will impact the cultural complexion of their communities.

====Census====

According to the 2011 Census the religious make-up of the UK at that time was:

{| border="1" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|+'''Religions in United Kingdom'''
!Belief
!Thousands
!Proportion
|-
|Christian ||29,000 ||51.6
|-
|No Religion ||9104 ||15.5
|-
|Muslim ||1591 ||2.7
|-
|Hindu ||559 ||1.0
|-
|Sikh ||336 ||0.6
|-
|Jewish ||267 ||0.5
|-
|Other ||179 ||0.3
|-
|Buddhist ||152 ||0.3
|-
|Pagan & Wicca ||40 ||0.1
|-
|Total religious ||45,163 ||76.8
|-
|No answer ||4289 ||7.3
|}

The answers were distorted by an internet campaign just prior to the census, encouraging people to actually question religion that claimed that if at least 50,000 people stated their religion as 'Jedi Knight' it would be officially classified as a religion. This was not true, though the Office of National Statistics does aggregate very small religions into the 'Other' category whereas a religion of 50,000 would be itemised separately. This separate listing does not constitute any form of official recognition.

It should be noted that non-practising Christians and the non-religious group are growing in the UK and Europe. At the same time, there is growth in the Islamic group due to immigration.

Two of the four states of the United Kingdom, England and Scotland, have official state religions. The [[Church of England]] is the official religion of England and the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland is the official religion of Scotland. The (Anglican) Church of Ireland was [[disestablished]] in 1871 and the (Anglican) Church of Wales was disestablished in 1920, whereupon it was renamed the [[Church ''in'' Wales]].

===Crown Dependencies===

A number of the smaller [[British Isles]], most importantly [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]] are '[[Crown dependencies|British Crown Dependencies]]' and not members of the UK. Their governments are independent of that of the UK other than foreign and defense policy (the UK government retains the legal power to overrule the governments of the Dependencies, but this power has not been exercised since 1967).

==Sports and Pastimes==

[[File:Wembley Stadium.jpg|thumb|230px|Wembley Stadium.]]
Many of the most popular [[sport]]s in the world today were developed or codified in the UK. These include [[soccer|football]] (which is called ''soccer'' in North America), [[cricket]], [[Rugby (Sport)|rugby]], [[tennis]], [[hockey]], [[baseball]] and [[golf]]. The UK is represented in international competitions by the individual nations (such as in football, the one-day form of cricket and rugby) and by the whole of the UK in other sports (such as [[athletics]], golf and tennis). The Test cricket team is that of 'England & Wales' (colloquially, just 'England') but from time to time has had Scottish and Irish players.

The UK remains a major sporting force both in competition and the administration of sport. It is dominant in several Olympic sports, notably cycling, rowing and sailing and a leading force in cricket, rugby union, and golf.

Certain venues have their own distinct and historical recognition and host a number of international competitions. These include Wimbledon for tennis, Silverstone for motor racing, and St Andrews for golf. There are several major venues for football, rugby and cricket.

Domestic sport is dominated by football with one of the strongest and most popular leagues in the world - the Premier League. This league is sponsored by Barclays Bank, so has the official name "Barclays Premier League". Many of the Premier League's teams are well known outside the United Kingdom, especially the "big four" (Manchester United, Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool) and maintain followings around the world. Cricket and both codes of rugby also have strong and popular domestic leagues. Other popular sports include snooker, rowing, golf, tennis, athletics, cycling, darts, horse racing, and motor racing. These most popular sports are well covered by both the print press and television.

Some sports which are more popular in other countries such as volleyball, handball, American football and basketball have small but dedicated followings.

The [[U.K.]] is also renowned for its music, and is the home of bands like [[The Beatles]], [[Rolling Stones]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[The Who]], [[Oasis]], [[Coldplay]] and [[Radiohead]], as well as festivals such as [[Creamfields]], [[Isle of White]] Festival and [[Glastonbury]]. London traditionally is the world centre for recordings of classical music and the annual "London Proms" concerts are recorded worldwide. The "Last Night at the Proms" is a major "Television Event".

==Government==

''See also [[British politics]]''
[[File:Jewel House guard in the Tower of London.JPG|thumb|200px|Jewel House guard in the Tower of London.]]

The United Kingdom does not have the constitutional [[free speech]] protections or an energetic [[Christian]] culture that exist in the [[United States]], because there is not a codified constitution - though limited speech is proved via the Human Rights Act of 1998. However various acts mean there is free speech, similar to that in the [[United States]]. Certain county councils, like Salford Quays in the United Kingdom have issued 'public space protection orders' that fine people £50 for swearing.

In 2015, the UK was ranked 12th on the World Democracy index, above countries such as the US and France, and below those like Germany and Canada.<ref>[http://democracyranking.org/wordpress/rank/democracy-ranking-2015/ World's Democracy Index]</ref>

Nationalist movements exist in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, seeking (in the case of Scottish and Welsh nationalists) to dissolve the United Kingdom and to win independence for their respective territories, and in the case of Northern Ireland nationalists and republicans to create a sovereign united Ireland. At the present time, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own legislatures.

The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution (even though the [[Magna Carta]] is the oldest basis for constitutional law in the world and the basis for numerous other countries such as the U.S.). The equivalent body of law is based on statute, common law, and "traditional rights". Changes may come about formally through new acts of Parliament, informally through the acceptance of new practices and usage, or by judicial precedents. Although Parliament has the theoretical power to make or repeal any law, in actual practice the weight of 700 years of tradition restrains arbitrary actions.

Executive power rests nominally with the monarch but actually is exercised by a committee of ministers (cabinet) selected from among the members of the House of Commons and, less frequently, the House of Lords. The prime minister is normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, and can remain in office for so long as he or she has the support of a majority in that body.

===Cabinet of the United Kingdom===
(As of 25 October 2022)
*Head of State—[[King Charles III]]
*Prime Minister (Head of Government)—[[Rishi Sunak]]
*Deputy Prime Minister and Justice Secretary—Dominic Raab
*Chancellor—Jeremy Hunt
*Foreign Secretary—James Cleverly
*Defence Secretary—Ben Wallace
*Home Secretary—Suella Braverman
*Health Secretary—Steve Barclay
*Education Secretary—Gillian Keegan
*International Trade Secretary—Kemi Badenoch
*Environment Secretary—Therese Coffey
*Business Secretary—Grant Shapps
*Culture Secretary—Michelle Donelan
*Work and Pensions Secretary—Mel Stride
*Secretary for Scotland—Alister Jack
*Secretary for Wales—David T.C. Davies
*Secretary for Northern Ireland—Chris Heaton-Harris
*Chief Whip—Simon Hart

==Parliament==

[[File:Westminster palace Charles Barry.jpg|left|380px]]
Parliament was authorized in the [[Magna Carta]] (1215), and first summoned by King Edward I in 1296, making it one of the oldest governing bodies in the world. Parliament represents the entire country, and can legislate for the whole or for any constituent part or combination of parts. Elections are called by the Prime Minister, but the maximum length of a parliament is usually 5 years (except in wartime). The focus of legislative power is the 646 member [[House of Commons]], which has sole jurisdiction over finance. Normally the government—the Prime Minister and cabinet with their supporting MPs—have full control of the House. If they lose control an new general election may be held. The House of Lords, although shorn of most of its powers, can still review, amend, or delay temporarily any bills except those relating to the budget. In 1999, the government removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to hold seats in the House of Lords. The current house consists of appointed life peers who hold their seats for life and 92 hereditary peers who will hold their seats only until final reforms have been agreed upon and implemented. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches, but cannot review the constitutionality of legislation.

Members of the House of Commons are elected to represent specific geographic constituencies. Members are elected on a "First past the post" system as opposed to proportional representation or other electoral systems. In effect this means that a third party with less than 25% of the vote typically obtains very few seats.

==Constituent countries==

[[File:Scottish Eilean Donan castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Scottish Eilean Donan castle.]]
The separate identities of each of the United Kingdom's constituent parts are also reflected in their respective governmental structures. Up until the recent devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, a cabinet minister (the Secretary of State for Wales) handled Welsh affairs at the national level with the advice of a broadly representative council for Wales. Scotland maintains, as it did before union with England, different systems of law (Roman-French), education, local government, judiciary, and national church (the Church of Scotland instead of the Church of England). In addition, separate departments grouped under a Secretary of State for Scotland, who also is a cabinet member, handled most domestic matters. In late 1997, however, following approval of referenda by Scottish and Welsh voters (though only narrowly in Wales), the British Government introduced legislation to establish a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly. The first elections for the two bodies were held May 6, 1999. The Welsh Assembly opened on May 26, and the Scottish Parliament opened on July 1, 1999. The devolved legislatures have largely taken over most of the functions previously performed by the Scottish and Welsh offices.

Northern Ireland had its own Parliament and prime minister from 1921 to 1973, when the British Government imposed direct rule in order to deal with the deteriorating political and security situation. From 1973, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, based in London, was responsible for the region, including efforts to resolve the issues that lay behind the "the troubles."

By the mid-1990s, gestures toward peace encouraged by successive British governments and by President Clinton began to open the door for restored local government in Northern Ireland. An Irish Republican Army (IRA) cease-fire and nearly 2 years of multiparty negotiations, led by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, resulted in the Good Friday Agreement of 10 April 1998, which was subsequently approved by majorities in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Key elements of the agreement include devolved government, a commitment of the parties to work toward "total disarmament of all paramilitary organisations," police reform, and enhanced mechanisms to guarantee human rights and equal opportunity. The Good Friday Agreement also called for formal cooperation between the Northern Ireland institutions and the Government of the Republic of Ireland, and it established the British-Irish Council, which includes representatives of the British and Irish Governments as well as the devolved Governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Devolved government was reestablished in Northern Ireland in December 1999.

The Agreement (more commonly known as the "Good Friday Agreement", and more rarely as the Belfast Agreement<ref>http://www.nio.gov.uk/index/key-issues/the-agreement.htm</ref>) was reached on Friday, April 10, 1998 in Belfast and provides for a 108-member elected Assembly, overseen by a 12-minister Executive Committee (cabinet) in which unionists and nationalists share leadership responsibility. Northern Ireland elects 18 representatives to the Westminster Parliament in London. However, the five Sinn Féin Members of Parliament (MPs), who won seats in the 2004 election, have refused to claim their seats.

===Political conditions===

[[David Cameron]] became Prime Minister on May 11, 2010, after [[Gordon Brown]] resigned, and led a [[Conservative Party|Con]]-[[Liberal Democrats|Dem]] coalition in 2010.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8676607.stm "David Cameron and Nick Clegg pledge 'united' coalition"] ''BBC News'', Election 2010.</ref> In 2015, a general election was called<ref>Under the provisions of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (c. 14), parliamentary elections in the UK must be held every five years, beginning in 2015. The Act received Royal Assent on 15 September 2011. Fixed-term Parliaments, where general elections ordinarily take place in accordance with a schedule set far in advance, were part of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement which was produced after the 2010 general election.</ref> and Cameron's Conservative Party won a majority of seats, against all odds.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/11599600/How-did-the-Conservatives-win-the-general-election.html "How did the Conservatives win the general election?"] ''The Daily Telegraph''</ref> It must be noted that despite its name, many supporters of the European Union and homosexual "marriage" are members of the Conservative Party.

===Membership in the European Union (1973-2020)===

The [[Conservative Party|Conservative]] government of [[Edward Heath|Sir Edward Heath]] took the UK into the [[European Union]] in 1973. The [[Labour Party]] under [[Harold Wilson]] won the 1974 general elections and due to splits within the party, called the only national [[referendum]] asking the people if they wanted to stay in the Union. The "yes" vote won by a margin of approximately two to one. The Labour and Conservative parties have since had deep divisions over Union membership. Labour's 1983 manifesto promised to leave the Union, and whilst the Conservative party have never pledged to leave the Union, a growing band of "Eurosceptics" threatened to tear the party apart in the 1990s. The Labour, Conservative and Scottish National parties wish to stay in the Union although disagree over the level of integration, but smaller parties such as the [[UK Independence Party]] and the Referendum Party campaigned on the single issue of sovereignty being lost to the Union.

A referendum to [[Brexit|leave the EU]] was successfully held on June 23, 2016. In accordance with a [[Conservative Party]] manifesto commitment, the legal basis for a referendum was established by the passage of the European Union Referendum Act 2015 by the British Parliament. It was the third plebiscite held throughout the United Kingdom, and the second time the British electorate had been asked to vote on the issue of European Union membership: the first was held in 1975, when it was known as the EEC. Membership was approved in that referendum by 67% of voters – but the nature of the EU changed dramatically since then.<ref>Adrian Williamson, [http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/the-case-for-brexit-lessons-from-1960s-and-1970s The Case for Brexit: Lessons from the 1960s and 1970s], History and Policy (2015).</ref> The referendum result, to leave the European Union, was a historic victory for conservative eurosceptics, and the next day, liberal prime minister [[David Cameron]], who had supported EU membership despite its many flaws and no real benefits, resigned.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36615028 Brexit: David Cameron to quit after UK votes to leave EU]. ''BBC''. June 24, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.</ref><ref>Gross, Jenny; Winning, Nicholas (June 24, 2016). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-s-brexit-vote-throws-political-scene-into-disarray-1466786724 Brexit Vote Throws U.K. Political Scene Into Disarray]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 15, 2016.</ref> Another winner was conservative Eurosceptic [[Nigel Farage]].

In 31th January of 2020 the United Kingdom started the transition period of leaving the European Union in which a trade deal should be negociated until January 2021.
==Foreign relations and military==

[[File:11943452 115b299206.jpg|left|240px]]
The United Kingdom is a founding member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and is one of NATO's major European maritime, air, and land powers; it ranks third among NATO countries in total defence expenditure. The United Kingdom was a member of the European Community (now European Union) from 1973 to 2020. In the United Nations, the United Kingdom is a permanent member of the Security Council. The U.K. held the Presidency of the G-8 during 2005; it held the EU Presidency from July to December 2005.

The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting Britain's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. The 37,000-member Royal Navy, which includes 6,000 Royal Marine commandos, is in charge of the United Kingdom's independent strategic nuclear arm, which consists of four Trident missile submarines. The British Army, consisting of approximately 99,200 personnel, the Royal Air Force, with 42,000 personnel, along with the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, are active and regular participants in NATO and other coalition operations. Approximately 9% of the British Armed Forces is female, and 4% of British forces represent ethnic minorities.

In May 2021 the UK announced a plan to slash 9,500 soldiers from the British Army from 82,000 to just 72,500.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-56477900</ref> On June 28, 2022 Chief of General Staff General Patrick Sanders said at a RUSI conference: “The war in Ukraine reminds us of the utility of Land Power: it takes an army to hold and regain territory and defend the people. It takes an Army to deter. If this battle came, we would likely be outnumbered at the point of attack and fighting like hell […] You can’t cyber your way across a river. No single platform, capability, or tactic will unlock the problem.”
[[File:Royal Naval college UK.jpg|thumb|center|380px|Royal Naval College.]]

===Russia-Ukraine war===
[[File:The Economist propaganda.PNG|right|300px|thumb|Indians found Western propaganda during the Russo-Ukraine war highly offense. In this cartoon from the UK tabloid ''[[The Economist]]'', [[NATO]] powers attempted to intimidate India to sign on to condemnation of Russia for the [[false flag]] [[Bucha massacre]] of civilians committed by [[MI6]] and the [[Security Service of Ukraine]].<ref>https://youtu.be/ps6HuQRWcWY</ref>]]
{{See also|Russia-Ukraine war}}
[[File:Prime Minister Boris Johnson visits Ukrainian troops training in North Yorkshire.jpeg|left|300px|thumb|[[Boris Johnson]] training with Ukrainian special forces for the raid on the [[Zaporozhye nuclear power plant]].]]
During the [[Donbas war]] crisis of 2022, Russian foreign minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] asked U.K. foreign secretary [[Elizabeth Truss]] whether London recognizes Moscow’s sovereignty over the regions of Rostov and Voronezh. Truss replied that the UK “will never recognize Russia’s sovereignty over these regions.” British Ambassador to Russia Deborah Bronnert had to intervene and remind the Foreign Secretary that these two regions are actually considered Russian territory even by the United Kingdom and in fact those regions have been part of Russia for over 1,000 years.<ref>https://www.zerohedge.com/markets/biden-warns-world-war-whils-truss-says-rostov-and-voronezh-are-not-russian</ref>

The government of the United Kingdom added a British citizen, Graham Phillips,<ref>https://www.youtube.com/c/GrahamPhillipsUK/videos</ref> a journalist and documentary film maker reporting from [[Donbas]], to the sanctions list and seized his bank account for reporting on the NATO war in Ukraine.

===Iraq===

The U.K. was the United States' main coalition partner under the designation Operation TELIC. Under UN Security Council Resolution 1483, the U.K. also shared with the United States responsibility for civil administration in Iraq and was an active participant in the Coalition Provisional Authority before the handover of Iraqi sovereignty on June 28, 2004. Britain's participation in the Iraq war and its aftermath remains a domestically controversial issue.

<blockquote>
Iraqi oil supply was considered to be 'vital' to British interests. The British Government saw Iraqi oil as "vital" to the UK's long-term energy security, and the effective privatisation of its oil industry was central to the post-invasion plan for the country, according to previously unseen Whitehall documents. [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/iraqi-oil-supply-was-considered-to-be-vital-to-british-interests-2270072.html] ''The Independent.''
</blockquote>

The Iraq Inquiry is conducted to identify lessons that can be learned from the Iraq conflict; the inquiry is concerned over Mr. Blair's evidence on the legal advice he received before agreeing to join the invasion, and the timing of the decision to go to war. [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/chilcot-to-grill-blair-on-how-he-misled-iraq-war-inquiry-2185725.html] The Chair of the Inquiry, Sir John Chilcot (1939) was Staff Counsellor to the Security and Intelligence Agencies (1999-2004) and the National Criminal Intelligence Service (2002–06).

===Afghanistan===
:{{See also|Rape of Afghanistan}}
[[File:KabulHasFallen.png|right|300px|thumb|]]
Britain stood shoulder to shoulder with the United States following the [[September 11, 2001]] terrorist attacks in the U.S., and its military forces were part of the coalition force in Afghanistan. The British force in [[Afghanistan War|Afghanistan]] were at 9,000 in late 2009 and rose by an extra 500 troops in 2010. British forces were primarily based in the Helmand region, where they were on the front line in the war against continued [[Taliban]] terrorism. In addition, Britain contributed more than £500 million to Afghan reconstruction—the second-largest donor after the U.S.

Democrat socialist leader [[Joe Biden]] of the United States assured key allies at the June 2021 [[G7]] Summit in [[Cornwall]] that he would maintain enough of a security presence in Afghanistan to ensure they could continue to operate in the capital following the main U.S. withdrawal. Biden promised Prime Minister Boris Johnson and other leaders that “critical U.S. enablers” would remain in place to keep Kabul safe following the drawdown of NATO forces. British officials determined the U.S. would provide enough personnel to ensure that the U.K. embassy in Kabul could continue operating.

But the withdrawal of U.S. forces saw the Afghan government collapse as Taliban fighters raced across the country, culminating in scenes of chaos at Kabul’s airport. The British embassy was evacuated. The UK foreign minister faced calls to resign over the inability to extract people on the ground, ''Bloomberg'' reported.<ref> https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-20/biden-assured-allies-in-june-u-s-would-ensure-kabul-s-stability?sref=MTy2GeXk</ref>

The circumstances surrounding the U.S. withdrawal served as a wake-up call to the anti-Trump elements in Great Britain who colluded with [[fake news]] [[mainstream media]] outlets, the [[2016 Hillary Clinton presidential campaign|Hillary Clinton campaign]], and the U.S. [[intelligence community]] to interfere in American elections and sabotage the presidency of [[Donald Trump]], of the reluctance of Washington to operate as a global policeman. During the Rape of Afghanistan, Biden ignored [[UK]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Boris Johnson]]'s frantic phone calls for 36 hours.<ref>https://pjmedia.com/vodkapundit/2021/08/20/special-relationship-biden-ghosted-johnson-over-bungled-bugout-n1471066</ref>
According to the U.K . ''Telegraph'',
{{quotebox-float|“Joe Biden’s handling of the Afghanistan withdrawal was condemned as “catastrophic” and “shameful” on Wednesday as the [[Houses of Parliament]] delivered an unprecedented rebuke to a US president. MPs and peers from across the political spectrum, including [[Boris Johnson]], put some blame for the Taliban’s takeover and the chaos that followed on Britain’s closest ally. Mr Biden was accused of “throwing us and everybody else to the fire” by pulling out US troops, and was called “dishonourable” for criticising Afghan forces for not having the will to fight. Former defence chiefs who led British troops in the Middle East were among those to speak out, while there were warnings that the West’s withdrawal would embolden Russia and China.

[…] Labour MP Chris Bryant called Mr Biden’s remarks about Afghan soldiers “some of the most shameful comments ever from an American president”. Khalid Mahmood, a Labour MP and former defence minister, said: “The Biden government have just come in and, without looking at what is happening on the ground, have taken a unilateral decision, throwing us and everybody else to the fire.” <ref>[https://archive.is/YkOPb#selection-517.0-535.24 Parliament holds Joe Biden in contempt over Afghanistan], By Ben Riley-Smith, ''The Telegraph'', 18 August 2021.</ref>}}
Ben Wallace, [[UK]] defence secretary, broke down in tears saying, “some would not get back” from Afghanistan. “It’s sad. Twenty years of sacrifice is what it is."<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/afghanistan-taliban-uk-ben-wallace-b1903193.html NewsUKUK Politics
Defence secretary breaks down in tears and admits ‘some won’t get back’ from Afghanistan], Adam Forrest, ''The Independent'', August 16, 2021.
</ref> Boris Johnson and Foreign Secretary Dominic Raab concluded that Britain would have to turn to Russia and China to assist with exercising a "moderating influence" over the Taliban despite a deep mistrust of both regimes. Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Select Committee Tom Tugendhat wrote,
[[File:Biden Imbecile.PNG|left|300px|thumb|''Sunday Mirror'', August 22, 2021.<ref>https://www.pressreader.com/uk/sunday-mirror/20210822/page/1</ref>]]
{{quotebox-float|"The [[fall of Kabul]] is the biggest foreign policy disaster since [[Suez Crisis|Suez]]. The operation to seize the canal in 1956 symbolised the end of [[British Empire|Britain’s global ambition]] and refocused us on Nato and alliances. It showed conclusively that the US could limit our actions and change our policy. The fall of Kabul will be remembered for similar reasons: not just its abject failure, but also because it revealed the nature of US power and our inability to hold a separate line. The redeployment of 2,500 US troops, half as many as it takes to crew a carrier, ended 20 years of British effort in Afghanistan and left thousands of British citizens under Taliban jurisdiction....The longer-term question is: what next? Is Britain’s [[foreign policy]] achievable given the past week? What are the implications for our alliances?...just like in Suez, we need to reset to make sure that a false narrative does not grow, and that means commitment. Cuts to overseas engagement, whether defence, diplomacy, aid or trade, will look different today from how they did a week ago...." <ref>[https://archive.is/KmgYt Tom Tugendhat on Afghanistan: Six decades after Suez, we remain impotent in the face of US policy], August 16 2021, ''The Times''.</ref>}}
Former Tory prime minister [[Theresa May]] said "What does it say about NATO if we are entirely dependent on a unilateral decision taken by the United States? ... Did we feel we just had to follow the United States and hope that on a wing and a prayer it'd be all right on the night?" Former Labour prime minister [[Tony Blair]] slammed Biden's "imbecilic" retreat.<ref>https://archive.is/2D8am#selection-491.1-491.56</ref> Blair said the "deep politicisation" of US foreign policy was "visibly atrophying" American influence, and claimed the debacle over the withdrawal risked Britain being relegated to the "second division" of global powers.

===Israel===

Britain has shown a greater willingness than the United States to criticize the Israelis over settlements and what some call the disproportionate responses to provocations from Gaza and southern Lebanon. (Jewish Labour MP Gerald Kaufman is among the most vocal.) Like his predecessors, both Labour and Conservative, former Foreign Secretary Milliband has been unequivocal: "Settlements are illegal under international law," he told Parliament in 2008; "They are a major blockage to peace in the Middle East on the basis of a two-state solution." His successor William Hague, on 20 March 2011, "expressed our serious concern over the recent announcement of 400 new housing units in the West Bank. Continued settlements run contrary to peace.” A BBC poll in March 2011 found that 14% of British subjects have a generally positive opinion of Israel while 66% have a generally negative opinion.

===Relations with the United States===

[[File:Send_a_gun_to_a_British_home.jpg|thumb|right|[[Second Amendment]]-supporting [[American]] [[citizen]]s gifted their [[firearm]]s to [[gun free zone]]-[[gun control]] supporting British citizens during [[World War II]] via [[The American Committee for the Defense of British Homes]]]]

The United Kingdom is one of the United States' closest allies, and British foreign policy emphasises close coordination with the United States. Bilateral cooperation reflects the common language, ideals, and democratic practices of the two nations. Relations were strengthened by the countries' alliances during both World Wars, and its role as a founding member of NATO, in the Korean conflict, in the Persian Gulf War, and in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The United Kingdom and the United States continually consult on foreign policy issues and global problems and share major foreign and security policy objectives.

The United Kingdom is the fifth-largest market for U.S. goods exports after Canada, Mexico, Japan, and China, and the sixth-largest supplier of U.S. imports after Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany. U.S. exports of goods and services to the United Kingdom in 2006 totaled $92 billion, while U.S. imports from the U.K. totaled $93 billion. The United States has had a trade deficit with the United Kingdom since 1998. The United Kingdom is a large source of foreign tourists in the United States. In 2005, 3.4 million U.S. residents visited the United Kingdom, while 4.2 million U.K. residents visited the United States.

The United States and the United Kingdom share the world's largest foreign direct investment partnership. U.S. investment in the United Kingdom reached $324 billion in 2005, while U.K. direct investment in the U.S. totaled $282 billion. This investment sustains more than 1 million American jobs.

==Economy==

[[File:London.jpg|thumb|left|280px|London's financial center.]]
Britain has been hard hit by the [[Recession of 2008]], with its major banks taken over or subsidized by the government. Real gross domestic product declined by 4.6% in 2009, and is expected to rise by 0.6% before 2010 and probably will continue to increase by 1% in 2011.

Britain has the sixth-largest economy in the world, and the second largest economy in Europe. It is a major international trading power. A highly developed, diversified, market-based economy with extensive social welfare services provides most residents with a high standard of living. Unemployment and inflation levels are amongst the lowest within Europe.

Since 1979, the British Government has privatised most state-owned companies, including British Steel, British Airways, British Telecom, British Coal, British Aerospace, and British Gas, although in some cases the government retains a "golden share" in these companies. The previous Labour government continued the privatisation policy of its Conservative predecessor, particularly by encouraging "public-private partnerships" (partial privatisation) in such areas as the London Underground. The economy of the United Kingdom is now primarily based on private enterprise, accounting for approximately four-fifths of employment and output.
[[File:Bluewater Shopping Centre, Kent, England Crop 2009.jpg|thumb|440px|Bluewater Shopping Centre, Kent, 2009.]]
London ranks alongside New York as a leading international financial centre. London's financial exports contribute greatly to the United Kingdom's balance of payments. Ratings agencies rank the United Kingdom's banking sector as one of the strongest in the world and its banks are amongst the most profitable in the G-8. It is a global leader in emissions trading and is home to the Alternative Investment Market (AIM). It is also a government priority to make London the leading center of Islamic finance.

Britain a significant European energy exporter. It is also one of the world's largest energy consumers, and most analysts predict a shift in U.K. status from net exporter to net importer of energy by 2020, possibly sooner. Oil production in the U.K. is levelling off. While North Sea natural gas production continues to rise, gains may be offset by ever-increasing consumption. North Sea oil and gas exploration activities are shifting to smaller fields and to increments of larger, developed fields, presenting opportunities for smaller, independent energy operators to become active in North Sea production.
*GDP (at current market prices, 2007 est.): US$1.93 trillion.
*Annual growth rate (2009 est.): -4.6%
*Per capita GDP (2006 est.): US$31,800.
*Natural resources: Coal, oil, natural gas.
*Agriculture (1.1% of GDP): Products—cereals, oilseed, potatoes, vegetables, cattle, sheep, poultry, fish.
*Industry: Types—steel, heavy engineering and metal manufacturing, textiles, motor vehicles and aircraft, construction (5.2% of GDP), electronics, chemicals.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports of goods and services—US$468.8 billion: manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals; food, beverages, tobacco. Major markets—U.S., European Union. Imports of goods and services—US$603 billion: manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, foodstuffs. Major suppliers—U.S., European Union, Japan.

=== Economic History ===

In 1960, the United Kingdom had the fourth-largest economy, with a GDP of $75 billion.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP</ref> In 1965, the UK got surpassed by France, getting to fifth place, with a GDP of $100 billion. In 1970, the fast-growing Japanese economy surpassed the UK, bumping it to 6th place. In 1975, the UK got $240 billion, in 1980 it got $540 billion, and in 1985, the UK declined slightly to $535 billion. But the top 6 stayed the same, the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. In 1990, Italy humiliated the UK, by putting the UK at 7th, despite booming to $1.1 trillion. In 1995, the UK grew to $1.325 trillion, bumping both Italy's curving economy and Russia's collapsing economy. In 2000, the UK went to $1.445 trillion, surpassing its longtime-rival-but-ally France, thus getting to 4th. In 2005, the UK boomed to $2.5 trillion dollars, keeping its 4th. In 2010, the UK declined to $2.25 trillion, getting bumped to 6th. In 2015, however, the UK got to $2.863 trillion, surpassing France again. In 2020, the booming Indian economy surpassed the UK, with $2.8 trillion (a small decline), bumping it to 6th.

=== Currency ===

The currency of the United Kingdom is the [[Pound|Pound Sterling]], commonly called Pound and written £ or GBP, divided into 100 New Pence (now commonly just called pence or 'p'). Traditionally the UK had a complicated triple currency structure of 20 [[shilling]]s to the Pound and 12 "old pence" (represented by a "d" from the Roman ''denarius'') to the shilling, making a total of 240 pence to the Pound. This system was abandoned in 1971 due to difficulties with computerised accounting systems, in favour of the current [[decimal]] system.

The UK has never joined the [[Euro]] zone.

==History==

[[File:Stonehenge.jpg|thumb|left|Stonehenge.]]
The Roman invasion of Britain in 43AD and most of Britain's subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated development and brought more active contacts with the rest of Europe. However, there was no permanent Roman imprint apart from roads and locations for cities. As Rome's strength declined, the country again was exposed to invasion—including the pivotal incursions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD—up to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further intrusions; certain institutions, which remain characteristic of Britain, could develop. Among these are a political, administrative, cultural, and economic centre in London; a separate but established church and distinctive and distinguished university education.

====Union====

Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that resisted English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I, and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease the Welsh, Edward's son (later Edward II), who had been born in Wales, was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British Monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and administrative union of England and Wales.

While maintaining separate parliaments, England and Scotland were ruled by the same king beginning in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years, strong religious and political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England and Scotland were unified as Great Britain, sharing a single Parliament at Westminster.

Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of strife. Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century, large-scale settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After its defeat, Ireland was subjected, with varying degrees of success, to control and regulation by Britain.

The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on January 1, 1801, under the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (normally shortened to "Great Britain" or "Britain"). However, armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State, which subsequently left the Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six northern, predominantly [[Protestant]], Irish counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.

====British Expansion and Empire====

[[Image:Sir Francis Grant's Portrait of Queen Victoria.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Queen Victoria'', by [[Sir Francis Grant]].]]
The '''British Empire''' was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] in history and, for over a century, was the foremost [[Great power|global power]]. It was a product of the [[Age of Discovery]], which began with the maritime explorations of the 15th century, that sparked the era of the European [[Colonialism|colonial]] empires. By 1921, the British Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, approximately one-quarter of the world's population.<ref>Angus Maddison. ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'' (p. 98, 242). [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], Paris, 2001.</ref> It covered about 36.7 million km² (14.2 million square miles),<ref>Bruce R. Gordon. [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html ''To Rule the Earth...''] (See [http://www.hostkingdom.net/Bibliography.html Bibliography] for sources used.)</ref> about a quarter of Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "[[The empire on which the sun never sets|the sun never sets on the British Empire]]" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous [[colonies]] or subject nations.<ref>This phrase had already been used a few centuries before by the king [[Charles I of Spain]], referring to the [[Spanish Empire]].</ref>

Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087) holdings in France, Britain's policy of active involvement in continental European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.

During the five decades following [[World War II]], most of the territories of the Empire became independent. Many went on to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a free association of independent states.<ref>T. O. Lloyd, ''The British Empire, 1558-1995. 2nd ed. (1996).</ref> Some have retained the [[British monarch]] as their [[head of state]] to become independent [[Commonwealth realm]]s.

====Sea Power====

The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major sea power. Thereafter, its interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice trade, English mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands, John Cabot reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the first, short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584, and permanent English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. During the next two centuries, Britain extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political development at home, as the Royal Navy dominated the seas.

====Industrial Revolution====

[[File:Bradford Industrial Museum.jpg|thumb|left|Bradford Industrial Museum.]]
Britain's [[industrial revolution]] greatly strengthened its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Britain was the foremost European power, and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts of the world, and, during this period, the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial expansion reached its height largely during the reign of [[Queen Victoria]] (1837-1901). [[Victorian era|Queen Victoria's]] reign witnessed the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and government throughout the British Empire, which, at its greatest extent, encompassed roughly one-fifth to one-quarter of the world's area and population. It is controversial whether British colonies accelerated or slowed Britain's economic growth, for its growth rate fell below nations without empires, especially the U.S. and [[Germany]]. Democracy came in fits and starts in a series of reforms that finally, by the 1920s, allowed all adults to vote.

 

====End of Empire====

By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, other nations, including the United States and Germany, had developed their own industries; Britain lost its comparative economic advantage, and the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The UK joined world war I because of the invasion of [[Belgium]], and subsequently began [[World War II]] after the invasion of [[Poland]]. The losses and destruction of [[World War I|The First World War]], the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, the independence of the Dominions, and decades of relatively slow growth eroded the Britain's preeminent international position of the previous century.

Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and Egypt.

In 1926, Britain granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand almost complete autonomy as "dominions"; beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled by the 1960s.

== See also ==

*[[English Painting]]
*[[British politics]]
*[[June 2007 UK terror attacks]]
*[[List of political parties in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Mystery:Why is England More Liberal than the United States?]]
*[[Flags of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Piers Morgan]]
*[[Victorian era]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/15/sir-john-chilcot-wrong-man Sir John Chilcot 'wrong man to head Iraq invasion inquiry'.]
*[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/iraqi-oil-supply-was-considered-to-be-vital-to-british-interests-2270072.html Iraqi oil supply was considered to be 'vital' to British interests.]

== Notes ==
<references/>

[[Category:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO Members]][[Category:Russia-Ukraine War]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]
[[Category:Gun Control]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

Talk:United Kingdom

2022-10-25T16:28:04Z

Teakin88:

2022-10-20T15:08:13Z

Teakin88: Updated page

{{Prime Minister
|image=Truss.PNG
|seq=78
|term_start=September 5, 2022
|term_end=
|previous=Boris Johnson
|next=
|party=Tory
|birth_date=July 26, 1975 (age 47)
|birth_place=Oxford, England
|spouse=Hugh O'Leary (m. 2000)
|religion=Non-observant
|parents=
}}
'''Mary Elizabeth Truss''', commonly referred to as '''Liz Truss''' in the press and other sources (sometimes also referred to as '''Ms. Trust'''), is the current Prime Minister of the [[United Kingdom]] and Leader of the [[Conservative Party]] elected with 82,000 of 142,000 British citizens, or 0.17% of voters in Britain's "democracy" participating.<ref>[https://brettredmaynetitley.substack.com/p/liz-truss-and-britains-017-democracy Liz Truss and Britain’s 0.17% Democracy (Monocracy), Brett Redmayne-Titley</ref> She is also a Member of Parliament for South West Norfolk, having held that seat since 2010, and simultaneously serves as the [[UK]] Foreign Secretary (since 2021) and Minister for Women and Equalities (since 2019). Favored by most polls to replace [[Boris Johnson]] as the UK Prime Minister and [[Tory]] leader following the announcement of his resignation earlier in the summer, Truss was appointed to the position by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] on September 6, 2022.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uks-liz-truss-maintains-big-lead-leadership-contest-poll-2022-08-18/ UK's Liz Truss maintains big lead in leadership contest - poll]</ref>

Truss indicates that she has great admiration for the [[conservative]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] and her policies.<ref>[https://archive.ph/qXhNv How similar is Liz Truss to Margaret Thatcher?], ''The Independent'', 2022</ref> [[Nigel Farage]] has indicated that he will give Liz Truss a chance, but he is skeptical given recent Tory Party Prime Ministers who promised to govern as a conservative, but governed as [[social democrat]]s.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1sgAugAyXU Farage reacts to Liz Truss win]</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRDkxhiZpBs Nigel Farage reacts to Liz Truss becoming Conservative Party leader]</ref> Truss has often been called a "political chameleon".<ref>[https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/06/britain-liz-truss-prime-minister-boris-johnson-economy-foreign-policy/ Liz Truss Takes the Reins], Foreign Policy, 2022</ref><ref>[https://www.grid.news/story/global/2022/09/05/britains-new-leader-faces-a-historic-economic-storm-how-will-liz-truss-respond/ Britain’s new Prime Minister Liz Truss faces some big challenges: Brexit, Ukraine, and a rising cost of living]</ref>

Truss has promised to cut taxes and increase the UK's energy supply (The UK has domestic energy sources that it can tap into such as gas and coal).<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/britains-truss-expected-be-named-conservative-leader-new-pm-2022-09-05/ Liz Truss vows tax cuts after winning vote to be next British prime minister], Reuters</ref>

Truss was caught on audio tape indicating that British workers lacked the "skill and application" of foreign nationals.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-62571016 Liz Truss accused of branding British workers lazy in leaked audio], BBC</ref> ''The Economist'' indicates that [[Britain]]’s productivity problem is long-standing and getting worse.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/britain/2022/06/09/britains-productivity-problem-is-long-standing-and-getting-worse Britain’s productivity problem is long-standing and getting worse], ''The Economist'', 2022</ref> Asked on how pressing the button to launch nuclear missiles would make her feel, she replied, "“I think it’s an important duty of the prime minister and I’m ready to do it. I’m ready to do that.”<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/liz-truss-ready-to-press-nuclear-button-tory-leadership-race_uk_6305d5e4e4b00c150d662c87 Liz Truss Says She's 'Ready' To Press Nuclear Button And Alarm Bells Are Ringing], 2022</ref>

Truss has, on several occasions, threatened [[nuclear war]].<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-60558048</ref><ref>https://www.indy100.com/politics/liz-truss-nuclear-bombs-pm</ref>

As for Truss’s position on [[religion]], she has said: “I share the values of the Christian faith and the [[Church of England]], but I’m not a regular practising religious person.”<ref>[https://catholicherald.co.uk/liz-truss-should-catholics-be-happy-with-the-uks-new-prime-minister/ Liz Truss: should Catholics be happy with the UK’s new Prime Minister?], Catholic Herald, 2022</ref>

"Since she was first elected as an MP in 2010, Ms Truss has either taken a [[pro-abortion]] position on votes or abstained. She has never taken a [[pro-life]] position on a vote."<ref>https://righttolife.org.uk/news/where-does-the-uks-new-prime-minister-liz-truss-stand</ref>

On October 20, 2022, Truss announced her resignation, making her tenure the shortest of any prime minister in British history.

==Prime Minister of the United Kingdom==
Truss's own Minister of Finance was canned after only 38 days for implementing Truss's own economic policies. He was the fourth British Finance Minister fired in four months after the UK implemented its suicidal [[Great Reset|Russia sanctions policy.]] As [[Russophobe]]s spoke of [[regime change]] in Russia, Tories spoke of the second regime change in the UK in only two months to "save the party."<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/oct/15/tories-talks-ousting-truss-rescue-party</ref>

===UK "democracy"===
Under the British parliamentary system, the right to vote for UK Prime Minister was offered to 172,000 Conservative Party “members” who held a majority in parliament. Of this group, fully a 20% subset (30,000+) of members did not vote. 142,000 then cast votes on behalf of the remainder of all of Britain. Only 82,136 voted for Truss. However, as of July 2020, there are 46.8 million registered UK voters. 0.17% of British voters put Truss in power.

Having won election as Leader of the Conservative Party on September 5, 2022, Truss was received the following day by Queen Elizabeth II, who duly appointed her as Britain's new Prime Minister. The meeting occurred at Balmoral Castle in [[Scotland]], making Truss the first prime minister during Elizabeth's reign not to be appointed at [[Buckingham Palace]].<ref>https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/31/uk/queen-elizabeth-prime-minister-balmoral-intl-gbr/index.html</ref> The appointment would turn out to be one of the Queen's last official acts as Head of State before her death just two days later at Balmoral Castle. This made Truss, who addressed the nation shortly thereafter, the last of fifteen Prime Ministers to serve under Elizabeth II, the first being [[Winston Churchill]] in the 1950s.

In her first address from 10 Downing Street on the evening of September 6, Truss, praising the legacy and achievements of her predecessor Boris Johnson, pledged "high-paying jobs [and] safe streets" for the British people. She identified her primary policies as tax-cutting, infrastructure-building, reform to the nationalized health-care system, and finding a solution to the nation's energy crisis (which she blamed on [[Vladimir Putin]]).<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hR6Mkkp1Jro Sky News Live]. 6 September 2022, two days before the Queen passed away.</ref>

===Russia-Ukraine war===
{{See also|Russia-Ukraine war}}
The UK and NATO allegedly are supporting Ukrainian "democracy".

During the [[Donbas war]] crisis of 2022, Russian foreign minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] asked Truss whether [[London]] recognizes [[Moscow]]’s [[sovereignty]] over the regions of Rostov and Voronezh. Truss replied that the UK “will never recognize [[Russia]]’s sovereignty over these regions.” British Ambassador to Russia Deborah Bronnert had to intervene and remind the Foreign Secretary that these two regions are actually considered Russian territory even by the United Kingdom and in fact those regions have been part of Russia for over 1,000 years.<ref>https://www.zerohedge.com/markets/biden-warns-world-war-whils-truss-says-rostov-and-voronezh-are-not-russian</ref>

Foreign [[mercenary]] fighters are not protected by the [[Geneva Convention]]. When captured in a war zone, under martial law, they can be executed on the spot without trial. Under international law, they are criminals who kill people for profit. Nonetheless, these facts did not inhibit Truss, in the [[Russophobic]] hysteria gripping Western media, from actively encouraging young men across the planet to go get themselves killed, with no support from their own government,<ref>https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/liz-truss-british-fight-ukraine-russia-b984892.html</ref> and without informing these young fighters of any facts, if she indeed understood any facts that in an ordinary and sane world her job would require.<ref>https://www.lbc.co.uk/radio/presenters/iain-dale/liz-truss-green-light-for-brits-to-fight-in-ukraine-actually-illegal-david-davis/</ref> British Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]] had to spend the next two months walking back her suggestion to UK citizens to violate both British and [[international law]].<ref>https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/prime-minister-boris-johnson-liz-truss-uk-government-ukraine-b2025893.html</ref>

British citizens who followed Truss's advice received the [[death penalty]] under international laws and norms.

As Foreign Minister, Truss added UK journalist [[Graham Phillips]], a British citizen, to the Russia sanctions list for uploading videos to [[Youtube]]. Phillips has reported from [[Donbas]] since the U.S.-backed [[Maidan coup]] in 2014. Phillips was simultaneously added to the [[Security Service of Ukraine]] (SBU) targeted assassination list, "[[Myrotvorets]]" along with other journalists, film makers, rock stars, and academics. The SBU works in tandem with the [[CIA]] and UK [[MI6]].

Truss opposed the democratic referendums held in the [[Lugansk]] and [[Donetsk]] Republics for admission to the [[Russian Federation]].

==Criticism==
Former Russian President [[Dmitri Medvedev]] wrote of Truss on [[Telegram]], who as foreign minister was influential in refusing a negotiated settlement and bringing about the Russia-Ukraine war:
{{quotebox-float|"Changing of the guard in Britain: the freak-uncle left, the freak-aunt came.

The new prime minister: a) an incompetent and mediocre thermonuclear [[Russophobe]] who does not have elementary ideas about politics, history, geography, but wants to defeat Russia in everything; b) pretends to be Margaret Thatcher, not having even 5 percent of her abilities; c) expects to overcome the energy crisis and food inflation, which became a consequence of her own delusional sanctions exercises. She will quarrel with everyone, fail everything and leave in disgrace, like her predecessor, the shaggy Boriska. Well, in Britain, famous for its traditions, it seems there is another one."}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External link==
*[https://youtu.be/RpqOnHmsKR0 Liz Truss vs Graham Phillips and the Donbass Truth!]
{{globalism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Truss, Liz}}

[[Category:British Politicians]]
[[Category:Members of Parliament]]
[[Category:Russia-Ukraine War]]
[[Category:Neoconservatives]]
[[Category:Abortion Advocates]]
[[Category:Russophobia]]