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Alberta

2012-11-08T21:51:59Z

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'''Alberta''' is an Asshole province in [[Canada]]; its capital is [[Edmonton]]. Alberta's motto is "Fortis et liber" (Strong and free), and its official flower is the [[Wild Rose]]. Alberta was explored in 1754 by [[Anthony Henday]], who was sent by the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], and it entered Confederation in 1905.<ref>[Readers Digest Atlas of Canada 1995, pg50]</ref> Alberta is often called "the [[Texas]] of Canada" because of its oil, cattle, and pioneer "[[conservative|can-do]]" culture.<ref>http://www.barrypopik.com/index.php/texas/entry/texas_of_canada_alberta_province_nickname/</ref>

The population of Alberta in 2001 was 2,974,807, representing 9.91% of the Canadian population. <ref>[http://www.canadainfolink.ca/charttwo.htm Canada Infolink]</ref> The median family income in 2000 was $60,142. <ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/inc/provs.cfm StatsCan]</ref> Alberta's GDP was $215.9 billion dollars (Canadian) in 2005. <ref>[http://www.alberta-canada.com/export/ Alberta Advantage]</ref>

[[Image:Alberta C.jpg|left]]
The largest city in Alberta is [[Calgary]], with a population of 988,193; [[Edmonton]], Alberta's capital has a population of 730,372.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/calgary/story/2007/03/13/calgary-census.html CBC, Alberta Census]</ref> Alberta is also home to the town of [[Vulcan, Alberta|Vulcan]], which hosts an impressive [[Star Trek]]/Sci-Fi convention every year.<ref>[http://www.town.vulcan.ab.ca/events/galaxyfest.html Galaxyfest]</ref>

Alberta has a thriving economy and is a great environment to do business in. It has the best job market in Canada.

Certain Extremist Albertans feel such a pride and sense of distinction for their province that they have considered Alberta separatism, the idea that Alberta should be it's own [[sovereign]] state or a part of the [[United States of America]].<ref>http://www.separationalberta.com/</ref> Alberta has its own public radio network,[http://www.ckua.org/ CKUA].

Alberta has a rich culture,<ref>[http://www.head-smashed-in.com/ Head Smashed In Buffalo Jump]</ref> <ref>[http://www.cd.gov.ab.ca/enjoying_alberta/parks/featured/fishcreek/ Fish Creek Park]</ref> <ref>[http://www.heritagepark.ca/home.htm/ Heritage Park]</ref> <ref>[http://www.cd.gov.ab.ca/enjoying_alberta/parks/featured/kananaskis/flashindex.asp/ Kananaskis Country]</ref> <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/nt/woodbuffalo/index_E.asp/ Waterton Lakes et al]</ref> possesses a vibrant arts scene, <ref>[http://meltingpotgallery.ca/ The Melting Pot]</ref> <ref>[http://www.artgallerycalgary.org/indextwo.htm/ Art Gallery of Calgary]</ref> eduction facilities, <ref>[http://www.tyrrellmuseum.com/ Royal Tyrrell Museum]</ref> <ref>[http://www.sait.ab.ca/ SAIT]</ref>, and an active entertainment community.<ref>[http://www.virtuallydrumheller.com/tour/badlands.htm Passion Play]</ref> <ref>[http://www.theatrecalgary.com/ Theatre Calgary]</ref>

Alberta is the richest and most politically conservative of the provinces of Canada.
==History==
Alberta prehistory extends back thousands of years.
The modern Canadian province was first opened in the 19th century.
===Prehistory===

===Settlement===
After 1890 settlers began to pour into Alberta. About half came from Ontario and Anglophone Canada, one quarrter from the U.S., and one quarter from Europe.

The closing of the American frontier around 1890 led 600,000 Americans to move to Saskatchewan and Alberta, where the farming frontier flourished 1897-1914.<ref> Karel Denis Bicha, "The Plains Farmer and the Prairie Province Frontier, 1897-1914." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1965 25(2): 263-270. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2116150 in JSTOR]</ref>

The railways developed town sites six to ten miles apart and lumber companies and speculators loaned money to encourage building on the lots. Immigrants faced an unfamiliar, harsh environment. Building a home, clearing and cultivating thirty acres, and fencing the entire property, all of which were requirements of homesteaders seeking title to their new land, were difficult tasks in the glacier-carved valleys.
====Ethnics====
Initially, the government preferred English-speaking settlers from Eastern Canada or Great Britain, and to a lesser extent, the United States. However, in order to speed up the rate of settlement, the government under the direction of [[Minister of the Interior]] [[Clifford Sifton]] soon began advertising to attract settlers from continental Europe. Large numbers of [[German Canadian|Germans]], [[Ukrainian Canadians|Ukrainians]], and Scandinavians moved in, among others, often coalescing into distinct [[block settlement|ethnic settlement blocks]], giving parts of Alberta unique ethnic cultures.

One typical settlement involved Norwegians from Minnesota. In 1894, Norwegian farmers from Minnesota's Red River Valley, originally from Bardo, Norway, resettled on Amisk Creek south of Beaverhill Lake, Alberta, naming their new settlement Bardo, after their homeland. Since the Land Act of 1872, Canada had eagerly sought to establish planned single-nationality immigrant colonies in the Western Provinces. The settlement at Bardo grew steadily, and from 1900 on most settlers came directly from Bardo, Norway, joining family and former neighbors. While somewhat primitive living conditions were the norm for many years into the 20th century, the settlers quickly established institutions and social outlets, including a Lutheran congregation, a school, the Bardo Ladies' Aid Society, a literary society, a youth choir, and a brass band.<ref> Odd S. Lovoll, "Canada Fever: The Odyssey Of Minnesota's Bardo Norwegians." ''Minnesota History'' 2001 57(7): 356-367. 0026-5497 </ref>
====Wales====
In July 1897 the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) began work on a railway passing through Crow's Nest Pass, Alberta. To attract a thousand workers from Wales who would eventually settle in Canada, the British government offered workers $1.50 a day and land through the homestead process. Publicized by shipping companies and newspapers, the scheme drew many workers from Bangor, Wales, where quarrymen had been on strike for nearly a year. However, the transport costs alone were more than many Welsh workers could afford, and this limited the number of people responding to the offer to under 150. By November letters began to arrive in Wales complaining about the living and working conditions in the CPR camps. Government officials, seeking to populate the Canadian prairies, began to downplay the criticisms and present more positive views. Although some of the immigrants eventually found prosperity in Canada, the immigration scheme envisioned by government and railroad officials was canceled in 1898.<ref> Wayne K. D. Davies, "'Send A Thousand Welsh Farm Labourers To Canada!' The Crow's Nest Pass Work Scheme And Damage Control." ''Welsh History Review'' 2001 20(3): 466-494. 0043-2431 </ref>
====Mormons====
In the 1890s about 3200 Mormons arrived from Utah, where their practice of polygamy had been outlawed. They were very community oriented, setting up 17 farm settlements; they pioneered in irrigation techniques. They flourished and in 1923 opened the [[Cardston Alberta Temple]] in their center of [[Cardston, Alberta|Cardston]]. In the 21st century about 50,000 Mormons live in Alberta.<ref> L. A. Rosenvall, "The Transfer of Mormon Culture to Alberta." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1982 12(2): 51-63.</ref> The government in Ottawa refused to officially approve of polygamy, and the new settlers kept quiet about their family structure. No Mormon was prosecuted for polygamy in Canada.

==Drive to provincehood==
In 1900 Alberta was simply a district of the North-West Territories. Local leaders lobbied hard for provincial status, led by the premier of the territories, Sir Frederick Haultain.

Prime minister Sir [[Wilfrid Laurier]] did not want to concentrate too much power in one gigantic prairie province, which might grow to rival Quebec and Ontario, but neither did he think three small provinces were viable, and so opted for the two-province plan. Alberta became a province along with her twin sister Saskatchewan on September 1, 1905. Haultain, a Conservative, was passed over for premier in favor of Liberal Alexander Rutherford, a weak leader.

Frank Oliver started Edmonton's influential newspaper the ''Edmonton Bulletin'' in 1880. He promoted Conservative party causes and disliked anyone who did not speak English, especially the French and Ukrainians. Elected to the national Parliament, Oliver became Minister of the Interior and reduced support for European immigration.
===Early 20th century===
The new province of Alberta had a population of 78,000 but apart from the Canadian Pacific railway it lacked infrastructure. The people were farmers and they lacked schools and medical facilities. Ottawa retained control of its natural resources until 1930, making economic development difficult and complicating federal-provincial relations. Indeed, battles over oil poisoned relations with the federal government, especially after 1970.
====Politics====
The Liberals formed the first government of Alberta and remained in office until 1921. After the election of 1905, Premier Rutherford's Liberal party government started work on the governmental infrastructure, especially regarding legal and municipal affairs. Rutherford, a gentleman of the old school, was a weak leader, but did aid education. Calgary was annoyed when Edmonton was chosen as the capital,<ref> Alexander Bruce Kilpatrick, "A Lesson in Boosterism: The Contest for the Alberta Provincial Capital, 1904-1906," ''Urban History Review'' 1980 8(3): 47-109. </ref> and outraged in 1908 when the University of Alberta was given to Strathcona (a suburb that soon was annexed into Edmonton). Talented Conservatives sought their political fortune in national rather than provincial politics, most notably [[R. B. Bennett]], who became Prime Minister in 1930.

Communication was enhanced when a telephone system was set up for the towns and cities. Long-term economic growth was stimulated by the construction through Edmonton of two additional transcontinental railroads, which later became part of the Canadian National Railway. Their main role was to ship people in, and wheat out. Drawn by cheap farm land and high wheat prices, immigration reached record levels, and the population reached 470,000 by 1914.

====Farm movements====
Feeling abused by the railroads and the grain elevators, militant farm organizations appeared, notably the left-wing [[United Farmers of Alberta]] (UFA), formed in 1909. Guided by the ideas of William Irvine and later by Henry Wise Wood, the UFA was intended to represent economic interests rather than to act as another political party. But the farmers' dissatisfaction with Liberal provincial policies and Conservative federal policies, combined with falling wheat prices and a railroad scandal, produced an overwhelming UFA landslide in the provincial legislature in 1921. Alberta also gave strong support to the [[Progressive Party of Canada]], a national farm organization, which held a bloc of seats in the federal parliament

John E. Brownlee led the UFA to a second majority government in the 1926 election. It repealed prohibition, passed a Debt Adjustment Act to help indebted farmers, and aided workers. It abolished the provincial police, leaving law enforcement to the RCMP. The government bailed-out the bankrupt Alberta Wheat Pool in 1929. The high point of Brownlee's administration came after long negotiations with the federal government concerning Alberta's natural resources. In 1930, control of these resources was turned over to the province. Riding a wave of popularity, Brownlee led the UFA to a third majority government in the 1930 election. As he moved to the right, alienating socialists and labour groups.

In 1934 the UFA collapsed politically, and returned to being a cooperative. Its defeat was in part due to a tawdry sex scandal and in part due to the government's inability to raise wheat prices or otherwise mitigate the Great Depression in Canada. A prolonged drought in the southern two thirds of the province forced the abandonment of thousands of farms, and cut grain output at a time prices were falling in half.<ref> Carl F. Betke, "The United Farmers of Alberta, 1921-1935." in ''Society and Politics in Alberta,'' edited by Carlo Caldarola. (1979). pp 14-32. </ref>

===Medical care and nursing===
The first homesteaders relied on themselves for medical services. Poverty and geographic isolation empowered women to learn and practice medical care with the herbs, roots, and berries that worked for their mothers. They prayed for divine intervention but also practiced supernatural magic that provided as much psychological as physical relief. The reliance on homeopathic remedies continued as trained nurses and doctors and how-to manuals slowly reached the homesteaders in the early 20th century.<ref>Anne Woywitka, "Pioneers In Sickness and in Health." ''Alberta History'' 2001 49(1): 16-20. </ref>

After 1900 medicine and especially nursing modernized and became well organized.

The Lethbridge Nursing Mission in Alberta was a representative Canadian voluntary mission. It was founded, independent of the Victorian Order of Nurses, in 1909 by Jessie Turnbull Robinson. A former nurse, Robinson was elected as president of the Lethbridge Relief Society and began district nursing services aimed at poor women and children. The mission was governed by a volunteer board of women directors and began by raising money for its first year of service through charitable donations and payments from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. The mission also blended social work with nursing, becoming the dispenser of unemployment relief.<ref> Sharon Richardson, "Women's Enterprise: Establishing The Lethbridge Nursing Mission, 1909-1919." ''Nursing History Review'' 1997 5: 105-130. 1062-8061 </ref>

Richardson (1998) examines the social, political, economic, class, and professional factors that contributed to ideological and practical differences between leaders of the Alberta Association of Graduate Nurses (AAGN), established in 1916, and the United Farm Women of Alberta (UFWA), founded in 1915, regarding the promotion and acceptance of midwifery as a recognized subspecialty of registered nurses. Accusing the AAGN of ignoring the medical needs of rural Alberta women, the leaders of the UFWA worked to improve economic and living conditions of women farmers. Irene Parlby, the UFWA's first president, lobbied for the establishment of a provincial Department of Public Health, government-provided hospitals and doctors, and passage of a law to permit nurses to qualify as registered midwives. The AAGN leadership opposed midwife certification, arguing that nursing curricula left no room for midwife study, and thus nurses were not qualified to participate in home births. In 1919 the AAGN compromised with the UFWA, and they worked together for the passage of the Public Health Nurses Act that allowed nurses to serve as midwives in regions without doctors. Thus, Alberta's District Nursing Service, created in 1919 to coordinate the province's women's health resources, resulted chiefly from the organized, persistent political activism of UFWA members and only minimally from the actions of professional nursing groups clearly disinterested in rural Canadians' medical needs.<ref> Sharon Richardson, "Political Women, Professional Nurses, and the Creation of Alberta's District Nursing Service, 1919-1925." ''Nursing History Review'' 1998 6: 25-50. 1062-8061 </ref>

The Alberta District Nursing Service administered health care in the predominantly rural and impoverished areas of Alberta in the first half of the 20th century. Founded in 1919 to meet maternal and emergency medical needs by the United Farm Women of Alberta (UFWA), the Nursing Service treated prairie settlers living in primitive areas lacking doctors and hospitals. Nurses provided prenatal care, worked as midwives, performed minor surgery, conducted medical inspections of schoolchildren, and sponsored immunization programs. The post-World War II discovery of large oil and gas reserves resulted in economic prosperity and the expansion of local medical services. The passage of provincial health and universal hospital insurance in 1957 precipitated the eventual phasing out of the obsolete District Nursing Service in 1976.<ref> Sharon Richardson, "Frontier Health Care: Alberta's District and Municipal Nursing Services, 1919 to 1976." ''Alberta History'' 1998 46(1): 2-9. </ref>

====First Nations====
Because health care was not provided by treaty with the Canadian government, First Nations reserve residents in the early 20th century usually received this service from private groups. The Anglican Church Missionary Society ran hospitals for the Blackfoot bands of southern Alberta during this time. In the 1920s the Canadian government authorized funds for building hospitals on both the Blackfoot and Blood reserves. They emphasized the treatment of tuberculosis through long-term care.<ref>Laurie Meijer Drees, Reserve Hospitals In Southern Alberta, 1890 To 1930. Native Studies Review 1993-94 9(1): 93-110. 0831-585X </ref>

There was a strong link between federal Indian health care and the ideology of social reform operating in Canada between the 1890s and 1930. Between the 1890s and 1930 the Department of Indian Affairs became increasingly involved in Indian health. With the aim of revealing aspects of the department's Indian health administration in this early period, this article describes the creation and workings of two hospitals on Indian reserves in southern Alberta. The federal government took two main steps in dealing with Indian peoples' health: it built hospitals on reserves, and it created a system of medical officers to staff these facilities. Before World War II, the health care system had a number of characteristics: it was a system initially operated by missionaries and later taken over by the Department of Indian Affairs, it was an extensive and decentralized system, the health care services delivered by the system were firmly rooted in Canadian middle-class reformist values and represented an attempt to have these values applied to Indian communities, and, apparently, the system served peoples who were reluctant to use the facilities and services made available to them. Contrary to the idea that prior to World War II the federal government refused to take responsibility for Indian health in Canada, the development of an Indian health policy and system had already taken place gradually.<ref> Laurie Meijer Drees, "Reserve Hospitals and Medical Officers: Health Care And Indian Peoples In Southern Alberta, 1890s-1930." ''Prairie Forum'' 1996 21(2): 149-176. 0317-6282 </ref>

===Religion, Ethnicity===
====Canadianization====
Assimilation into Canadian culture was the norm for nearly all European immigrants. An important indicator was language, as the children of all immigrant groups showed a strong preference in favour of speaking English. From 1900 to 1930, the government faced the formidable task of transforming the ethnically and linguistically diverse immigrant population into loyal and true Canadians. Many believed language assimilation to be the key to this process of Canadianization, aimed primarily at children. Major difficulties ensued initially from the Direct Method of second-language teaching with resistance emanating from both immigrants and some sectors of English-speaking society. Games frequently provided the most effective vehicle for language and citizenship instruction and were used as a method of socialization. The elementary schools of rural Alberta played a very significant role in the acculturation of the immigrant and his children, providing a community character that created a distinctive feature of Canadian schools glaringly missing in the European school tradition.<ref> Manfred Prokop, "Canadianization Of Immigrant Children: Role of the Rural Elementary School in Alberta, 1900-1930." ''Alberta History'' 1989 37(2): 1-10. </ref>
====Protestants====
During the interwar period the various components of the Alberta Woman's Missionary Societies worked tirelessly to maintain traditional Anglo-Protestant family and moral values. Comprising a number of mainstream denominational groups and at one time numbering over five thousand members, the societies actively sought to "Christianize and Canadianize" the substantial numbers of Ukrainian immigrants who settled in the province. A particular focus was child education, with music activities used as a recruiting tool. Some chapters admitted male members. The movement faded as general society shifted away from religious activities and the conservative fundamentalist movement gained strength.<ref> Gayle Thrift, "'Women of Prayer are Women of Power': Woman's Missionary Societies in Alberta, 1918-1939." ''Alberta History'' 1999 47(2): 10-17. </ref>

Methodist revivalism in early-20th-century Calgary promoted progress and bourgeois respectability as much as spiritual renewal. In 1908, the Central Methodist Church hosted American evangelicals H. L. Gale and J. W. Hatch. They drew big crowds, but the message was mild and the audience calm and well dressed. Few became church members after the revival was over, however. Working-class attendees probably experienced discomfort among their better-dressed and better-behaved neighbors, and the church leadership maintained strong ties to local business interests but did little to reach out to the lower classes. The cottage meetings that followed the revival typically took place in middle-class homes.<ref> Eric Crouse, "'The Great Revival': Evangelical Revivalism, Methodism, and Bourgeois Order in Early Calgary." ''Alberta History'' 1999 47(1): 18-23. </ref>
====Catholics====
The Catholic archbishop of Edmonton, Henry Joseph O'Leary had a considerable impact on the city's Catholic sectors, and his efforts reflect many of the challenges facing the Catholic Church at that time. During the 1920s, O'Leary favored his fellow Irish and drastically reduced the influence of French Catholic clergy in his archdiocese and replaced them with Anglophone priests. He helped to assimilate Ukrainian Catholic immigrants into the stricter Roman Catholic traditions, extended the viability of Edmonton's separate Catholic school system, and established both a Catholic college at the University of Alberta and a seminary in Edmonton.<ref> Peter McGuigan, "Edmonton, Archbishop Henry O'Leary and the Roaring Twenties." ''Alberta History'' 1996 44(4): 6-14. </ref>
====Francophone ====
In 1892 Alberta adopted the Ontario schools model, emphasizing state-run institutions that glorified not only the English language but English history and customs as well. Predominantly francophone communities in Alberta maintained some control of local schools by electing trustees sympathetic to French language and culture. Such groups as the Association Canadienne-Française de l'Alberta expected trustees to implement their own cultural agenda. An additional problem francophone communities faced was the constant shortage of qualified francophone teachers during 1908-35; the majority of those hired left their positions after only a few years of service. After 1940 school consolidation largely ignored the language and culture issues of francophones.<ref> Yvette T. M. Mahé, "Bilingual School District Trustees and Cultural Transmission: The Alberta Experience, 1892-1939." ''Historical Studies in Education'' 1997 9 (1): 65-82. 0843-5057 </ref>
====Ukrainians====
A key controversy concerning the linguistic rights of ethnic minorities in western Canada was the 1913 Ruthenian School Revolt in the Edmonton, Alberta, area. Ukrainian immigrants, called "Galicians" or "Ruthenians" by Anglo-Celtic Canadians, settled in the vicinity of Edmonton. The attempts by the Ukrainian community to use the Liberal Party to garner political power in districts that were predominantly Ukrainian and introduce bilingual education in those areas, were quashed by party leaders, who blamed a group of teachers for the initiative. As a reprisal, these teachers were labeled "unqualified." The various rebellious actions by Ukrainian residents of the Bukowina school district did not prevent the dismissal of Ukrainian teachers. By 1915 it was clear that bilingual education would not be tolerated in early-20th-century Alberta.<ref> Angela Gauthier, Nick Kach, and Kas Mazurek, "The Ruthenian School Revolt of 1913: Linguistic and Cultural Conflict in Alberta." ''Historical Studies in Education'' 1996 8 (2): 199-210. 0843-5057 </ref>
====Italians====
Italians arrived in two waves, the first from 1900 to 1914, the second after the Second World War. The first arrivals came as temporary and seasonal workers, often returning to southern Italy after a few years. Other became permanent urban dwellers, especially when the First World War prevented international travel. From the outset they began to have an impact on the cultural and commercial life of the area. As "Little Italy" grew it started to provide essential services for its members, such as a consul and the Order of the Sons of Italy, and an active fascist party provided a means of social organization. Initially the Italians coexisted peacefully with their neighbors, but during World War II they were the victims of prejudice and discrimination to the point that even today Italians in Calgary feel that Canadian society does not reward those who maintain their ethnicity.<ref> Antonella Fanella, "Italians In Calgary". ''Alberta History'' 1994 42(2): 3-9. </ref>

===Rural life===
An economic crisis engulfed much of rural Alberta in the early 1920s, as wheat prices plunged from their wartime highs and farmers found themselves deep in debt.

====Farms====
[[Image:Palliser.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Palliser's Triangle.]]
Wheat was the dominant crop and the tall grain elevator alongside the railway tracks became a crucial element of the Albertan grain trade after 1890. It boosted "King Wheat" to regional dominance by integrating the province's economy with the rest of Canada. Used to efficiently load grain into railroad cars, grain elevators came to be clustered in "lines" and their ownership tended to concentrate in the hands of increasingly fewer companies, many controlled by Americans. The main commercial entities involved in the trade were the Canadian Pacific Railroad and the powerful grain syndicates. Dramatic changes in the Albertan grain trade took place in the 1940s, notably the amalgamation of grain elevator companies.<ref> John Everitt, "The Line Elevator in Alberta." ''Alberta History'' 1992 40(4): 16-22; 1993 41(1): 20-26. </ref>

Recklessness, greed, and overoptimism played a part in the early-20th-century financial crisis on the Canadian wheat frontier. Beginning in 1916, the [[Palliser Triangle]], a semiarid region in Alberta and Saskatchewan, suffered a decade of dry years and crop failures that culminated in financial ruin for many of the region's wheat farmers. Overconfidence on the part of farmers, financiers, the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], and the Canadian government led to land investments and development in the Palliser on an unprecedented and dangerous scale. A large share of this expansion was funded by mortgage and loan companies in Britain eager to make overseas investments. British money managers were driven by a complex set of global economic forces including a decline in British investment opportunities, excess capital, and massive investment expansion on the Canadian frontier. Reduced grain production in Europe and increased grain production in the Prairie Provinces also encouraged the export of capital from London. The mythical image of the Palliser as an abundant region, coupled with a growing confidence in technology, created a false sense of security and stability. Between 1908 and 1913 British firms lent vast sums to Canadian farmers to plant their wheat crops; only when the drought began in 1916 did it become clear that far too much credit had been extended.<Ref> John Feldberg, and Warren M. Elofson, "Financing The Palliser Triangle, 1908-1913." ''Great Plains Quarterly'' 1998 18(3): 257-268. 0275-7664 </Ref>

====Ranches and mixed farming====
The term "mixed farming" better applies to southern Alberta agricultural practices during 1881-1914 than does "ranching." "Pure ranching" involves cowboys working predominantly from horseback; it was the norm when huge ranches were formed in 1881. Quickly practices were modified. Hay was planted and cut in summer to provide winter cattle feed; fences were built and repaired to contain winter herds; and dairy cows and barnyard animals were maintained for personal consumption and secondarily for market. Mixed farming was clearly predominant in southern Alberta by 1900.<Ref> W. M. Elofson, "Not Just A Cowboy: The Practice Of Ranching in Southern Alberta, 1881-1914."
''Canadian Papers In Rural History'' 1996 10: 205-216. </ref>
Captain Charles Augustus Lyndon and his wife, Margaret, established one of the first ranches in Alberta in 1881. Lyndon homesteaded a site in the Porcupine Hills west of Fort Macleod. They primarily raised cattle but also raised horses for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police for additional income. Lyndon's herds suffered with others' herds during the hard winter of 1886-87. He developed an irrigation system and a post office as the district grew during the 1890's. Although Lyndon died in 1903, his family maintained his enterprises until 1966 when the ranch was sold.<ref> Patricia Hawk, . The Lyndon Ranch. Alberta History 2000 48(1): 10-13.</ref>

Benson (2000) describes the social structure for cowboys and other workers on large, corporate ranches in southwestern Alberta around 1900. Four of those ranches, the Cochrane, the Oxley, the Walrond, and the Bar U, demonstrate the complex hierarchies that separated cowboys from cooks and foremen from managers. Ethnic, educational, and age differences further complicated the elaborate social fabric of the corporate ranches. The resulting division of labor and hierarchy permitted Alberta's ranches to function without the direct involvement of investors and owners, most of whom lived in eastern Canada and Britain.<ref>Kristi Benson, "Cowboys and Cattlebarons: Status and Hierarchy on Alberta's Early Corporate Ranches." ''Alberta History'' 2000 48(4): 2-9. Professor Sheldon, "A Visit To The Bar U" ''Alberta History'' 2000 48(1): 21-26, reprints an 1891 travel account. </ref>

The survival of Alberta's cattle industry was seriously in doubt for most of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. At two points during this time, 1887-1900 and 1914-20, the industry enjoyed great prosperity. The latter boom began when the United States enacted the [[Underwood Tariff]] of 1913, allowing Canadian cattle free entry. Exporting Alberta cattle to Chicago markets proved highly profitable for the highest quality livestock. By 1915, most stocker and feeder cattle from the Winnipeg stockyards were exported to the United States, harming Canada's domestic beef market. Several factors, including the severe winter of 1919-20, the end of inflated wartime prices for beef, and the reinstitution of the US tariff on Canadian cattle, all contributed to the collapse of the Alberta cattle market. The boom ultimately worked against Alberta's economic interests because the high prices during that period made it unfeasible to establish local cattle finishing practices.<ref> Max Foran, "Mixed Blessings: The Second 'Golden Age' of the Alberta Cattle Industry 1914-1920." ''Alberta History'' 1998 46(3): 10-19. </ref>

Some ranchers became important entrepreneurs. A rancher and brewer with secondary interests in gas, electricity, and oil, Calgary entrepreneur Alfred Ernest Cross (1861-1932) was a significant agent of modernization in Alberta and the Canadian West. As with others, his name symbolizes a driving force of enterprise, the pursuit of profit, family-centered capitalism, use of Canada's and Britain's capital markets, and economic progression through reinvestment of earnings. His personal family management developed a family estate that remains significant in Alberta's economy. Cross is remembered principally for his cattle breeding advances and his dynamism and scientific approach to brewing.<ref> Henry C. Klassen, "Entrepreneurship in the Canadian West: The Enterprises of A. E. Cross, 1886-1920." ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 1991 22(3): 313-333. 0043-3810 </ref>

====Women====
Gender roles were sharply defined. Men were primarily responsible for breaking the land; planting and harvesting; building the house; buying, operating and repairing machinery; and handling finances. At first there were many single men on the prairie, or husbands whose wives were still back east, but they had a hard time. They realized the need for a wife. As the population increased rapidly, wives played a central role in settlement of the prairie region. Their labor, skills, and ability to adapt to the harsh environment proved decisive in meeting the challenges. They prepared bannock, beans and bacon, mended clothes, raised children, cleaned, tended the garden, helped at harvest time and nursed everyone back to health. While prevailing patriarchal attitudes, legislation, and economic principles obscured women's contributions, the flexibility exhibited by farm women in performing productive and nonproductive labor was critical to the survival of family farms, and thus to the success of the wheat economy.<ref> Sandra Rollings-Magnusson, "Canada's Most Wanted: Pioneer Women on the Western Prairies." ''Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology'' 2000 37(2): 223-238; E. Rowles, "Bannock, beans and bacon: An investigation of pioneer diet." ''Saskatchewan History'', 1952. Vol. V, No 1, pp. 1-16. </ref>

====Miners====
James Moodie developed the Rosedale Mine in Alberta's Red Deer River Valley in 1911. Although Moodie paid higher wages and operated the mine more safely and efficiently than other coal mines in the province, the Rosedale experienced work slowdowns and strikes. Because Moodie owned the mine and provided services for the camp, Bolshevik sympathizers considered him an oppressor of the laborers and a bourgeois industrialist. The radicalism at the mine diminished as Moodie replaced the immigrant miners with Canadian military veterans ready to appreciate the safe work environment offered there.<ref> Catherine Munn Smith, "J. Frank Moodie: The Man and the Mine." ''Alberta History'' 2000 48(2): 2-9. </ref>

===Urban life===
In the larger cities the Alberta chapter of the Canadian Red Cross provided relief services to the community during the hard years of the 1920s and 1930s. It also successfully lobbied the government to take a more active and responsible role in looking after the people during difficult times.<ref> Nancy M. Sheehan, "The Red Cross And Relief In Alberta, 1920s-1930s." ''Prairie Forum'' 1987 12(2): 277-293. </ref>

====Business====
Most business operations were family affairs, with relatively few large scale operations apart from the railways. In 1886, the Cowdry brothers (Nathaniel and John) opened a private bank at Fort MacLeod, Alberta. Its history provides a prototype to show how a small-scale private banking house became an important force in early southwestern Alberta finance. Both brothers were astute businessmen, community leaders, and had absolute confidence in each other - so much so that in 1888 Nathaniel returned to Lindsay (later Simcoe) and became a grain merchant. The banking business expanded, with branches being opened and advertising and the lending of money becoming widespread. In March 1905, the Cowdrys sold their banking concerns at Fort Macleod to the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce. The role of family enterprise in private banking during the late 19th and early 20th centuries was pivotal in providing an important channel for the flow of credit into southwestern Alberta and facilitated the emergence of the modern economy.<ref>Henry C. Klassen, "Cowdry Brothers: Private Bankers In Southwestern Alberta, 1886-1905." ''Alberta History'' 1989 37(1): 9-23. </ref>

After a dramatic economic boom during the First World War, a sharp, short depression hit Alberta in 1920-22. Conditions were typical in the town of Red Deer, a railroad and trading center midway between Calgary and Edmonton that depended on farmers. Hardship during the early 1920s was as severe, or even somewhat worse, than those experienced during the much longer Great Depression of the 1930s. The groundwork for the economic collapse had been laid as early as 1913, when the speculative boom that had fueled Alberta's prosperity had collapsed. But the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 initiated an enormous demand for agricultural products and helped to mask the serious weaknesses of the provincial economy. With the conclusion of the war, however, unemployment skyrocketed as veterans returned and inflation increased. Grain prices began to fall in 1920, causing further hardships. By the spring of 1921, many Red Deer businesses had gone bankrupt, and the city's unemployment rate was estimated at 20%. The city's economic situation began to improve in 1923, and Red Deer city officials were finally able to collect enough tax revenues to avoid the need for short-term bank loans.<ref> Michael J. Dawe, "Debt and Depression: Red Deer in the Early 1920s." ''Alberta History'' 1996 44(2): 19-23. </ref>

====Women====
Up to the 1880s prostitution in Alberta was tolerated and not considered serious. As the itinerant population became more settled, however, this attitude gradually changed. The years 1880-1909 witnessed few arrests and even fewer fines for prostitution, in part because those caught were encouraged to leave town rather than be jailed. Later, 1909-14, a smallpox epidemic in the red light district started a crackdown against prostitution, which by then was regarded as a major problem, especially by middle class women reformers. The [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]] vigorously opposed both saloons and prostitution, and called for woman suffrage as a tool to end those evils.<ref> Judy Bedford, "Prostitution In Calgary 1905-1914". ''Alberta History'' 1981 29(2): 1-11; Nancy M. Sheehan, "The WCTU on the Prairies, 1886-1930: An Alberta-Saskatchewan Comparison." ''Prairie Forum'' 1981 6(1): 17-33.</ref>

The Calgary Current Events Club, started in 1927 by seven women, rapidly gained popularity with professional women of the city. In 1929 the group changed its name to the Calgary Business and Professional Women's Club (BPW) in response to a call for a national federation of such groups. Members traveled to London, England, in 1929 to make the case for recognizing women as full legal citizens. In the 1930s the group addressed many of the controversial political issues of the day, including the introduction of a minimum wage, fair unemployment insurance legislation, the compulsory medical examination of school children, and the requirement of a medical certificate for marriage. The national convention of the BPW was held in Calgary in 1935. The club actively supported Canadian overseas forces in World War II. At first most of the members were secretaries and office workers; more recently it has been dominated by executives and professions. The organization continues to attend to women's economic and social issues.<ref> Andrews, D. Larraine. "Calgary Business And Professional Women's Club." ''Alberta History'' 1997 45(1): 20-25. </ref>

====Cinema====
Motion pictures have been an important aspect of urban culture since 1910. The places where people have watched films, from the nickelodeon to the multiplex, have changed in ways that reflect changes in the society generally. The cinema in Edmonton reflected the changing urban landscape. Because the movie houses themselves are part of the entertainment product, the cinema industry follows a cycle of construction, renovation, and demolition. The industry's face is constantly changing in an effort to draw people inside; Edmonton's cinemas have moved with the retail industry from the downtown core to the suburban shopping malls, and are now experimenting with new formats similar to retailers' big boxes. Just as Edmonton is known for massive amounts of retail space, it also has one of the highest numbers of movie screens in Canada in proportion to its population. Cinemas are thus a revealing aspect of trends in urban development.<ref> Douglas Bailie, Cinemas in the City: Edmonton from the Nickelodeon to the Multiplex. Prairie Forum [Canada] 1996 21(2): 239-262. </ref>
====Sports====
Throughout the province popular sports included snowshoeing and skating for everyone, and hunting and fishing for men and boys.

Competitive sports emerged in urban areas, especially hockey. It provided an arena for the civic rivalries such as those between the cities of Edmonton and neighboring Strathcona during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Edmonton, on the north bank of the Saskatchewan River, and Strathcona, on the south bank of the river, developed separately - economically, politically, and socially - because travel and communication across the river were limited. (They merged in 1912.) In addition to affording an outlet for civic rivalries, the games between the Edmonton Thistle and Strathcona Shamrock hockey clubs united individuals from different social classes and diverse cultural backgrounds in support of their team.<ref>Terence O'Riordan, "The 'Puck Eaters': Hockey As A Unifying Community Experience In Edmonton & Strathcona, 1894-1905." ''Alberta History'' 2001 49(2): 2-11. 0316-1552 </ref>

Skiing began in [[Banff]] in the 1890s and received its main impetus with the winter carnival in 1916. In the next decades the carnival became popular; ski jumping and cross-country races led to much publicity. By 1940, Banff had become one of Canada's leading skiing centers, and was heavily promoted as a vacation destination by the Canadian Pacific railway.<ref>Rolf T. Lund, "The Development of Skiing in Banff." ''Alberta History'' 1977 25(4): 26-30. </ref>

===Oil, gas and tar sands===
Alberta has played the central role in Canada's petroleum industry —both from the discovery and development of conventional oil and natural gas, and through the development of the world's largest [[bitumen]] deposits in the province's vast northern [[oil sands]] or "tar sands." The province became one of the world's foremost producers of [[crude oil]] and [[natural gas]], generating billions of revenue for the province and igniting a bitter feud with the national government.

The first oil field in western Canada was Turner Valley, south of Calgary, where large supplies were discovered in 1914 at a depth of about 3,000 feet (910 meters). Calgary became the oil capital, with a reputation for swashbuckling entrepreneurship. Turner Valley was for a time the largest oil and gas producer in the British Empire. Three distinct phases of discovery marked the field's history and involved such Albertans as William Stewart Herron and A. W. Dingman, and companies that included Calgary Petroleum Products, later the Royalite Oil Company; Turner Valley Royalties; and later the Home Oil Company. In 1931, the province enacted the Oil and Gas Wells Act to reduce the heavy waste of natural gas. In 1938, the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board was successfully established and enacted conservation and prorating measures. The goal was to maximize the long-term yield, as well as to protect small producers.<ref> Laura Atkins, Coleen Nicoll, and Jody Stewart, "Turner Valley Oilfields." ''Alberta History'' 1984 32(1): 9-19; Breen (1993). </ref>

In 1947 an even bigger field opened at [[Leduc]], 20 miles (32 km) south of Edmonton, and in 1948 oil mining began at Redwater. Both these fields were overshadowed in importance in 1956 with the discovery of the [[Pembina]] field west of Edmonton. Other fields were discovered east of Grande Prairie and in central Alberta. From collection and distribution points near Edmonton the oil is sent by pipeline to refineries, some as distant as Sarnia, Toronto and Montreal to the east, Vancouver to the west, and especially the U.S. to the South. Interprovincial Pipe Line (IPL) began in 1949, transporting oil to refineries in the east. IPL became Enbridge Pipelines in 1998 and now has 4500 employees; it moves 2 million barrels a day over 13,500 miles of pipe.

Alberta produced 81% of Canada's crude oil in 1991, when Alberta's traditional oil fields peaked; output is now steadily declining. Before the 1970s, the major producers were controlled by U.S. oil giants.
====Natural gas====
Exploration for oil led to the discovery of large reserves of natural gas. The most important gas fields are at Pincher Creek in the southeast, at Medicine Hat, and in the northwest. TransCanada pipeline, completed in 1958, carries some of the gas eastward to Ontario and Quebec; other pipelines run to California. Alberta produces 81% of Canada's natural gas.
====Oil sands====
The '''"[[oil sands]]"''' or "tar sands" in the Athabasca River valley to the north of [[Fort McMurray]] contain an enormous amount of oil, one of the world's richest deposits--second only to Saudi Arabia. The first plant for extracting oil from the tar sands was completed in 1967, and a second plant was completed in 1978. In 1991 the plants produced about 100 million barrels of oil. Expansion was rapid, with very high paid workers flown in from eastern Canada, especially the depressed Maritimes and Newfoundland. In 2006 bitumen production averaged 1.25 million barrels per day (200,000 m³/d) through 81 oil sands projects, representing 47% of total Canadian oil output. The processing of bitumen, however, releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, which has alarmed environmentalists worried about global warming and the Canada's carbon footprint. <ref>Timothy Le Riche, ''Alberta's Oil Patch - The People, Politics & Companies'' (2006)</ref>

In the 1960s Great Canadian Oil Sands, Ltd., a small, indigenous Canadian firm, relied on new technology and heavy capital investment to pioneer oil sand extraction in the Athabascan region. Unfavorable leasing terms from the provincial government and the strong financial risk inherent in the project forced it firm to seek an investment partner. The large American oil company [[Sunoco|Sun Oil Company]] took the risk, but as the investment burden on Sun increased, the company became compelled to assume both financial and managerial control of the operation. Thus, the native Canadian firm had to yield its autonomy as the price of pursuing a pioneering but complicated industrial project. In 1995 Sun sold its interest to Suncor Energy, based in Calgary. Suncor is second to Syncrude in the oil sands, but Syncrude is controlled by a consortium of international oil companies.<ref> Graham D. Taylor, "Sun Oil Company and Great Canadian Oil Sands Ltd.: The Financing and Management of a 'Pioneer' Enterprise, 1962-1974." ''Journal of Canadian Studies'' 1985 20(3): 102-121. 0021-9495 </ref>

====Spin-off industry====
The province's oil and natural gas furnish raw materials for large industrial complexes at Edmonton and Calgary, as well as for smaller ones at Lethbridge and Medicine Hat. These complexes include oil and gas refineries and plants that use refinery by-products to make plastics, chemicals, and fertilizer. The oil and gas industry provides a market for firms supplying pipes, drills, and other equipment. Large amounts of sulfur are extracted from natural gas in plants near the gas fields. Helium is extracted from the gas in a plant near Edson, west of Edmonton.

==Social Credit==
'''Social Credit''' (often called ''Socred'') was a populist political movement strongest in Alberta and neighboring [[British Columbia]], 1930s-1970s. [[Social Credit]] was based on the economic theories of an Englishman, [[C. H. Douglas]]. His theories became very popular across the nation in the early 1930s. A central proposal was the free distribution of prosperity certificates (or social credit), called "funny money" by the opposition.<ref>Bob Hesketh, ''Major Douglas and Alberta Social Credit.'' (1997)</ref>

During the [[Great Depression]] in Canada the demand for radical action peaked around 1934, after the worst period was over and the economy was recovering. Mortgage debt was significant because farmers could not meet their interest payments. The insecurity of farmers, whose debts were increasing and who had no legal protection against foreclosure, was a potent factor in creating a mood of political desperation. The radical farmers party, UFA was baffled by the depression and Albertans demanded new leadership.

The prairie farmers had always believed that they were being exploited by Toronto and Montreal. What they lacked was a prophet who would lead them to the promised land. The Social Credit movement began in Alberta in 1932; it became a political movement in 1935 and suddenly burned like a prairie fire. The prophet and new premier was radio evangelist [[William Aberhart]] (1878-1943). The message was biblical prophecy. Aberhart was a fundamentalist, preaching the revealed word of God and quoting the Bible to find a solution for the evils of the modern, materialistic world: the evils of sophisticated academics and their biblical criticism, the cold formality of middle-class congregations, the vices of dancing and movies and drink. "Bible Bill" preached that the capitalist economy was rotten because of its immorality; specifically it produced goods and services but did not provide people with sufficient purchasing power to enjoy them. This could be remedied by the giving out money in the form of "social credit", or $25 a month for every man and woman. This pump priming was guaranteed to restore prosperity, he prophesied to the 1600 Social Credit clubs he formed in the province.

Alberta's businessmen, professionals, newspaper editors and the traditional middle-class leaders protested vehemently at Aberhart's crack-pot ideas, but they had not solved any problems and spoke not of the promised land ahead. Aberhart's new party in 1935 elected 56 members to the Assembly, compared to 7 for all the other parties.<ref> The economic theorist for Aberhart was Major Douglas, an English engineer with an unbounded confidence in technology. * H. Blair Neatby, ''The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties'' (1972) pp 143-61; John A. Irving, ''The Social Credit Movement in Alberta'' (1959)</ref>

Alberta's Social Credit Party remained in power for 36 years until 1971. It were re-elected by popular vote no less than 9 times, achieving success by moving from left to the right.<ref>Thomas Flanagan and Martha F. Lee, "From Social Credit to Social Conservatism: The Evolution of an Ideology," ''Prairie Forum'' 16 (1991): 205-223; C. B. Macpherson, ''Democracy in Alberta: Social Credit and the Party System.'' 2d ed. 1962. </ref>

===Social Credit in office===
Once in office Aberhart gave a high priority to balancing the provincial budget. He reduced expenditures and increased the sales tax and the income tax. The poor and unemployed got nothing.<ref>Alvin Finkel, "Social Credit and the Unemployed." ''Alberta History'' 1983 31(2): 24-32.</ref> The $25 monthly social dividend never arrived, as Aberhart decided nothing could be done until the province's financial system was changed, and 1936 Alberta defaulted on its bonds. He did pass a Debt Adjustment Act that canceled all the interest on mortgages since 1932 and limited all interest rates on mortgages to 5%, in line with similar laws passed by other provinces. In 1937 backbenchers passed a radical banking law that was disallowed by the national government (banking was a federal responsibility). Efforts to control the press were also disallowed. The party was authoritarian and tried to exert detailed control over its officeholders; those who rebelled were purged or removed from office by the new device of recall elections. Although Aberhart was hostile to banks and newspapers, he was basically in favor of capitalism and did not support socialist policies as did the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Saskatchewan.<ref> In Alberta the CCF and Social Credit were bitter enemies, which made it impossible for them to merge in Saskatchewan. See S. M. Lipset, ''Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan a Study in Political Sociology.'' (1950, 1971 ed.) p. 143-4.</ref>

By 1938 the Social Credit government abandoned its notions about the $25 payouts, but its inability to break with UFA policies led to disillusionment and heavy defections from the party. Aberhart's government was re-elected in the [[Alberta general election, 1940|1940 election]], carrying 43% of the vote. The prosperity of the Second World War relieved the economic fears and hatreds that had fueled farmer unrest. Aberhart died in 1943, and was succeeded as Premier by his student at the Prophetic Bible Institute and lifelong close disciple, [[Ernest C. Manning]] (1908-1996).

The Social Credit party, now firmly on the right, governed Alberta until 1968 under Manning.

By the late 1960s Social Credit activists were redeploying into the conservative, fundamentalist [[Reform Party]] by [[Preston Manning]], son of Ernest Manning.<ref> Murray Dobbin, ''Preston Manning and the Reform Party'' (1991)</ref>

The anti-semitic rhetoric of some Social Credit activists greatly troubled Canada's Jewish community; in the late 1940s Premier Manning belatedly purged the anti-Semites.<ref> Major C.H. Douglas, was blatantly anti-Semitic and enamored with the fake ''Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion.'' Aberhart and Manning vigorously denied they were anti-Semitic. See Janine Stingel, ''Social Discredit: Anti-Semitism, Social Credit, and the Jewish Response.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2000. </ref>

==Second World War==
Alberta's contribution to the Canadian war effort from 1939 to 1945 was substantial. Thousands volunteered for service and many were killed in combat in Europe.

In 1942 many Japanese from British Columbia were forcibly sent to internment camps in southern Alberta, which already had Japanese communities at Raymond and Hardieville. At first limited to working in sugar beet fields, the newly arrived Japanese had severe housing, school, and water problems. In the following years some of the Japanese were permitted to work in canning factories, sawmills, and other businesses. There was constant controversy in the press about the role and freedom of the local Japanese. Farm production increased markedly, and after the war few of the Japanese took advantage of the repatriation plan to go to Japan. The Japanese in Alberta today are well assimilated, but little of Japanese heritage remains.<ref> David B. Iwaasa, "The Japanese in Southern Alberta, 1941-45." ''Alberta History'' 1976 24(3): 5-19.</ref>

==Postwar==
After the war the Manning government passed several pieces of restrictive legislation that limited labor's ability to organize workers and to call strikes. The enforcement of labor law also reflected an anti-union bias. Social Crediters, who had a penchant for conspiracy theories, believed union militancy was the product of an international Communist conspiracy. Their labor legislation sought to foil the conspiracy's plans in Alberta and incidentally to reassure potential investors, particularly in the oil industry, of a good climate for profit taking. The path for such legislation was made smoother by the conservatism of one wing of the labor movement in the province and the fear of being tarnished with the Communist brush by the other wing.<ref> Alvin Finkel, "The Cold War, Alberta Labour, and the Social Credit Regime." ''Labour'' [1988 (21): 123-152. 0700-3862 </ref>
===Conservatives and reform===
In 1971, [[Peter Lougheed]]'s Conservatives put an end to the long rule of the Social Credit Party as the [[Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta|Progressive Conservative Party]] came to power. They remain in power to this day, coming up on 38 years of majority governments.

Many experts maintain that the large-scale social change that occurred in the province as a result of the postwar oil boom was responsible for this important change of government. Urbanization, in particular the expansion of the urban middle classes, secularization, and increasing wealth are often cited as the primary causes of Social Credit's downfall. Bell (1993) challenges this popular interpretation, arguing instead that short-term factors such as leadership, contemporaneous issues, and campaign organization better explain the Conservative triumph.<ref> Edward Bell, "The Rise of the Lougheed Conservatives and the Demise of Social Credit In Alberta: A Reconsideration." ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' 1993 26(3): 455-475. 0008-4239 </ref>

The election in May 1986 of a 22-member opposition to Alberta's legislature signals for the first time since 1971 a significant competitive voice to the dominant Conservative Party in that province's voting citizenship. This development and the emergence of the New Democrats as the primary opposition party in Alberta necessitates a reevaluation of Alberta politics, which critics have long labeled as ideologically conservative, anachronistic, and oddly unpredictable. Alberta politics are now beginning to resemble that of Canada's other provinces. The rise of a new, competent opposition is a healthy development in Alberta's politics and will likely contribute positively to Alberta's economic and social well-being, Tupper (1986) argues.<ref> Allan Tupper, "New Dimensions of Alberta Politics." ''Queen's Quarterly'' 1986 93(4): 780-791. </ref>

==Bibliography==
===Surveys and reference===
* Heritage Community Foundation. ''Alberta Online Encyclopedia,'' [http://www.albertasource.ca/aoe/ui/index.aspx online 2009], a short encyclopedia
* ''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008) a very good starting point [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 online edition]
* ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography'' (1966-2006), scholarly biographies of every important person who died by 1930 [http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html online edition]
* Cashman, Tony. ''A Picture History of Alberta''. Edmonton, Alta.: Hurtig, (1979) . 215 pp.
* Friesen, Gerald. ''The Canadian Prairies: A History'' (2nd ed. 1987)
* MacGregor, James A. ''A History of Alberta.'' Edmonton, Alta.: Hurtig, 1972. 335 pp.
* Owram, Douglas R., ed. ''The Formation of Alberta: A Documentary History''. Calgary: Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1979. 403 pp. primary sources
* Palmer, Howard. ''Alberta: A New History'' (1999), standard survey by leading historian
* Pitsula, James M. "Disparate Duo" ''Beaver'' 2005 85(4): 14-24, a comparison with Saskatchewan, Fulltext in EBSCO
* Wardhaugh, Robert A., ed. ''Toward Defining the Prairies: Region, Culture, and History.'' (2001). 234 pp.

===Economics, business, labour===
* Ascah, Robert L. ''Politics and Public Debt: The Dominion, the Banks, and Alberta's Social Credit.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1999. 360 pp.
* Bercuson, David Jay, ed. ''Alberta's Coal Industry, 1919.'' Calgary: Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1978. 264 pp. 1919 primary source
* Breen, David H. ''Alberta's Petroleum Industry and the Conservation Board.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1993. 800 pp.
* Breen, David H. and Macleod, R. C., eds. ''William Stewart Herron: Father of the Petroleum Industry in Alberta.'' Calgary: Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1984. 459 pp. primary sources
* Bright, David. ''The Limits of Labour: Class Formation and the Labour Movement in Calgary, 1883-1929.'' U. of British Columbia Press, 1998. 286 pp.
* Burrill, Gary. ''Away. Maritimers in Massachusetts, Ontario and Alberta: An Oral History of Leaving Home.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1992. 272 pp. a primary source; interviews with oil workers
* Chatko, Paul. ''Developing Alberta's Oil Sands: From Karl Clark to Kyoto'' (2005) [http://www.h-net.org/~energy/roundtables/Chastko.html author's dicsussion]
* Ferguson, Barry Glen. ''Athabasca Oil Sands: Northern Resource Exploration, 1875-1951.'' Regina, Saskatchewan: Can. Plains Res. Center, 1986. 283 pp.
* Hart, E. J. ''The Selling of Canada: The CPR and the Beginnings of Canadian Tourism.'' Banff: Altitude, 1983. 180 pp.
* House, John D. ''The Last of the Free Enterprisers: The Oilmen of Calgary.'' Toronto: Macmillan, 1980. 230 pp.
* Johnston, Alex; Gladwyn, Keith G.; and Ellis, L. Gregory. ''Lethbridge: Its Coal Industry.'' Lethbridge Hist. Soc. (1989) 148 pp.
* Kennedy, Margaret A. ''The Whiskey Trade of the Northwestern Plains: A Multidisciplinary Study.'' New York: Lang, 1997. 181 pp.
* Klassen, Henry C. ''A Business History of Alberta.'' U. of Calgary Press, 1999. 362 pp.
* Parker, James M. ''Emporium of the North: Fort Chipewyan and the Fur Trade to 1835.'' Regina, Sask.: Can. Plains Res. Cen., 1987. 208 pp.
* Richards, John and Larry Pratt. ''Prairie Capitalism: Power and Influence in the New West.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1979. 340 pp. influential Marxist interpretation
* Schneider, Ena. ''Ribbons of Steel: The Story of the Northern Alberta Railways.'' Calgary: Detselig, (1991) 312 pp.
* Wetherell, Donald G. and Kmet, Irene. ''Useful Pleasures: The Shaping of Leisure in Alberta, 1896-1945.'' U. of Regina Press, 1990. 430 pp.

===First Nations, Metis===
* Drees, Laurie Meijer. ''The Indian Association of Alberta: A History of Political Action. U. of British Columbia Press, 2002. 246 pp.
* McClintock, Walter. ''The Old North Trail: Life, Legends, and Religion of the Blackfeet Indians.'' (1910). 539 pp.
* Pocklington, T. C. ''The Government and Politics of the Alberta Métis Settlements.'' Regina: Can. Plains Res. Cen., 1991. 162 pp.
* Price, Richard, ed. ''The Spirit of the Alberta Indian Treaties.'' Toronto: Butterworth, 1979. 202 pp.
* Samek, Hana. ''The Blackfoot Confederacy, 1880-1920: A Comparative Study of Canadian and U. S. Indian Policy.'' U. of New Mexico Press, 1987. 236 pp.
* Ward, Donald. ''The People: A Historical Guide to the First Nations of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.'' Saskatoon: Fifth House, 1995. 115 pp.

===High culture===
* Ainslie, Patricia Ainslie, and Mary-Beth Laviolette. ''Alberta Art and Artists: An Overview‎'' (2007) 147 pages
* Calder, Alison and Wardhaugh, Robert, ed. ''History, Literature, and the Writing of the Canadian Prairies.'' U. of Manitoba Press, 2005. 310 pp.
* Keahey, Deborah. ''Making It Home: Place in Canadian Prairie Literature.'' (1998). 178 pp.
* Johns, Walter H. ''A History of the University of Alberta, 1908- 1969''. Edmonton: U. of Alberta Press, 1981. 544 pp.
* Melnyk, George. ''The Literary History of Alberta, Vol. 1: From Writing-on-Stone to World War Two.'' Edmonton: U. of Alberta Press, 1998. 240 pp.
** Melnyk, George. ''The Literary History of Alberta. Vol. 2: From the End of the War to the End of the Century.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1999. 302 pp.

===Politics and government===
* Aberhart, William. ''Aberhart: Outpourings and Replies.'' ed. by David R. Elliott, Calgary: Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1991. 296 pp. a primary source
* Barr, John J. ''The Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of Social Credit in Alberta.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. 248 pp.
* Bell, Edward. ''Social Classes and Social Credit in Alberta.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1993. 196 pp.
* Boudreau, Joseph A., ed. ''Alberta, Aberhart and Social Credit. Canadian History Through the Press.'' Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, 1975. 122 pp. newspaper reports; primary source
* Bruce, Christopher J.; Kneebone, Ronald D.; and McKenzie, Kenneth J., eds. ''A Government Reinvented: A Study of Alberta's Deficit Elimination Program.'' Oxford U. Press, 1997. 518 pp.
* Caldarola, Carlo, ed. ''Society and Politics in Alberta: Research Papers.'' Toronto: Methuen, 1979. 392 pp.
* Elliott, David R. and Iris Miller. ''Bible Bill: A Biography of William Aberhart.'' Edmonton: Reidmore Books, 1987. 373 pp.
* Finkel, Alvin. ''The Social Credit Phenomenon in Alberta.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1989.
* Gray, James H. ''R. B. Bennett: The Calgary Years.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1991. 310 pp.
* Hesketh, Bob. ''Major Douglas and Alberta Social Credit.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 315 pp.
* Hewitt, Steve. ''Riding to the Rescue: The Transformation of the RCMP in Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1914-1939.'' (2006). 205 pp. excerpt and text search
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006)
* Mardon, Ernest, and Austin Mardon. ''Alberta Election Results 1882–1992.'' Edmonton: Documentary Heritage Society of Alberta (1993).
* Rennie, Bradford J. ed. ''Alberta Premiers of the Twentieth Century.'' Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina. (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Alberta-Premiers-Twentieth-Century-Scholorship/dp/0889771510/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1233991307&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Rennie, Bradford James. ''The Rise of Agrarian Democracy: The United Farmers and Farm Women of Alberta, 1909-1921''. U of Toronto Press, 2000. 282 pp.
* Thomas, Lewis H., ed. ''William Aberhart and Social Credit in Alberta.'' Toronto: Copp Clark, 1977. 175 pp. readings
* Thomas, Lewis Gwynne. ''The Liberal Party in Alberta.'' University of Toronto Press: (1959).
* Tupper, Allan and Gibbins, Roger, eds. ''Government and Politics in Alberta.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1992. 335 pp. textbook

===Regional, urban===
* Belliveau, Anne. ''The Story of Alberta's Big West Country: Upper North Saskatchewan River Corridor, Shunda Basin, Brazeau Collieries and Nordegg.'' Calgary: Detselig, 1999. 240 pp.
* Foran, Max and Jameson, Sheilagh S., eds. ''Citymakers: Calgarians after the Frontier.'' Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1987. 386pp.
* Foran, Max and Foran, Heather MacEwan. ''Calgary: Canada's Frontier Metropolis. An Illustrated History.'' Windsor, Ont.: Windsor, 1982. 367 pp.
* Foran, Max. ''Calgary: An Illustrated History/Calgary: Histoire Illustrée.'' Toronto: Lorimer; Ottawa: Natl. Mus. of Man, 1978. 192 pp.
* Hesketh, Bob and Swyripa, Frances, eds. ''Edmonton: The Life of a City.'' Edmonton: NeWest, 1995. 366 pp.
* Johnston, Alex and denOtter, Andy A. ''Lethbridge: A Centennial History.'' Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1985. 240 pp.
* MacDonald, Graham A. ''Where the Mountains Meet the Prairies: A History of Waterton Country.'' (Parks and Heritage Series, No. 3.) U. of Calgary Press, 2000. 210 pp.
* Melnyk, Bryan P. ''Calgary Builds: The Emergence of an Urban Landscape, 1905-1914.'' Calgary: Alberta Culture, Can. Plains Res. Center, 1985. 214 pp.
* Rasporich, Anthony W. and Klassen, Henry C. ''Frontier Calgary: Town, City, and Region, 1875-1914.'' U. of Calgary and McClelland and Stewart West. 306 pp.
* Reasons, Chuck, ed. ''Stampede City: Power and Politics in the West.'' Toronto: Between the Lines, 1984. 216 pp. impact of oil on Calgary
* Smith, Donald B., ed. ''Centennial City: Calgary, 1894-1994.'' U. of Calgary Press, (1993) 88 pp.
* Wetherell, Donald G. and Kmet, Irene R. A. ''Alberta's North: A History, 1890-1950'' U. of Alberta Press, 2000. 520 pp.
* Wetherell, Donald G. and Kmet, Irene R. A. ''Town Life: Main Street and the Evolution of Small Town Alberta, 1880-1947.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1995. 368 pp.

===Settlement, rural, pioneers===
* Baker, William M., ed. Pioneer Policing in Southern Alberta: Deane of the Mounties, 1888-1914. Calgary: Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1993.
* Bennett, John W. and Seena B. Kohl. ''Settling the Canadian-American West, 1890-1915: Pioneer Adaptation and Community Building. An Anthropological History.'' U. of Nebraska Press, 1995. 311 pp.
* Bowen, Lynne. ''Muddling Through: The Remarkable Story of the Barr Colonists.'' Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1992. 234 pp.
* Brado, Edward. ''Cattle Kingdom: Early Ranching in Alberta.'' Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1984. 298 pp.
* Brunvand, Jan Harold. ''Norwegian Settlers in Alberta.'' National Museum of Man, Mercury Series, Canadian Centre for Folk Cultural Studies, Paper no. 8. Ottawa: Natl. Mus. of Man, 1974. 71 pp.
* Danysk, Cecilia. ''Hired Hands: Labour and the Development of Prairie Agriculture, 1880-1930.'' (1995). 231 pp.
* Hurt, Leslie J. ''The Victoria Settlement, 1862-1922.'' Occasional Paper, no. 7. Edmonton: Alberta Culture, Hist. Resources Division, 1979. 242 pp.
* Jaques, Carrol. ''Unifarm: A Story of Conflict and Change''. U. of Calgary Press, 2001. 342 pp.
* Jones, David C. ''Empire of Dust: Settling and Abandoning the Prairie Dry Belt.'' U. of Nebraska Press, 1987. 330 pp.
* Jones, David C., ed. ''"We'll All Be Buried Down Here": The Prairie Dryland Disaster, 1917-1926.'' Calgary: Alberta Records Publ. Board; Hist. Soc. of Alberta, 1986. 200 pp. collects primary sources
* Leonard, David W. ''Delayed Frontier: The Peace River Country to 1909.'' Calgary, Alta.: Detselig, 1995. 256 pp.
* Palmer, Howard. ''The Settlement of the West'' (1977) online edition
* Rennie, Bradford James. ''The Rise of Agrarian Democracy: The United Farmers and Farm Women of Alberta, 1909-1921''. U of Toronto Press, 2000. 282 pp.
* Gross, Renie. ''Groundwork: Carl Anderson, Farm Crusader.'' Wardlow, Alta.: Badlands Books, 1998. 352 pp.
* Jackson, Mary Percy. ''Suitable for the Wilds: Letters from Northern Alberta, 1929-1931.'' ed. by Janice Dickin McGinnis, Toronto: U. of Toronto Press, 1995. 264 pp.; a primary source
* Sharp, Paul F. ''Whoop-up Country: The Canadian-American West, 1865-1885.'' Reprint ed., Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1973. 347pp. primary source
* Silverman, Eliane Leslau. ''The Last Best West: Women on the Alberta Frontier 1880-1930.'' Montreal: Eden, 1984. 183 pp.
* Thompson, John Herd. Forging the Prairie West. (1998)
* Voisey, Paul. ''Vulcan: The Making of a Prairie Community.'' Toronto: U. of Toronto Press, 1987. 341 pp.

===Social, ethnic, religion and schools===
* Byrne, M. B. ''From the Buffalo to the Cross: A History of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Calgary.'' Calgary Archdiocese. 555 pp.
* Cavanaugh, Catherine A. and Warne, Randi R., ed. ''Standing on New Ground: Women in Alberta.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1993. 202 pp.
* denOtter, Andy A. ''Civilizing the West: The Galts and the Development of Western Canada.'' U. of Alberta Press, 1981. 395 pp.
* Flint, David. ''The Hutterites: A Study in Prejudice.'' Oxford U. Press, 1975. 193 pp.
* Hoe, Ban Seng. ''Structural Changes of Two Chinese Communities in Alberta, Canada.'' Mercury Series, no. 19. Ottawa: Natl. Mus. of Man, Can. Centre for Folk Culture Studies, 1976. 385 pp.
* McLachlan, Elizabeth. ''With Unshakeable Persistence: Rural Teachers of the Depression Era.'' Edmonton: NeWest, 1999. 187 pp.
* Palmer, Howard and Palmer, Tamara, eds. ''Peoples of Alberta: Portraits of Cultural Diversity.'' Saskatoon, Sask.: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1985. 551 pp.
* Palmer, Howard. ''Patterns of Prejudice: A History of Nativism in Alberta.'' McClelland and Stewart, 1982. 217 pp.
* Scheffel, David. ''In the Shadow of Antichrist: The Old Believers in Alberta.'' Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview, 1991. 252 pp.
* Stebbins, Robert A. ''The Franco-Calgarians: French Language, Leisure, and Linguistic Life-Style in an Anglophone City.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 152 pp.
* Ukrainian Pioneers' Association of Alberta. Ukrainians in Alberta. Edmonton: Ukrainian Pioneers' Assoc. of Alberta (1975) 560 pp.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www1.travelalberta.com/en-ab/index.cfm?country=CA&state=AB&setlocale=1/ Alberta Tourism]
* [http://www.tourismcalgary.com/ Tourism Calgary]
* [http://www.traveldrumheller.com/ Travel Drumheller]
* [http://www.tourismcanmore.com/ Tourism Canmore]
* [http://www.turnervalley.ca/ Discover Turner Valley]
* [http://www.town.vulcan.ab.ca/ Vulcan Tourism]

[[Category:Alberta]]
[[Category:Canadian Provinces]]

Canada

2012-11-08T21:50:22Z

TIpswithchicks:

{{Country
|name =''Canada''
|map =Canada pol99.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Canada.png
|flag =Flag of Canada.svg
|arms =Canada arms.png
|capital =Ottawa
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Democracy/Federal Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English, French
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Stephen Harper
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =
|pop =34,030,589
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$1.105 trillion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$35,133
|currency =Canadian dollar
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}}
'''Canada''' is a [[socialist]](Thats a lie!)<ref>http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/07/17/jonathan-kay-the-triumph-of-hard-headed-socialism-is-destroying-canadian-conservatism/</ref> [[country]] in [[North America]] which extends from the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and northward to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada is the largest country by total area in [[North America]] and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation, as well as the longest border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Its border with the US is the longest undefended border in the world.

Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>

==Etymology==
The name Canada originated in 1535 by [[Jacques Cartier]] is based on the Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village."<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, Europeans began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867. The name continued until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the legal name. Canada Day, on July 1, used to known as be Dominion Day.

== Anthem==

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada. The English lyrics and French lyrics have several notable differences, with the French version being slightly longer.

==Geography==
[[File:E-canada.jpg|thumb|450px|political map of Canada]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]],. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government. Nunavut is the newest territory, created as a homeland for the Inuit people in 1999.

*Area: 9.9 million sq. km. (3.8 million sq. mi.); second-largest country in the world.
*Cities: Capital--Ottawa (pop. 1.1 million). Other major cities--Toronto (5.1 million), Montreal (3.6 million), Vancouver (2.1 million), Calgary (1.1 million), Edmonton (1.0 million), Quebec City (0.7 million), Winnipeg (0.7 million), Hamilton (0.7 million).
*Terrain: Mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the southeast.
*Climate: Temperate to arctic.
{{Clear}}

==People==
[[File:Canadian Aboriginal Festival.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Aboriginal leader at the 13th Annual Canadian Aboriginal Festival, 2006.]]
*Population (2008 est.): 33.1 million.
*Ethnic groups: British/Irish 28%, French 23%, other European 15%, Asian/Arab/African 6%, indigenous Amerindian 2%, mixed background 26%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 43.6%, Protestant 29.2%, other Christian 4.3%, Muslim 2.0%, Jewish 1.1%, Buddhist 1.0%, Hindu 1.0% other 1.3%, none 16.5%.
*Languages: English (official) 57.8%, French (official) 22.1%, other 20.1% (including Chinese and aboriginal languages).
*Education: Literacy--99% of population aged 15 and over has at least a ninth-grade education.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--5.4/1,000. Life expectancy--77.7 yrs. male, 82.5 yrs. female.
*Work force (2008, 18.2 million): Goods-producing sector--25%, of which: manufacturing 15%; construction 6%; agriculture 2%; natural resources 2%; utilities 1%. Service-producing sector--75%, of which: trade 16%; health care and social assistance 11%; educational services 7%, accommodation and food services 7%; professional, scientific, and technical services 7%; finance 6%; public administration 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%; information, culture, and recreation 5%; other services 4%.

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live" in the world.<ref> Suck it America! [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"] ("Canadian cities scored well, as did Austria's Vienna and Switzerland's Geneva, because they are not seen as targets for terror attacks.")</ref> Calgary has been named on several occasions the world's cleanest city.
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A satellite image of Canada.]]

====Culture====
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British culture. Quebec maintains a French culture but has been largely cut off from Parisian trends for 250 years. Since 1800 Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, television shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. The Canadian television industry has a local content requirement, which requires the use of Canadian actors in Canadian productions. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world, with the percentage growing every day.<ref>http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as its official language, New Brunswick both French and English, making it the only bilingual province, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitut and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognizes French and English.

Canada tends to reflect significantly more liberal social policies than the neighboring states of the northern U.S. One such example is the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> Another is its single-payer health care system.

In comparing the suicide rates between Canada and its closest neighbour the US, Canada has a slightly higher rate. <ref>[http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suiciderates/en/ WHO: Suicide rates]</ref> It has been suggested that this slightly higher rate of suicide is induced by Seasonal Affective Disorder, a mental health disorder prevalent in northern countries due the the significantly reduced or non-existent daylight hours during the winter. Severe episodes of Seasonal Affective Disorder can cause suicidal thoughts. <ref>http://www.cmha.ca/bins/content_page.asp?cid=3-86-93-291</ref>

<center>
[[File:Toronto Canada 2009.jpg]]

Panorama of Toronto, Ontario.
</center>

===Sports===
See [[Canadian sports]]

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The most recent winter Olympics, was held in 2010 in Vancouver and Whistler. Canada finished third overall in medal count and was first in gold medal count with 14 gold. This was the first instance of Canada winning a gold medal on home ground and a moment of national pride.

====Cultural Style====
[[File:Canada Orchestra.jpg|thumb|Collegiate band.]]
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures]</ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although their economy, society, and culture closely resembles the U.S., and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. Canada is usually contrasted as a "cultural mosaic" to the United States' "melting pot". Canadian and U.S. polls habitually confirm citizens of both countries view the relationship with each other in a highly positive light, and consider each other with a special respect afforded to common allies. <ref>http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/canadian-cultural-mosaic-american-melting-pot</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Education====
[[File:Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane.jpg|thumb|330px|Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane, 1847.]]
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kindergarten with school starting at age 5 going to grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and private(e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

A source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, Canada scores +.967 and the U.S. +950.

====Religion====
For the total population, in 2001, 12.9 million (44%) were Roman Catholic, with 8.7 million Protestants (29%). 4.9 million (16% ) report no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics). Other religions of significance in Canada include 580,000 Muslims; 330,000 Jews; 300,000 Buddhists; 297,000 Hindus; and 278,000 Sikhs.<ref> See [http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm "Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)"]</ref>

Catholicism formerly dominated Quebec until the "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s, which has greatly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in Quebec, and its participation rates.
[[File:Gurion Hyman Jewish people of Canada.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Jewish people of Canada.]]
The proportion attending religious services on a regular basis has declined over the past 20 years. According to the General Social Survey (GSS), 21% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported they attended a religious service at least once a week in 2005, down from 30% in 1985.<ref> Colin Lindsay, "Canadians attend weekly religious services less than 20 years ago," [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-630-x/2008001/article/10650-eng.htm ''Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref> Between 1985 and 2004, the share of Canadians aged 15 and older reporting no religious affiliation increased by seven percentage points from 12% to 19%. 37% of Canadians who rarely attend formal services nevertheless regularly engage in personal religious practices. Of of those who had not attended any religious services over the previous year, 27% engaged in weekly religious practices on their own. Overall this group of adults who regularly engage in private religious practices, but infrequently or never attend religious services, represent, 21% of the adult population. This pattern was most prevalent among older Canadians.<ref> Warren Clark and Grant Schellenberg, "Who's religious?" [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2006001/9181-eng.htm '"Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref>

Civil liberties organizations, the media, and some members of Parliament occasionally criticized federal and provincial human rights commissions and tribunals for their application of hate speech restrictions included in federal and provincial human rights acts, claiming that the commissions and tribunals at times limited free speech and expression, and religious rights. The commissions are required by law to process all complaints they receive.

A complaint against the editor of ''Catholic Insight'', alleging the magazine promoted hatred against homosexuals, remained before the Canadian Human Rights Commission at the end of 2008. The complainant alleged that he was upholding Catholic teaching on homosexuality in the magazine.

In June 2008 members of the Ontario legislature voted unanimously to maintain the tradition of reading the Lord's Prayer in the provincial legislature and to add a rotation of prayers from other major religious traditions and a moment of silent reflection for atheists. The vote was prompted by a proposal by Ontario's premier in February 2008 to discontinue the religious observance.

==Government==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of senators appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governor General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The senators and the governor general are appointed positions by the sitting government. Senators are "lifetime" appointments and the Governor General will sit for, approximately, five yerars. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, a practise inherited from the British system.
[[File:Stephen Harper Canada.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Prime Minister Stephen Harper.]]
All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occurred on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while His Excellency [[David Lloyd Johnston]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[majority government]].<ref> http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canadavotes2011/</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General--David Lloyd Johnston
*Prime Minister--Stephen Harper
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Lawrence Cannon
*Ambassador to the United Nations--John McNee

===Politics===
On February 6, 2006, '''Stephen Harper,''' leader of the Conservative Party, became Canada's twenty-second prime minister, succeeding Liberal Paul Martin. A policy wonk from Alberta, Harper rose from the ranks of conservative political party staffers. In Parliament, he became Leader of the Opposition (2002-6). In 2003 he became head of the western-based Canadian Alliance. He was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party of Canada when it was created in 2003 through the merger of Harper's Canadian Alliance and Peter MacKay's Progressive Conservative Party. The January 23, 2006 election victory by the Conservative Party ended twelve years of Liberal Party rule that, in the end, was tainted by accusations of corruption and ethical missteps. In the federal election on October 14, 2008, the Conservatives won 38% of the vote and formed a second minority government with 143 seats in the House of Commons. The Liberals won 26% of the vote and 77 seats in the House of Commons. As the party with the second-largest number of seats, the Liberals form the "official opposition."

The Conservatives made unexpected gains in Quebec by winning ten seats in the January 2006 election, but failed to increase their number of seats in the province in the 2008 election. The separatist Bloc Quebecois (BQ) had a majority (49) of Quebec's 75 seats (the BQ runs candidates only in Quebec). The left-leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) had 37 seats, and two independents also sat in Parliament. Harper beat off a threatening no-confidence vote in late 2008 by warning that a government that included the BQ separatists --who want Quebec to break away from Canada--was hostile to Canada's national unity.

On May 2, 2011 there was another election. The outcome was very dramatic and ground breaking. The Liberals traditionally placing first or second were reduced to just 34 seats becoming the third party of Canada. This happened from vote splitting in Ontario in which the leftists split their votes between the Liberals and the NDP. The Bloc Quebecois were destroyed in Quebec as the so called "Orange Crush" of the NDP swept that province taking 59 out of 75 seats, leaving the BQ with a mere 4 seats. The NDP had their best results of all time and for the first time in history became the Official Opposition. The Conservatives came out on top though with 166 seats giving them their coveted majority.

===Policy===
[[File:Afghanistan Canadian army.JPEG|thumb|280px|Canadian army at Afghanistan.]]
Policy priorities of the Conservatives under Harper have remained fairly consistent since 2006: fighting the [[Recession of 2008]]; aiding the ailing [[Automobile]] industry; improving accountability and ethics in government; lowering taxes; fighting crime; reinvesting in defense; bolstering Canada's Arctic sovereignty; promoting national unity; and raising the profile of Canada's role abroad, through its combat mission in Afghanistan, contributions to stabilization in Haiti, and renewed partnership with Latin America. Harper has been friendly with the U.S., despite growing Canadian annoyance with restrictions on border crossings. Harper has been a strong supporter of [[NAFTA]], and works to increase Canada's oil exports to the U.S. He remains strong in the polls as Canada has suffered less from the worldwide [[Recession of 2008]] than the EU or the U.S.

[[Quebec]], with 23% of the national population, its distinctive French-language ("francophone") culture, angered the western provinces by wielding undue influence on the Federal Government and its repeated threats to national unity. Until Harper of Alberta became prime minister in 2006, the western provinces had denounced Ottawa's failure to appreciate the oil interests, Canada's major industry. Ontario complains that it pays out far more to the Federal Government than it gets back in revenues, while the Atlantic Provinces seek to assert greater control over fishing and mineral rights off their shores. The Federal Government ceded some power in a few areas of provincial jurisdiction, while seeking to strengthen the federal role in many other areas such as inter-provincial trade and the regulation of securities.

====National Unity====
Popular support for Quebec sovereignty appears to be on the wane, although Francophone pride in that province's unique cultural and linguistic identity remains very strong. Most Quebec voters seem to appreciate the economic benefits of remaining in the Canadian confederation and aim to advance their separate Francophone identity within the confederation. In a provincial election held on December 8, 2008, provincial Liberal Leader Jean Charest won a majority government. The separatist Parti Quebecois placed second.

====Quebec Secession Movement and the October Crisis====
[[File:Quebec1759.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Painting of British landing at Quebec, 1759.]]
There are trivial separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. The only movement of real significance is in Quebec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

This movement did reach a violent level however when the [[FLQ]] (Front de liberation du Quebec) undertook a series of letterbombings from 1963-1970[http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005880.com] The terror campaign reached a fever pitch when Pierre Laporte and James Cross were kidnapped in their own homes by gun wielding FLQ members. [http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/101/] The government initiated a crackdown in which the War Measures Act was put in place. This allowed the government to detain suspected terrorists without trial, and is the only time where the measure has been enacted in peace time. [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/flq/11.html]. The measure was widely supported by Canadians at the time. The action was short-lived however as the members of the FLQ were tracked down and arrested. The body of Pierre Laporte was discovered in the trunk of a car outside a Canadian military base. James Cross was released after intense negotiations with the government. The remaining members of the FLQ were either jailed or as a result of negotiations deported to Cuba.

===Taxation===
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario,<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref> Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan). This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia’s combined federal and provincial corporate tax rate is lower than any jurisdiction in the United States.<ref name=tax>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishcolumbia.ca/Invest/Business-Climate/Pages/CompetitiveTaxClimate.aspx|title=Competitive Tax Climate|publisher=British Columbia|accessdate=Aug 12, 2012}}</ref> The BC corporate rate is 10% and the federal rate is 15%.<ref name=tax/>

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

====Public Health Care====
[[File:Trudeau.jpg|thumb|Pierre Elliot Trudeau.]]
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004.<ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for non-emergency surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==Defense==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defense.
[[File:Canadian Army ambulance Medical Truck.jpg|left|250px]]
The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force and the Reserve Force. The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defense spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective. They have also taken steps to establish Canada's sovereignty over its arctic regions.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism and reconstruction operations. Another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

==Economy==
[[File:Urmas Paet Canadian Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan, 2010.jpg|thumb|250px|The Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan with Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister, 2010.]]
*GDP (2007): $1.266 trillion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2007): 2.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2007): $38,435.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, hydroelectric power, metals and minerals, fish, forests, wildlife, abundant fresh water.
*Agriculture: Products--wheat, livestock and meat, feed grains, oil seeds, dairy products, tobacco, fruits, vegetables.
*Industry: Types--motor vehicles and parts, machinery and equipment, aircraft and components, other diversified manufacturing, fish and forest products, processed and unprocessed minerals.
*Trade: U.S. merchandise exports to Canada (2007)--$248.9 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, industrial and electrical machinery, plastics, computers, chemicals, petroleum products and natural gas, and agricultural products. In 2007, 65% of Canada's imports came from the United States. U.S. merchandise imports from Canada (2007)--$313.1 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, crude petroleum and natural gas, forest products, agricultural products, metals, industrial machinery, and aircraft. In 2007, 76% of Canada's exports went to the U.S.

===Business===

Canada has invested heavily in high-tech, export-oriented businesses, achieving major success in:
* Aerospace: Canada’s global share of aerospace activity has tripled in the last 20 years, making Canada the world’s 5th largest aerospace producer.
* Ag-biotech: Canadian firms’ revenues exceed those of US agro-based companies and are more than double those of Japan and the UK.
* Agri-food: Canada is the world’s fourth-largest exporter of agricultural products.
* Automotive: Canada is among the Top 10 automotive countries and the 3rd largest exporter of automotive products after Japan and the U.S. Most of the output goes to the U.S. market.
* Biotechnology: Canada is a leader in biotechnology—one of the top five countries in the world.
* Plastics: Canada is the world’s fourth largest exporter of moulds and eighth largest exporter of plastics processing machinery.
* see also [[Canadian railways]]
[[File:O-bad-for-canada.jpg|thumb|200px|Leading Canadian newsmagazine evaluates Obama's threat to Canada, June 29, 2009]]

Canadians worry that Obama's economic policies will damage Canada's economy, especially [[cap and trade]], the Buy America rule in the 2009 stimulus, and environmental hostility to Canadian oil produced from oil sands.

===Energy===
Canada has vast natural resources and is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of energy. In 2005, Canada produced 19.1 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) of total energy, the fifth-largest amount in the world. Since 1980, Canada’s total energy production has increased by 86%, while its total energy consumption has increased by only 48% during that period. Almost all of Canada’s energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Canada/Background.html "Canada" (2009 report)] </ref>

In 2005, the largest source of energy consumption in Canada was oil (31%), followed by hydroelectricity (25%) and natural gas (24%). Both coal (12%) and nuclear (7%) constitute a smaller share of the country’s overall energy mix. From 1985-2005, Canada’s overall energy mix has remained relatively stable, though hydroelectricity has decreased from 31%to 25%, as oil drilling is more popular than dam building. As of 2011, the trend has reversed, and Hydroelectricity is making 32 % of the country's electricity. The remainder is produced by oil, and renewables.

==History==
* See [[History of Canada]]

[[File:VC John Robert Osborn Statue Military of Canada Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Statue, Military of Canada, John Robert Osborn, VC, [[Hong Kong]]'s Park.]]

==Further Reading==
* '''See [[History of Canada]] for a more detailed bibliography.'''

* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. ''Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian Society: A Guide to the Literature.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 156 pp.
* Bickerton, James, and Alain Gagnon. ''Canadian Politics'' (2004) 584 pages, textbook
* Blore, Shawn. ''Frommer's Canada'' (2004) 828 pages travel guide
* Campbell, Robert Malcolm et al. ''The Real Worlds of Canadian Politics: Cases in Process and Policy,'' (2004) 342 pages
* Conrad, Margaret, and Alvin Finkel. ''Canada: A National History.'' (2003), college textbook.
* DK Publishing. ''Canada'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Hugh Thompson (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Canada-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789495619/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249580319&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2004) 1650 very good entries
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Stephen-Harper-Future-William-Johnson/dp/0771095546/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239348955&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Morton, Desmond. ''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)
* ''National Atlas of Canada'' (1st ed. 1906; 2nd ed. 1915; 3rd ed. 1957; 4th ed. 1974; 6th ed. 1999 is electronic)
* Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan. ''The Canadian Federal Election of 2006'' (2006)
* Pryke, Kenneth G. and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. ''Profiles of Canada.'' (2003). 3rd edition of textbook
* Toye, William, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature.'' (1983). 843 pp.
* Wells, Paul. ''Right Side Up: the Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism'' (2006)
* Westhues, Anne. '' Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives,'' 2003

== External links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [http://cansim2.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-win/cnsmcgi.pgm?Lang=Eng&SP_Action=Main-Principal&SP_Mode=2 Statistics Canada current data]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces], military
* [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/3000140-eng.htm ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1983)] The major historical data source.
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwDvF0NtgdU Canadian National Anthem]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNlTwaPQQH4&feature=related Canadian National Anthem (French)]
*[http://www.asianramblings.com/travel/hong-kong/battle-hong-kong/canadian-heroes-china-john-robert-osborn/ Battle of Hong Kong - Canadian Heroes in China: John Robert Osborn, VC.]
=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]