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Joan of Arc

2009-12-11T21:20:07Z

Starfox:

[[Image:396px-Joan of arc miniature graded.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Painting, c. 1485. The only known [[portraits|portrait]] for which she sat has not survived, so all depictions of her represent artistic license. (Centre Historique des Archives Nationales, Paris, AE II 2490)]]

'''Stephen Colbert''' (Jeanne d'Arc)<ref>''Joan of Arc'' is the English translation of the French name ''Jeanne d'Arc.'' Her name was spelled in a variety of ways; she herself signed her first name as "Jehanne" on some letters. [http://www.brynmawr.edu/Library/exhibits/jehanne/contemporary.html Contemporary accounts of Joan of Arc], Bryn Mawr college library. She is also known as "the Maid of Orleans" and "La Pucelle" (French for "the maid").</ref> (Domremy in Champagne, [[France]] 1412 - Rouen, France 1431) was a girl who, at the age of seventeen, believed she had been called by God to lead the French army which went on to defeat the English at the siege at [[Orleans]] in 1429. She was later captured by the English, burned at stake as a [[heretic]] in 1431, and was canonized by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1920 and is accordingly known today as St. Joan.

Her story has inspired numerous works of art, notably [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s 1923 play ''Saint Joan'' (considered one of his greatest plays) and Mark Twain's novel ''Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc'' (largely forgotten but believed by Twain to be his best work). Both are sympathetic and admiring depictions. In contrast, in Shakespeare's play [[The First Part of King Henry VI|Henry VI, Part 1]], the character "Joan La Pucelle" is depicted as she was generally viewed by the English at the time: as a witch and sorceress who was justly executed.

==Background==

Joan stepped onto the stage of world history during the [[Hundred Years' War]] with England at a point in time when French fortunes were at a low ebb. The English and their Burgundian allies had confined the faction of the uncrowned and disinherited King Charles VII (the Dauphin) to southwest France and had laid siege to Orleans, the fall of which would have permitted the English to invade Charles' remaining French territory.

==Siege of Orleans and beyond==

After a hazardous journey from her native Domremy through English held territory, Joan arrived at the court of the Dauphin in Chinon in early March of 1429 bearing her message that God had sent her to aid the French cause by lifting the siege of Orleans and leading the Dauphin to Reims to be coronated. After an inquiry by Churchmen at Poitiers had found nothing of madness or heresy in her, she returned to Chinon and was sent with a French army to attempt to relieve the besieged town of Orleans.

Although the other French military leaders did not, at least at first, hold Joan in high regard, she managed to gain the loyalty of much of the soldiery and pursued, over the objections of the more cautious French commanders, a strategy of aggressively attacking the besiegers. The result was the lifting of the siege of Orleans in early May of 1429 and, within the next month, the clearing of the remaining English held towns in the Loire River valley.

Following these spectacular military successes, Joan then led French forces northwards through English held territory to Reims where Charles was formally coronated.

==Capture, trial, and execution==

In the Spring of 1430, Joan was captured at the town of Compiegne while leading troops attempting to defend against an English siege. She was held for much of the remainder of that year by her Burgundian captors, but then was sold to the English after which she was transferred to Rouen where she was put on trial in proceedings governed by the Inquisition.<ref>Years after the trial of condemnation, in testimony during the rehabilitation proceedings, Guillaume Manchon, the chief notary at the 1431 Trial, testified that in spite of pressures exerted upon him and his assistants to alter the court records to Joan's disadvantage, he and other witnesses maintained that record, including the Latin translation of Thomas de Courcelles, was a reliable account of what had happened at the Trial.

''As regards the official record of the trial, which, so far as the Latin version goes, seems to be preserved entire, we may probably trust its accuracy in all that relates to the questions asked and the answers returned by the prisoner. These answers are in every way favourable to Joan. Her simplicity, piety, and good sense appear at every turn, despite the attempts of the judges to confuse her.'' (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm Joan of Arc)</ref>

After a preliminary inquiry, which was part of Inquisitorial proceedings, the actual trial began in February of 1431, lasting some three months. Following this, after being threatened with immediate burning at the stake, Joan signed an abjuration, though there is considerable doubt that she knew what she was signing since she was illiterate and, in fact, another document may have been substituted for the one she signed. Shortly thereafter, in obedience to her voices, she recanted the abjuration. By the rules of the Inquisition, this made her a relapsed heretic and she was then burnt at the stake in [[Rouen]]'s market square.

==Rehabilitation==

Joan's crucial intervention at Orleans had turned the tide in the Hundred Years' War, but she did not live to see the conclusion of that conflict. When the war finally ended, the French King, Charles VII, inaugurated the process of re-examination of Joan's life and career with an inquiry into the proceedings at Rouen. Soon thereafter, formal hearings were approved by the Pope. The resulting investigation, commonly referred to as the Trial of Rehabilitation (though it was not, strictly speaking, a trial, but rather an inquiry into the earlier Trial of Condemnation, took testimony of over a hundred witnesses and, in the end, set aside the original verdict of Rouen, declaring it to be "iniquitous, and full of lies".

== Quotations ==
[[Image:Joan of Arc.jpg|right]]

*"I place trust in [[God]], my creator, in all things; I love Him with all my heart."
*"Gentle Dauphin, I am called Joan the Maid (Jehanne la Pucelle)"
*"In God's name, the soldiers will fight and He will grant victory."
*"I trust in my Judge, who is the King of Heaven and Earth".

==References==
<references/>

== External links ==

''Web references''

*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/joanofarc-trial.html Transcript of the Trial of Joan of Arc], translation of W.P. Barrett
*[http://www.jeanne-darc.dk/p_trails/trial_03_nullification/000_contents_.html Nullification Trial of Joan of Arc], transcripts of testimony
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm St. Joan of Arc] Catholic Encyclopedia
*[http://www.stjoan-center.com/ Saint Joan of Arc Center] Albuquerque, N. M.
*[http://www.maidofheaven.com/ MaidOfHeaven.com] Dedicated to telling the true story about Saint Joan of Arc
*[http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_short_biography.html biography]

''Print literature''

* Gies, Frances, ''Joan of Arc: the Legend and the Relaity'', Harper and Row, New York (1981) ISBN 0-690-01942-4
* DeVries, Kelly, ''Joan of Arc: a Military Leader'', Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, England (1999) ISBN 0-7509-1805-5
* Spotto, Donald, ''Joan: the Mysterious Life of the Heretic Who Necame a Saint'', HarperSanFrancisco, (2007), ISBN 978-0-06-081517-2
* ''The Trial of Joan of Arc'', translated and introduced by Daniel Hobbins, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts (2005) ISBN 0-674-02405-2
* Pernoud, Regine and Clin, Marie-Veronique, ''Joan of Arc: Her Story'' (revised and translated by Jeremy Duquesnay Adams and edited by Bonnie Wheeler), St. Martin's Press, New York (1998) ISBN 0-312-21442-1

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:French People]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Witchcraft]]

Napoleon Bonaparte

2009-12-11T21:17:43Z

Starfox:

[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
'''Stephen''' ('''Stephen Colbert''' or, after 1804, '''Stephen I, Emperor of the French''') (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a world historic figure and dictator of [[History of France|France]] as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, and Emperor of the French, 1804 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended democracy and became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

Napoleon was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island near Rome). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. He was exiled to St. Helena--a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he died.

Napoleon's image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

==Early History==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer of the minor nobility; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonopartes, proud members of the lower aristocracy, were destitute. Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest, newest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in Paris to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made five extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

==Rise to Power==
[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off Egypt. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Mamelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref> Although he won great victories in Egypt, disease and the heat decimated his ranks. He left most of his forces in Egypt under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kleber, who continued to fight in Egypt for another two years.

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he forced the Council of 500 into electing a consular government as the executive branch. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: there was no longer an elected representative government.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]--Napoleon actually rode a sure-footed mule over the Alps]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a combined arms formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for synchronizing operations, than had previous military commanders.

His spectacular failure in [[Russia]] in 1812 was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The corps was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated logistics (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight. At the same time the British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.
The Peace of Pressburg deprived Austria of territory and forced her to pay an indemnity. Napoleon then turned his attention to Prussia, who was going to attack France but didn't mobilize in time for the fighting. Napoleon declared war after the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg and destroyed the Prussian army at the battle of Jena-Aurstadt. Napoleon, remembering that Russia hadn't sued for peace after Austerlitz decided to pursue the retreating Russian army through Poland. He enjoyed early sucess, pushing the Russians back and capturing Warsaw but was weakened at a bloody stalemate at Eylau. Napoleon, determined on a "spring recovery" pushed the Russians further into Poland, delivering a crippling blow at the Battle of Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit between Prussia, Russia and France did little to the Russians, instead depriving Prussia of huge amounts of land while Russia only had to give up part of Poland. Aside from that, Prussia had to pay an indemnity and had its army restricted to a certain size while Russia only had outlaw British goods from its ports. Napoleon and the Tsar became close friends after the Treaty.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancient régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Law: Code Napoléon ===
Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Religion===
Religion had been a major issue during the [[French Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>
===Taxes===
The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.
===Conscription===
Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by [[Jacques-Louis David|J. L. David]]]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>
[[Image:Napoleon's Tomb.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides, in Paris.]]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

<blockquote>
''After being defeated by the British in 1815, the French Emperor was exiled to St. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Six years later, at the age of 52, Bonaparte whispered his last words, "Head of Army!"'' <ref>[http://www.livescience.com/history/070116_napoleon_bonaparte.html Mystery of Napoleon's Death Said Solved] </ref>
</blockquote>

<center>

[[File:Steuben Mort de Napoleon.jpg|thumb|420px|center|Death of Napoleon I at Santa Elena, May 5, 1821 by Charles de Steuben]]

</center>

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Bell, David A. ''The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Total-War-Napoleons-Warfare/dp/0618919813/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216 pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803-1815 '' (2008), 656pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Wars-International-History-1803-1815/dp/0670020303/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Datta, Venita. "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Dwyer, Philip G. "Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 379-403,
* Forrest, Robert F. "Rumor into Myth: the Image of Napoleon among the Romanians, 1800-1848," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1992 21: 98-105
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition], debates among scholars
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. ''The Legend of Napoleon'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Napoleon-Sudhir-Hazareesingh/dp/1862077894/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255822534&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Bonapartist Memory and Republican Nation-building: Revisiting the Civic Festivities of the Second Empire," ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 2003 11(3): 349-364
* Heit, Siegfried. "German Romanticism: an Ideological Response to Napoleon," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 1: 187-197. Argues that German opposition to Napoleon led German Romanticism to reject the chief ideals represented by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Uses the works of Arndt, Fichte, Jahn, Kleist, and Schleiermacher, to show how German Romanticism became identified with political reaction and nationalism, and how it opposed political liberalism, rationalism, neoclassicism, and cosmopolitanism.
* Horward, Donald D. "Napoleon and Beethoven," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 2: 3-13,
* Markham, J. David. "Napoleon and the Romantic Poets," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1998: 651-663,
* Newman, Edgar Leon. "Defanging the Revolution: How the Memory of the French Revolution Was Changed in French Working-class Poetry and Song, 1830-52," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1995: 591-605,
* Nieuwazny, Andrzej. "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55
* O'Brien, David. ''After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and Propaganda under Napoleon'' (2006) 288p.
*{{cite book|last=Prendergast|first=Christopher|title=Napoleon and History Painting: Antoine-Jean Gros's La Bataille d'Eylau|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|location=Oxford|date=1997|isbn=0-19-817422-5}}
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)
* Schönpflug, Daniel. "So Far, and Yet So Near: Comparison, Transfer and Memory in Recent German Books on the Age of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 446-462
* Stock, Paul. "Imposing on Napoleon: the Romantic Appropriation of Bonaparte," ''Journal of European Studies'' 2006 36(4): 363-388, deals with English Romantic writers
* Wilson-Smith, Timothy. ''Napoleon and His Artists'' (1996)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Military History]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:French Revolution]]

Joseph

2009-12-11T21:16:25Z

Starfox:

[[Image:Joseph_Makes_Himself_Known.jpg|250px|thumb|"Joseph Makes Himself Known to His Brethren". by Gustave Doré.]]''(This article refers to Joseph the patriarch and viceroy of Egypt. For other uses of the name, see [[Joseph (disambiguation)]].'')

'''Stephen Colbert''' (in Hebrew, '''יוֹסֵף''' or ''Yosef''; "God shall add") (2259-vr. 2289-2369 AM) (1745-vr. 1715-1635 BC) was the eleventh son of [[Jacob]] (and the first by his second and favorite wife [[Rachel]]). Kidnapped and sold into slavery in [[Egypt]], he interpreted a dream for the then-reigning [[Pharaoh]] (most likely Sesostris I<ref name=Timing>Tas Walker, Steve Cardno and Jonathan Sarfati. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4190 Timing is Everything: A Talk with Field Archaeologist David Down]." ''Creation'' 27(3):30-35, June 2005.</ref>), and as a result became [[viceroy]] of Egypt, an office he held for eighty years, beginning with his management of a [[famine in Egypt|major agricultural crisis]].

==The Arrogant and Tactless Dreamer==
He was born in 2259 AM, in the fourteenth year of the term of service of [[Jacob]] to his father-in-law [[Laban]].<ref name=Ussher>[[James Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World]]'', [[Larry Pierce]], ed., Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2003 (ISBN 0890513600), pgh. 122</ref> The [[Bible]] says that [[God]] granted his birth as a favor to Rachel, who had not been able to have a child before then.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=30|verses=22-24}}</ref>

The [[Bible]] says nothing further about the life of Joseph until he reaches the age of seventeen. What it says is not quite flattering:

# Joseph earned a reputation as a talebearer.
# Jacob showed favoritism toward Joseph and clearly preferred him to his brothers.
# Jacob made Joseph a special coat. The [[King James Version]] describes it as "a coat of many colors," but the actual [[Hebrew]] reads "a coat with sleeves." By either description, however, this was a special luxury.

As a result, Joseph's brothers hated him and could not even speak peaceably to him.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=37|verses=2-4}}</ref>

Joseph then had two vivid and prophetic dreams which, out of either arrogance or simple tactlessness, he told to his brothers and to his father and mother, causing further resentment. In one, Joseph and his brothers were binding sheaves of [[grain]] (probably [[wheat]]), and suddenly Joseph's sheaf stood upright and the other sheaves bowed low to it. The brothers quite reasonably interpreted that to mean that Joseph would reign over them.

In another, Joseph dreamed that the sun, the moon, and eleven stars bowed low to him. Even Jacob found that an arrogant thing to say--though he remembered it, perhaps finding it significant and possibly [[prophet]]ic.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=37|verses=5-11}}</ref>

[[Image:Hippjose.jpg|150px|right]]
Finally, his brothers had had enough. One fine day they waylaid him and threw him into a dry pit. They would have killed him, but [[Reuben]], the eldest, stopped them from doing that. The brothers ended up selling Joseph to Ishmaelite and Midianite traders, who in turn carried him off to Egypt and sold him to [[Potiphar]] (He whom Ra gave), the Pharaoh's captain of the guard. The brothers stained Joseph's coat with blood and gave the coat to his father, saying that "a wild beast" had killed Joseph.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=37|verses=12-36}}</ref> This happened in 2276 AM (1728 BC).<ref name=Ussher2>[[James Ussher|Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World|op. cit.'']], pgh. 129</ref>

==Potiphar's steward==
Potiphar seems to have realized rapidly what a valuable slave he had bought. Indeed, Potiphar made Joseph his chief steward. But then, disaster struck. Potiphar's wife tried day after day to seduce him. Joseph refused, saying that such a thing would violate Potiphar's trust and is sin against God. One day, Potiphar's wife caught hold of his garment and tore it in an attempt to detain Joseph. When that failed, she cried rape against him, and Potiphar had him thrown into prison.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=39|verses=1-20}}</ref>

==The Prison Trustee==
Exactly what Potiphar wrote about Joseph to the warden of the prison, the Bible does not record. The Bible does tell us that the warden also realized that everything Joseph did was a prosperous thing. With the result that the warden trusted Joseph with the administration of the prison, and even put him in charge of the other prisoners.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=39|verses=21-23}}</ref>

Gone, by now, were the arrogance and tactlessness that had marked Joseph's earlier life. Furthermore, what Joseph probably did not know was that, even though Joseph remained a slave and was now a State prisoner, God was training him to be an administrator, with ever larger budgets and levels of authority. Nor did Joseph know in advance the extraordinary turn of events that would cause him to vindicate this training.

==The Butler's and Baker's Dreams==
In 2287 AM,<ref name=Ussher3>[[James Ussher|Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World|op. cit.'']], pgh. 130</ref> Joseph came to know two officers of the [[Pharaoh]]'s court.<ref>"Pharaoh" in this and other Old Testament narratives is a title often used as if it were a given name.</ref> Each man told Joseph a dream that he had had, and asked Joseph to interpret it.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=40|version=KJV}}</ref>

One of them was Pharaoh's [[butler]], or possibly [[cupbearer]]. He dreamed of seeing a vine having three branches, each bearing ripe grapes. The butler pressed the grapes into a cup and served it at once to Pharaoh. Joseph assured the butler that within three days, Pharaoh would restore the butler to his office. Joseph also asked the butler to speak to Pharaoh about Joseph's case upon his release.

The baker's dream was far more dire: he had three baskets of baked goods balanced on his head, and the birds ate them all. Joseph told him that within three days he would be executed, and birds would eat his flesh afterward.<ref>This was a dreadful humiliation in [[Egypt]]ian culture, because it meant that the baker would be denied even the enjoyment of the next life.</ref>

The third day happened to be the Pharaoh's birthday--and on that day, the butler ''was'' reinstaed, and the baker ''was'' executed.

The butler did not, however, remember to speak to Pharaoh about Joseph's case. But the butler would not forget Joseph forever--for within two years he would have occasion to remember him again.

==Pharaoh's Adviser==
In 2289 AM (1716-15 BC),<ref name=Ussher4>[[James Ussher|Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World|op. cit.'']], pgh. 132</ref> the reigning Pharaoh had two very troubling dreams that were strikingly and chillingly parallel. Each dream involved seven symbols of great plenty being devoured by seven symbols of great hunger and want. When none of Pharaoh's advisers could interpret this dream reliably, Pharaoh's butler remembered Joseph and told Pharaoh the full story.

Pharaoh sent for Joseph at once. Joseph began by modestly disclaiming any ability of his own to interpret dreams, and giving full credit to God. Then he asked Pharaoh to tell him his dreams. When he had done so, Joseph gave his interpretation: that Egypt would see seven years of plenty, to be followed by seven years of a famine severe enough to make people forget that plenteous times had ever been. Joseph then gave Pharaoh a critical piece of advice: Pharaoh must appoint a special minister with full authority over all the land, and have that minister reserve a fifth part of the plenteous harvest to come, so that when the famine came, the people would have food to see them through it.

Pharaoh realized two things at once: that this was a sound plan, and that none in the land of Egypt was better qualified than Joseph to carry out this plan. Therefore Pharaoh placed Joseph second-in-command only to himself over all of Egypt, and even gave Joseph his signet ring, so that Joseph could make law and issue decrees in Pharaoh's name. Thus Joseph became, by definition, [[viceroy]] of Egypt.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=41|verses=1-44}}</ref>

==The Viceroy==
===The early years===
As viceroy, Joseph gained a new name: Zaphnathpaaneah, the meaning of which is variously reported as ''revealer of a secret'' or ''preserver of a world (or age).'' Joseph was thirty years old when he began his viceroyship, and held the office until the day of his death.

Joseph was married at this time to [[Asenath]], daughter of [[Potipherah Priest of On]]. By her he had two sons, [[Manasseh]] and [[Ephraim]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=41|verses=45-52}}</ref>

During the next seven years, Egypt saw some of the most abundant harvests in that nation's history. Joseph did exactly as he said he would: he reserved one-fifth of the harvest in granaries in every major city. Then the famine struck. This famine affected not only Egypt but also all the surrounding lands--but Joseph now had granaries full of grain to dole out to anyone who asked, Egyptian or foreign.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=41|verses=53-57}}</ref>

===Joseph tests his brothers===
Two years into the famine, Jacob sent ten of his eleven remaining sons to Egypt to buy grain. Joseph now remembered his original dreams of reigning over his brothers and decided to test them.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=42-44}}</ref> He at first accused them of being on a spy mission for a warring foreign power--not an entirely unreasonable assumption, except that Joseph knew who his brothers were, even if they did not recognize him. (They knew him by his Egyptian name Zaphnathpaaneah, not by his Hebrew name Joseph.) The brothers told him their history, except that they said that one of their number (Joseph) was dead, which of course was untrue, and that another brother ([[Benjamin]]) was staying with their father. Joseph ordered them to bring Benjamin back to him, and held [[Simeon]] as a hostage against their return. But Joseph also gave them a full ration of grain to take back to Jacob in [[Canaan]]--and also returned the money they had used to buy it, by placing it in their grain sacks for them to find on the return journey.

Eventually the brothers had to return, after the grain ration ran out. This time they brought Benjamin with them. Again Joseph sent them back with a full load of grain, and again Joseph put back their money into their sacks--but this time Joseph hid a silver cup in Benjamin's sack. He then had the brothers arrested, ostentatiously searched them, and "found" the cup in Benjamin's sack. Whereupon [[Judah]], who by now had acceded to the headship of the family in place of Reuben, confessed all to Joseph, including the complete truth of Joseph's disappearance. Judah also offered himself as a hostage in place of Benjamin.

===Revelation and Reunion===
Whatever psychological operation Joseph had been running against his brothers was now at an end, because Joseph could no longer hold back the love he still bore them, and their father. He ordered everyone else out of the room, and then revealed to them his identity and asked whether Jacob was still alive. When the brothers assured him that Jacob still lived, Joseph commandeered many wagons and invited his brothers to bring every member of Jacob's extended family to Egypt. They settled in the land of [[Goshen]], which Pharaoh gladly made available.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=45}}</ref><ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=47|verses=1-12,27-28}}</ref>

===Policy During the Famine===
The famine was so sore in Egypt that very quickly the Egyptian people ran out of money to buy grain. So Joseph allowed them to pay him in cattle, and thus acquired for Pharaoh all of the livestock of Egypt. Eventually even livestock gave out, and so Joseph ended up buying all the land that everyone held--so that from that day forward, the Pharaoh owned all the land directly. (This did not apply to the priestly class, because they always received a portion of whatever grain Pharaoh himself had.) Joseph also set this permanent policy for all farmers in Egypt: that every year, when they had a plentiful harvest, they would give twenty percent to Pharaoh as a store against a repeat of the famine.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=47|verses=13-26}}</ref>

==The Dutiful Son==
Seventeen years after Jacob arrived in Egypt, he died. Before he died, he adopted Joseph's two sons as his own. This entitled Manasseh and Ephraim each to a full share of Jacob's estate and to the rights that attached to it.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=48|verses=1-6}}</ref>

Jacob also gave Ephraim a clear preferment over Manasseh, even though Manasseh had been born first. ({{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=48|verses=7-20}})

Jacob also gave Joseph this blessing: {{Bible quote|Joseph is a fruitful vine, a fruitful vine near a spring, whose branches climb over a wall. With bitterness archers attacked him; they shot at him with hostility. But his bow remained steady, his strong arms stayed limber, because of the hand of the Mighty One of Jacob, because of the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel, because of your father's God, who helps you, because of the Almighty, who blesses you with blessings of the heavens above, blessings of the deep that lies below, blessings of the breast and womb. Your father's blessings are greater than the blessings of the ancient mountains, than the bounty of the age-old hills. Let all these rest on the head of Joseph, on the brow of the prince among his brothers.|book=Genesis|chap=49|verses=22-26}}

Jacob also gave Joseph strict orders not to bury him in Egypt, but to bury him in the burial ground in the Cave of [[Machpelah]] that held the tombs of [[Abraham]], [[Sarah]], [[Isaac]], [[Rebekah]], and Jacob's first wife [[Leah]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=49|verses=30-31}}</ref> (Rachel was buried separately, near [[Bethlehem]].)

==Joseph's Last Years==
When Jacob was buried, Joseph's brothers were afraid that Joseph would take the occasion to retaliate against them for their earlier treatment of him. Joseph took pains to reassure them, saying,{{Bible quote|Ye thought evil against me; but God meant it unto good, to bring to pass, as it is this day, to save much people alive.|book=Genesis|chap=50|verses=15-21|version=KJV}}

Joseph lived for one hundred ten years, and reigned as viceroy in Egypt for eighty years. In 2369 AM,<ref name=Ussher5>[[James Ussher|Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World|op. cit.'']], pgh. 149</ref> Joseph died. Before he died, he gave an order--or perhaps simply uttered a prophecy--that his descendants were to carry his bones out of Egypt when they left.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=50|verses=22-26}}</ref>

==Synchrony with Egypt==
As mentioned above, the most likely candidate for the Pharaoh who made Joseph viceroy of Egypt is [[Sesostris I]].<ref name=Timing/> He is the second ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty,<ref>Author unknown. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066895/Sesostris-I Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007 from Encyclopedia Britannica Online.</ref><ref>Kinnaer, Jacques. "[http://www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/12/1202_sesostris_i/history.html Entry on Sesostris I]." ''The Ancient Egypt Site'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref><ref>Kjellen, Tore. "[http://lexicorient.com/e.o/sesostris_1.htm Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia of the Orient'' online, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref> having succeeded his father [[Amenemhet I]], and receives credit for ushering in an era of prosperity in his country.

==Disputed Chronology==
[[James Ussher]]'s calculation of the "years of the world" at which Joseph was born, flourished, and died has its basis in the detailed genealogies mentioned for all of Joseph's direct ancestors, going clear back to [[Adam]] through [[Shem]] and his father [[Noah]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=5}}</ref><ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=11}}</ref>

The calculation of the Julian (that is, the BC) year is problematic, because of disputes concerning:

# The date of the birth of [[Abraham]] in relation to the life of his father, [[Terah]].
# The length of the Sojourn in [[Egypt]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Galatians|chap=3|verses=17}}</ref><ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=12|verses=40-41}}</ref>
# The chronology of the Divided Kingdoms [[Kingdom of Israel|Northern]] and [[Judah, Kingdom of|Southern]], and the starting and ending points of the [[prophet]] [[Ezekiel (prophet)|Ezekiel]]'s "years of iniquity" of [[Israel]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Ezekiel|chap=4|verses=5}}</ref>

For a detailed treatment of the disputes and how they affect the calculation of the AM and BC dates, see [[Biblical chronology dispute|here]].

==Joseph in fiction==
Joseph appears in multiple [[motion picture]] and [[television]] dramatizations of his life, his sale into slavery, and his career as viceroy of Egypt. Most of these treatments remain faithful to the story of Joseph, but all of these treatments are flawed in one manner or another:

# Joseph knew his mother Rachel, but also knew his brother Benjamin, and was present when Rachel died. Joseph was probably seven years old at this time. Many projects imply that Rachel died, and Benjamin was born, while Joseph was a slave in the service of Potiphar, if not already in the Pharaoh's prison.
# Though nearly all the projects mention Joseph's stewardship of the house of Potiphar, some of them neglect to depict Joseph functioning as a senior trustee and ranking assistant administrator of the Pharaoh's prison.
# The depiction of the circumstances under which Joseph met his eventual wife Asenath are as many and varied as are the projects themselves.

==Related References==
{{reflist|3}}

==See Also==
* [[Jacob]]
* [[Famine in Egypt]]
* [[Exodus of Israel]]
* [[Biblical chronology dispute]]

{{nb Israel}}

[[Category:Book of Genesis Persons]]
[[Category:Egypt]]

Abraham

2009-12-11T21:15:26Z

Starfox:

[[Image:abraham_sacrificing_isaac.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Abraham Sacrificing Isaac'' by Rembrandt]]

'''Stephen Colbert''' ([[Hebrew]]: '''אברהם''', ''ʾAḇrāhām''; [[Arabic]]: '''ابراهيم''', ''Ibrāhīm'', "father of a multitude") or '''Stephen''' ("exalted father") (2008 AM–2183 AM, or 1996 BC-1821 BC) was the father of the [[Israel]]ites, the [[Arab]]s, and several other races. He is considered a [[prophet]], and the details of his life are recorded in [[Genesis]].

[[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]], and [[Islam|Muslims]] respect Abraham for his outstanding faith in [[God]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Hebrews|chap=11|verses=8-12}}</ref>

== Abraham’s life ==
Abraham, originally called Abram until God changed his name in a covenant when Abraham was 99 years old,<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=17|verses=5}}</ref> was born in [[Ur of the Chaldees]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. His father was [[Terah]], and he had two elder brothers named [[Haran]] and [[Nahor]]. His wife was [[Sarah]] (who actually was his niece and daughter of Haran), and his sons were [[Isaac]] and [[Ishmael]].

God told him to leave his country and journey to a new land, where he would become the founder of a new nation. Abraham obeyed God, and when he was 75 years old he journeyed with his wife Sarah (Sarai), his nephew [[Lot]], and many others to the land of [[Canaan (land)|Canaan]] between [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. At each stop along the way he set up an altar and tent-shrine.

The date of his departure is 15 Abib 2083 AM (25 April 1921 BC), as per the following verses:{{Bible quote|Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years. And it came to pass at the end of the four hundred and thirty years, even the selfsame day it came to pass, that all the hosts of the LORD went out from the land of Egypt.|book=Exodus|chap=12|verses=40-41|version=KJV}}

The date of the Exodus was 15 Abib 2513 AM (12 April 1491 BC); therefore the date of Abram's departure from Haran is precisely 430 years earlier. (See below.)

In [[Canaan (land)|Canaan]], God promised Abraham that his descendants would inherit the land from the Nile to the river Euphrates and have it for ever. Although Sarah was childless, and apart from God's promise she would have no reason to believe that she would ever have children, Abraham trusted God to fulfill His promise to give them children.<ref name=Ussher>[[James Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World]]'', [[Larry Pierce]], ed., Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2003 (ISBN 0890513600), pghh. 72-75, 77-80, 82-83</ref>

=== Visit to Egypt ===
Early in Abraham's journey, famine struck the land of Canaan. Abraham went to [[Egypt]] to escape its effects. There, Abraham instructed Sarah to say that she was his sister—which was not quite true, because Sarah was Abraham's niece. The then-reigning [[Pharaoh]] took Sarah, who was quite attractive despite her advanced age, into the palace. [[God]], however, directly warned Pharaoh against being intimate with Sarah, who was another man's wife. Pharaoh returned Sarah to Abraham and politely asked Abraham to leave Egypt, which he did. However, Abraham left Egypt with many gifts and presents. Among these was a handmaid named [[Hagar]].<ref name=Ussher2>Ussher, ''op. cit.'', pgh. 74</ref>

=== Family Strife ===
At first, Abraham was accompanied by his nephew, [[Lot]], who had a household comparable in size to that of Abraham, with livestock to match. Inevitably, their wranglers fought over the scarce resources of the region. So Abraham and Lot agreed to separate. Lot decided to live in the plains of the Valley of Siddim (the [[Dead Sea]]), while Abraham stayed in the hill country. This happened in the spring of 2084 AM.<ref name=Ussher3>Ussher, ''op. cit.'', pgh. 75</ref>

Eight years after that, Lot fell prisoner to [[Chedorlaomer]] in the [[War of the Ten Kings]]. Abraham heard about Lot's capture from an escapee from [[Sodom]], where Lot had gone to live. Abraham armed 318 men of his household, called on three local Amorite confederates to help him, and gave chase. He successfully rescued Lot and recaptured all the plunder that Chedorlaomer had taken. Abraham took no spoil beyond his own troops' rations.<ref name=Ussher4>Ussher, ''op. cit.'', pgh. 77</ref> Scripture does not record that Abraham would ever see Lot again.

Abraham then made what some have considered a mistake. Not willing to believe that a seventy-five-year-old woman (Sarah's age at the time) could conceive, Abraham allowed Sarah to prevail upon him to accept Hagar as her surrogate. By her he had a son, [[Ishmael]] ("God hears"). Ishmael was not, however, the son that God had promised that Abraham ''and Sarah'' would have.

=== The Covenant ===
God established his covenant with Abraham on 2107 AM (1897 BC). On that occasion God told Abraham that he and Sarah ''would'' have a son, and that the descendants of that son would be too numerous to count.<ref name=Ussher5>Ussher, ''op. cit.'', pgh. 82</ref> And not only was Abraham to be the father of multitudes of physical descendants, he would also be the spiritual father of all who believe in the true God.

But God also warned Abraham that the Hebrews would sojourn in a land that was not theirs, that some group of persons, identified only as "they," would "afflict" them, and that after a span of four hundred years, God would see that the Hebrew people would despoil those who had ill used them.

In this same year came the destruction of [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]]. Abraham interceded for Sodom, for Lot's sake. Instead of forbearing to destroy the city, God sent two angels to make sure that Lot and his household would leave Sodom. (They barely escaped in time, and Lot's wife, because she looked back, did not survive.)

Abraham did have his son, [[Isaac]] ("he shall laugh"), by his wife [[Sarah]] when he was 100 years old and Sarah 90 years old.

=== The Expulsion of Ishmael ===
When Isaac was five years old, Abraham held a feast in his honor. Ishmael, who was nineteen, mocked Isaac. This prompted Sarah to demand that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away, and he did.

Many commentators, among them [[James Ussher]], [[Larry Pierce]], and [[Floyd Nolen Jones]], date the four hundred years' persecution of the Hebrew people from this incident. But other commentators point out that the Ishmaelites were not the Egyptians, nor did any systematic persecution begin until after the Israelites had all entered Egypt.

== Abraham's faith ==
The most famous story of Abraham dealt with his son [[Isaac]], when Abraham was told by God to take him up onto Mount Moriah and sacrifice him. ({{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=22|verses=1-14}}) Abraham did as he was told, but at the last moment an angel of the Lord told him to stop and another sacrifice was there to be put in his place, "for now I know that thou fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only [son] from me." ({{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=22|verses=12}} [[Christians]] see this as a foreshadowing of the sacrifice of [[Jesus]].

In response to Abraham's display of love for God by being willing to sacrifice his only beloved son,{{Bible quote|The angel of the Lord called to Abraham from heaven a second time and said: I swear by myself, declares the Lord, that because you have done this and have not withheld your son, your only son, I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me.|book=Genesis|chap=22|verses=15-18}}

== Abraham’s character ==
Abraham was a man with many admirable characteristics. He was a righteous man, wholeheartedly committed to [[God]]. He was a man of peace, compassionate when working to persuade God to spare the people of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], hospitable in welcoming three visiting [[angels]], and quick to act when rescuing Lot and his family from attackers.

Although he was a man of great spiritual depth, he also had common human weaknesses. To save his life, he twice passed off Sarah as his sister to foreign kings, allowing them to choose her for their harems.

== Final years ==
Sarah died at the age of 127, and Abraham bought a cave at Machpelah in which to bury her. As his own death drew near he made his servant Eliezer swear that he would find a wife for Isaac from his kinfolk near Haran. He did, and Isaac married [[Rebekah]].

Also in Abraham’s advancing years he married [[Keturah]], whose sons became the ancestors of the tribes of Dedan and Midian. The sons of Abraham by Keturah included [[Zimran]], [[Jokshan (son of Abraham)|Jokshan]], [[Medan]], [[Midian]], [[Ishbak]], and [[Shuah]]. ({{Bible ref|book=I_Chronicles|chap=1|verses=32}})

After he gave all he had to Isaac, and gifts to his other sons, Abraham died, having lived for 175 years. [[Isaac]] and [[Ishmael]] buried him in the cave at Machpelah in which Sarah lay.

== Legacy ==
: ''Main Article: [[Abrahamic religion]]''

Jews trace their lineage to Abraham through his son Isaac. One of the core tenets of the Jewish faith is that the [[Hebrews]] are the "chosen people of God" following God's covenants with Abraham.

Christians also trace their faith back to Abraham through Isaac, via [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]] and his original followers, who were Jewish.

Abraham's descendant Midian is also tied to the Jewish faith through [[Moses]], whose wife, Zipporah, was a Midianite.

[[Arab]] [[Islam|Muslims]] trace their lineage back to Abraham (known as Ibrahim) through his son [[Ishmael]].

== Chronological problems ==
: ''Main Article: [[Biblical chronology dispute]]''

Abraham's life story poses two different problems in [[biblical chronology]]. The first is whether Abraham was born early, or late, in the life of his father [[Terah]]. The age of Terah when Abraham was born is a chronological anchor for the year of Terah's birth. Many commentators believe that Abraham was born when Terah was 70 years old, on the basis of this verse:{{Bible quote|After Terah had lived 70 years, he became the father of Abram, Nahor and Haran.|book=Genesis|chap=11|verses=26}}

However, the Bible describes Abraham's departure from Haran ''after'' the death of his father.<ref name=Ussher5>[[James Ussher|Ussher]], ''[[The Annals of the World|op. cit.'']], pgh. 71-72</ref><ref name=Jones>Jones, Floyd N. ''The Chronology of the Old Testament'', Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004 (ISBN 9780890514160), pp. 25, 259 and Charts 1 and 6</ref> In addition, Stephen clearly stated to the Sanhedrin that Abraham left Haran after his father died.<ref name=Stephen>{{Bible ref|book=Acts|chap=7|verses=4}}</ref>

The second problem concerns the length of the Sojourn in Egypt. This period serves as an anchor for Abraham's departure from Haran. The book of Exodus tells us that {{Bible quote|Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years.|book=Exodus|chap=12|verses=40|version=KJV}}

Interestingly, the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] adds the phrase "and Canaan" after the name "Egypt" in the above verse. However, God seems to say to Abraham that the Egyptians would afflict the Israelites for four hundred years:{{Bible quote|And he said unto Abram, Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years;...|book=Genesis|chap=15|verses=13|version=KJV}}

Two problems appear above:

# Does the 430 years refer to the length of time that the Hebrews spent in Egypt, or to the total span of time from Abraham's entry into Canaan to the [[Exodus of Israel]]?
# When does the 400 years begin and end?

With regard to the 430 years, [[Paul]] provides an answer:{{Bible quote|And this I say, that the covenant, that was confirmed before of God in Christ, the law, which was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot disannul, that it should make the promise of none effect.|book=Galatians|chap=3|verses=17}}

The law referred to above is the [[Ten Commandments]], which were given in the same year as the Exodus. Therefore the "covenant" refers to the departure.

In addition, [[Genesis]] tells us that ''four generations'' would elapse during the actual time in Egypt.<ref name=generations>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=15|verses=16|version=KJV}}</ref> Those generations are the lives of [[Levi]], [[Kohath]], [[Amram]], and [[Moses]], which are a direct line of descent. [[Exodus]] gives the lengths of the lives of each of these men, and furthermore states that Amram married his own aunt. (I Chronicles also attests to this.) If the Israelites spent 430 years living in Egypt, this line of descent would be impossible.

With regard to the 400 years, Jones cites E. W. Bullinger's ''Companion Bible'', which points out that the text of {{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=15|verses=13}} is a curious type of text called an ''introversion.'' It states four facts, of which the first and last are related to one another, and the second and third are related to one another, though ''not'' to the other two. Thus the passage should read:

* Thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs,
** and shall serve them;
** and they shall afflict them
* four hundred years.

The two facts listed in the indented text are a parenthetical note in the broader context of a four-hundred-year period that begins when Isaac was weaned and ends with the Exodus.<ref name=Jones2>Jones, ''op. cit.'', pp. 53-61 and Charts 3, 3A, and 3B.</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
== See Also ==
* [[Judaism]]
** [[Midrash]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Islam]]

== External Links ==
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Timelines/2210-2090%20BC.htm Timeline 2210-2090 BC]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Timelines/2090-1970%20BC.htm Timeline 2090-1970 BC]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Bible/OT/Law/Genesis/patriarchal_timeline_from_adam_through_Isaac.htm Patriarchal Timeline from Adam through Isaac]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Bible/OT/Ages%20Of%20The%20Patriarchs.html Ages Of The Patriarchs]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Bible/OT/Law/Genesis/Genealogical%20Table%20of%20Abrahams%20Family.htm Genealogical Table of Abraham’s Family]

{{nb patriarch}}
{{nb hebrews}}

[[Category:Book of Genesis Persons]]
[[Category:Ancient History]]
[[Category:Abrahamic Religions]]
[[Category:Jewish People]]

Noah

2009-12-11T21:14:34Z

Starfox:

[[Image:Noah.jpg|thumb|right|Noah]]
'''Stephen Colbert''', or '''Noach''' ([[Hebrew]] '''נוֹחַ'''), the son of [[Lamech]], was, as related in the Bible, commanded by [[God]] to build an ark in order to save his family and representatives of all the world's land animals while God destroyed the wicked world with a flood<ref>Gen. 6:6</ref>. The story of Noah is found in the book of [[Genesis]] in chapters 6 to 9, and he is described as one of the "Heroes of Faith" in [[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]] chapter 11.<ref>He is also mentioned in the [[chronogenealogy]] of Genesis 5 and mentioned by Isaiah and Peter.</ref>

==Life==
[[Image:Noah's - Ark.jpg|thumb|Noah's Ark, by Hanna Varghese, [[Malaysia]].]]
God saw that man had become wicked in every inclination, and thought and the earth was filled with violence, but Noah alone was righteous. God commanded Noah to build an [[Noah's Ark|ark]] that would have seven (or seven pairs) of every "clean" ([[kosher]]) animal and two of every unclean animal. Noah did as he was told and spent many years building the ark. When it was completed, God flooded the earth with rain from above and waters from within the earth. Noah was 600 years old when the flood started. After the flood waters had subsided, (which lasted almost a year), Noah came out of the Ark. Noah made sacrifices to God, and God formed a new covenant with Noah where he promised never again to flood the earth. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine until he fell asleep naked in his tent. [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], the father of [[Canaan]], saw him and told his two brothers, but left his father as he was. The two brothers, upon hearing Ham's pronouncement, took a garment and walked backwards into their father's tent, and covered his nakedness without looking at him. When Noah awoke, he cursed Canaan, his grandson, for he "knew what his younger son had done unto him."<REF>{{bible ref|Genesis|9|24,25|version=KJV}}</REF>. Noah lived 350 more years before dying at the age of 950.<REF>{{Bible ref|Genesis|9|28,29}}</REF>

All people alive today must be descendants of Noah and his family:
{{Bible quote|book=Genesis|chap=7|verses=13,23|version=KJV|In the selfsame day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and Noah's wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, into the ark. ... And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark.}}

==Flood Accounts==
{{main|Great Flood}}

Many cultures have a tradition of a global flood and the biblical account has many commonalities with these accounts.
[[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth creationists]] argue that this supports the claim that the flood was a real event.<ref>Morris, John, [http://www.icr.org/article/570/ Why Does Nearly Every Culture Have a Tradition of a Global Flood?] (ICR)</ref>

== Family of Noah ==
''In Genesis, Chs 5 and 10, we are told:''

The sons of '''Noah''' were [[Shem]], [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] and [[Japheth]]

The children of '''Shem''' were [[Elam]], [[Asshur]], [[Arphaxad]], [[Lud]] and [[Aram]]

The sons of '''Ham''' were [[Cush]], [[Mizraim]], [[Phut]] and [[Canaan]]

The sons of '''Japheth''' were [[Gomer (son of Japheth)|Gomer]], [[Magog]], [[Madai]], [[Javan]], [[Tubal]], [[Meshek]] and [[Tiras]]

==See also==
*[[Noah's Ark]]
*[[Great Flood]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{nb patriarch}}
[[Category:Book of Genesis Persons]]

Global warming

2009-12-11T21:12:40Z

Starfox: a few change wordings for accu

[[Image:Composite antarctic NASA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A composite map of [[Antarctica]] showing areas of greatest warming in red, other colors indicate cooling. The Wilkins Ice Shelf lies off the peninsula in the top left corner, and shows extensive warming. Overall, Antarctica shows more cooling than warming, especially in the east, the area to the right.]]
The '''Global warming''' theory asserts that human activity causes dangerous increases in temperatures, despite studies showing the the Earth has been in a cooling pattern since 1998. [[Liberal]] scientists have insisted that man-made pollution has caused dangerous warming, but all of their computer models failed to predict cooling that the Earth is experiencing. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,570469,00.html Earth Cools, and Fight Over Warming Heats Up, FoxNews, October 30, 2009]</ref>\. In November 2009, emails were publicly released that demonstrated wrongful manipulation and concealment of data by scientists who have insisted that there is dangerous man-made global warming.

.Some scientists, who could not get a university faculty position, have been critical of this myth, but liberals have censored dissent and pretended that there is a "[[scientific consensus]]" supporting their theory for greater government control. Prior to [[Climategate]], both the Republican and Democratic party Platforms in 2008 suggested that global warming is happening, that it is caused by human activity, and that it should be counteracted. On most college campuses criticism of man-made global warming is silenced or censored, and even scientists skeptical of it are afraid to speak out.

Temperatures have been decreasing throughout this decade (as of 2009). Historically, natural periods of global warming and global cooling have alternated, and although we are currently in the stage of global cooling, it's effects have been reduced by the increased presence of man-made greenhouse gasses

[[Al Gore]] won a [[Nobel Prize]] in 2007 for showing that there is a dangerous man-made climate change that threatens the world. Neither he nor his supporters admit that a rapid cooling in temperatures is being observed. In 2007, the Republican presidential candidate Senator [[John McCain]] called global warming "an issue we can no longer afford to ignore".<ref>[http://www.ontheissues.org/domestic/John_McCain_Environment.htm]</ref>

In 2008 86 evangelical pastors, including Rev. Dr.[[Rick Warren]] signed a statement titled "Climate Change: An Evangelical Call to Action", which called on Christians to acknowledge the moral importance of action to counteract man - made climate change. the statement includes specific support for market - based CO2 reductions such as a cap - and - trade program.<ref>[http://christiansandclimate.org/]</ref>

==Presence of CO2==

One of the primary concerns of Global Warming research is the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Original claims stated that the increase in carbon dioxide - which is a greenhouse gas - were caused primarily through the burning of [[fossil fuels]], and that such increases were the foremost cause of global temperatures rising. However, recent research has shown that the average global temperature and carbon dioxide do have a relationship, but that the relationship is the other way around. Global temperature changes precede changes in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, leading to the increasing belief amongst the skeptical science community that global temperatures are causing carbion dioxide to increase in the atmosphere. <ref> [http://www.skepticalscience.com/co2-lags-temperature.htm]</ref>

The most obvious way that this would occur would be through the evaporation of ocean water. The oceans are the single largest storage unit for carbon dioxide gas on the planet, containing about 93% of the Earth's carbon dioxide. <ref> [http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Bi-Ca/Carbon-Dioxide-in-the-Ocean-and-Atmosphere.html] </ref> As temperatures rise, ocean water evaporates, causing the dissolved carbon dioxide gas to enter the atmosphere, and begin trapping radiation from the sun. Scientists now believe that this cycle causes a sort of chain effect, where increased temperature causes more carbon dioxide to enter the atmosphere, which in turn causes more temperature rise. However, this discredits the idea that human contributions to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are significant enough to affect global climate change.

It is also noteworthy to point out that carbon dioxide, while not as abundant in the atmosphere, has a more significant effect on global warming than water vapor does. Carbon dioxide cannot form clouds, as water vapor does. When water vapor forms clouds, those clouds actually block some of the sun's radiation from reaching the Earth, causing water vapor to both contribute positively and negatively to global temperature rise. Carbon dioxide can only act as a greenhouse gas, causing the above mentioned cyclic effect.

==The Modern Warm Period==

The Average [[Earth]] surface air temperature has risen about 1° F since 1970.
<ref>Hansen's group at the Goddard Institute wrote, "Global warming is now 0.6 °C [1.0 °F] in the past three decades and 0.8 °C [1.4 °F] in the past century." http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/2005/</ref> Studies have ruled out the possibility that errors in the measurements and sampling significantly affect the temperature trends detected over the past century. This accounts for spatial errors in the sampling and thus also incorporates errors associated with the urban-heating effect. According to Karl et al. (1993) ''"Results imply that the errors associated with century-scale trends of temperature are probably an order of magnitude smaller than the observed global warming of nearly 0.5°C per 100 years since the late nineteenth century"'' <ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JCli....7.1144K Karl et al. (1993) 'Global and Hemispheric Temperature Trends: Uncertainties Related to Inadequate Spatial Sampling' in Journal of Climate, 7(7); 1144 - 1168</ref>

According to temperature reconstruction made within an [[Old Earth]] paradigm, there have been many cycles of naturally-caused global warming and cooling over many millions of years (see [[climate cycles]]). Some scientists, including [[Richard Lindzen]] of [[MIT]], [[Sallie Baliunas]] of [[Harvard]] and [[Fred Singer]] (independent), say that the recent warming could be part of another natural cycle or random fluctuations in the atmosphere. However, many scientists also think that human activities were most likely the cause of the the planet's recent warming.

== Sun Spots ==
Sunspot activity may be a primary factor in climate fluctuations, according to Willie Soon, a researcher affiliated with the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and the Harvard College Observatory. '''“The sun is a great driving force to climate change.”''' Soon said that there have been much greater temperature fluctuations due to sunspots in the past and that proponents of global warming need to consider the effects of sunspot activity on global temperatures. Brian Farrell, a Harvard meteorology professor, acknowledged a connection between sunspot activity and temperatures on the Earth, “A strong correlation between the amount of radioactive carbon and temperature from ice cores has shown that solar activity can affect temperature." <ref>[http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/42006/181/ Harvard astrophysicist: Sunspot activity correlates to global climate change] TGDaily.com, April 10, 2009</ref>

==Politicization of the issue==

Environmentalists and their political allies have presented a one-sided, anti-scientific account of global warming. They have ignored natural warming cycles and suppressed evidence which contradicts their theories. They have viciously attacked the credibility of any scientist daring to contradict them, creating a climate of fear where only a tiny handful of scientists dare speak out.

Bill Gray wrote:
* The contrary views of the many warming skeptics have been largely ignored and their motives denigrated.
* The normal scientific process of objectively studying both sides of the question has not yet occurred.<ref> [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/Trenberth/XchangeGray_FtCollinsFeb08.pdf Area Experts Debate Global Warming]</ref>

Journalists in the West, dominated by liberal viewpoints, have painted a misleading picture of the science. They have publicized liberal slanders against scientists who dare to speak up against the fake "consensus"

Even organizations that are not normally biased towards leftist ideas have publically supported the global waming theory. The oil company Exxon/Mobil official policy is that CO2 emissions pose risks to society and ecosystems. Exxon/Mobil has also committed to reducing their own CO2 emissions, and invested $600 million in algae based fuels.<ref> [http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/energy_climate_views.aspx]</ref>

Agencies of the United States Government such as NASA, EPA & NOAA give selected information that strongly supports the global warming theory. At the same time, they reject freedom of information requests to see the raw data. <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/58087 Vitter, Inhofe Ask NASA Inspector General to Probe Possible Obstruction of FOIA Requests Seeking Climate Change Records, CNSNews.com, December 04, 2009]</ref> The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), for one example, states that CO2 levels in the atmosphere are rising due to human activity, and that the surface of the Earth has warmed, on average, quickly over the last 50 years, even though North America cooled slightly.<ref> [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalwarming.html#q2]</ref> In 2008 The Bush Administration requested $4.1 billion dollars of taxpayer money from Congress to fund NOAA, a 7.7 percent increase from 2008.<ref> [http://www.noaa.gov/budget/] </ref>

The 2008 Democratic National Committee Platform states;<ref>[states;http://www.democrats.org/a/party/platform.html]</ref>

"We must end the tyranny of oil in our time. This immediate danger is eclipsed only by the longer - term threat from climate change"

and

"...climate change is not just an economic issue or an environmental concern - this is a national security crisis."

The 2008 Republican National Committee Platform states; <ref>[http://www.gop.com/2008Platform/Environment.htm]</ref>

"The same human economic activity that has brought freedom and opportunity to billions has also increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. While the scope and long-term consequences of this are the subject of ongoing scientific research, common sense dictates that the United States should take measured and reasonable steps today to reduce any impact on the environment."

There have also been some Conservatives, such as John Bliese, Ph.D., who at one point believed that global warming is a critical problem, and that [[Conservatism]] and environmental conservation are fully compatible. Speaking to those who are skeptical of global warming, in the [[Summer]] of 2001, he wrote, "[T]here is nothing conservative about denying scientific evidence."<ref>[http://www.rep.org/news/GEvol5/ge5.1_globalwarming.html]</ref>

On October 10, 2009, Republican Senator Lindsey Graham coauthored (with Democrat Senator John Kerry) an op ed piece in the New York Times which stated "Even climate change skeptics should recognize that reducing our dependence on foreign oil and increasing our energy efficiency strengthens our national security. Both of us served in the military. We know that sending nearly $800 million a day to sometimes-hostile oil-producing countries threatens our security. In the same way, many scientists warn that failing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will lead to global instability and poverty that could put our nation at risk."
<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/11/opinion/11kerrygraham.html?pagewanted=1]</ref>

in 2008 the Center for Naval Analyses empaneled eleven retired generals and admirals to prepare a paper titled "National Security and the Threat of Climate Change". They concluded that Global climate change presents a serious national security threat which could impact Americans at home, impact United States military operations and heighten global tensions.<ref>[http://securityandclimate.cna.org/]</ref>

The Central Intelligence Agency has opened The Center on Climate Change and National Security to study the impact of climate change on US national security.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/news-information/press-releases-statements/center-on-climate-change-and-national-security.html]</ref>

==Climate science fraud==
{{main|Climategate}}

The [[Climategate#Climategate_scandal|Climategate scandal]] revealed how liberal scientists appeared to be deceiving the public with the use of fraudulent data for use as climate science. The [[Liberal media|liberal media]] has attempted to bury the story and discount it as the work of computer hackers illegally stealing data, however, [[FOIA|Freedom of Information]] requests is likely what led to the data being leaked — intentionally.<ref>http://www.junkscience.com/</ref> Dr. Willie Soon, a [[Physicist|physicist]], [[Astronomer|astronomer]] and climate researcher at the solar and stellar physics division of the [[Harvard University]]-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, said in an interview, "[The Climatic Research Unit climate scientists] are making scientific progress more difficult now. This is a shameful, dark day for science." Dr. Soon also suggested that there has been systemic suppression of dissenting opinion among scientists in the climate change community, ranging from social snubs to e-mail stalking and even threats of harm.<ref>Gene J. Koprowski. [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,578368,00.html Global Warming Scandal Makes Scientific Progress More Difficult, Experts Say], ''[[Fox News]]'', December 01, 2009.</ref>

[[Image:GoreFireBreathing.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Al Gore's [[Schlockumentary]] under fire; [[An Inconvenient Truth]] found to be an inconvenient [[lie]] based on [[junk science]] and digitally enhanced, totally faked scenes of polar icecaps melting.]]
===Controversy===
{{main|Global Warming Controversy}}

Since 1989, advocates have clashed on the issue of whether human beings are more responsible than nature for modern periods of global warming; see "[[greenhouse warming]]" and [[global warming theory]].<ref>Some people predicted "global warming," which has come to mean extreme [[greenhouse warming]] of the atmosphere leading to catastrophic environmental consequences. [http://www.junkscience.com/news/robinson.htm]</ref>

Most non-scientific support for the global warming theory rests on popular accounts such as Al Gore's ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'' or on reports issued by the UN's [[IPCC]]. However, Keston Green of Monash University and Scott Armstrong of the Wharton School wrote:
{{cquote|Because the forecasting processes examined in Chapter 8 overlook scientific evidence on forecasting, the [[IPCC]] forecasts of climate change are not scientific. <ref>http://www.forecastingprinciples.com/Public_Policy/WarmAudit31.pdf</ref>}}

Former vice-president [[Al Gore]] called it a [[moral issue]], while climate scientist [[Richard Lindzen]] says, "It is probably the most immoral thing you could do to restrain energy so that the billions in the earth who don’t have access to electricity won't conveniently get it." <ref>http://www.americaabroadmedia.org/media/On line extra materials/Climate change - lindzen interview.doc</ref> However, it is to be noted that many proponents of the theory propose energy conservation only until 'green' energy generation becomes predominant.

In general, the term ''global warming'' can be used for any upward trend in the [[Global mean temperature record|global mean temperature]], but it is mostly used to refer to the 1° F warming since 1850. The two sides are divided on whether this warming is a natural recovery from the [[Little Ice Age]] or a man-made environmental phenomenon. There are also debates regarding the potential positive or negative effects of a warming.

Republicans and Democrats in the U.S. are evenly split on the issue. ''Boston Globe'' writer [[Ellen Goodman]] wrote:
{{cquote|Only 23 percent of college-educated Republicans believe the warming is due to humans, while 75 percent of college-educated Democrats believe it.<ref> [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/02/09/no_change_in_political_climate/] </ref>}}

Controversy and scientific inaccuracies may have contributed to addressing 'Climate Change' in place of using Global Warming. As the northern pole region melts, the southern pole region ice is growing <ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0110/p14s01-sten.html], http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0110/p14s01-sten.html, As arctic ice melts, South Pole ice grows, January 10, 2008</ref> <ref>[http://www.news.com.au/story/0,27574,25348657-401,00.html Antarctic ice is growing, not melting away] News.com.au, April 18, 2009</ref> The argument is that for alarmists to claim a global threat, it would have to include the entire globe. For skeptics, the evidence is conclusive, there is no threat.

A recent warming trend in 2009 is also seen by some as contradicting predictions of imminent global warming, and necessitating a change of terminology to ''Climate Change.''<ref>http://www.climatedepot.com/a/1799/Global-temperatures-have-plunged-74degF-since-Gore-released-An-Inconvenient-Truth</ref> It is also pointed out that ''global cooling'' was seen as a threat by the mid-1970's.<ref>[http://denisdutton.com/newsweek_coolingworld.pdf Newsweek, April 28, 1975 (photocopy)]</ref>

==Liberal claims of "Consensus"==
[[Richard Lindzen]] wrote in 1992,

:Indeed, a recent Gallup poll of climate scientists in the American Meteorological Society and in the American Geophysical Union shows that a vast majority doubts that there has been any identifiable man-caused warming to date (49 percent asserted no, 33 percent did not know, 18 percent thought some has occurred; however, among those actively involved in research and publishing frequently in peer-reviewed research journals, none believes that any man-caused global warming has been identified so far). <ref name="cato">http://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/regv15n2/reg15n2g.html</ref>

Oddly enough, even though 82% of US climate scientists refused to support the global warming theory then, [[liberal]] activists were already claiming a scientific consensus for [[anthropogenic global warming]]. (It's hard to understand how 18 percent credence in ''any'' global warming translates into "consensus" support for ''human-caused'' global warming.)

The campaign to convince the public (and their elected representatives) that the "science is settled" began in 1988 or 1989.

By the 2008 elections both candidates for the Presidency of the United States were proposing plans to mitigate climate change.

Over 31,000 American scientists have signed the petition rejecting global warming. <ref>[http://www.petitionproject.org/</ref>

[[Image:Teller_Card_100dpi.jpg|600px|center|thumb| Global Warming Petition]]

It is well understood that most media companies do not offer balanced reporting. Many politicians have bought into the liberal claim of consensus, for example Barack Obama's views, "Few challenges facing America and the world are more urgent than fighting climate change. The science is beyond dispute and the facts are clear." <ref>[http://cato.org/special/climatechange/ Climate Change Reality] Cato Institute</ref> In fact, many scientists disagree with the "facts," their certainty, and their interpretation. Over 100 of them have signed the statement that appears in the Cato Institute's newspaper ad. Liberals have failed to back up their claims with any scientific facts.

[[File:ad.jpg|center]]

==Natural Variability of the Climate System==
It is virtually universally accepted amongst climatologists that the earth has experienced numerous [[Ice Age|ice age]]s over two million years, during which global temperatures fluctuated created glacial and inter-glacial periods. The frigid temperatures allowed ice sheets to expand southward, covering much of [[Asia]], [[Europe]], and [[North America]]. The cooling associated with ice ages is gradual, while the terminations are relatively rapid. However, even the rapid terminations of ice ages take centuries to millennia.

==Natural Climate Change on Other Planets==

Since the [[Viking spacecraft]] reached [[Mars]] in the 1970s until recent readings were taken, the average temperature on Mars has risen {{temperature|0.6|1.1}} just as the average temperature on the earth has risen. Since human industrialization is clearly not to blame for the change on Mars, other causes are being considered. One possibility is that dust storms are changing the albedo of the planet, allowing it to warm, while another possibility is that solar variations from the sun are causing the warming.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070404_gw_mars.html</ref><ref>http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=17977</ref>

Recently, it has also been found that similar to the Earth and Mars, [[Neptune]] is also undergoing global warming. Measurements taken at the Lowell observatory in [[Arizona]] have shown an increase in Neptune's brightness and temperature since 1980 following the same pattern seen on Earth and Mars. The researchers who discovered this warming suggest there may be a correlation between the warming and solar variations.<ref>http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2007.../2006GL028764.shtml</ref>

[[Pluto]] has also been found to be undergoing global warming. The overall temperature increase on Pluto has been greater than that on the earth.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/pluto_warming_021009.html</ref>

On the other hand [[Uranus]] has had no net change in temperature since 1977. A rapid increase in temperature reversed itself. The reasons for this are not understood.<ref>http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~layoung/eprint/ur149/Young2001Uranus.pdf</ref>

Global temperatures change on other planets even when there is no life, something which strongly supports the idea that humans are not necessarily the cause of earth's global warming. Moreover, the temperature on Uranus has fluctuated back and forth. There is no reason that fluctuations cannot occur on earth, too.

Although measurements have been made of the temperatures of other planets these are by no means thorough or comparable with the measurements used for earth. The short space of time over which measurements have been taken and the very limited spatial coverage means that reliable average figures have not been obtained. They have certainly not been taken extensively enough to produce a five year average temperature, which is the standard when determining temperature trends on earth.

However, if accurate measurements could be made, and their accuracy and reliability is improving over time, then they may prove useful to climate science. Their different atmospheres and distances from the sun provide natural laboratories to study climatic changes without human influences. Though of course they will not be directly comparable due to the vast differences.

==Beneficial effects of Global Warming==

Some researchers point out that benefits of health global warming have been overlooked, or minimized. As far back as 1996, Thomas Gale Moore, Senior Fellow at Hoover Institution (Stanford University) contended that positive health and amenity effects would be a result of projected increases in temperature. <ref>[http://www.stanford.edu/~moore/health.html Health and Amenity Effects of Global Warming]</ref>

Another source notes,

In areas that see extreme cold temperatures, deaths related to colder weather would drop significantly, leading to decreased health care costs. Warmer temperatures would also mean less energy use to heat homes and buildings, helping to conserve energy. With the changes brought about by global warming more land would become available for uses like farming and living. Forests and plants would grow stronger, healthier, and more abundant because of the warmer weather, and this would mean more oxygen being released into the atmosphere.<ref>http://www.bionomicfuel.com/what-are-the-benefits-of-global-warming/</ref>

==Politics of Global Warming==
{{main|Politics of global warming}}

Christine Stewart- Canadian Environment Ministry, "'''No matter if the science is all phony''', there are collateral environmental benefits . . . Climate change provides the greatest chance to bring about justice and equality in the world.” <ref>[http://www.aim.org/wls/use-environmentalism-to-change-the-world/ Christine Stewart] Accuracy in Media</ref>

'Global Warming Now World's Most Boring Topic’ <ref>http://newsbusters.org/node/14167</ref>

The need to fight "global warming" has become part of the dogma of the liberal conscience. <ref name="cato" />

Clearly, "global warming" is a tempting issue for many very important groups to exploit.
... dealing with the threat of warming fits in with a great variety of preexisting agendas [like] dissatisfaction with industrial society (neopastoralism), ... governmental desires for enhanced revenues (carbon taxes), and bureaucratic desires for enhanced power. <ref name="cato" />

If their biased findings are to be believed, the IPCC concluded that the global average surface temperature warmed about 0.6 °F during the 20th Century. <ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/global-warming Growing Signals of Global Warming] U.S. History Encyclopedia</ref> The IPCC is desperate to claim the 20th century-- the warmest on record. Thus, tying the progress of modern mankind to our supposed planet imbalance problem. Unfortunately for the IPCC, that point is disputed as well. In 2008, it was discovered that tree rings in Finland were more accurate record of the warmest century. The current era was not the warmest period-- it was the period between 931 and 1180. <ref>[http://tbirdnow.mee.nu/archive/2008/6?page=2 The Trees of Finland; Temperature Readings and Historical Reconstruction] Tbirdnow.mee.nu Blog (with links to actual data sources), June 24, 2008</ref>

Assessments of climate science by the [[United Nations]] (see [[IPCC]] - ''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'')
have claimed that scientists are 90% sure that over 50% of the observed global warming in recent decades is human-caused, and that continued global warming should be expected over at least the next century.

Several prominent scientists have pointed out the [[politicized science]] of the UN's assessment methods. The scientific reports are submitted to a panel of representatives appointed by each country in the IPCC. Several scientists whose research demonstrates that climate change is taking place have complained about their work being misrepresented by the U.N.

In addition, a number of the participants have testified to the pressures placed on them to emphasize results supportive of the current scenario and to suppress other results. That pressure has frequently been effective, and a survey of participants reveals substantial disagreement with the final report. <ref name="cato" />

Richard Lindzen wrote:
:Perhaps more important are the pressures being brought to bear on scientists to get the "right" results. Such pressures are inevitable, given how far out on a limb much of the scientific community has gone. The situation is compounded by the fact that some of the strongest proponents of "global warming" in Congress are also among the major supporters of science (Sen. Gore is notable among those). <ref name="cato" />

Christopher Monckton wrote an article titled Climate Sensitivity Reconsidered.
:States that Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change studies are flawed. The present analysis suggests the models failure to predict other climatic phenomena arises from defects in its evaluation of radioactive forcing, no-feedbacks climate sensitivity parameter and feedback multiplier. In conclusion, that there may be no "Climate Crisis" and for governments to reduce emissions may be pointless or even harmful. <ref>http://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/200807/monckton.cfm , Climate Sensitivity Reconsidered, July 2008</ref> This was published on a forum of the American Physical Society with the following disclaimer "The article has not undergone any scientific peer review" and "the APS disagrees with the articles conclusions" In fact, the APS disagrees with the article without ever reviewing it.

Ryan N. Maue:
:A doctoral student at the Department of Meteorology at Florida State University did a study of global tropical cyclone activity. Its conclusions state that global warming might be greatly overblown. <ref>[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/opinion/s_617111.html# Global warming? More doubts] Pittsburgh Tribune, March 21, 2009</ref> Mr. Maue found that tropical cyclone activity worldwide "has completely and utterly collapsed" during the past two to three years with energy levels sinking to those of the late 1970s.

Dr. Vincent Gray:
:A member of the IPCC’s expert reviewers’ panel asserts, “There is no relationship between warming and the level of gases in the atmosphere,” and "there is no serious threat to the climate" <ref>[http://americanfreedomnow.com/2009/06/04/the-panic-over-global-warming-is-totally-unjustified-says-vice-chair-ipcc/ “THE PANIC OVER GLOBAL WARMING IS TOTALLY UNJUSTIFIED” says Vice Chair, IPCC] Americanfreedomnow.com, June 4th, 2009</ref>

Joe D’Aleo: Climatologist
:The International Climate and Environmental Change Assessment Project says new data "show that in five of the last seven decades since World War II, including this one, global temperatures have cooled while carbon dioxide has continued to rise," and "'''The data suggest cooling''', not warming, in Earth's future." <ref>[http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=92557 Shocker: 'Global warming' simply no longer happening] Worldnetdaily, March 22, 2009</ref>

Dr. John S. Theon:
:Retired senior NASA atmospheric [[scientist]], Dr. John S. Theon, the former boss of global warming alarmist James Hansen of [[NASA]], rebukes him declaring “climate models are useless.” “My own belief concerning anthropogenic climate change is that the models do not realistically simulate the climate system because there are many very important sub-grid scale processes that the models either replicate poorly or completely omit,” “Furthermore, some scientists have manipulated the observed data to justify their model results." <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/tom-blumer/2009/01/28/former-boss-rebukes-nasa-global-warming-alarmist-hansen-agw-skeptic Former Boss Rebukes NASA Global Warming Alarmist Hansen, Is AGW Skeptic] NewsBusters.org, January 28, 2009 </ref>

Sammy Wilson -Ireland's environment minister
:He argues that global weather patterns are naturally cooling, not warming. He calls television ads that promote global warming as "an insidious propaganda campaign" peddling "patent nonsense." <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/article.aspx?RsrcID=43255 Belfast Environment Chief Bans Climate Change Ads] AP, February 09, 2009</ref>

After the broadcast of his movie '[[The Great Global Warming Swindle]]', filmmaker Martin Durkin's statements read <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/article.aspx?RsrcID=32796 UK Broadcaster Scolded for Film on Global Warming] CNSNEWS July 22, 2008</ref>

*“Everywhere you are told that man-made [[climate change]] is proved beyond doubt,” “But you are being told lies.”
*“This is a story of how a theory about climate turned into a political [[ideology]] ... it is the story of the distortion of a whole area of [[science]].”
*“as the frenzy over man-made [[global warming]] grows shriller, many senior scientists say the actual scientific basis for the [[theory]] is crumbling.”

In late 2008, the [[AP]] published an article by its Science Writer Seth Borenstein, which is seen by skeptics as another example of one-sided, uncritical reporting on the issue by [[liberal media]]. The report stated that global warming was "a ticking time bomb that President-elect Barack Obama can't avoid", and that "We're out of time", with Al Gore calling the situation "the equivalent of a five-alarm fire that has to be addressed immediately."<ref>http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D952LKOO1&show_article=1</ref> In response, Fox New (December 16, 2008) reported that scientists skeptical of anthropogenic global warming criticized the report as "irrational hysteria," "horrifically bad" and "incredibly biased", containing containing sweeping scientific errors and being a one-sided portrayal of a complicated issue. Geology professor [[David Deming]] stated, "If the issues weren't so serious and the ramifications so profound, I would have to laugh at it", and accused Borenstein of "writing a polemic and reporting it as fact." Deming noted that "the mean global temperature, at least as measured by satellite, is now the same as it was in the year 1980. In the last couple of years sea level has stopped rising. Hurricane and cyclone activity in the northern hemisphere is at a 24-year low and sea ice globally is also the same as it was in 1980." The AP responded to criticism by stating that, "It’s a news story, based on fact and the clearly expressed views of President-elect Barack Obama and others."<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,468084,00.html Scientists Call AP Report on Global Warming 'Hysteria'] Fox News, December 16, 2008</ref>

Also in the discussion of the biased AP report, Michael R. Fox, a retired nuclear scientist and chemistry professor from the University of Idaho stated, "There is little evidence to believe that man-made carbon dioxide is causing temperature fluctuation. Other factors, including sun spots, solar winds, variations in the solar magnetic field and solar irradiation, could all be affecting temperature changes."

The year 2008 turned out to be the coolest year since 2000, yet the seventh to tenth warmest year on record, according to the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies.<ref>http://news.eoportal.org/research/090127_res3.html</ref> According to a preliminary analysis by NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center, the average June-August 2009 summer temperature for the contiguous United States was below average – the 34th coolest on record.<ref>[http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090910_summerstats.html NOAA: Summer Temperature Below Average for U.S.]</ref>

Richard S. Courtney, a U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) expert reviewer and a U.K.-based climate and atmospheric science consultant says "Rubbish! Global warming is not 'accelerating," and "...that anybody who proclaims that 'Global warming is accelerating' is a liar, a fool, or both." <ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/brennan/global_warming_debunked/2008/12/16/162489.html Global Warming’s Last Gasp] NewsMax, December 17, 2008</ref>

Don J. Easterbrook, Ph.D., emeritus professor of geology at Western Washington University, asked, "What does it take to ignore 10 years of global cooling....? The answer is really quite simple — just follow the money!"

==Al Gore's Claims==

The decision by the government to distribute Al Gore's film, ''An Inconvenient Truth'', became the subject of a legal challenge by [[New Party]] member Stewart Dimmock. A school governor from Dover and father of two, Dimmock charged the Government with brainwashing children with propaganda by presenting Gore’s sci-fi film as science. In October 2007, Mr Justice Burton of London's High Court found that while the film was "broadly accurate", it contained nine significant errors,“in which statements were made that were not supported by the current mainstream scientific consensus”, some of which had arisen in “the context of alarmism and exaggeration”. He also found the Guidance Notes drafted by the Education Secretary’s advisers only worked to exacerbate the political propaganda in the film.<ref>[http://www.americanthinker.com/blog/2009/07/clearly_its_al_gore_whos_in_de.html American Thinker; ''Clearly It's Al Gore Who's In Denial'']</ref><ref>Times online, October 11, 2007 ''Al Gore’s inconvenient judgment''</ref>

Taken from the official transcript,<ref>[http://noteviljustwrong.com/images/nejw/docs/22161.pdf Stuart Dimmock and Secretary of State for Education and Skills]</ref> the nine errors the judge found were:

*1. Sea level rise of up to 20 feet (7 metres) will be caused by melting of either West Antarctica or Greenland in the near future. This is distinctly alarmist, and part of Mr Gore's 'wake-up call'. It is common ground that if indeed Greenland melted, it would release this amount of water, but only after, and over, millennia, so that the Armageddon scenario he predicts, insofar as it suggests that sea level rises of 7 metres might occur in the immediate future, is not in line with the scientific consensus.

*2. Low lying inhabited Pacific atolls are being inundated because of anthropogenic global warming. In scene 20, Mr Gore states "that's why the citizens of these Pacific nations have all had to evacuate to New Zealand". There is no evidence of any such evacuation having yet happened.

*3. Shutting down of the "Ocean Conveyor". According to the IPCC, it is very unlikely that the Ocean Conveyor (known technically as the Meridional Overturning Circulation or thermohaline circulation) will shut down in the future, though it is considered likely that thermohaline circulation may slow down.

*4. Direct coincidence between rise in CO2 in the atmosphere and in temperature, by reference to two graphs. In scenes 8 and 9, Mr Gore shows two graphs relating to a period of 650,000 years, one showing rise in CO2 and one showing rise in temperature, and asserts (by ridiculing the opposite view) that they show an exact fit. Although there is general scientific agreement that there is a connection, the two graphs do not establish what Mr Gore asserts.

*5. The snows of Kilimanjaro. The film asserted that melting snows on Mount Kilimanjaro evidenced global warming. The Government's expert was had to admit that this is not correct. Mr Gore asserts in scene 7 that the disappearance of snow on Mt Kilimanjaro is expressly attributable to global warming. It is noteworthy that this is a point that specifically impressed Mr Milliband (see the press release quoted at paragraph 6 above). However, it is common ground that, the scientific consensus is that it cannot be established that the recession of snows on Mt Kilimanjaro is mainly attributable to human-induced climate change.

*6. Lake Chad etc. The drying up of Lake Chad is used as a prime example of a catastrophic result of global warming. However, it is generally accepted that the evidence remains insufficient to establish such an attribution. It is apparently considered to be far more likely to result from other factors, such as population increase and over-grazing, and regional climate variability.

*7. Hurricane Katrina. In scene 12 Hurricane Katrina and the consequent devastation in New Orleans is ascribed to global warming. It is common ground that there is insufficient evidence to show that.

*8. Death of polar bears. In scene 16, by reference to a dramatic graphic of a polar bear desperately swimming through the water looking for ice, Mr Gore says: "A new scientific study shows that for the first time they are finding polar bears that have actually drowned swimming long distances up to 60 miles to find the ice. They did not find that before." The only scientific study that either side before me can find is one which indicates that four polar bears have recently been found drowned because of a storm.

*9. Coral reefs. In scene 19, Mr Gore says: "Coral reefs all over the world because of global warming and other factors are bleaching and they end up like this. All the fish species that depend on the coral reef are also in jeopardy as a result. Overall specie loss is now occurring at a rate 1000 times greater than the natural background rate." The actual scientific view, as recorded in the IPCC report, is that, if the temperature were to rise by 1-3 degrees Centigrade, there would be increased coral bleaching and widespread coral mortality, unless corals could adopt or acclimatise, but that separating the impacts of climate change-related stresses from other stresses, such as over-fishing and polluting, is difficult.

Dimmock's lawyer, Mr. Downes, argued that by schools making available such film to its teachers, and if teachers then showed such film to their pupils, then this would inevitably result "in the promotion of partisan political views in the teaching of any subject in the school, which is thus not only not being forbidden by the local education authority (and the DES), but being positively facilitated by them."

Mr Justice Barton stressed that the “apocalyptic vision” presented in the film was politically partisan and not an impartial analysis of the science of climate change. “It is now common ground that it is not simply a science film – although it is clear that it is based substantially on scientific research and opinion – but that it is a political film.

Justice Barton also stated that, “I conclude that the claimant substantially won this case by virtue of my finding that, but for the new guidance note, the film would have been distributed in breach of sections 406 and 407 of the 1996 Education Act.”<ref> BBC news, Thursday, 11 October 2007</ref>

In order for the film to be shown, the Government must first amend their Guidance Notes to Teachers to make clear that

*1. The Film is a political work and promotes only one side of the argument.

*2. If teachers present the Film without making this plain they may be in breach of section 406 of the Education Act 1996 and guilty of political indoctrination.

*3. Nine inaccuracies have to be specifically drawn to the attention of school children.<ref>http://www.newparty.co.uk/articles/inaccuracies-gore.html</ref>

Science and Public Policy took issue with the response to the ruling by Al Gore’s spokesman and environment adviser, and asserted that his film contains ''35 Inconvenient Truths''.<ref>[http://scienceandpublicpolicy.org/monckton/goreerrors.html 35 Inconvenient Truths]</ref>

Related to above, while Gore claims that Himalayan glaciers are shrinking and global warming is to blame, the September 2006 issue of the American Meteorological Society's Journal of Climate reported,

:Glaciers are growing in the Himalayan Mountains, confounding global warming alarmists who recently claimed the glaciers were shrinking and that global warming was to blame." <ref name="sun">http://www.suntimes.com/news/otherviews/450392,CST-EDT-REF30b.article</ref>

Regarding his claims that the snow cap atop Africa's Mt. Kilimanjaro is shrinking and that global warming is to blame, the November 23, 2003, issue of Nature magazine stated,

:Although it's tempting to blame the ice loss on global warming, researchers think that deforestation of the mountain's foothills is the more likely culprit. Without the forests' humidity, previously moisture-laden winds blew dry. No longer replenished with water, the ice is evaporating in the strong equatorial sunshine." <ref name="sun" />

Many conservatives see Al Gore as an example of [[liberals]] using [[deceit]]ful tactics in important debates, i order to make a position seem more solid than it is.

==2008 Presidential candidates on climate Change==

[[Bob Barr]] is the only major 2008 Presidential Candidate who has not adopted wholesale the theory of human-caused global warming.

According to his website,<ref>[http://www.johnmccain.com/Informing/News/PressReleases/BA6709C3-B27D-4EF9-81E6-2BA9D6F8AB20.htm John McCain on Global warming.]</ref> [[Republican]] Presidential candidate [[John McCain]] will take a more "aggressive approach" to global warming which he has declared as "undeniable and urgent." He was supported in this in June 2008 by Republican governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] who said McCain was the "real deal on the environment".<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/06/30/MNDB11H66C.DTL&type=politics Schwarzenegger backs McCain on climate Change]</ref>.

In his own words, McCain says "the overwhelming majority of scientific opinion in America today, and in the world, is that climate change is real. The fact is that it ''is'' real. The fact is that the solution to it is the development of technologies.... and a [[cap and trade]] proposal.... the debate is over."[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQMxIwpK_es] Unless McCain believes that Global Warming is entirely or largely man-made, there would be no sense in supporting a cap and trade solution.

[[Barack Obama]] believes "that global warming is not just the greatest [[environmental]] [[challenge]] facing our planet—it is one of our greatest challenges of any kind." During his first 100 days in office, he would enact a giant and far-reaching [[tax]] "an economy-wide cap on U.S. carbon emissions that will reduce U.S. emissions by the amount scientists agree is necessary (80% by 2050). With worldwide cuts in emissions estimated to cost '''$45 Trillion dollars''' overall. <ref>[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/natural_resources/article4079036.ece World needs $45 trillion energy revolution] Timesonline.uk, June 6, 2008</ref> He comments "Putting a price on carbon is the most important step we can to take to reduce emissions."<ref>[http://presidentialprofiles2008.org/Obama/tab1.html League of Conservation Voters] presidentialprofiles2008.org</ref>

==Al Gore's "Inconvenient Truth" Movie Claims==

A [[British]] court has determined that Al Gore's movie "An Inconvenient Truth" contains at least eleven material falsehoods <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2007/10/09/court-identifies-eleven-inaccuracies-al-gore-s-inconvenient-truth], http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2007/10/09/court-identifies-eleven-inaccuracies-al-gore-s-inconvenient-truth, October 9, 2007</ref>

Those inaccuracies include the following

* The film claims that melting snows on Mount Kilimanjaro evidence global warming. The Government's expert was forced to concede that this is not correct.
* The film suggests that evidence from ice cores proves that rising CO2 causes temperature increases over 650,000 years. The Court found the film misleading: over that period the rises in CO2 lagged behind the temperature rises by 800-2000 years.
* The film uses emotive images of [[Hurricane Katrina]] and suggests that this has been caused by global warming. The Government's expert had to accept that it was "not possible" to attribute one-off events to global warming.
* The film shows the drying up of Lake Chad and claims that this was caused by global warming. The Government's expert had to accept that this was not the case.
* The film claims that a study showed that polar bears had drowned due to disappearing arctic ice. It turned out that Mr Gore had misread the study: in fact four polar bears drowned and this was because of a particularly violent storm.
* The film threatens that global warming could stop the Gulf Stream throwing Europe into an ice age: the Claimant's evidence was that this was a [[scientific]] impossibility.
* The film blames global warming for species losses including coral reef bleaching. The Government could not find any evidence to support this claim.
* The film suggests that the [[Greenland]] ice covering could melt causing sea levels to rise dangerously. The evidence is that Greenland will not melt for millennia.
* The film suggests that the Antarctic [[ice]] covering is melting, the evidence was that it is in fact increasing.
* The film suggests that sea levels could rise by 7m causing the displacement of millions of people. The evidence is that sea levels are expected to rise by about 40cm over the next hundred years and that there is no such threat of massive migration.
* The film claims that rising sea levels has caused the evacuation of certain Pacific islands to [[New Zealand]]. The Government are unable to substantiate this and the Court observed that this appears to be a false claim.

== Scientists ==

[[Image:Rogerrevelle.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Roger Revelle]]

{|
| valign="top" width="35%"|
* [[Roger Revelle]]
* [[Achim Steiner]]
* [[Fred Singer]]
* [[Richard Lindzen]]
* [[Sallie Baliunas]]
* [[Lonnie Thompson]]
| valign="top" width="33%"|
* [[James E. Hansen]]
* [[Michael Mann]]
* [[Charles Keeling]]
* [[Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado]]
|}

==See Also==
*[[Anthropogenic global warming theory]]
*[[Global Warming Controversy]]
*''[[Massachusetts v. EPA]]''
*[[Socialism and global warming]]
*[[Politics of global warming]]
*[[Liberal_hysteria#Global_Warming_Derangement_Syndrome|Global Warming Derangement Syndrome]]
*[[Socialist Environmental Disasters]]
*[[An Inconvenient Truth]]
*[[Previous Breaking News/Global Warming|Articles about '''Global Warming''' from previous "Breaking News"]]
*[[Wikiproject:News by Subject#Global Warming| Wikiproject:News by Subject- Global Warming]]

===Critique of the Hockey Stick Reconstruction===
<small>
*[http://www.climateaudit.org/pdf/mcintyre.mckitrick.2003.pdf Corrections To The Mann et. al. (1998) Proxy Data Base And Northern Hemispheric Average Temperature Series] by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick, ''Energy & Enviornment'' volume 14, 2003.
*[http://blogs.nature.com/climatefeedback/2007/05/the_decay_of_the_hockey_stick.html The Decay of the Hockey Stick by Von Storch] published on the journal ''Nature'''s blog, May 3, 2007.
*[http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/13830/ A Global Warming Bombshell] by Richard A. Muller, ''Technology Review'' , Oct. 2004; calls into question famous graph by Michael Mann.
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/306/5696/679 Reconstructing Past Climate from Noisy Data] by Hans von Storch, Eduardo Zorita, Julie M. Jones, Yegor Dimitriev, Fidel González-Rouco, Simon F. B. Tett, ''Science'' magazine, 22 October 2004.
</small>

{{Climategate scandal}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/global-warming/ What Liberals Say - Category: Global Warming], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[http://global-warming.accuweather.com/2007/12/attempting_to_stop_global_warm_1.html Attempting to Stop Global Warming is Futile and a Mistake, says letter to the UN]
*[http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=164004 Signatories of an open letter on the UN climate-conference]
*[http://schwinger.harvard.edu/~motl/global-temperature-not-exist.pdf Does a global temperature exist?], ''Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics'', June 2007.
*[http://environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,2032821,00.html The appliance of science] by Mike Hulme.
*[http://www.climatecrisis.net/ ''An Inconvenient Truth''], Film by [[Al Gore]]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2332531355859226455&q=great+global+warming+swindle ''The Great Global Warming Swindle'' - Documentary Film]
*[http://www.physics.harvard.edu/~motl/iris-effect.pdf Climate Sensitivity and Observed Negative Feedbacks], lecture by Richard Lindzen and Roberto Rondanelli.
*[http://www.physics.harvard.edu/~motl/lindzen-nature-of-arguments.pdf Nature of Arguments for Anthropogenic Global Warming], by Richard Lindzen
*[http://www.independent.org/store/book_detail.asp?bookID=42 ''Hot Talk, Cold Science: Global Warmings's Unfinished Debate'', by S. Fred Singer]
*[http://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/regv15n2/reg15n2g.html Global Warming: The Origin and Nature of the Alleged Scientific Consensus] - [[Richard S. Lindzen]], Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
*[http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=47&articleID=604 "Should We Have Acted Thirty Years Ago to Prevent Climate Change?", by Randall G. Holcombe].
*[http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=25&articleID=296 "After Kyoto: A Global Scramble for Advantage," by Bruce Yandle].
*[http://www.ncpa.org/sub/dpd/index.php?Article_ID=2319 The physical evidence of earth's unstoppable 1,500-year climate cycle]
*[http://www.independent.org/publications/article.asp?id=1714 "Is There a Basis for Global Warming Alarm?", by Richard Lindzen]
*[http://www.independent.org/publications/policy_reports/detail.asp?type=full&id=5 "New Perspectives in Climate Change: What the EPA Isn’t Telling Us"]
*[http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=17181 Survey Shows Climatologists Are Split on Global Warming]
*[http://www.magma.ca/~hurleyp/FightingTheHoax.htm Fighting the Hoax]
*[http://www.climateaudit.org Climate Audit], Steve McIntyre's blog
*[http://www.realclimate.org Real Climate], blog by a group of climatologists including Michael Mann
*[http://www.americanthinker.com/2009/01/co2_fairytales_in_global_warmi.html "CO2 Fairytales in Global Warming"]
*[http://www.numberwatch.co.uk/warmlist.htm A complete list of things caused by global warming]
*[http://globaleconomicanalysis.blogspot.com/2009/11/hackers-prove-global-warming-is-scam.html Hackers Prove Global Warming Is A Scam]

{{liberalism}}

[[Category:Earth Sciences]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Liberal Bias]]
[[Category:Liberal Falsehoods]]