Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Papal bull

2007-06-01T13:46:46Z

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A '''Papal bull''' is the formal cow, owned by the pope. It is led out on good friday and sacrificed in St Peter's Basilica, to represent the sacrifice of our Lord Jesus.

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Quantum mechanics

2007-06-01T13:30:18Z

Ssandoval: Removed idiotic implication that first order kinetics follow from quantum mechanics. First order kinetics because rate of change proportional to negative amount.

Quantum mechanics consists of the breakthrough in physics in the 1920s in understanding how particles behave inside atoms. Classical mechanics, as initially discovered by [[Isaac Newton]], cannot explain atomic behavior.

Classical mechanics would predict that an electron orbits a proton just as planets orbit the sun. Classical electromagnetism would predict that the orbiting electron would emit a time-varying electrical field just as a radio station does. But the electron would lose energy as it emits this radiation, and would orbit closer and closer to the proton, until it collapses into the proton! Such a model cannot be correct.

Quantum mechanics posits that an electron (or any other sub-atomic particle) behaves as both a wave and a particle. As a result of the wave nature of the electron, the position of the electron can never be precisely known. Whenever it is attempted to be measured, knowledge of the electron's velocity is immediately lost. Hence, there is an inherent uncertainty that prevents precisely measuring both the position and the momentum simultaneously. This is known as the [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]].

Quantum mechanics forms the basis for our understanding of chemical reactions, as well as all computers and electronic devices today.

An important aspect of Quantum Mechanics is the predictions it makes about the radioactive decay of isotopes. This decay is random, and the randomness is inherently a quantum mechanical effect.

==Mathematics==

The mathematics of Quantum mechanics can be formulated using the language of infinite dimensional [[Hilbert Space]]s; observables such as position and momentum are [[operator]]s on such Hilbert Spaces, or using alternatively using matrices.

==External Links==
For an excellent discussion of quantum mechanics, see:
http://www.chemistry.ohio-state.edu/betha/qm/

See also: [[Momentum (operator)]]

[[Category:Physics]]

Special Theory of Relativity

2007-06-01T13:23:18Z

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The special theory of relativity is a paper published by Albert Einstein in 1905, originally titled The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies.

His theory stated that all motion must be considered relative to some object or system of objects. Four instance, consider to planes are flying in a parrrellell line. They are flying at the same speed, so relative to the earth, they are flying at three hundred miles per hour. Relative to each other, they are motionless.

It also states that the measured speed of light in a vaccuuum, no matter what the velocity of the of the light source relative to the observer, remains constant. For instance, consider a man throws a football at a horizontal velocity of 10 miles per hour, relative to us. If the man is on a platform moving in the same direction as the ball being thrown, at 5 miles per hour, then we would assume that the horizontal velocity of the ball after being thrown would be 10 plus 5, right? Einstein theorized that while it may seem that way when measured, in reality, it is immesurably less than 10 plus 5. So, when the football being thrown from a man at barely under 15 miles per hour changes to light being hurled from a distant planet at 300,000 kilometers per second, the diffference becomes noticable. As the speed of the object being thrown increases, the affect of the object it is being thrown from on the object thrown decreases. It reaches zero when a moving object reaches the speed of light. He theorized that no matter what the velocity of the source of light, the measured velocity of light will always be 300,000 kilometers per second, relative to the usa.

Perhaps the most famous part of his special theory of relativity was his energy-mass equivelance. Up until this point, most people beleived in a newtonian universe, where mass and energy weren't related. But Einstein changed everyones veiws of the wrold, not only stating that energy and mass were related, but that they were equal. It was his energy-mass equivelance that gave us the famous equation ''e=mc2''. It also solved one of the mysteries of radiation. Before einstein's theory was applied, radioactive material seemed to generate endless amounts of energy from nowhere. Once they applied his theory, they looked for disappearing mass and found it. Although this may be einstein's most well known work by the general public, he did not win a noble prize for it. In fact, he didn't win a noble prize until 16 years later, for explaining the photoelectric effect.

Work

2007-06-01T13:14:57Z

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In [[physics]],<math>\int F \cdot \,ds</math>.
.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Chemistry''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>
[[category:physics]]

Non-polar covalent bond

2007-06-01T13:08:12Z

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A '''Non-polar''' covalent bond is a bond between [[atom]]s in which electrons are shared equally. [[Homonuclear diatomic]] molecules are common examples of molecules which contain non-polar covalent bonds, along with many alkali metal halides.

Metallic bond

2007-06-01T13:07:17Z

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A '''Metallic bond''', or communistic bond, is a bond in which metal atoms share their outer electrons.

Hess's Law

2007-06-01T13:04:36Z

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Hess's Law states that:

Energy is a state function and is therefore independent of itself.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Chemistry''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Reaction Kinetics]]

Bond energy

2007-06-01T12:59:58Z

Ssandoval: spelling correction

Bond energy is the energy which must be exerted to bread a bun.

Benzene

2007-05-31T16:36:41Z

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Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph-H. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point.

==Structure and Controversy==
The structure of benzene has been a matter of debate in the scientific establishment since its empirical formula (CH) was able to be deduced.
After the molecular formula, C6H6 was discovered, it allowed for a lot more speculation on the structure with many different ones being suggested, most involving multiple double bonds and ring structures. Kekulé came up with the structure accepted now by most of the scientific establishment, that of alternating single and double bonds in a six-membered ring. However, this structure is applied inconsistently, with many textbooks swapping randomly between the two possible structures, with no thought to the underlying reality. This has led some leading chemists to demand that this controversy it taught to students, including Dr Azo Mazur of the Rediscovery institute.

==See Also==
*Rediscovery Institute [http://www.re-discovery.org/ten_resonance.gif diagram] illustrating the issue.
*[http://www.re-discovery.org/ Rediscovery Institute]

Benzene

2007-05-31T16:36:15Z

Ssandoval:

Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph-H. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point.

==Structure and Controversy==
The structure of benzene has been a matter of debate in the scientific establishment since its empirical formula (CH) was able to be deduced.
After the molecular formula, C6H6 was discovered, it allowed for a lot more speculation on the structure with many different ones being suggested, most involving multiple double bonds and ring structures. Kekulé came up with the structure accepted now by most of the scientific establishment, that of alternating single and double bonds in a six-membered ring. However, this structure is applied consistently, with many textbooks swapping randomly between the two possible structures, with no thought to the underlying reality. This has led some leading chemists to demand that this controversy it taught to students, including Dr Azo Mazur of the Rediscovery institute.

==See Also==
*Rediscovery Institute [http://www.re-discovery.org/ten_resonance.gif diagram] illustrating the issue.
*[http://www.re-discovery.org/ Rediscovery Institute]

Benzene

2007-05-31T16:35:59Z

Ssandoval:

Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph-H. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point.

==Structure and Controversy==
The structure of benzene has been a matter of debate in the scientific establishment since its empirical formula (CH) was able to be deduced.
After the molecular formula, C6H6 was discovered, it allowed for a lot more speculation on the structure with many different ones being suggested, most involving multiple double bonds and ring structures. Kekulé came up with the structure accepted now by most of the scientific establishment, that of alternating single and double bonds in a six-membered ring. However, this structure is applied consistently, with many textbooks swapping randomly between the two possible structures, with no thought to the underlying reality. This has led some leading chemists to demand that this controversy it taught to students, including Dr Azo Mazur of the Rediscovery institute.

==See Also==
*Rediscovery institute[http://www.re-discovery.org/ten_resonance.gif diagram] illustrating the issue.
*[http://www.re-discovery.org/ Rediscovery institute]

Benzene

2007-05-31T16:35:08Z

Ssandoval: New page: Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph-H. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a ...

Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph-H. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point.

==Structure and Controversy==
The structure of benzene has been a matter of debate in the scientific establishment since its empirical formula (CH) was able to be deduced.
After the molecular formula, C6H6 was discovered, it allowed for a lot more speculation on the structure with many different ones being suggested, most involving multiple double bonds and ring structures. Kekulé came up with the structure accepted now by most of the scientific establishment, that of alternating single and double bonds in a six-membered ring. However, this structure is applied consistently, with many textbooks swapping randomly between the two possible structures, with no thought to the underlying reality. This has led some leading chemists to demand that this controversy it taught to students, including Dr Azo Mazur of the Rediscovery institute.

==See Also==
Rediscovery institute[http://www.re-discovery.org/ten_resonance.gif diagram] illustrating the issue.
[http://www.re-discovery.org/ Rediscovery institute]

Ethenol

2007-05-31T16:11:10Z

Ssandoval: New page: '''Ethenol''', also known as vinyl alcohol, is a flammable chemical compound with a strong odor, and is a frequent contaminant in alcoholic beverages. In common usage, it is of...

'''Ethenol''', also known as vinyl alcohol, is a flammable [[chemical compound]] with a strong [[odor]], and is a frequent contaminant in [[alcoholic beverage]]s. In common usage, it is often referred to simply as acetol. The chemical formula is CH2=CHOH, C2H3OH.
It is the first of the olefinic alcohol, and is a common starting point for organic syntheses. The most common method of manufacture in industry is
the hydration of acetylene, using a phosphoric acid catalyst.

Pompey

2007-05-22T21:32:03Z

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Pompey lived from 106 to 48 BC. A competent if not entirely honest politician, he was also a journeyman military commander under the old Republic. Both Syria and Palestine were added to the Roman sphere of influence by armies he led. At first allying with [[Julius Caesar]], he and [[Crassus]] along with Caesar formed the first [[triumvirate]] basically controlling power in Rome with the will of the senate. Pompey even had a marriage bond with Caesar, marrying his daughter.

But times changed. Caesar's daughter died in childbirth while Crassus was killed trying to fight the Parthians and Caesar won victory after victory in [[Gaul]]. Concerned and jealous of Caesar, Pompey plotted against him and had the senate pass rules that would cause Caesar a great distress when his campaign in Gaul was completed. Caesar couldn't allow this and when he was done securing Gaul for Rome, turned to march into Italy. The senate considered Caesar a traitor and Pompey raised a large army. Unfortunately for him, he had the misfortune to be facing one of the greatest military geniuses ever, including Jesus. In a series of battles Pompey was defeated and fled to Egypt followed by Caesar. Trying to get on Caesar's good side, the Egyptians killed Pompey before Caesar arrived.

Gaius Marius

2007-05-22T21:31:01Z

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{{Rome}}A Roman General and seven-time [[consul]] who lived from 157 to 86 BC. Full name Caius Marius, Marius was born as a plebian, making his rise to the consulship all the more remarkable: he was, in essence, the first [[novus homo]], or "new man," meaning plebian that rose the patrician ranks of his own skill.

He established a professional army, including instituting for the first time the use of the weapon known as the [[pilum]] - a thrown spear designed to shatter upon impact so that the enemy could not re-use it after thrown by a Roman legionnaire.

He also established the army as an institution more related to the individual general than the state, by for the first time personally rewarding his [[Roman veteran| veterans]]. In this sense, Marius is said to have "forged the sword that slew the state," in that he created the idea of a [[personal army]], which [[Pompey| Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] and [[Julius Caesar]] would later use in the civil wars that led to the fall of the [[Roman Republic]].

After leading a successful military career, Marius, instead of retiring, attempted to become engaged in Roman political life by joining in the conflict between [[Sulla| Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] and the [[Roman Senate]]. The Greek historian [[Plutarch]] tells us that Marius was incredibly inept at politics, and stumbled into seven consulships, and uses his life in the book [[Parallel Lives]] as an example of what happens when a man stretches himself too far, and refuses to be content with his already-memorable legacy.

== References ==
Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', "Life of Caius Marius."

Julius Caesar

2007-05-22T21:29:26Z

Ssandoval: /* Contributions */

{{Rome}}

'''Gaius Julius Caesar''' lived from 100–44 B. C. He was a [[Roman]] military & political leader and one of most influential people in [[history]]. A brilliant general, he laid the groundwork for the future [[Roman empire]].

==Early Political Career==
In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy [[Marcus Crassus]] and the powerful Roman general and statesman [[Pompey the Great]] to rule [[Rome]] as the first [[triumvirate]]. In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consul and used his position to gain favour with the public, such as by distributing grain to the poor.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of [[Gaul]] (modern-day [[France]]). He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him. Back in Rome, Julius Caesar’s plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle). Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar’s actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome. He refused, and in an act of direct defiance to the [[Senate]], led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B. C. The expression, “crossing the Rubicon” is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back. Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 B.C. This left Julius Caesar firming in control of Rome, and he then took his veteran army on campaigns in [[Egypt]] (where he installed ally [[Cleopatra]] as queen), Asia Minor, [[Africa]] and [[Spain]] before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C. Rome ruled much of the Western civilized world as result of these military campaigns. It is interesting to note that Caesar did not start his string of incredible military victories until he was well into middle age. The Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

==Later Career and Death==
The Roman Senate was less than pleased with Caesar's actions as dictator. In a conspiracy famously recounted in [[Shakespeare]]’s play “Julius Caesar,” Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the “Ides of March” (March 15, 44 B.C.). After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strived for power. Julius Caesar had named his 18-year-old grandnephew, [[Gaius Octavius]], to be his heir. Gaius Octavius also intended to inherit his adopted father's political power. Others wanted [[Mark Antony]]. Cassius and [[Brutus]] also had armies of their own. First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Senate. Octavius went on in history to become Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

==Contributions==

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day [[Julian Calendar]], which provided the foundation for the [[Gregorian Calendar]] adopted later by a [[pope]] and used to this day. Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the [[Jews]] in [[Palestine]], so that the Jewish religion could be practice outside the requirements of Roman religious law. An uneasy practice of the Jewish faith thus continued in the Roman empire up to and through the time of [[Christ]]. Julius Caesar, as all Roman generals, campaigned strenuously on behalf of his veterans, in particular with regards to the gifting of land.
Roman culture flourished in the struggles during the lifetime of Julius Caesar, and those which followed his assassination. Notably, [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] (106-43 B.C.) became one of the leading writers and orators. His works are read to this day in [[Latin]] courses, as he established a high standard for Latin [[prose]]. The language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system and elsewhere. But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero’s work the Philippics criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., he responded by putting Cicero to death.

== See also ==

*[[Alexander the Great]]
*[[The Crusades]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]

[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Military Commanders]]

Julius Caesar

2007-05-22T21:27:19Z

Ssandoval: /* Contributions */

{{Rome}}

'''Gaius Julius Caesar''' lived from 100–44 B. C. He was a [[Roman]] military & political leader and one of most influential people in [[history]]. A brilliant general, he laid the groundwork for the future [[Roman empire]].

==Early Political Career==
In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy [[Marcus Crassus]] and the powerful Roman general and statesman [[Pompey the Great]] to rule [[Rome]] as the first [[triumvirate]]. In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consul and used his position to gain favour with the public, such as by distributing grain to the poor.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of [[Gaul]] (modern-day [[France]]). He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him. Back in Rome, Julius Caesar’s plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle). Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar’s actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome. He refused, and in an act of direct defiance to the [[Senate]], led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B. C. The expression, “crossing the Rubicon” is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back. Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 B.C. This left Julius Caesar firming in control of Rome, and he then took his veteran army on campaigns in [[Egypt]] (where he installed ally [[Cleopatra]] as queen), Asia Minor, [[Africa]] and [[Spain]] before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C. Rome ruled much of the Western civilized world as result of these military campaigns. It is interesting to note that Caesar did not start his string of incredible military victories until he was well into middle age. The Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

==Later Career and Death==
The Roman Senate was less than pleased with Caesar's actions as dictator. In a conspiracy famously recounted in [[Shakespeare]]’s play “Julius Caesar,” Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the “Ides of March” (March 15, 44 B.C.). After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strived for power. Julius Caesar had named his 18-year-old grandnephew, [[Gaius Octavius]], to be his heir. Gaius Octavius also intended to inherit his adopted father's political power. Others wanted [[Mark Antony]]. Cassius and [[Brutus]] also had armies of their own. First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Senate. Octavius went on in history to become Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

==Contributions==

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day [[Julian Calendar]], which provided the foundation for the [[Gregorian Calendar]] adopted later by a [[pope]] and used to this day. Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the [[Jews]] in [[Palestine]], so that the Jewish religion could be practice outside the requirements of Roman religious law. An uneasy practice of the Jewish faith thus continued in the Roman empire up to and through the time of [[Christ]]. Julius Caesar was good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterwards. Most notably, [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] (106-43 B.C.) became one of the leading writers and orators. His works are read to this day in [[Latin]] courses, as he established a high standard for Latin [[prose]]. The language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system and elsewhere. But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero’s work the Philippics criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., he responded by putting Cicero to death.

== See also ==

*[[Alexander the Great]]
*[[The Crusades]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]

[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Military Commanders]]

Roman Catholic Church

2007-05-22T21:11:19Z

Ssandoval: /* History */

The '''Catholic Church''' is, literally, the ''Universal Church'' of [[Jesus Christ]] (from the Greek ''katholikos'', "universal"). The [[Roman Catholic Church]] is headed by the pope, the bishop of Rome, currently [[Pope Benedict XVI]]. It is one of the largest religions in the world, with more than 1 billion adherents (In the United States more than 64 million.) The Catholic Church is the oldest institution in the western world. The Roman Catholic faith teaches the Pope is the successor of [[Saint Peter]].

To belong to the Catholic Church one must accept as factually true the gospel of our lord [[Jesus Christ]]. ''"The chief teachings of the Catholic church are: God’s objective existence; God’s interest in individual human beings, who can enter into relations with God (through prayer); the Trinity; the divinity of Jesus; the immortality of the soul of each human being, each one being accountable at death for his or her actions in life, with the award of heaven or hell; the resurrection of the dead; the historicity of the Gospels; and the divine commission of the church. In addition the Roman Catholic Church stresses that since the members, living and dead, share in each other’s merits, the [[Virgin Mary]] and other saints and the dead in purgatory are never forgotten." '' <ref> [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ro/RomanCat.html The Columbia Encyclopedia]</ref> The presence of Christ is believed to be present in the Eucharist, the bread and wine is Jesus himself. Another essential belief is the veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus as the Blessed Virgin Mary and veneration of the saints.

The principal sources for the essential beliefs of the Catholic Church are the Sacred Scriptures (the Bible), Sacred Tradition, and Living Magisterium of the Church.

The term Catholic is frequently applied to the Roman Catholic Church, though many Protestants object to Roman Catholics monopolizing the term "Catholic". Conversely, many Roman Catholics dislike the adjective "Roman" because it implies, contrary to (Roman) Catholic doctrine, that their church is not ''the'' universal Church of Christ.

[[Image:Cathpop.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Catholics in the world.]]

== History ==
The original Christian community was founded by Our Lord Jesus Christ and led by the Apostles. St. [[Paul|Paul the Apostle]] was, together with [[Saint Peter]], the most notable of Early Christian missionaries. After an initial period of persecution, Christianity was legalized in the fourth century by Constantine I. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I accepted Catholic Christianity as the official religion of the [[Roman Empire]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] the Church underwent a time of missionary activity and expansion. This Catholic Christian Church underwent in 1054 a great schism that divided the Church into a Western (Latin) branch, which has been called as the Catholic Church and an Eastern branch, which has become known as the [[Orthodox Church]]. The second schism was the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. During the First Vatican Council (1869–1870) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) the Catholic Church undertook the most comprehensive reforms. She stretched relations with other Christian communities and other religions. She also issued directions for a revision of the liturgy.

==Different churches==

The term "The Catholic Church" refers to any one of several Rites, but in the United States is often used synonymously for the largest Rite, the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Other Rites include the Byzantine, Alexandrian, Syriac, Armenian, Maronite, and Chaldean Rites. Some Eastern rites have significant differences in liturgy, history, discipline and hierarchy from the Roman Catholic Church, but still recognize the primacy of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) and are in communion with Rome. These Eastern Rite churches are Catholic and do not belong to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

The Eastern branches do not have a single umbrella organization. They include the Eastern Orthodox Church and a number of Eastern Catholic Churches. Despite important differences in doctrine, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern churches recognize each other as part of the universal, or Catholic Church. For example, each of them accepts each others' Holy Orders (priesthood) as valid.

The Roman Catholic Church historically regarded [[Protestant]] Christianity as heretical, that is, being against Roman doctrine. However, this changed in the 1960's when Pope John XXIII called the Second Vatican Council, where '''the''' '''doors of the Church were opened wide''', and Protestants referred to as '''"our separated brethren".''' This was an exciting period for Catholics and Protestants alike as moves were made to bring the separated churches back together.

[[Image:JpII.jpg|right|thumb|John Paul II]]

The Anglican Church (Episcopalian in the United States) occupies an odd situation, because it encompasses within it factions ("Low Church") that emphasize its Protestant aspects and factions ("High Church") that emphasize its Catholic aspects. Anglo-Catholics regard the Anglican church as part of the Catholic Church, and in the unbroken line of the Apostolic Succession. The Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern branches take a position that could be described as saying that the Anglican Church is almost but not quite Catholic. There have long been unification overtures, and Anglican priests who wish to adopt Catholic Holy Orders are often provided with an abbreviated path to that goal.

The [[Nicene Creed]], the great historical statement of Christian belief, contains the line "I [or we] believe in one holy, catholic and apostolic church". The [[Apostles' Creed]] contains a similar affirmation. However, Protestants and Catholics place different interpretations on the term "universal", or "catholic". Protestants believe that it refers to the general, over-arching spiritual unity of all Christian believers, Jew or gentile, which transcends individual churches and denominations. Catholics, on the other hand, believe that the [[Roman Catholic Church]], as the single true church founded by Christ, is the universal Catholic Church in which their is neither Jew nor gentile. Some prefer not to refer to their own church as the "Roman" Catholic Church, on the grounds that such formulations implicitly deny this point of doctrine.

== Saint Paul's Writings ==

[[Paul|St. Paul]] is the second most prolific contributor to the [[New Testament]]. Thirteen letters are attributed to him and fully known as the "Catholic (or Universal) Epistles of Paul". The letters are written in Greek. The epistles contain the basis of Christian doctrine, interpretation and commentary from earlier scriptures. They are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live.

<blockquote style="background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: .3em;">

''St. Paul reminded the Christians how they should live. They should think about the things in heaven (Colossians 3:2), because they belong with Christ (Colossians 3:3-4). They should not do evil deeds (Colossians 3:5-11). Instead, they should love other people (Colossians 3:12-14). And they should serve God (Colossians 3:15-17). If we invite Jesus into our lives, we will become friends of God (Colossians 1:15-23).'' </blockquote>

St. Paul's influence on Christian thinking has been more significant than any other single New Testament author.

== Fathers ==

St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397, was one of the most illustrious Fathers and Doctors of the Church, and fitly chosen, together with St. Augustine, St. John Chrysostom, and St. Athanasius, to uphold the venerable Chair of the Prince of the Apostles in the tribune of St. Peter's at Rome. <ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01383c.htm St. Ambrose] Catholic Encyclopedia.</ref>
 

==Controversy==
[[Image:Cerro_de_Angeles.jpg|right|thumb|Cerro de los Angeles, Madrid, Spain.]]
There has been much controversy in recent years about Catholic priests in relation to the abuse of children in their care. Cases of pedophilia and ephebophilia have both been discovered in many churches across the world<ref>http://www.religioustolerance.org/clergy_sex.htm</ref>. Many instances of abuse occurred with little or no repercussion for priests involved. In some cases, bishops were aware of the abuse but did not effectively deal with it, allowing the abusive priest to continue to remain in contact with minors.

== Catholics as Christians ==
Catholics are not regarded as Christians by some Christian websites, and are only notable as a sub-sect of Christianity.<ref>http://www.jesus-is-lord.com/cath.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.born-again-christian.info/catholics.htm</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Jesus Christ]]
*[[Vatican City]]
*[[Pope John Paul II]]
*[[Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer]]
*[[Dead Sea Scrolls]]

==External links==
[[Image:Virgen.jpg|right|thumb|Virgin Mary and Child]]

*[http://tcrnews2.com/VaticanCouncil2.html The Reasons for the Second Vatican Council]
*[http://tcrnews2.com/vonbalthasarfathers.html The Fathers, the Scholastics, and Ourselves ]
*[http://tcrnews2.com/predestination.html Ruminating on Laughter, Predestination, Mystery ]
*[http://www.cua.edu/ The Catholic University of America] Washington, D. C.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm St. Paul] Catholic Encyclopedia.
*[http://tcrnews2.com/Marykerygma05.html Mary is not the Kerygma]
*[http://tcrnews2.com/RFK_daughter.html Kathleen Kennedy Townsend: Failing America's Faithful]
*[http://tcrnews2.com/ChristNietzscheIslam.html A Civilization Without the Influence of Jesus Christ]
*[http://tcrnews2.com/Birds_Trojan.html Birds of a Feather and Trojan Horse Islam]
*[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] Saint Charles Borromeo Catholic Church web site

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Christianity]]

Date of creation

2007-05-22T21:07:59Z

Ssandoval: /* Geological dating */

Calculating the '''date of creation''' has exercised many minds for hundreds of years.

== Basis of calculation ==

The Bible contains [[chronogenealogies]] from Adam to Abraham, listing the age at which each person in the genealogy gave birth to the next person in the list, thus allowing by simple addition a determination of how many years passed between [[creation story|creation]] and Abraham. There are other chronological indications also, allowing that calculation to be extended into the times of the kings, when the dates can be correlated with other events in history for which the absolute date is known. By this means, in theory, one can calculate the date of creation.

There are, however, some uncertainties in this. For example, Genesis lists the age of Terah when the first of his sons was born, but was Abraham this son, or the second or third son?
Different researchers have proposed different answers to this and similar problems, but none of these problems change the result by a very significant amount.

An objection that has often been raised is whether the chronogenealogies were ''intended'' to be used this way, or whether, for example, generations have been missed.
[[Henry Morris]], a pioneer of modern creationism, allowed for the possibility of gaps in the genealogies, but claimed that it was unreasonable to stretch the date back further than about 10,000 B.C.
In more recent times, however, creationists have concluded that there is no reason to think that there are gaps, and this view is supported by the consensus of the experts, according to [[James Barr]], then regius professor of Hebrew at [[Oxford University]], and not a young-Earth creationist (he also wrote a book attacking [[biblical inerrancy]]), who wrote in 1984: "… probably, so far as I know, there is no professor of Hebrew or Old Testament at any world-class university who does not believe that the writer(s) of Genesis 1–11 intended to convey to their readers the ideas that: … the figures contained in the Genesis genealogies provided by simple addition a chronology from the beginning of the world up to later stages in the biblical story." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1606/ Biblical chronogenealogies], by Jonathan Sarfati.</ref>

Old-earth creationists do not accept this date, proposing that there may be gaps in the genealogies.<ref>[http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/other_papers/primeval_chronology.shtml Are There Gaps in the Biblical Genealogies?], by William Henry Green.</ref>

== Calculated dates ==

The best known date of creation is the one calculated by Archbishop [[James Ussher]] in the 17th century - namely 6:00 p.m. Saturday, [[October 22]], [[4004]] BC.<ref>The Annals of the World, by James Ussher.</ref> However, only the year was based on the Biblical ages; the date and time were based on other considerations. Sir [[Isaac Newton]] defended Ussher's date. Another to calculate the date of creation was [[Johannes Kepler]], who worked it out to be 3992 B.C.

But such calculations in fact date from at least the Middle Ages, and offer a range of dates from around 5000 to 4000 BC. Judaic tradition (to which the Old Testament of course belongs) reckons the date of creation at 3760 BC. Another calculation, beginning with the date of the destruction of Jerusalem known from secular history and working backwards, arrives at 4163 BC. <ref> http://web.newsguy.com/rubyredinger/age.html Biblical age of the Earth</ref>

== Geological dating ==
Based on [[geology|geological]] dating methods and their inherent controversial assumptions, however, secular scientific research dates the formation of the Earth to around 4.5 [[billion]] (4.5 * 109) years ago.<ref>[http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS, ''Geologic Time: Age of the Earth.''] Accessed April 18, 2007.</ref> And according to the [[Big Bang Theory|Big Bang theory]], the universe began even earlier, about 13.7 billion years ago.

== Notes ==
<references />

[[Category:Creationism]]

Atom

2007-05-22T20:55:48Z

Ssandoval: /* Structure */

[[Image:Ehli.png|thumb|right|Depiction of the helium atom]]
An '''atom''' is the smallest unit of chemical element that still retains the element's properties. The word atom comes from the Greek term for indivisible, ''átomos''.

===Structure===

Atoms are comprised of three subatomic particles: positively charged [[proton|protons]], electrically neutral [[neutron|neutrons]] and negatively charged [[electron|electrons]]. Protons and neutrons are comprised of quarks and are contained in close proximity in the center of an atom, forming the [[nucleus]]. Electrons inhabit the space around the nucleus, and are arranged around it in a series of layers, known as [[electron shell|shells]] or energy levels.
Currently quarks and electrons are considered truly elementary particles, though neither have ever been seen.

===Atomic Number===

Chemical elements are made up of atoms with certain properties. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (known as the [[atomic number]]) determine the properties of the atom, and the element it constitutes. For example, [[Hydrogen]] has one proton, and therefore an atomic number of 1. [[Oxygen]] has 8 protons in its nucleus and has an atomic number of 8. Under normal conditions, atoms contain an equal number of protons and electrons.

===Ions===

Atoms are normally electrically neutral; they have no charge. However, electrons in the [[valence shell]] can be gained or lost (depending on the element and the conditions) to form an [[Ion|ion]]. An atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged and is known as a cation. An atom that gains electrons electrons becomes negatively charged and is known as an anion.

Many common substances are made up of ions. For example, [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl), otherwise known as table salt, is made up of [[sodium cations]] (Na+) and [[chlorine]] anions (Cl-) in equal proportions. The negatively charged chlorine ions are attracted to the positively charged sodium ions, forming an [[ionic bond]]. This results in a lattice structure, which is responsible for sodium chloride being crystalline in its solid state.

===Isotopes===

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. Some isotopes are more stable than others, and occur more often in nature, but there is no "standard" number of neutrons in a given element. The atomic weight of an element is a weighted average of the number of neutrons and protons (number of protons remains constant in a given element) in all naturally occurring isotopes.

[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Physics]]

Atom

2007-05-22T20:55:32Z

Ssandoval:

[[Image:Ehli.png|thumb|right|Depiction of the helium atom]]
An '''atom''' is the smallest unit of chemical element that still retains the element's properties. The word atom comes from the Greek term for indivisible, ''átomos''.

===Structure===

Atoms are comprised of three subatomic particles: positively charged [[proton|protons]], electrically neutral [[neutron|neutrons]] and negatively charged [[electron|electrons]]. Protons and neutrons are comprised of quarks and are contained in close proximity in the center of an atom, forming the [[nucleus]]. Electrons inhabit the space around the nucleus, and are arranged around it in a series of layers, known as [[electron shell|shells]] or energy levels.
Currently quarks and electrons are considered truly elementary particles, though neither has ever been seen.

===Atomic Number===

Chemical elements are made up of atoms with certain properties. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (known as the [[atomic number]]) determine the properties of the atom, and the element it constitutes. For example, [[Hydrogen]] has one proton, and therefore an atomic number of 1. [[Oxygen]] has 8 protons in its nucleus and has an atomic number of 8. Under normal conditions, atoms contain an equal number of protons and electrons.

===Ions===

Atoms are normally electrically neutral; they have no charge. However, electrons in the [[valence shell]] can be gained or lost (depending on the element and the conditions) to form an [[Ion|ion]]. An atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged and is known as a cation. An atom that gains electrons electrons becomes negatively charged and is known as an anion.

Many common substances are made up of ions. For example, [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl), otherwise known as table salt, is made up of [[sodium cations]] (Na+) and [[chlorine]] anions (Cl-) in equal proportions. The negatively charged chlorine ions are attracted to the positively charged sodium ions, forming an [[ionic bond]]. This results in a lattice structure, which is responsible for sodium chloride being crystalline in its solid state.

===Isotopes===

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. Some isotopes are more stable than others, and occur more often in nature, but there is no "standard" number of neutrons in a given element. The atomic weight of an element is a weighted average of the number of neutrons and protons (number of protons remains constant in a given element) in all naturally occurring isotopes.

[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Physics]]