Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Lech Kaczyński

2010-04-10T11:51:47Z

Sporean: death

[[Image:Asdf.jpg|right|thumb|Lech Kaczynski]]
'''Lech Kaczyński''' was the current president of [[Poland]], inaugurated 23 December 2005. Kaczyński was born in [[Warsaw]] in 1949. He was educated in law at Warsaw University. He was involved with the [[Solidarity]] movement in the late 1980s. He served as the mayor of Warsaw from 2002 until he was elected president<ref>http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=437</ref>. His identical twin brother, Jarosław, was Prime Minister of Poland from July 2006 to November 2007.

Lech Kaczyński died in a plane crash on April 10, 2010. He was heading towards Russia.

==Political Stance==
Kaczynski represents the [[Law and Justice]] party, the right-wing conservative party of Poland. He is a conservative Christian. He strongly supports putting Christian values in the [[European Union]] constitution<ref>http://www.polskieradio.pl/zagranica/gb/dokument.aspx?iid=49980</ref>. His government is pro-American and has contributed soldiers to the War in Iraq.<ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat_coalition.htm</ref> The Kaczyński administration supports a total ban on [[abortion]], a total ban on [[homosexual]] propaganda in schools, and the building of American anti-nuclear missile shields on Polish soil.{{fact}}

==References==

<references/>

==See also==
*[[Law and Justice]] - polish right-wing political party
*[[Jarosław Kaczyński]] - polish [[Prime Minister]]
*[[Maria Kaczyńska]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaczynski, Lech}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[CAtegory:Polish People]]
[[Category:Abortion]]

Mustard

2010-04-09T12:43:35Z

Sporean:

[[Image:2008-04-02-mustard.png|250px|thumb|right|A boy squirting mustard from the bottle]]

'''Mustard''' is a popular [[condiment]] created from the seeds of the mustard plant. It is often used on [[hamburger]]s and [[hot dog]]s. [[German]]s like mustard on their [[sausage]]s, known as ''wursts''.

In the [[USA]], mustard is usually in a yellow plastic squeeze bottle because it is yellow; ketchup is in the red squeeze bottle because it is red. In [[France]] where the city of Dijon is a famous place of production, mustard is usually sold in glass containers.

==Mustard in the Bible==

Mustard can be found in several places in the [[Bible]]:
{{cquote|He told them another [[parable]]: "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed, which a man took and planted in his field. Though it is the smallest of all your seeds, yet when it grows, it is the largest of garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and perch in its branches." He told them still another parable: "The kingdom of heaven is like [[yeast]] that a woman took and mixed into a large amount of flour until it worked all through the dough." Jesus spoke all these things to the crowd in parables; he did not say anything to them without using a parable. Matthew 13:31-34 }}
{{cquote|The apostles said to the Lord, "Increase our faith!" He replied, "If you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to this [[mulberry]] tree, 'Be uprooted and planted in the sea,' and it will obey you. "Suppose one of you had a servant plowing or looking after the [[sheep]]. Would he say to the servant when he comes in from the field, 'Come along now and sit down to eat'? Luke 17:5-7}}

[[Category:Condiments]]

Ségolène Royal

2010-04-09T12:36:40Z

Sporean: linking to a more proper article in the French context

[[Image:Segolene royal.jpg|thumb|Ségolène Royal]]

'''Marie-Ségolène Royal''' (born 22 September 1953 in Dakar, [[Senegal]]) was the [[democratic socialism|Socialist]] candidate for the [[2007 French presidential elections|2007 French presidential election]]. On May 6, 2007 [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] won the French presidential election. The socialist Ségolène Royal conceded defeat, by a 53-47% margin.

Her father Jacques Royal, is a Catholic, [[conservative]] [[France|French]] army colonel. Royal attended the prestigious Ecole Nationale d'Administration. She has also a Degree in Economics, Graduate of the Institut d'Etudes Politiques in Paris. At the Ecole Nationale she met François Hollande, the leader of the Socialist Party and father of her four children. Both collaborated with the staff of Socialist President François Mitterrand.

She is a National Assembly member and the President of the Poitou-Charentes region. On March 27, 2000, She was appointed as Minister at the Ministry of Employment and Solidarity, with delegated responsibility for Childhood and the Family.

== Writings ==

*''Le printemps des grands-parents'', Editions Robert Laffont
*''Le ras-le-bol des bébés zappeurs'', Editions Robert Laffont
*''Pays, paysans, paysage'', Editions Robert Laffont
*''La vérité d'une femme'', Stock. (A Lady's Truth)

==Policies==

Segolene Royal has promised to implement leftist economic policies that will "frighten the capitalists." She also calls for European opposition to "the American hyperpower." <ref>http://www.washtimes.com/op-ed/20070424-102752-8335r.htm</ref>

She is known for her admiration for some "[[Third Way]]" policies (and has been compared to [[Tony Blair]] in this respect), for her insistence on the importance of the "welfare state" and for her support of participatory democracy and devolution.

== References ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Royal, Ségolène}}

[[Category:International Political Figures]]
[[Category:French People]]
[[Category:Women]]

Union for French Democracy

2010-04-09T12:30:18Z

Sporean: this party has been renamed.

The '''Union for French Democracy''' (''Union pour la Démocratie Française'', UDF) was a [[France|French]] centrist political party. It has been lead by [[François Bayrou]] and was renamed ''MoDem'' (portmanteau for ''Mouvement Démocrate'' in 2006.

[[Category:French Political Parties]]

Notre Dame

2010-04-09T12:28:33Z

Sporean: hyphenation and one more link

'''Notre-Dame''' is a [[French]] phrase meaning "Our Lady". It is a common name for Catholic insitutions dedicated to the [[Virgin Mary]].

*[[Notre Dame de Paris]], a [[cathedral]] in [[Paris]]
*[[Notre-Dame de la Paix]], a cathedral in [[Yamoussoukro]], [[Ivory Coast]].
*[[University of Notre Dame]], a university in [[South Bend]], [[Indiana]]

[[Image:Notre-dame.jpg|400px]]

[[Category:Places of Worship]][[Category:France]][[Category:United States Universities]]

Orleans

2010-04-09T12:26:52Z

Sporean:

'''Orléans''' is a walled city in central France. Orléans is probably most famous for being besieged by the armies of [[Henry VI]] of England. During which [[Joan of Arc]] is said to have saved Orléans from near certain capture.

The city, approx. 150 km away from [[Paris]], is situated on the banks of the river [[Loire]] and is also famous for its [[vinegar]].

The city of [[New Orleans]] is names after Orléans by the French who once inhabited that area.

[[Category:France]]

Normandy

2010-04-09T12:25:32Z

Sporean:

'''Normandy''' is a sizable coastal region in northern [[France]]. In 911, it was given as a fiefdom to [[Vikings]] who had been raiding the countryside. In return, the Viking leader, Rollo, was to swear fealty to the French king, convert to Christianity, and defend the kingdom from further Viking attacks.<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Viking Age'', by John Haywood, Thames & Hudson, 2000</ref> [[William the Conqueror]] came from Normandy and in 1066 conquered [[England]]. For years the English kings had claims to this large area of France, sometimes at odds with the French crown. [[Richard I|Richard the Lionhearted]] actually spent more time consolidating his lands and holdings in Normandy than he did governing his own kingdom. English claims were eventually lost at the end of the [[Hundred Years War]] except for a small holding, which itself was lost years later.

Normandy was also the area where the allied [[D-Day]] operation was launched against the [[Nazis]] on June 6th, 1944. From here, Allied forces invaded Europe and crushed the forces of [[Adolf Hitler]], and brought freedom to western Europe.

The French administration divides Normandy into two distinct ''régions'', namely Basse-Normandie and Haute-Normandie.

== See also ==

*[[World War II]]
*[[Allied Powers]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:World War II]]

Futuroscope

2010-04-09T12:24:13Z

Sporean: details

The '''Parc du Futuroscope''' is a [[France|French]] theme park and high-tech [[college]] near [[Poitiers]]. The main theme is the cinema.

==External links==
*[http://www.futuroscope.com/ Futuroscope.com]

[[Category:Tourist Attractions]]

[[Category:France]]

Brittany

2010-04-09T12:23:26Z

Sporean: adding denomination from local dialect

'''Brittany''' (Fr.: ''Bretagne'', Breton: ''Breizh'') is a region of north-west France, bounded by the [[English Channel]] to its north and the [[Bay of Biscay]] to its south. Its chief towns are [[Rennes]] and the port of [[Brest]]. As well as French, the [[Celtic]] language [[Breton]] is spoken in Brittany. Breton is similar to [[Welsh]], and the region has a distinct Celtic heritage. Its name derives from the migration here of native British following the Anglo-Saxon conquest of what was to become [[England]]. The name [[Great Britain]] (''Grande Bretagne'' in French) has the prefix 'Great' to distinguish it from 'little' Brittany (''Bretagne'').
[[Category:France]]

French Guiana

2010-04-09T12:20:51Z

Sporean: money was totally wrong. Euro is the also the money of French overseas départements. Also transform a distance to an area.

{{Country
|name =''Guyane française''
|map =French guiana.JPG
|map2 =French Guiana1.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Cayenne
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|government =Territory of France
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
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|president =Rodolphe Alexandre
|president-raw =
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|pop =221,000 (2009)
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}}

'''French Guiana''' is a [[france|French]] regular administrative division located in [[South America]], bordered by [[Suriname]] and [[Brazil]]. It has the status of ''département'' and not of ''territory'' only.

Rocket launches of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) take place in French Guiana (near the city of Kourou).

{{Nb countries south america}}

French Guiana

2010-04-09T12:18:45Z

Sporean: following regional elections of 2010 in France

{{Country
|name =''Guyane française''
|map =French guiana.JPG
|map2 =French Guiana1.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Cayenne
|capital-raw =
|government =Territory of France
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Rodolphe Alexandre
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =83,534 km
|pop =202,000 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
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|currency =franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''French Guiana''' is a [[france|French]] regular administrative division located in [[South America]], bordered by [[Suriname]] and [[Brazil]]. It has the status of ''département'' and not of ''territory'' only.

Rocket launches of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) take place in French Guiana.

{{Nb countries south america}}

French Guiana

2010-04-09T12:17:47Z

Sporean: Latin America is not exactly South America.

{{Country
|name =''Guyane française''
|map =French guiana.JPG
|map2 =French Guiana1.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Cayenne
|capital-raw =
|government =Territory of France
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Antoine Karam
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
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|area =83,534 km
|pop =202,000 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =
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|currency =franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''French Guiana''' is a [[france|French]] regular administrative division located in [[South America]], bordered by [[Suriname]] and [[Brazil]]. It has the status of ''département'' and not of ''territory'' only.

Rocket launches of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) take place in French Guiana.

{{Nb countries south america}}

French Guiana

2010-04-09T12:16:29Z

Sporean: correct link

{{Country
|name =''Guyane française''
|map =French guiana.JPG
|map2 =French Guiana1.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Cayenne
|capital-raw =
|government =Territory of France
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Antoine Karam
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
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|pop =202,000 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =
|currency =franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''French Guiana''' is a [[france|French]] regular administrative division located in [[Latin America]]. It has the status of ''département'' and not of ''territory'' only.

Rocket launches of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) take place in French Guiana.

{{Nb countries south america}}

Scandinavia

2010-04-09T12:12:58Z

Sporean: flags

[[Image:Scandinavia location.png|right|300px|thumb|Scandinavia]]
'''Scandinavia''' is a geographical area in northern [[Europe]]. Typically, Scandinavia is considered to consist of the countries of [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]]. If Scandinavia is defined strictly by the geographical limits of the Scandinavian [[peninsula]], Denmark is excluded. [[Finland]] is oftentimes included in Scandinavia, because it has very extensive cultural ties with the rest of the Scandinavian countries; [[Iceland]] is often included, for similar reasons.

Although there are distinct differences, the Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages are quite similar; citizens of some Scandinavian countries are able to understand each other quite well. [[Finnish]] is not mutually intelligible with the other languages; indeed, Finnish is not even in the [[Indo-European language]] family. Finnish is generally considered to be part of the [[Finno-Ugric]] family.

It is also noticeable that the national flags of the Scandinavian countries display the [[scandinavian cross]].

[[Category:Europe]]

Democratic Socialism

2010-04-09T12:10:38Z

Sporean: adding link

'''Democratic Socialism''' is a political [[ideology]] that combines [[democracy]], [[civil liberties]], and [[socialism]]. It is an ideology that is in opposition to most mainstream American political discourse, which considers socialism synonymous with [[dictatorship]] and [[capitalism]] synonymous with [[democracy]]. However, this is not how democratic socialists view the world. Democratic socialists are not as ideologically rigid as [[Marxist]]s and other [[Communists]] and will usually allow private enterprise to exist but will strictly regulate it. Some Democratic Socialist countries in the First World include the [[Scandinavia]]n countries and [[France]]. Emerging socialist democracies in the Third World include [[Venezuela]] and [[Bolivia]] (although the former and sometimes the latter are considered dictatorships by many in the [[America]]n mainstream, it is not known whether this is because of [[human rights abuses]] or just an ideological disagreement).

==See Also==
[[Democracy and socialism]]

[[Category:Political Ideologies]]

Talk:North Korea

2010-04-08T13:41:20Z

Sporean: /* Most severe dictatorship? */ new section

Rhetoric is verging on silly - or already there. This is a serious article about people in serious trouble:

:styles itself ...
:megalomaniacal dictator
:criticized by people of all political stripes ...
:difficulties with food shortages

First two are overblown rhetoric.

Next one is an exaggeration; liberals hardly ever criticize the NK government.

Last one is an understatement.

Please rewrite the intro with a more serious tone. Save ''breezy'' for record album reviews. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 23:01, 6 July 2007 (EDT)

== Defense ==

Outdated air force is right! That must be the last country on the planet to still have MiG-17s in operational service.--[[User:Frey|Frey]] 14:09, 11 October 2008 (EDT)

== Most severe dictatorship? ==

According to what can we rank the severity of dictatorships? Why is it North Korea and not, for example, [[Turkmenistan|Türkmenistan]]? The latter is not a bad candidate for rank #1. [[User:Sporean|Sporean]] 09:41, 8 April 2010 (EDT)

Havana

2010-04-08T13:37:06Z

Sporean: spanish name

[[Image:HavanaPosition.png|thumb|Position of Havana on [[Cuba]]]]
[[Image:Havana City skyline.JPG|thumb|left|Photo of Sunset in Havana]]

'''Havana''' (''La Habana'' in Spanish) is the [[capital]] and largest city of [[Cuba]]. It is located on the northwest coast of Cuba.

[[Category:Cuba]]

Talk:France

2010-04-08T12:48:42Z

Sporean: /* disturbing */

== References ==

The references in this article don't seem to be working properly - can somebody fix them?

== Politics ==

Unless you go into a full discussion of France's politics, which could very well happen in the future, I suppose, the statement about France not supporting the invasion of Iraq seems to be a bit irrelevant. Are we going to list every single country's stance on the Iraq war?
-[[User:Commodore Guff|Commodore Guff]] 14:52, 8 March 2007 (EST)

:It is very important to know who is "with us" and who is "against us".</sarcasm> (Seriously: I technically agree, but I'd leave it in so that a politics section can grow around it.) --[[User:Sid 3050|Sid 3050]] 16:33, 11 March 2007 (EDT)

:Seriously if you want an unbiased article then one country's (i.e; Americas) opinion on another really does have no place in it... --[[User:Daerean|Daerean]] 12:24, 18 March 2007 (EDT)

== Spelling ==

I made a bunch of fixes to the non-American spellings in this article. Let's keep those double-L's (rivalled) and silent U's (behaviour) out of Conservapedia as per the Commandments.

== War on Terror ==

Why do we find under Germany :

War on Terror

Germany currently contributes troops to the NATO-led operation in Afghanistan, but did not support the invasion of Iraq.

And why it is not showing the same information under France?
See: http://www.nato.int/ISAF/index.htm

Also, the last comment about the French kings after Clovis is showing that the writer of this article has no knowledge of French history.

March 2003-I didn't realize that they found weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. What is your source for this statement?

== Astérix and Obélix ==

Those are not heroes of the french history, but purely fictional characters. So is their story. There was no little chiefdom remaining independent from Rome. [[User:SillyGirl|SillyGirl]] 11:03, 19 May 2007 (EDT)
:I entirelly removed the reference. Unless one want to consider, say, "Independence Day" (the movie), as facts (just for comparison). [[User:SingleUse|SingleUse]] 05:27, 22 May 2007 (EDT)

May I ask who pasted the map of France on top of the article?[[User:Oldoligarch|Oldoligarch]] 22:04, 11 June 2007 (EDT)

== Right? ==

Why was "Centre-Right" changed to "Right Wing" to describe the current French government? What makes us believe they are one or the other? [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 14:02, 27 July 2007 (EDT)

:You gave no indication why this was the case, but reverted away from "conservative". If you wish to do that, show your rationale in talk. The other concerns are written below. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 23:09, 29 July 2007 (EDT)

== Recent revert==

The article describing the 2 million people who have left France used the word "fled". It also said that 93% of them are glad they're no longer living in France. Unless you have knowledge of 2 million French foreign exchange students, then I believe using the langauge "have left France" is acceptable. Please choose to present your views in Talk. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 23:09, 29 July 2007 (EDT)

== Gaullist v center-right as a description for Sarkozy ==

I had initially called Sarkozy [[Gaullist]] and indeed created the (still-stub) article on [[Gaullism]], but later changed it to center-right. I see it's been changed back to Gaullist. I believe center-right is better for several reasons. First, Gaullism is linked with anti-Americanism, and Sarkozy is the most pro-American president in recent French history. Next, it fails to capture his commitment to pro-market policies. [[User:Tradcon|Traditional Conservative]] 22:50, 9 September 2007 (EDT)

:I am not well versed on the views of both men in regard to pro-market policies, but certainly the difference in attitude towards the United States is notable. I agree with the change that you propose. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 01:14, 10 September 2007 (EDT)

::I think that's an apt characterization Tradcon makes. [[User:RobS|Rob Smith]] 12:53, 10 September 2007 (EDT)

== This article is about to be reorganized, collaboration welcome ==

This is a good article with a lot of information. However, it is not organized particularly well. I'm going to take a look at it, and anybody who would like to assist or provide suggestions would be much appreciated. [[User:DanH|DanH]] 12:06, 24 September 2007 (EDT)
:Already acomplished. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 13:37, 30 October 2007 (EDT)

== Currency in France ==

A serious up-to-date Encyclopedia would list "Euro" as the currency in France since 2002. The "Franc" is totally out of date.
:A serious user in this website would have made the simple move to correct it, instead of complain about it and doing nothing. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 11:36, 3 November 2007 (EDT)

== War deaths ==
Not any good at this editing stuff, but under foreign relations you have the US as having the most war related deaths of any foreign country. Just thought you might want to consider the fact that the UK total is higher, just out of WWI and WWII alone. Then when you start consiering all the ars those two had prior to the World Wars the number there is no way the US would have more deaths. {{unsigned|Brenmcc}}

: You might be right. Go ahead and try to edit the entry!--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 10:51, 6 May 2008 (EDT)

Hahahahahahahahahaha you've got to be kidding me. The U.S. Having more war-related deaths than any other country? What a joke. The USSR lost more lives during WWII than ''all the other countries combined''. [[User:Rockthecasbah|Rockthecasbah]] 16:18, 26 May 2008 (EDT)

==Crossroads of Invasion==

Seriously... this sounds like all the bad jokes regarding France and it's fighting. How is France more of a "crossroads of invasion" compared to other places in the world? I changed "invasion" to "movement" but my edit was reverted. Shall I try again? [[User:Rockthecasbah|Rockthecasbah]] 23:20, 10 May 2008 (EDT)
: And I've reverted it again! It would have been better to wait for an answer before reinstating your change, but apart from that, I'm not sure why it said "invasion". The whole sentence is rather non-specific. The main reason I reverted is because by changing it to "movement", it's even more non-specific (what sort of movement?) and probably simply duplicates "travel", already in the sentence. Perhaps Joaquin (who reverted you the first time) can add some thoughts? [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:34, 10 May 2008 (EDT)
::That word was introduced in the edit in which the information from the CIA World Factbook was copied and pasted into the article, so it was not intended as vandalism. I might also add that Afghanistan is another nation that is often referred to as a center of invasion due to its strategic location, and it's not meant to be inherently offensive. [[User:DanH|DanH]] 23:39, 10 May 2008 (EDT)
::: My beloved France has been a "crossroads of invasion"; that is a truth that in History could not be changed, so sorry. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez]], [[User talk:Joaquín Martínez|talk]] 08:59, 11 May 2008 (EDT)

Mec, it's my beloved France too, and I say it's been no more invaded that a multitude of other nations. If we want a vague, generalized introduction to the article, we should use the word movement. Who can say that France has been invaded more than a country like Russia? The greatest invaders of all time -the Mongols- never made it to France but they conquered the entirety of Russia as well as most of the rest of Eurasia. Was that not invasion? Napoleon invaded Russia as well as most of Europe. Was that not invasion as well? Even Britain, that island bastion of security, has had its share of invasions. It's been invaded by Picts, Celts, Saxons, Vikings time after time and then of course William the Bastard himself. And within Britain, Wales, Scotland and England invaded each other for centuries. Was that not invasion?

France is not unique in the slightest when it comes to being invaded. Doesn't movement sound better anyways? It certainly sounds more natural. [[User:Rockthecasbah|Rockthecasbah]] 20:15, 16 May 2008 (EDT)

Some people just want any excuse to snicker at France even on a website that claims to be academic and unbiased. Granted, I love a good joke at France's expense as much as the next guy but there's a time and a place, and a website that purports to be encyclopedic is NOT the place at all. [[User:Jros83|Jros83]] 15:55, 23 May 2008 (EDT)

== Article recreation ==

What happened? We have just had a brand new '''France''' "restored" to us. Clean and unsmutched and without a "history". What happened to the old one? [[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 23:55, 14 September 2008 (EDT)

: Clean and new, like the country itself. What's the problem??? Godspeed.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 00:00, 15 September 2008 (EDT)
:: The problem is the destruction of a very useful feature of MediaWiki—the article's history, including the deceptive result that it now appears that one Aschlafly wrote the entire article, when in fact he essentially wrote none of it. Further, I believe that there are at least two ways the problem that deletion tried to solve could have been solved differently. One with Oversight, and the other with a selective restore, which I'll now do. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 10:04, 15 September 2008 (EDT)

Thanks Philip. I have a curious mind that's all. There was no real problem as such. At least not until Andy asked me if there was a problem, then immediately closed off for the night before I could answer. [[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 13:45, 15 September 2008 (EDT)

== disturbing ==

First photo does not carry any information and could give the feeling that all the French are Sarkozy supporters. Which is obviously not the case. [[User:Sporean|Sporean]] 12:06, 6 April 2010 (EDT)

:Well we will trust that most of our users will not assume, as you obviously do, that three people wearing Sarkozy shirts means 100% of all Citizens of France support the man. Many must because he was elected, no? --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 08:22, 8 April 2010 (EDT)

::The fact is that if you go to France you will have an extremely hard time trying to spot even one single Frenchman with the name of a politician on his T-shirt. The French do not usually display their political views openly, except, in rare cases, in meetings. So your caption stating that this is ''typical'' is obviously ridiculous to me.
::Moreover the current rate of French people who support him is estimated to be around 35 percent in recent polls (which does not matter, really). [[User:Sporean|Sporean]] 08:48, 8 April 2010 (EDT)

France

2010-04-08T12:02:05Z

Sporean: See previously message posted on talk page. Having got no answer I suppose it is OK to remove the photo as it does not carry any additional information and is rather misleading.

{{Country
|map =France rel94.JPG
|name =''République Française''
|map2 =France location.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =Armoirie France.png
|capital =Paris
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Nicolas Sarkozy
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =François Fillon
|pm-raw =
|area =260,558 sq mi
|pop =64,102,140 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1.871 trillion (2007)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$30,100 (2007)
|currency =euro
}}
'''France''' (Official title: ''République Française'', the ''French Republic'') is a country in Western [[Europe]]. One of the oldest countries in Europe, France has played a major role in world events since the era of King [[Louis XIV]] in the early 18th century.

==Geography==
*Area: 551,670 sq. km. (220,668 sq. mi.); largest west European country, about four-fifths the size of Texas.
*Cities: Capital--[[Paris]]. Major cities--Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nice, Rennes, Lille, Bordeaux.
*Terrain: Varied.
*Climate: Temperate.
*Population : 62,150,775 (July 2008 INSEE est.) excluding overseas territories.
==History==
see [[History of France]]

==People==
Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, travel, and migration. Three basic European ethnic stocks--Celtic, Latin, and Teutonic (Frankish)--have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. France's birth rate was among the highest in Europe from 1945 until the late 1960s. Since then, its birth rate has fallen but remains higher than that of most other west European countries. Traditionally, France has had a high level of [[immigration]]. More than 1 million [[Muslims]] immigrated in the 1960s and early 1970s from [[North Africa]], especially [[Algeria]]; their numbers are now above 5 million (2004 figure).

===Education===
Education is free, beginning at age 3 (sometimes 2), and mandatory between ages 6 and 16. The [[public education]] system is highly centralized. Private education is primarily Roman Catholic.
====Higher education====
Higher education in France began with the founding of the [[University of Paris]] in 1150. It now consists of 91 public universities and 175 professional schools, including the post-graduate Grandes Ecoles. Private, college-level institutions focusing on business and management with curricula structured on the American system of credits and semesters have been growing in recent years.

France has an elaborately stratified system of higher education; nearly all schools are controlled and funded by the government. There are few private foundations or endowments, but some research money comes from American foundations. Most scholars and scientists at all levels are civil servants with lifetime tenure. Rigid hierarchies ensure that young researchers pay their dues before moving up the ladder to supervisory roles. Paris decides what areas of research are high priorities, which laboratories will be “centers of excellence,” and how many people will be hired in what fields. It also classifies France’s top educational and research institutions as grands organismes, grands établissements, and grandes écoles, with bureaucratic strictures ensuring that there will be little contact between the different groups.<ref> Fred Schwarz, "The Uncertainty Principle: America dominates science with a classic American formula: freedom," ''National Review'', Dec. 21, 2009 </ref>
===Language===
The French language derives from the vernacular Latin spoken by the Romans in [[Gaul]], although it includes some Celtic and Germanic words. Historically, French has been used as the international language of diplomacy and commerce. Today it remains one of six official languages at the [[United Nations]] and has been a unifying factor in Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Caribbean.
===Religion===
In a January 2007 poll, 51% percent of respondents indicated they were Roman Catholic, including those who never attend religious services. Of Catholics, only 10% went to church regularly--mainly to Sunday mass or christenings. There are an estimated 5 million to 6 million Muslims (8 to 10% of the population), although estimates of how many of these are practicing vary widely. According to a January 17, 2008 survey in the Catholic daily ''La Croix,'' 39% of Muslims surveyed said they observed Islam's five prayers daily, an increase from 31% in 1994. Mosque attendance for Friday prayers rose to 23%, up from 16 percent in 1994, while Ramadan observance reached 70% compared to 60% in 1994. Drinking alcohol, which Islam forbids, also declined to 34% from 39% in 1994.<ref> Data reported by [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108446.htm U.S. State Department, 2008]</ref>

Protestants make up 3% of the population, Jewish and Buddhist religious groups 1% each, and Sikhs less than 1 percent.

In April 2008 a practicing Buddhist claimed the current estimate of 600,000 Buddhists strongly under represents the actual number of adherents; however, he acknowledged the difficulty in distinguishing between practicing Buddhists and the much larger number of persons who characterize themselves as sympathetic to certain Buddhist principles. Scholars distinguish between "sympathizers" (approximately 5 million), "associates" (defined as having a certain degree of proximity to Buddhism and estimated to number between 100,000 and 150,000), and "practitioners" (approximately 12,000). The biggest Buddhist meditation center in the West is in the region of Touraine, and two Tibetan monasteries in the Auvergne region have trained the largest number of Buddhist monks outside Asia, according to 2002 statistical data.

The Jewish community numbers approximately 600,000. According to press reports, at least 60% of Jews are not highly observant, celebrating at most only the High Holy Days. The large majority of observant Jews are Orthodox. There are small Conservative and Reform congregations as well.

Jehovah's Witnesses reported that 250,000 persons attend their services either regularly or periodically.

Orthodox Christians number between 80,000 and 100,000; the vast majority are associated with the Greek or Russian Orthodox Churches.

Other religious groups include Evangelicals, Christian Scientists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Membership in evangelical churches is growing (with as many as 400,000 adherents, according to February 2007 press reports), including African-style "prosperity" churches, especially in the suburbs of Paris, in large part because of increased participation by African and Antillean immigrants. According to the press, there are approximately 31,000 Mormons. The Church of Scientology has an estimated 5,000 to 20,000 members.

==Government==
The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by public referendum on September 28, 1958. It greatly strengthened the powers of the president in relation to those of Parliament. Under this constitution, presidents have been elected directly for a 7-year term since 1958. Beginning in 2002, the presidential term of office was reduced to 5 years. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties. Traditionally, presidents under the Fifth Republic have tended to leave day-to-day policy-making to the Prime Minister and government; the five-year term of office is expected to make presidents more accountable for the results of domestic policies.

The president can submit questions to a national referendum and can dissolve the National Assembly. In certain emergency situations, with the approval of parliament, the president may assume [[dictator]]ial powers and rule by decree. The main components of France's executive branch are the president, the prime minister and government, and the permanent bureaucracies of the many ministries. Led by a prime minister, who is the head of government, the cabinet is composed of a varying number of ministers, ministers-delegate, and secretaries of state. Parliament meets for one 9-[[month]] session each year. Under special circumstances the president can call an additional session.

Under the Constitution, the legislative branch has few checks on executive power; nevertheless, the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. The Parliament is [[bicameral]] with a National Assembly and a Senate. The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its deputies are directly elected to 5-year terms, and all seats are voted on in each election. Senators are chosen by an electoral college and, under new rules passed in 2003 to shorten the term, serve for six years, with one-half of the Senate being renewed every three years. (As a transitional measure in 2004, 62 Senators were elected to 9-year terms, while 61 were elected to 6-year terms; subsequently, all terms will be six years.) The Senate's legislative powers are limited; the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can declare a bill to be a question of confidence, thereby linking its continued existence to the passage of the legislative text; unless a motion of censure is introduced and voted, the text is considered adopted without a vote.

A distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that the Constitutional Council protects basic rights when they might be potentially violated by new laws and the Council of State protects basic rights when they might be violated by actions of the state. The Constitutional Council examines legislation and decides whether it conforms to the constitution. Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, it considers only legislation that is referred to it by Parliament, the prime minister, or the president. Moreover, it considers legislation before it is promulgated. The Council of State has a separate function from the Constitutional Council and provides recourse to individual citizens who have claims against the administration. The Ordinary Courts--including specialized bodies such as the police court, the criminal court, the correctional tribunal, the commercial court, and the industrial court--settle disputes that arise between citizens, as well as disputes that arise between citizens and corporations. The Court of Appeals reviews cases judged by the Ordinary Courts.

Traditionally, decision-making in France has been highly centralized, with each of France's departments headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. In 1982, the national government passed legislation to decentralize authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March 1986, regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of [[decentralization]] continues, albeit at a slow pace.
===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Nicolas Sarkozy
*Prime Minister--François Fillon
*Foreign Minister--Bernard Kouchner
*Ambassador to the United States--Pierre Vimont (pending accreditation)
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Jean-Marc Rochereau de la Sablière

===Political Conditions===
Since his inauguration in May 2007 as France's sixth president under the Fifth Republic, Nicolas Sarkozy focused his first months in office on improving the performance of France's economy through liberalization of labor markets, higher education and taxes. In the April 22, 2007 first round of presidential elections, Sarkozy, the leader of the center-right, union for a popular Movement (UMP) party, placed first; Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal placed second; centrist François Bayrou placed third; and extremist Jean-Marie Le Pen placed fourth out of a field of 12 candidates. Sarkozy prevailed in the May 6, 2007 second round, defeating Royal by a 53.06% to 46.94% margin. Royal's loss marked the third straight defeat for the Socialist candidate in presidential elections.

President Sarkozy assumed office on May 16, 2007, the last day of Jacques Chirac's official term. Sarkozy named François Fillon Prime Minister. Jean-Louis Borloo, the second highest ranking figure in the government, presides over an expanded Ministry of Environment.. Legislative elections held on June 10 and 17, 2007 gave the UMP a large parliamentary majority. Current key ministers include: Jean-Louis Borloo, Ecology and Sustainable Planning; Michèle Alliot-Marie, Interior; Bernard Kouchner, Foreign Affairs; Christine Lagarde, Economy; Brice Hortefeux, Immigration; Rachida Dati, Justice; and Hervé Morin, Defense.

In electing Nicolas Sarkozy, French voters endorsed the wide-ranging program of reforms--including market-oriented social and economic reforms--that were the focal point of Sarkozy's campaign, implicitly giving him the green light to try and implement these reforms quickly, and allowing a way forward for overcoming France's 2005 rejection of the EU constitutional treaty. By embracing a figure long tagged as "pro-American," French voters also expressed their desire to renew trust in the U.S.-France relationship. During the campaign Sarkozy often ended his stump speeches--evoking Martin Luther King--by calling for a "French dream" of social equality, social mobility, and equal opportunity; and his first speech as President-elect assured his "American friends" that they could rely on France's friendship.

Shortly after taking office, President Sarkozy went to work on a series of reforms to address mounting pressure for short- and long-term restructuring, including reduced government spending, flexibility in the implementation of the 35-hour work week, more labor-market flexibility, less taxation, and further privatization and liberalization of the business sector. French and EU analysts stress that longer-term measures must focus on reducing the future burden of ballooning public pension and health care budgets, as well as reducing labor-related taxes. Government action to initiate such reforms may have contributed to the center-right's poor showing in 2004 regional and European Parliamentary elections, and continues to spark periodic strikes and work stoppages throughout France.

===Foreign Relations===
A charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies. France is also America's oldest ally; French military intervention was instrumental in helping Britain's American colonies establish independence. Because many battles in which the United States was involved during World War I and World War II took place in France, more American soldiers have been killed on French soil than on that of any other foreign country.

France is a leader in Western Europe because of its size, location, and large economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture, and energetic diplomacy. France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the EU and its role in common European defense. It views Franco-German cooperation and the development of a European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) with other EU members, as the foundation of efforts to enhance European security.

France supports Quartet (U.S.-EU-Russia-UN) efforts to implement the Middle East roadmap, which envisions establishment of a Palestinian state, living side-by-side in peace and security with Israel. Recognizing the need for a comprehensive peace agreement, France supports the involvement of all Arab parties and Israel in a multilateral peace process.

Since 2003, France has supported four UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions on Iraq, including UNSCR 1546, which laid out a timetable for Iraq's political transition and reaffirmed UNSC authorization for a Multinational Force in Iraq, at the invitation of the Iraqi government, to stabilize the country. France contributed to the 230 million euro EU contribution to Iraq reconstruction in 2003. After the Iraqi Interim Government took power, France agreed to substantial debt relief and offered police training to Iraqi security forces. In 2006, France and the U.S. collaborated closely to create a consensus in the UN to adopt UNSCR 1696 demanding action from Iran to end its enrichment-related and preprocessing activities.

France continues to play an important role in Africa, especially in its former colonies, through aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact. In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France has supported political, military, and social stability. France maintains permanent military bases in Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Gabon, and Senegal, and has maintained a long-term military presence in Chad. An attack on French forces in Côte d'Ivoire in 2004 led to the departure of thousands of French nationals from that country. France responded to the crisis in Côte d'Ivoire by dispatching Operation Unicorn, which has worked with UN forces to help stabilize Côte d'Ivoire. France has also deployed forces to Togo (in support of Operation Unicorn in Côte d'Ivoire) and to the Central African Republic, where French forces have assisted government forces in deterring rebel elements. France with EU partners, participated in an international military operation (EUFOR) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2006, which played an important presence during in elections that year in the D.R.C. France was instrumental in organizing the June 2007 ministerial conference on Darfur and has shown leadership in increasing international interest and involvement in Chad and the Central African Republic, both of which are affected by the crisis in Darfur.

France has extensive political and commercial relations with Asian countries, including China, Japan, and Southeast Asia as well as an increasing presence in regional fora. France is seeking to broaden its commercial presence in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in aerospace, high-tech, and luxury markets. In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the 1991 Paris Accords, which ended the conflict in Cambodia.

===Relations with the United States===
[[Image:Sacre Coeur.jpg|right|Le Sacre Coeur]]
Relations between the United States and France are active and cordial. Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted frequently. Bilateral contact at the cabinet level has traditionally been active. France and the United States share common values and have parallel policies on most political, economic, and security issues. Differences are discussed frankly and have not generally been allowed to impair the pattern of close cooperation that characterizes relations between the two countries.

France is one of NATO's top three troop contributors. The French support NATO modernization efforts and are leading contributors to the NATO Response Force (NRF). France is keen to build European defense capabilities, including through the development of EU battle-group sized force packages and joint European military production initiatives. Defense Minister Morin supports development of a European defense that must complement, not compete with, NATO, which remains at the core of transatlantic security. French resistance, however, to efforts to reinforce NATO's reach beyond the North Atlantic region remain a source of contention.

France is a close partner with the U.S. in the war on terror. It cooperates with the U.S. to monitor and disrupt terrorist groups and has processed numerous U.S. requests for information under the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty. French security and intelligence services have rounded up hundreds of extremists in the past year. The French judiciary has upheld the pre-trial detainment of the four French former Guantanamo detainees. France is a strong partner in multiple non-proliferation fora and is a key participant in the Proliferation Security Initiative. Through the "EU3" (France, the U.K., and Germany), France is working to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.

France opposed the use of force in Iraq in March 2003 and did not join the U.S.-led coalition that liberated the country from the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein with whom they, like other countries had close economic ties, especially in the supply of nuclear technology.Donald Rumsfeld famously quipped that "going to war without the French is like going on a duck hunt without an accordion".

Despite differences over Iraq, the U.S. and France continue to cooperate closely on many issues, most notably the global war on terrorism, efforts to stem the [[proliferation]] of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and on regional problems, including in Africa, Lebanon, and Kosovo. On Iraq, the French agreed to generous debt relief for Iraq in Paris Club negotiations and have accepted the establishment of a NATO training mission there.

In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, France seeks robust U.S. engagement in the peace process. France is working to contain the Hamas-led challenge to the Palestinian Authority. President Sarkozy, like his predecessor, President Chirac, is committed to keeping France in supportive relations with Israel.

The U.S. and France have worked closely to support a sovereign and independent Lebanon, free of Syrian domination, having fought with uncharacteristic tenacity to keep the British out in World War II, but without success.
The U.S. and France co-sponsored in September 2004 UNSCR 1559, which called for full withdrawal of Syrian forces, a free and fair electoral process, and disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias. In the wake of the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri in February 2005, the U.S. and France reiterated calls for a full, immediate withdrawal of all Syrian troops and security services from Lebanon. France also co-sponsored UNSCR 1701 and was one of the leading countries in Europe working to end hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah in 2006 by committing 2,000 troops to UNIFIL-plus. Strong French backing led to adoption of UNSCR 1757 establishing a Special Tribunal for Lebanon to prosecute the perpetrators of the Hariri assassination and other killings of critics of Syria's interference in Lebanon. Foreign Minister Kouchner is working hard to help competing Lebanese political factions agree to a framework for governing the country in accordance with the country's constitution and free from external interference. France also participates in the U.S. Broader Middle East and North Africa initiative.

Trade and investment between the U.S. and France are strong. On average over $1 billion in commercial transactions take place between France the U.S. every day. In 2006 U.S. exports to France totaled over 24.2 billion euros and U.S. imports from France were valued at 37.1 billion euros. France is the eighth partner for total trade of goods (imports plus exports) and the tenth-ranked supplier worldwide to the U.S. and its 10th largest customer. The U.S. is France's third-ranked supplier and its fifth largest customer. There are approximately 2,300 French subsidiaries in the U.S., providing more than 481,100 jobs and generating an estimated $178 billion turnover. U.S. companies in France employ about 603,400 French citizens. The U.S. is the top destination for French investments worldwide.

==Security Issues==

French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence, and military sufficiency. France is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and has worked actively with Allies to adapt NATO, internally and externally, to the post-Cold War environment. However, in 1966, the French withdrew from NATO's military bodies while remaining full participants in the alliance's political councils. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee. France remains a firm supporter of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other efforts at cooperation.
[[File:La Mosquée de Paris.jpg|thumb|left|La Mosquée de Paris.]]
Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in a variety of peacekeeping/coalition efforts in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, often taking the lead in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include reducing personnel, bases, and headquarters and rationalizing equipment and the armament industry. French active-duty military in June 2007 numbered about 350,000 (including Gendarmes), of which nearly 34,000 were deployed outside of French territory. France completed the move to all-professional armed forces when conscription ended on December 31, 2002.

France places a high priority on arms control<ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/11/10/151219.shtml French Arms Sales to China]</ref> and non-proliferation. After conducting a final series of six nuclear tests, the French signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel landmines and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. France is an active participant in the major supplier regimes designed to restrict transfer of technologies that could lead to proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Australia Group (for chemical and biological weapons), the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the Missile Technology Control Regime. France participates actively in the Proliferation Security Initiative, and is engaged with the U.S., both bilaterally and at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), to curb nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) proliferation from the D.P.R.K., Iran, Libya, and elsewhere. France has joined with the U.S., Germany, and the other three permanent members of the UN Security Council to offer a package of incentives and disincentives to Iran to halt its uranium enrichment activities. France has also signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. France maintains a color-coded security system, similar to that of the U.S., consisting of yellow, orange, red and scarlet threat levels.

At least 12 French soldiers have been killed in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] since its inception in 2001.<ref>Anon., [http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10651794&CFID=10819516&CFTOKEN=58cc719e037c97de-2515EEEE-B27C-BB00-012942FB89A6CFE4 Where the sniping has to stop] ''The Economist'', 7th February, 2008.</ref>
Unrest in France by Moslem immigrants has resulted in destruction of property.<ref>[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=333 Ann Coulter, October 7, 2009]</ref>

==Economy==
With a GDP of approximately $2 trillion, France is the sixth-largest economy. It has substantial agricultural resources, a large industrial base, and a highly skilled work force. A dynamic services sector accounts for an increasingly large share of economic activity and is responsible for nearly all job creation in recent years. GDP growth was 1.1% in 2003, after two years of steady decline from 3.9% in 2000. GDP growth was 1.7% in 2005, down from 2.5% in 2004 (2000 price basis).

Government economic policy aims to promote investment and domestic growth in a stable fiscal and monetary environment. Creating jobs and reducing the high unemployment rate through recovery-supportive policy has been a top priority. French unemployment dropped from a high of 12% to 8.7% in the late 1990s, and after hovering around 10% during the 2000s, unemployment slipped once again to 8.0% in July 2007. France joined 10 other European Union countries in adopting the euro as its currency in January 1999. Since then, monetary policy has been set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. On January 1, 2002, France, along with the other countries of the euro zone, dropped its national currency in favor of euro bills and coins.

Despite significant reform and privatization over the past 15 years, the government continues to control a large share of economic activity: Government spending, at 53.5% of GDP in 2006, is among the highest in the G-7. Regulation of labor and product markets is pervasive. The government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications.

Legislation passed in 1998 shortened the legal work week from 39 to 35 hours for most employees effective January 1, 2000. Recent assessments of the impact of work week reduction on growth and jobs have generally concluded that the goal of job creation was not met. The former administration introduced increasing flexibility into the law, returning the country to a de facto (if not de jure) 39-hour work week in the private sector. Under President Nicolas Sarkozy's impetus, overtime work will be exempt from income taxes on October 1, 2007, a move to encourage work and to increase work duration.

Membership in France's labor unions accounts for approximately 5% of the private sector work force and is concentrated in the manufacturing, transportation, and heavy industry sectors. Most unions are affiliated with one of the competing national federations, the largest and most powerful of which are the communist-dominated General Labor Confederation (CGT), the Workers' Force (FO), and the French Democratic Confederation of Labor (CFDT).

France has been very successful in developing dynamic telecommunications, aerospace, and weapons sectors. With virtually no domestic oil production, France has relied heavily on the development of nuclear power, which now accounts for about 80% of the country's electricity production.

===Trade===
[[Image:French-Perfume.jpg|right|280px]]
France is the second-largest trading nation in Western Europe (after Germany). France ran a $33.7 billion deficit in 2006. Total trade for 2006 amounted to $1,013.5 billion, over 45% of GDP 75.0% of which was with EU-24 countries. In 2003, U.S.-France trade in goods and services totaled $80.3 billion. U.S. industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronic components, telecommunications, computer software, computers and peripherals, analytical and scientific instrumentation, medical instruments and supplies, broadcasting equipment, and programming and franchising are particularly attractive to French importers. Total French trade of goods and services was $1,001 billion in 2006.

Principal French exports to the United States are [[aircraft]] and [[engine]]s, beverages, electrical equipment, chemicals, cosmetics, and luxury products. France is the ninth-largest trading partner of the United States.

===Agriculture===
France is the world's second-largest agricultural producer, after the United States. However, the destination of 70% of its exports is other EU member states. Wheat, beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products are the principal exports. The United States, although the second-largest exporter to France, faces stiff competition from domestic production, other EU member states, and third countries. U.S. agricultural exports to France, totaling $464 million in 2003, consist primarily of soybeans and products, feeds and fodders, seafood, and consumer oriented products, especially snack foods and nuts. French agricultural exports to the United States are mainly cheese, processed products, and wine. They amount to about $3.327 billion (2006) annually.

France accounts for about one-third of all agricultural land within the EU. Northern France is characterized by large wheat farms. Dairy products, pork, poultry, and apple production are concentrated in the western region. Beef production is located in central France, while the production of fruits, vegetables, and wine ranges from central to southern France. France is a large producer of many agricultural products and is expanding its forestry and fishery industries. The implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Uruguay Round of the GATT Agreement resulted in reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy. Continued revision of the CAP and reforms agreed under the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) will further change French agriculture. France remains Europe's strongest opponent of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and often assumes an agricultural position at the EU Council to promote this policy.

== See also ==

*[[Gallery of French Masterpieces]]
*[[Famous French paintings]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)|http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3842.htm}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:France| ]]

Julius Rosenberg

2010-04-08T11:54:47Z

Sporean: see also: Ethel R.

'''Julius Rosenberg''' was an [[American]] [[Communist]] who was executed in 1953, along with his wife, for giving nuclear secrets to the [[Soviet Union]]. At the time, the trial and sentence were controversial, as some people argue that the Rosenbergs did not get a fair trial. However, since the [[Venona]] disclosures, all pretense of innocence on the part of the Rosenbergs has been dispelled.

For years the Rosenbergs' defenders demanded that the government reveal its secrets about the case. When the [[Moynihan Secrecy Commission]] forced the disclosure of documents, the secrets revealed the government's case was even stronger. <ref>Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''Secrecy: The American Experience'', (New Haven: Yale University Press 1998), pg. 62.</ref> "Over the years," said Ronald Radosh, "the Rosenbergs' defenders have loudly demanded the release of government documents on the case, only to deny the documents' significance once they are made public." <ref>Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''The Rosenberg File'', 2d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pgs. 471-72.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ethel Rosenberg]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/roberg.htm FBI FOIA Julius and Ethel Rosenberg] (Summary) pdf, 171 pages.
*[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/venona.htm FBI FOIA Venona file] pdf, 73 pages.
*[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html Moynihan Commssion on Government Secrecy, Appendix A 7. The Cold War] (1997).

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rosenberg, Julius}}
[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]

Auschwitz

2010-04-08T11:50:03Z

Sporean: proper translation of “Arbeit macht frei”

[[Image:Concetration_camp.jpg|right|thumb|"Work makes free"]]
'''Auschwitz''' is the name of the greatly feared [[German]] [[concentration camp]] that was located in the city of Oswiecim in [[Poland]]. This site is now known for the extermination of over one million European [[Jews]] and [[Poland|Poles]].

The main camp had three smaller sub camps:
*Auschwitz I- which was the original concentration camp and the site of the deaths of around 70,000 people, mostly Poles and Soviet prisoners of war.
*Auschwitz II (Birkenau)- an extermination camp in which over 1.1 million [[Jews]], [[Poland|Poles]] and [[Gypsies]] were murdered
*Auschwitz III (Monowitz)- work camp.

The camp was run by the [[SS]]. It was the home to the brutal [[Germany|German]] doctor [[Dr. Josef Mengele]]. When the camp first began many Poles were sent there to either work to death, be an experimental subject for [[Dr. Josef Mengele]], or to just rot away. Later in the war the [[Nazi]]s started sending Russians and other people who opposed them in the slightest way.

The camp is infamous for its gas chambers, where the [[Nazi|Nazis]] used [[Zyklon B]] to exterminate over 75,000 people, and crematoria which were then used to dispose of the bodies. The gas chamber and the crematoria, which were formerly a Polish army bunker, are still standing today.

Towards the end of the war the [[Nazi]]s had to cover up all the murders committed there; they evacuated all the men who could walk and forced them into the last defenses of [[Germany]]. But it was not all hidden. 7,500 prisoners were liberated by the 322nd Infantry unit of the [[Red Army]] on January 27 1945, exposing the brutality of the [[Nazi]] regime. The mass murders committed at Auschwitz represented a scale of horror unprecedented in human history and not seen ever since.

== Links ==
[http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/html/eng/start/index.php Official Auschwitz Museum]

[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005189 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]

[[Category:European History]]
[[category:Holocaust]]

Libya

2010-04-07T12:15:35Z

Sporean: typo

{{country
|name=''الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى '''al-jamāhīriyyatu l-`arabiyyatu l-lībiyyatu š-ša`biyyatu l-ištirākiyyatu l-`uZmà''
|map=Libya rel 93.JPG
|map2=Libya location.png
|flag=Flag of Libya.png
|arms=Arms of Libya.png
|capital=Tripoli
|government=Authoritarian
|language=Arabic, Italian, English
|president-raw=[[Muammar al-Gaddafi|Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi]]
|area=679,359 sq. mi.
|pop=6,036,914
|pop-basis=(2007 estimate)
|gdp=72.7 billion
|gdp-year=(2007 estimate)
|gdp-pc=$12,300
}}
'''Libya''' (Arabic الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظم ''Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya'') is a country in northern [[Africa]]. The country is officially a [[Democracy]], has been described as a [[Socialism|Socialist state]], and is in practice a [[Military Junta]]. The country borders the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, [[Egypt]] to the east, [[Sudan]] to the southeast, [[Chad]] and [[Niger]] to the south, [[Algeria]] to the west, and [[Tunisia]] to the northwest. The country has been led by [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]] since 1969, who seized power in a military coup.

==People==
Libya has a small population in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per sq. km. (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per sq. km. (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. More than half the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. Thirty-three percent of the population is estimated to be under age 15.

Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers. Small Tebou and Touareg tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or semi-nomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians and Tunisians), West Africans and Sub-Saharan Africans.
*Population (July 2007 est.): 6,036,914 (includes non-nationals, of which an estimated 500,000 or more are sub-Saharan Africans living in Libya).
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): 2.262%. Birth rate (2007 est.)--26.09 births/1,000 population. Death rate (2007 est.)--3.47 deaths/1,000 population.
*Ethnic groups: Berber and Arab 97%; Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, and Tunisians.
*Religion: Sunni Muslim 97%.
*Languages: Arabic is the primary language. English, French, and Italian are understood in major cities.
*Education: Years compulsory--9. Attendance--90%. Literacy (age 15 and over who can read and write)--total population 82.6%; female 72% (2003 est.).
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--22.82 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy--total population 76.88 yrs.; male 74.1 yrs.; female 78.58 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est.): 1.787 million, an estimated 500,000 of whom are sub-Saharan African foreign workers.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Libya's political system is in theory based on the political philosophy in Qadhafi's Green Book, which combines socialist and Islamic theories and rejects parliamentary democracy and political parties. In reality, Qadhafi exercises near total control over major government decisions. For the first seven years following the revolution, Colonel Qadhafi and 12 fellow army officers, the Revolutionary Command Council, began a complete overhaul of Libya's political system, society and economy. In 1973, he announced the start of a "cultural revolution" in schools, businesses, industries, and public institutions to oversee administration of those organizations in the public interest. On March 2, 1977, Qadhafi convened a General People's Congress (GPC) to proclaim the establishment of "people's power," change the country's name to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and to vest, theoretically, primary authority in the GPC.

The GPC is the legislative forum that interacts with the General People's Committee, whose members are secretaries of Libyan ministries. It serves as the intermediary between the masses and the leadership and is composed of the secretariats of some 600 local "basic popular congresses." The GPC secretariat and the cabinet secretaries are appointed by the GPC secretary general and confirmed by the annual GPC congress. These cabinet secretaries are responsible for the routine operation of their ministries, but Qadhafi exercises real authority directly or through manipulation of the peoples and revolutionary committees.

Qadhafi remained the de facto chief of state and secretary general of the GPC until 1980, when he gave up his office. Although he holds no formal office, Qadhafi exercises power with the assistance of a small group of trusted advisers, who include relatives from his home base in the Sirte region, which lies between the traditional commercial and political power centers in Benghazi and Tripoli.

In the 1980s, competition grew between the official Libyan Government and military hierarchies and the revolutionary committees. An abortive coup attempt in May 1984, apparently mounted by Libyan exiles with internal support, led to a short-lived reign of terror in which thousands were imprisoned and interrogated. An unknown number were executed. Qadhafi used the revolutionary committees to search out alleged internal opponents following the coup attempt, thereby accelerating the rise of more radical elements inside the Libyan power hierarchy.

In 1988, faced with rising public dissatisfaction with shortages in consumer goods and setbacks in Libya's war with Chad, Qadhafi began to curb the power of the revolutionary committees and to institute some domestic reforms. The regime released many political prisoners and eased restrictions on foreign travel by Libyans. Private businesses were again permitted to operate.

In the late 1980s, Qadhafi began to pursue an anti-Islamic fundamentalist policy domestically, viewing fundamentalism as a potential rallying point for opponents of the regime. Qadhafi's security forces launched a preemptive strike at alleged coup plotters in the military and among the Warfallah tribe in October 1993. Widespread arrests and government reshufflings followed, accompanied by public "confessions" from regime opponents and allegations of torture and executions. The military, once Qadhafi's strongest supporters, became a potential threat in the 1990s. In 1993, following a failed coup attempt that implicated senior military officers, Qadhafi began to purge the military periodically, eliminating potential rivals and inserting his own loyal followers in their place.

The Libyan court system consists of three levels: the courts of first instance; the courts of appeals; and the Supreme Court, which is the final appellate level. The GPC appoints justices to the Supreme Court. Special "revolutionary courts" and military courts operate outside the court system to try political offenses and crimes against the state. "People's courts," another example of extrajudicial authority, were abolished in January 2005. Libya's justice system is nominally based on Sharia law.

===Principal Government Officials===
*De facto Head of State--Mu'ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi ("the Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution")
*Secretary General of the General People's Committee (Prime Minister)--Dr. Al-Baghdadi Ali al-Mahmudi
*Secretary of the General People's Committee for Foreign Liaison and International Cooperation (Foreign Minister)--Abd al-Rahman Shalgham
*Charge d'Affaires, Libyan Embassy, Washington, DC--Ambassador Ali Aujali

===Foreign Relations===
Libya was the first nation to recognize the [[United States]] in 1790.

Since 1969, Qadhafi has determined Libya's foreign policy. His principal foreign policy goals have been Arab unity, elimination of Israel, advancement of Islam, support for Palestinians, elimination of outside--particularly Western--influence in the Middle East and Africa, and support for a range of "revolutionary" causes.

After the 1969 coup, Qadhafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized all foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting the use of oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West--especially the United States--to end support for Israel. Qadhafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism, and claimed he was charting a middle course.

Libya's relationship with the former Soviet Union involved massive Libyan arms purchases from the Soviet bloc and the presence of thousands of east bloc advisers. Libya's use--and heavy loss--of Soviet-supplied weaponry in its war with Chad was a notable breach of an apparent Soviet-Libyan understanding not to use the weapons for activities inconsistent with Soviet objectives. As a result, Soviet-Libyan relations reached a nadir in mid-1987.

After the fall of the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union, Libya concentrated on expanding diplomatic ties with Third World countries and increasing its commercial links with Europe and East Asia. Following the imposition of UN sanctions in 1992, these ties significantly diminished. Following a 1998 Arab League meeting in which fellow Arab states decided not to challenge UN sanctions, Qadhafi announced that he was turning his back on pan-Arab ideas, which had been one of the fundamental tenets of his philosophy.

Instead, Libya pursued closer bilateral ties, particularly with North African neighbors Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco. It has also sought to develop its relations with Sub-Saharan Africa, leading to Libyan involvement in several internal African disputes in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Somalia, Central African Republic, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Libya has also sought to expand its influence in Africa through financial assistance, ranging from aid donations to impoverished neighbors such as Niger to oil subsidies to Zimbabwe, and through participation in the African Union. Qadhafi has proposed a borderless "United States of Africa" to transform the continent into a single nation-state ruled by a single government. This plan has been greeted with skepticism. Libya has played a helpful role in facilitating the provision of humanitarian assistance to Darfur refugees in Chad.

One of the longest-standing issues in Libya's relationship with the European Union and the international community was resolved in July 2007 with the release of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor who had been convicted in 1999 of deliberately infecting over 400 children in a Benghazi hospital with the HIV virus. The six medics were sentenced to death in 2004, a sentence that was upheld by the Libyan Supreme Court but commuted in July 2007 by the Higher Judicial Council to life in prison. Under a previous agreement with the Bulgarian Government on the repatriation of prisoners, the medics were allowed to return to Bulgaria to finish their sentence, where upon arrival the Bulgarian president pardoned all six. The Benghazi International Fund, established by the United States and its European allies, raised $460 million to distribute to the families of the children infected with HIV, each of whom received $1 million.

====Terrorism====
Libya has taken significant steps to mend its international image and formally renounced terrorism in a letter to the UN Security Council in August 2003. In 1999, the Libyan government surrendered two Libyans suspected of involvement in the Pan Am 103 bombing, leading to the suspension of UN sanctions. On January 31, 2001, a Scottish court seated in the Netherlands found one of the suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, guilty of murder in connection with the bombing, and acquitted the second suspect, Al-Amin Khalifa Fhima. Megrahi's conviction was upheld on March 14, 2002, but an appeals hearing was granted in June 2007 by the Scottish High Court.

UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003 following Libyan compliance with its remaining UNSCR requirements on Pan Am 103, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation. Libya paid compensation in 1999 for the death of British policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, a move that preceded the reopening of the British Embassy in Tripoli, and paid damages to the families of the victims in the bombing of UTA Flight 772. With the lifting of UN sanctions in September 2003, each of the families of the victims of Pan Am 103 received $4 million of a maximum $10 million in compensation. After the lifting of U.S. IEEPA-based sanctions on September 20, 2004, the families received a further $4 million.

On November 13, 2001, a German court found four persons, including a former employee of the Libyan embassy in East Berlin, guilty in connection with the 1986 La Belle disco bombing, in which two U.S. servicemen were killed. The court also established a connection to the Libyan government. The German Government demanded that Libya accept responsibility for the La Belle bombing and pay appropriate compensation. A compensation deal for non-U.S. victims was agreed to in August 2004. U.S. victims continue to pursue their claims in federal court.

By 2003, Libya appeared to have curtailed its support for international terrorism, although it may have retained residual contacts with some of its former terrorist clients. In August 2004, the Department of Justice entered into a plea agreement with Abdulrahman Alamoudi, in which he stated that he had been part of a 2003 plot to assassinate Saudi Crown Prince Abdallah (now King Abdallah) at the behest of Libyan government officials.

In 2005, the Saudi Government pardoned the individuals accused in the assassination plot. During the 2005 UN General Assembly session, Foreign Minister Shalgam issued a statement that reaffirmed Libya's commitment to the statements made in its letter addressed to the Security Council on August 15, 2003, renouncing terrorism in all its forms and pledging that Libya will not support acts of international terrorism or other acts of violence targeting civilians, whatever their political views or positions. Libya also expressed its commitment to continue cooperating in the international fight against terrorism. On June 30, 2006, the U.S. rescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism.

===Relations with the United States===
The United States supported the UN resolution providing for Libyan independence in 1951 and raised the status of its office at Tripoli from a consulate general to a legation. Libya opened a legation in Washington, DC, in 1954. Both countries subsequently raised their missions to embassy level.

After Qadhafi's 1969 coup, U.S.-Libyan relations became increasingly strained because of Libya's foreign policies supporting international terrorism and subversion against moderate Arab and African governments. In 1972, the United States withdrew its ambassador. Export controls on military equipment and civil aircraft were imposed during the 1970s, and U.S. embassy staff members were withdrawn from Tripoli after a mob attacked and set fire to the embassy in December 1979. The U.S. Government designated Libya a "state sponsor of terrorism" on December 29, 1979.

In May 1981, the U.S. Government closed the Libyan "people's bureau" (embassy) in Washington, DC, and expelled the Libyan staff in response to a general pattern of conduct by the people's bureau contrary to internationally accepted standards of diplomatic behavior.

In August 1981, two Libyan jets fired on U.S. aircraft participating in a routine naval exercise over international waters of the Mediterranean claimed by Libya. The U.S. planes returned fire and shot down the attacking Libyan aircraft. In December 1981, the State Department invalidated U.S. passports for travel to Libya and, for purposes of safety, advised all U.S. citizens in Libya to leave. In March 1982, the U.S. Government prohibited imports of Libyan crude oil into the United States and expanded the controls on U.S.-origin goods intended for export to Libya. Licenses were required for all transactions, except food and medicine. In March 1984, U.S. export controls were expanded to prohibit future exports to the Ras Lanuf petrochemical complex. In April 1985, all Export-Import Bank financing was prohibited.

Due to Libya's continuing support for terrorism, the United States adopted additional economic sanctions against Libya in January 1986, including a total ban on direct import and export trade, commercial contracts, and travel-related activities. In addition, Libyan Government assets in the United States were frozen. When evidence of Libyan complicity was discovered in the Berlin discotheque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States responded by launching an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986 (Operation El Dorado Canyon).<ref>Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy, by Craig L. Symonds, the Naval Institute, 1995</ref> Subsequently, the United States maintained its trade and travel embargoes and brought diplomatic and economic pressure to bear against Libya. This pressure helped to bring about the Lockerbie settlement and Libya's renunciation of WMD and MTCR-class missiles.

In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. In January 1992, the UN Security Council approved Resolution 731 demanding that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to passage of UNSC Resolution 883--a limited assets freeze and an embargo on selected oil equipment--in November 1993. UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003, after Libya fulfilled all remaining UNSCR requirements, including renunciation of terrorism, acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials, and payment of appropriate compensation to the victims' families.

On December 19, 2003, Libya announced its intention to rid itself of WMD and MTCR-class missile programs. Since that time, it has cooperated with the U.S., the U.K., the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons toward these objectives. Libya has also signed the IAEA Additional Protocol and has become a State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention.

In recognition of these actions, the U.S. began the process of normalizing relations with Libya. The U.S. terminated the applicability of the Iran-Libya Sanctions Act to Libya and the President signed an Executive Order on September 20, 2004 terminating the national emergency with respect to Libya and ending IEEPA-based economic sanctions. This action had the effect of unblocking assets blocked under the Executive Order sanctions. Restrictions on cargo aviation and third-party code-sharing have been lifted, as have restrictions on passenger aviation. Certain export controls remain in place.

U.S. diplomatic personnel reopened the U.S. Interest Section in Tripoli on February 8, 2004. The mission was upgraded to a U.S. Liaison Office on June 28, 2004, and to a full embassy on May 31, 2006. The establishment in 2005 of an American School in Tripoli demonstrates the increased presence of Americans in Libya, and the continuing normalization of bilateral relations. Libya re-established its diplomatic presence in Washington with the opening of an Interest Section on July 8, 2004, which was subsequently upgraded to a Liaison Office in December 2004 and to a full embassy on May 31, 2006.

On May 15, 2006, the State Department announced its intention to rescind Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in recognition of the fact that Libya had met the statutory requirements for such a move: it had not provided any support for acts of international terrorism in the preceding six-month period, and had provided assurances that it would not do so in the future. On June 30, 2006, the U.S. rescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism. In July 2007, Mr. Gene Cretz was nominated by President Bush as ambassador to Libya.

==Economy==
The government dominates Libya's socialist-oriented economy through complete control of the country's oil resources, which account for approximately 97% of export earnings, 75% of government receipts, and 54% of the gross domestic product. Oil revenues constitute the principal source of foreign exchange. Much of the country's income has been lost to waste, corruption, conventional armaments purchases, and attempts to develop weapons of mass destruction, as well as to large donations made to developing countries in attempts to increase Qadhafi's influence in Africa and elsewhere. Although oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa, the government's mismanagement of the economy has led to high inflation and increased import prices. These factors resulted in a decline in the standard of living from the late 1990s through 2003.
*Real GDP (2000$, 2006): $46.451 billion.
*GDP per capita (PPP, 2006): $12,204.
*Real GDP growth rate (2006): 5.6%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, gypsum.
*Agriculture: Products--wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle; approximately 75% of Libya's food is imported.
*Industry: Types--petroleum, food processing, textiles, handicrafts, cement.
*Trade: Exports (2006 est.)--$37.02 billion f.o.b.: crude oil, refined petroleum products. Major markets (2005)--Italy (38%), Germany (15.1%), Spain (9.3%), Turkey (6.2%), France (6.2%), U.S. (5.2%). Imports (2006 est.)--$14.47 billion f.o.b.: machinery, transport equipment, food, manufactured goods. Major suppliers (2003)--Italy (21.2%), Germany (10.2%), Tunisia (5.9%), Turkey (4.8%), U.K. (4.8%), France (4.7%), South Korea (4.6%), China (4.5%).

Despite efforts to diversify the economy and encourage private sector participation, extensive controls of prices, credit, trade, and foreign exchange constrain growth. Import restrictions and inefficient resource allocations have caused periodic shortages of basic goods and foodstuffs.

Although agriculture is the second-largest sector in the economy, Libya imports most foods. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit output, while higher incomes and a growing population have caused food consumption to rise. Domestic food production meets about 25% of demand.

On September 20, 2004, President Bush signed an Executive Order ending economic sanctions imposed under the authority of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). U.S. persons are no longer prohibited from working in Libya, and many American companies are actively seeking investment opportunities in Libya. The government has announced ambitious plans to increase foreign investment in the oil and gas sectors to significantly boost production capacity. The government is also pursuing a number of infrastructure projects such as highways, railways, telecommunications backbones, and irrigation.

==History==
For most of their history, the peoples of Libya have been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control. The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines ruled all or parts of Libya. Although the Greeks and Romans left impressive ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna, and Sabratha, little else remains today to testify to the presence of these ancient cultures.

The Arabs conquered Libya in the seventh century A.D. In the following centuries, most of the indigenous peoples adopted Islam and the Arabic language and culture. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century. Libya remained part of their empire--although at times virtually autonomous--until Italy invaded in 1911 and, in the face of years of resistance, made Libya a colony.

In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony, which consisted of the Provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars. From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal in 1947 of some aspects of foreign control. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.

On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. King Idris I represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. When Libya declared its independence on December 24, 1951, it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first former European possessions in Africa to gain independence. Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and a hereditary monarchy under King Idris.

The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled what had been one of the world's poorest countries to become extremely wealthy, as measured by per capita GDP. Although oil drastically improved Libya's finances, popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise throughout the Arab world of Nasserism and the idea of Arab unity.

On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer Mu'ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi staged a coup d'état against King Idris, who was exiled to Egypt. The new regime, headed by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi emerged as leader of the RCC and eventually as de facto chief of state, a political role he still plays. The Libyan government asserts that Qadhafi currently holds no official position, although he is referred to in government statements and the official press as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution."

The new RCC's motto became "freedom, socialism, and unity." It pledged itself to remedy "backwardness", take an active role in the Palestinian Arab cause, promote Arab unity, and encourage domestic policies based on social justice, non-exploitation, and an equitable distribution of wealth.

An early objective of the new government was withdrawal of all foreign military installations from Libya. Following negotiations, British military installations at Tobruk and nearby El Adem were closed in March 1970, and U.S. facilities at Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli were closed in June 1970. That July, the Libyan Government ordered the expulsion of several thousand Italian residents. By 1971, libraries and cultural centers operated by foreign governments were ordered closed.

In the 1970s, Libya claimed leadership of Arab and African revolutionary forces and sought active roles in international organizations. Late in the 1970s, Libyan embassies were redesignated as "people's bureaus," as Qadhafi sought to portray Libyan foreign policy as an expression of the popular will. The people's bureaus, aided by Libyan religious, political, educational, and business institutions overseas, exported Qadhafi's revolutionary philosophy abroad.

Qadhafi's confrontational foreign policies and use of terrorism, as well as Libya's growing friendship with the U.S.S.R., led to increased tensions with the West in the 1980s. Following a terrorist bombing at a discotheque in West Berlin frequented by American military personnel, in 1986 the U.S. retaliated militarily against targets in Libya, and imposed broad unilateral economic sanctions.

After Libya was implicated in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. UN Security Council resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in 1992 and 1993 obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted. Qadhafi initially refused to comply with these requirements, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the 1990s.

In 1999, Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the Netherlands. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. Al-Megrahi's conviction was upheld on appeal in 2002. In August 2003, Libya fulfilled the remaining UNSCR requirements, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation to the victims' families. UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003. U.S. International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA)-based sanctions were lifted September 20, 2004.

On December 19, 2003, Libya publicly announced its intention to rid itself of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)-class missile programs. Since that time, it has cooperated with the U.S., the U.K., the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons toward these objectives. Libya has also signed the IAEA Additional Protocol and has become a State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. These were important steps toward full diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Libya.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:African Countries]]
[[Category:Libya]]

Henri Petain

2010-04-07T12:01:29Z

Sporean: type

[[File:Petain-5-sized.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Henri Petain]]
'''Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain''' (1856 - 1951), more commonly known as '''Philippe Pétain''', is best known for being both a military and political leader for [[France]] and for his heroic actions in [[World War I]]. He commanded the defense at the [[Battle of Verdun]] in 1916, and became chief of staff in 1917. He is also viewed as a traitor for heading the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government in France during [[World War II]] after France had been overrun by the [[Nazis]]. When France fell to the Nazis in June 1940, Petain was ambassador to [[Spain]] and already well past his 80th birthday, but was recalled to negotiate an armistice for his defeated country, which he then led until the end of [[World War II]]. While the allies were careful not to publicly upset the Vichy government during the war, as the war came closer to its conclusion and [[Charles de Gaulle]] had gained greatly in notoriety while in exile, the allied position switched to publicly support de Gaulle and his [[Free French]]. After the war, when the Nazis had been defeated and France was restored, Petain was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment.

==Sources==

The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989

{{DEFAULTSORT: Petain, Henri}}

[[category:French History]]
[[Category:French People]]

Talk:Henri Petain

2010-04-06T17:01:33Z

Sporean: Created page with 'Pétain had several first names, and was commonly named after the second one, Philippe. Nobody in France will refer to him as ''Henri'' Pétain.'

Pétain had several first names, and was commonly named after the second one, Philippe. Nobody in France will refer to him as ''Henri'' Pétain.

French language

2010-04-06T16:57:07Z

Sporean: /* L'Académie française */ this dictionary has no official character.

'''French''' (''Français'') is a modern European language, a member of the [[Romance language]] family, which like others in this group owes much of its structure to [[Latin]] with some influence from the native languages of the pre-Roman [[Franks]].

In medieval times, French had evolved into two groups, a northern branch known as the "Langue d'oïl," and a southerly group known as the "Langue d'Oc." However, after the political influence of the southerly group was crushed by the [[Albigensian Crusade]], the northerly variety became dominant, and is the ancestor of modern "standard" French (though the southern variety still exists as the [[Occitan language]]). French is also spoken in many former French colonies in [[West Africa]] and the [[Carribbean]], the Canadian province of [[Québec]], by some people in [[Vietnam]], in [[Mauritius]], in many Pacific Ocean Islands and in other places. In [[Tunisia]], a former French colony, French is still one of the primary languages spoken.

==L'Académie française==

Unlike English, French vocabulary and grammatical rules (at least in France) are determined by an official body, l'Académie française (French Academy). The Academy publishes its own dictionary. While the Academy's recommendations have no legal power as such, they are instrumental in shaping the French language.

The Academy is often criticised for being a brake on the development of the language. For example, the last fully completed edition of its dictionary was completed in 1935 while it has yet to complete the next edition. Because of this, common usage dictates, as in English, what words can be used but are then often changed by the Academy later, especially if they are loan words from English.

==Grammar==
===Pronouns===
*Je - I
*Tu - You (informal)
*Il - He
*Elle - She
*On - One (On le souhaite--one wishes it)
*Nous - We
*Vous - You (multiple OR formal)
*Ils - Group of people
*Elles - Group of ONLY females

===Object Pronouns===
French is a predominately SVO with some SOV aspects. For example...

''Il mange une pomme à Paris'' (lit. He eats an apple in Paris) ''Il y en mange une'' (He eats one there; note the change in word order)

''Edouard va parler aux professeurs'' (Edouard is going to talk to the professors) ''Edouard va leur parler'' (lit. Edouard is going them to speak)

''Avez-vous vu Richard'' (lit. Have you seen Richard) ''L'avez-vous vu'' (lit. Him have you seen)

The objects are substituted with object pronouns which are placed before the verb in present tense or before the axillary verb.

*Les - Denotes plural direct objects.
*Le - A masculine direct object.
*La - A feminine direct object.
*L' - Placed before a verb that starts with a vowel.
*Lui - Refers to a single indirect object that is a person.
*Leur - Refers to a plural indirect object that is a person.
*Y - Refers to a place or an indirect object that isn't a person.
*En - refers to objects with a number.

===Verbs===
Present Tense
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Pronoun
! parl-er
! vend-re
! fin-ir
|-
| Je
| parl-e
| vend-s
| fin-is
|-
| Tu
| Parl-es
| Vend-s
| fin-is
|-
| Il/Elle/On/Qui
| parl-e
| vend
| fin-it
|-
| Nous
| parl-ons
| vend-ons
| fin-issons
|-
| Vous
| parl-ez
| vend-ez
| fin-issez
|-
| Ils/Elles
| parl-ent
| vend-ent
| fin-issent
|}

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]

Talk:France

2010-04-06T16:06:41Z

Sporean: /* disturbing */ new section

Strasbourg

2010-04-06T16:03:12Z

Sporean: maybe a sentence added by a proud inhabitant, but not really accurate.

'''Strasbourg''' is a city of eastern [[France]], located close to the [[River Rhine]] where that river forms the [[border]] between France and [[Germany]]. Strasbourg is the main city of the region of [[Alsace]] and the language and culture of this typical borderland area show a mix of French and German influence. The city and the Alsace-Lorraine area were annexed by Germany at the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870-71, and were only regained by France in 1918. they were again annexed by Germany in the period 1940-45. Strasbourg was created as the administrative centre of the [[Council of Europe]] in 1949 to symbolise the determination that no more wars should take place in [[Europe]].

The [[European Parliament]] also meets in Strasbourg, although its main centre is [[Brussels]].

[[Category:French Cities and Towns]]

Talk:Alencon

2010-04-06T16:01:51Z

Sporean: should be renamed.

should be renamed with the cedilla in the title.[[User:Sporean|Sporean]] 12:01, 6 April 2010 (EDT)

Dunkirk

2010-04-06T15:59:00Z

Sporean:

'''Dunkerque''' is a French city spelled ''Dunkirk'' in English.

After the surrender of [[Belgium]], French and [[British]] forces in Belgium retreated to Dunkirk, on the northern coast of [[France]]. Here they held off the Germans while more than 300,000 Allied troops waded out to British rescue-vessels in late May 1940. The tiny British [[Royal Air Force]] formed aerial umbrella to hold off the German bombers.

The [[Operation Dynamo|successful operation]] saved the entire British army. If the Dunkirk rescue had failed, the British troops would certainly have been defeated or captured. However, as British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] noted afterward, "Wars are not won by evacuations."

[[category:World War II]]
[[Category:French Cities and Towns]]

Lyon

2010-04-06T15:56:52Z

Sporean:

'''Lyon''' is a city in south-central [[France]] in the Rhône-Alpes Region. After [[Paris]] and [[Marseille]], it is the third largest city, however with its suburbs, it is the second largest city. It lies between the two cities, and is only 2 hours from Paris by the [[TGV]].

Lyon is located at the convergence of the Rhône and Saône rivers where the medieval city and beyond that two large hills give panoramic views of the city. Lyon is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] and tourism is an important industry, along with film, finance and light industries. A large basilica, the Notre-Dame de Fourvière, looks over the city from the western hill and nearby there are Roman amphitheatres which are the largest outside of [[Italy]]. Lyon is known to be a capital of French cuisine.

==External Links==

[http://www.en.lyon-france.com/ Tourism Lyon (English)]

[[Category:French Cities and Towns]]

Louis XIV

2009-02-28T14:32:15Z

Sporean: correcting with the right French term

[[Image:LouisXIV.jpg|thumb|300px|right|King Louis XIV of France, showing off his dancing legs]]
'''Louis XIV''' (1638-1715) sometimes called "The Sun King" ((''Roi soleil''),, was the king of [[France]] from childhood to old age, 1643 to 1715. He ruled France as an absolute monarch--"l'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state."). He was famous for his lavish entertainments at the [[Palace of Versailles]] near [[Paris]]. He ruled the most powerful and grandiose nation in Europe. His 72-year reign, the longest in French history, was superficially splendid but basically disastrous for France because of expensive foreign wars. His France dominated European cultural and political affairs. Louis typified the absolute monarchy of the Neoclassical age, established a sumptuous court at [[Versailles]], and fought most of Europe in four wars. Louis XIV dominated French culture by gaining international recognition of French arts, literature, and science, drastically transformed medieval France and introduced a more refined, sophisticated style of life.

==Early Life==
Louis XIV was born to [[Louis XIII]] and [[Anne of Austria]] at the royal Château Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5, 1638 and was christened Louis Dieudonné ("gift of God"}, as his parents had been childless for twenty-two years. Even so, he was a neglected child and was kept under the care of servants. He succeeded his father on the throne at the age of four on May, 14 1643. His mother served as a regent, ruling France in in his place with the assistance of Italian-born Cardinal [[Mazarin]], who had been chief minister and tutor of five-year-old Louis. In 1648, the [[Thirty Years' War]] was brought to a successful conclusion in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] by Mazarin. The treaty ensured Dutch independence from [[Spain]] and the independence of German princes in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. But France gained the most out of the treaty. All [[Habsburg]] claims in Alsace were ceded to France, as well as German states under Habsburg rule. The Peace of Westphalia severely weakened both the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs. In the closing years of the Thirty Years' War, the [[Fronde]] (1648-53) broke out, in which the aristocrats of Paris launched a major revolt in reaction the policies of centralization pursued by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] and Mazarin. The royal court was twice driven out of the kingdom. Louis, nine-years-old at the time, faced hunger, poverty, fear, and misfortune during the revolts. The revolts caused the young king to develop a fear of rebellion that he would keep for the rest of his life. He also would never forgive Paris and the nobles and would live in the royal palace of Versailles outside of Paris for much of his reign.

Mazarin, having been victorious over the rebels in 1653, sought to teach the young king his knowledge of foreign policies and diplomatic relations. The [[Thirty Years' War]] had ended for the most part, except for the war between France and Spain, whose outcome would transfer hegemony from the Habsburgs to the Bourbons. In 1658, Louis had fallen in love with Mazarin's niece, Marie Mancini. But he instead married for diplomatic reasons, marrying [[Marie-Thérèse]], daughter of the king of Spain, in 1660 in order to bring peace to the two warring countries and conclude the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]].<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 117-8 </ref>

==Absolute Monarchy==
By the time Mazarin died in early 1661, Louis had become an astute military commander. He prided himself as an excellent horseman, a great dancer, and a lively conversationalist. Yet the king possessed little skill in governing and it was expected for Mazarin to most likely be succeeded by minister [[Michel Le Tellier]]. But Louis did what nobody had anticipated and declared that he would rule France without a chief minister and would rule as an absolute monarch. His reign represented the
apogee of centralized monarchical government; all his ministers paled in comparison with the regal figure of the king, who summed it up in the statement, "I am the state" ("L'Etat c'est moi").<ref> Louis probably never said it; his enemies claimed he did.</ref> State power under Louis achieved new stage of control over three critical administrative functions: use of armed force, formulation and execution of laws, and collection and expenditure of revenue.

Louis wielded unlimited authority and made all key decisions. Even the greatest of ministers were controlled by the king. His key ministers included [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]] for home affairs, the [[Marquis de Louvois]] for war, and [[Hugues de Lionne]] for diplomacy.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) pp 133-43 </ref>

Louis created a system of secret police to promote his popularity and hunt down subversives. He created a thicker network of surveillance and repression than his predecessors or any other contemporary ruler, when, in 1667, he created a lieutenant-general of police in Paris. (Previously the Parlement of Paris controlled the police.) By 1699 Louis had established the same system in all major cities, with the police reporting directly to him and not to local officials. In rural France he mounted a national police constabulary, the maréchaussée. At the least sign of revolt, Louis sent his police or his army. Thus the 1670 peasant uprisings in the Boulonnais and Languedoc were swiftly crushed. Thereafter no serious revolts threatened, even though the country periodically suffered devastating famines in the final two decades of his reign.<ref>W. Scott Haine and Frank W. Thackeray, ''The History of France''(2000) p. 57.</ref>

Louis accession to power is sometimes described as the first moment of aristocratic subjugation. In fact, the reign largely restored a stability that was lost by the great families during the administrations of Richelieu and Mazarin. Louis acted as a scrupulous regulator in distributing provincial governments and crown offices. He consolidated, rather than demolished, the social domination and the political preeminence of the high nobility. In this way, 1661 is really a great divide, the beginning of a more peaceful relationship, which explains the end of serious aristocratic uprisings.<ref>Katia Béguin, "Louis XIV et l'aristocratie: Coup de Majeste ou retour a la Tradition?" ''Histoire, Economie et Société'' 2000 19(4): 497-512. Issn: 0752-5702 </ref>

Everyone understood that the king made all the decisions; his generals understood this too well. While never opposing the king's ideas, from 1675 through the 1690s they subtly selected what information to present and how to present it, so that the king and his advisers would be manipulated to follow the thinking of the generals.

Beik (2005) examines differing historical theories concerning the limits of power of Louis XIV as an absolute monarch. In the 1970s, the dominant historiography concluded Louis' government was a form of collaboration between the king and various groups. One view of collaboration stressed the common interests of the state and other groups in society. Another perceived the collaboration as arising from the necessity of the state to cooperate with local authorities due to a lack of general interest on the part of the king. However, a minority of historians since the late 1980s have challenged the consensus and argued that there was little collaboration between the king and other powerful entities. These historians<ref> Including John J. Hurt, ''Louis XIV and the Parlements: The Assertion of Royal Authority'' (2004)</ref> argue that the majority of the decisions affecting the country were made by either the king or one of his appointed agents. Although this alternative interpretation sheds new light on the working of the French state, Beik concludes it fails to consider the substantial evidence of collaboration.<ref> William Beik, "The Absolutism of Louis XIX as Social Collaboration." ''Past & Present'' 2005 (188): 195-224. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext online at [[OUP]]</ref> For example, much more money was urgently needed because of the War of the Spanish Succession. The king obtained it by selling judicial offices. This alarmed the parlementaires, who feared a loss in value of their own holdings. The complex negotiations between the king and these nobles reveal that the practice of absolutism in the king's late reign was neither all collaboration nor all coercion.<ref> Darryl Dee, "Judicial Politics, War Finance and Absolutism: the Parlement of Besancon and Venality of Office, 1699-1705." ''French History'' 2005 19(4): 440-462. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in [[OUP]]</ref>

===Political ideas===
Louis XIV left many writings commenting on the nature and source of the monarch's authority, particularly his own. Until recently, historians ignored these because they supposedly were written by staffers and secretaries. Now, a more careful analysis of the Sun King's various memoirs and instructions revealed that they are indeed basically the work of the king himself. It is known that Louis was familiar with the works of [[Thomas Hobbes]], and a Hobbesian interpretation of the origin of the state (a renunciation by individuals of some of their natural rights in order to maintain an orderly and well-regulated government) was reflected in the French king's thinking. Louis XIV wove into this idea a belief in God's election and guidance of true monarchs, who, in their human aspect, were but temporary guardians of their kingdoms with the responsibility of preserving the states under their care but, as divinely elected rulers, could not be removed, limited, or appointed by mere ordinary mortals.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 371 </ref>

==The European Wars==
Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, Louis believed that war was the most perfect way to define his glory, that peacetime should be spent preparing for the next war, and that his diplomats' major function was to provide France with tactical or strategic advantages.<ref>James Nathan, "Force, Order, and Diplomacy in the Age of Louis XIV," ''Virginia Quarterly Review'' 1993 69(4): 633-649. Issn: 0042-675x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In his foreign relations Louis' policies were erratic, shifting back and forth. His permanent acquisitions were therefore meager compared with an almost superhuman expenditure of blood and treasure; indeed, the French absolute monarchy did not long survive him, for "he used it up." Louis was not concerned with national defense, but with glory and personal revenge. The revenge was against his hereditary enemy Leopold of Hapsburg, against the Dutch, whom he regarded as upstart "cheese merchants," and against the English, the heretic nation which, by its Revolution of 1688, overthrew his cousin and pensionary James II. It was Louis' capriciousness in the use of overwhelming force that impressed the alarmed contemporaries. Moreover, since he ruled by the theory of the divine right of kings, which made him responsible to God alone, he was arrogant and menacing to all, even to the papacy. This attitude on the part of the King has been expressed in the apocryphal remark attributed to him, L'état c'est moi. "I am the state."

Early in his personal reign, Louis fundamentally reformed French military institutions to assert royal control and to increase the effectiveness of his army. Reforms initiated by Louis included the subordination of fortress governors and army commanders and the end of pillaging by his troops within the borders of France. He also greatly expanded both the peacetime and permanent army. While he never solved critical questions of war finance, he brought important and lasting change to the army. The elite units of the French army, the Maison du Roi and the Gendarmerie de France, were comprised of members of the high aristocracy. Although the war ministers made inroads into the power of the social elite in these forces, the court aristocrats retained their influence over much of the administration and had more control over the elite forces by the end of the 17th century than in 1661. While Louis XIV is known for centralizing and increasing the efficiency of administration, he compromised with elite interests regarding the military in order to enhance the crown and his dynasty. The rising cost to those seeking membership in the elite forces resulted in a gap between the nobles of the elite forces and the poorer nobles who served in ordinary regiments.<ref> John A. Lynn, ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999); Guy Rowlands, "Louis XIV, Aristocratic Power and the Elite Units of the French Army." ''French History''1999 13(3): 303-331; Rowlands, ''The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661-1701'' (2002) </ref>

===The War of Devolution, 1667-1668===
Louis' first important international venture was a small "War of Devolution" in 1667-68 begun with his seizure in 1667 of a part of the Spanish succession lands.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 199-212 </ref> His weak justification was that his wife Maria Theresa should receive all territory in the Spanish Netherlands in which, by local law or custom, private property devolved on a daughter by a first marriage in preference to a son by a second. Before there was time to object that laws about division of private property had nothing to do with succession to national territory, Louis sent Turenne with 35,000 troops to invade the Spanish Netherlands; Turenne captured a series of important cities (May 1667). Against this threat to the stability of Europe the [[Triple Alliance]] was formed in January 1668 by England, the Dutch United Provinces, and Sweden. But within a few weeks the French general Condé and his army captured Franche-Comté, on the eastern border of France. At the same time Louis signed a secret treaty with the Emperor Leopold dividing the Spanish possessions between them, to be carried into effect on the death of Charles II of Spain. With this trump card up his sleeve Louis accepted the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] (May 1668), by which he surrendered Franche-Comté but retained some of his Flemish conquests, including Lille.
===The Dutch War, 1672-1678===
Meanwhile England and France were drawn together by resentment at the commercial success of the Dutch, who were exploiting the produce of the French and English colonies. Colbert's project for a commercial treaty between the two monarchies, directed against the trade of the Dutch republic, fell through (1669). At this point Louis arranged the secret [[Treaty of Dover]] (May 1670) with [[Charles II]] of England by which the two kings undertook to wage a war of extermination against the Dutch. Louis' motives were personal rather than national: the humiliation of the Dutch, and a close alliance with Charles (based on French subsidies); the latter would promote the cause of Roman Catholicism in England.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) pp 213-66 </ref>

In June 1672, without even a declaration of war, Louis' armies of about 120,000 men invaded Dutch territory. A revolution in the United Provinces removed the De Witt brothers by massacre and placed [[William of Orange]] in supreme command. By dogged determination William wore down the French offensive and, on the withdrawal of the French in 1674, Louis was obliged to conduct a long series of indecisive campaigns which lasted until the signing of a general peace at Nijmegen in 1678. In these campaigns Louis did win back Franche-Comté, which he was allowed to retain at the peace settlement; he had, however, stirred European anger by a systematic devastation of the Rhenish Palatinate, where the population was mainly Protestant. What was to have been a short, quick war turned out to be a weary succession of campaigns and sieges, a comparative failure which increased the irritation of the King.
===War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697===
In the years immediately following, Louis' foreign relations appeared quiescent, but he actually maintained a continual state of tension in Europe; on pretexts as flimsy as his "devolution" claims he took over a number of cities, including Colmar and Strasbourg. These were confirmed to him in August 1684 by the Emperor and the Spanish government in the [[Treaty of Ratisbon]], which was an attempt at appeasement. This marked the high point of Louis' career, since he could now seize territories, not by the prowess of his armies, but because of the fears of his enemies. Ratisbon was soon followed by disquieting events--the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), which antagonized Protestant rulers, and a poorly-founded claim to territory in the Rhenish Palatinate.

Europe's alarm was expressed in the formation of the [[League of Augsburg]] in July 1686, whereby the Emperor allied himself with several Protestant and Catholic princes for their common defense. [[William of Orange]], though not a signatory to this League, was the guiding spirit behind it. With the flight of [[James II]] and the success of the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, he became William III of England and took the lead against Louis with the resources of England behind him and with the active help of the Emperor, Spain, and Brandenburg, and the tacit support of the pope.

The war which followed, commonly called the War of the League of Augsburg, was fought on land and at sea, in Flanders, in northern Italy, and on the Rhine, and was inaugurated by the second devastation of the Palatinate (1689). The only decisive battles were the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (July 1690), by which William expelled James II from Ireland, and the naval battle of La Hogue (May 1692), in which the British destroyed a large part of the French fleet. The war ended in a draw; by the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] (September 1697) Louis restored his conquests, recognized the sovereignty of William, and undertook not to give further assistance to the dethroned Stuart house of England.

===War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714===
By far the most serious war was the long, drawn-out War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714 that nearly bankrupted France while producing few major benefits. After the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick five years of uneasy peace followed; Louis and William failed in their attempts to settle the Spanish succession question by treaties of partition.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 499-578 </ref> Charles II of Spain died in November 1700 and by his will he left the entire succession to Philip, Duc d'Anjou, a younger grandson of Louis, a solution which was acceptable to war-weary Europe. But, like a true dictator, Louis could never leave well enough alone. The will stipulated that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. Louis flouted this by a decree that the contingent rights of the Duc d'Anjou to the French throne were inviolable; at the same time he filled the garrisons of the Flemish frontier towns with French troops. On the death of the former King of England James II in September 1701, Louis publicly recognized his son James, the "[[Old Pretender]]," as his successor, guaranteeing trouble with England. Meanwhile, in summer 1701, William organized the Grand Alliance of The Hague, consisting mainly of Britain, the Emperor, and the Dutch, to resist the renewed French threats.

In May 1702 Britain's [[Queen Anne]], William's successor, declared war on Louis. The "War of the Spanish Succession" differed markedly from Louis' earlier wars in that the forces opposing France were now under the command of a great leader, John Churchill, [[Duke of Marlborough]]; instead of the old spectacular sieges and aimless marches, there ensued a war of swift movement, directed by an overall strategy. The allies won a number of great battles, including [[Blenheim, battle of|Blenheim (1704)]], Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709). By contrast, in Spain, the French victory at Almanza (1707) served to place the Duc d'Anjou on the Spanish throne, where he ruled thereafter as [[Philip V]]. A change of ministry in England in 1710 displaced the party in favor of continuing the war, and the Tories, pledged to peace, signed the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in April 1713.

By this treaty Louis recognized the Hanoverian succession in England, which was to follow upon Anne's death, and surrendered parts of the French possessions in [[Canada]]. The Dutch were protected by a line of barrier forts, and the southern Netherlands was transferred from the rule of Spain to that of the Austrian Emperor. The French northeastern frontier was left little changed, but Lille and Strasbourg remained French. Philip surrendered all contingent claims to the French throne and recognized the British conquest of [[Gibraltar]]. In view of his many defeats Louis got off very lightly, mainly because of disagreement among the allies. His fortitude during the disasters of this war had served to rally the patriotism of his subjects, but France was left impoverished and disillusioned.
===Religion===
Louis was willing enough to partner with Protestant states, but he opposed the Protestant Huguenots inside France. He tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by continued vexations, the employment of dragoons, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598, which gave Huguenots legal rights. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of several hundred thousand Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, physicians and business leaders in Britain and the American colonies, as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa. Those Huguenots who stayed became Catholics.<ref> </ref>

The Jansenists--ultra strict Catholics--also fell afoul of Louis. He used the [[Jesuit]] order to minimize their influence. He was a "Gallican" in Church affairs. That is, he favored a strong [[Papacy, history|Papacy]] as long as it was weak inside France and he controlled the bishops and abbeys.

==Image and memory==
===The official image===
Few rulers in world history commemorated themselves so grandly as Louis XIV.<ref> Peter Burke, "The fabrication of Louis XIV." ''History Today,'' (Feb 1992), Vol. 42, Issue 2 in [[EBSCO]]</ref> Pamphelteers used a standard vocabulary, portraying him (in English alphabetical order) as august, conquering, enlightened, generous, god-given, heroic, illustrious, immortal, invincible, just, magnanimous, pious, triumphant and wise. In a word, he was "great", an adjective officially adopted in 1671. Indeed, LOUIS LE GRAND was generally written in capital letters even in a text in lower case.

Louis XIV used court rituals as a way to mirror and maintain the control he exerted in other areas of his rule, both domestic and international. Theater, sculpture, court ceremonies, dance, and music were all carefully planned and staged to reinforce his power and to represent his view of proper order down to the smallest detail. The master of ceremonies, court composer, and court dance master were key players in this process.

From the start of Louis' reign, Jean Baptiste Colbert set up a centralized and institutionalized system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The two main approaches were the ancient paradigm and the rivalry with ruling powers, notably Spain. The traditional images of the king in majesty and the king at war persisted in official paintings and busts and in the almanacs that concertedly spread royal propaganda among the people at large. The traditional representation of the king as a Roman emperor can be seen in Le Brun's plans for major monuments and in sculptures. Apollonian themes created a mythological environment, with painted decor and sculptures, rather than true likenesses. Portrayal of the reign in metal (medal stamping) was only in its infancy. The major works of the decade were tapestries, and these were either allegorical, depicting the elements and the seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences and, in particular, the history of the king. This was the most significant means by which the monarchy was mythicized before the Hall of Mirrors was created at Versailles.<ref>Gérard Sabatier, "La Gloire du Roi: Iconographie de Louis XIV de 1661 a 1672," ''Histoire, Economie et Société'' 2000 19(4): 527-560. </ref>
===Glorified portraits===
Louis commissioned over 300 formal portraits of himself; he also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaign and record his military triumphs on the spot. About 700 different engravings of Louis have survived. In the 1680s, a series of twenty statues of the king were commissioned for public squares in Paris and in provincial towns. Freestanding permanent triumphal arches were also erected in Paris and the provinces for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire. Sixteenth-century rulers often issued twenty or thirty medals to commemorate the major events of their reigns, but Louis struck more than 300, celebrating the story of the king in a bronze that was enshrined in thousands of houses.

His court lionized the painter [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]], who helped to formulate what a state portrait should be. While Rigaud made a credible likeness of the king, his purpose was not to express Louis's character but to glorify the monarchy. His original "Portrait of Louis XIV of 1701," now in the Louvre, (see above for copy) was so popular that Rigaud had many copies made, both in full and half-length formats, often with the help of assistants. In this portrait from Rigaud's workshop, Louis XIV's ceremonial robes, elegant stance, and haughty expression proclaim his exalted status. Despite the vast expanses of canvas he covered, Rigaud remained concerned with the particular, describing the king's costume in great detail, even down to his shoe buckles.<ref> See also Amy M. Schmitter, "Representation and the Body of Power in French Academic Painting." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 2002 63(3): 399-424. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037(200207)63%3A3%3C399%3ARATBOP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D in Jstor]</ref>

The earliest portraits of Louis as a child used the pictorial conventions of the day to present the future and then child king as already possessing the majesty becoming royalty, idealizing his person as the incarnation of the state. This idealization continued in later portraits, which not only avoided depicting any trace of the smallpox that the king suffered in 1647 but, by the 1660s, presented him as an Apollo or Alexander, vying with those seeking to reproduce his Habsburg traits. While the portraits at the end of his reign allowed the king's face to betray his advanced age, the conflict between the representation of Louis as a man and as king continued, as exemplified by the unnaturally young legs on which he stands in Riguad's painting of 1701.<ref>Stanis Perez, "Les Rides D'apollon: L'evolution Des Portraits de Louis XIV," ["Apollo's Wrinkles: the Evolution of Portraits of Louis XIV"]. ''Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine'' 2003 50(3): 62-95. Issn: 0048-8003 </ref>
===Versailles as power showcase===

[[Image:Versailles.jpg|thumb|455px|Palace and gardens at Versailles]]
His great château at [[Versailles]] integrated gardens, interior design, and the iconography of the paintings to express a royal plan to visually represent the power of the absolute monarchy personified by Louis. The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors) at Versailles became the most prestigious section of the royal residence. Under the king's close supervision, [[Charles Le Brun]] (1619-90) finalized a political thematic decoration program for the hall in 1679 that retraces the important accomplishments of Louis's reign, ranging from his ascension to the throne to the War of Devolution (1667-68). Decorative arches place emphasis on the significant events of the war in Holland. The decorations, intended to demonstrate the king's grandeur, omit the defeats that his French army suffered and cover up the reality of the resulting Pyrrhic victory and the consequent responses of France's adversaries, which left Louis XIV's kingdom isolated.

===Ballet===
The king loved ballet, and in the early years he danced regularly in court ballets. He performed four dancing roles in three of [[Molière]]'s comédies-ballets (plays which were characterized by the inclusion of music and dance and written to be premiered before Louis XIV and his court): an Egyptian in "Le Mariage forcé" (1664), a Moorish Gentleman in "Le Sicilien" (1667) and Neptune and Apollo in "Les Amants magnifiques" (1670). However, the court performances differed from subsequent stagings in public theaters in Paris. In court, the music to accompany ballets performed by the king was suitably majestic, and the lyrics conveyed his power and benevolence as patron of the arts. In Paris performances, these parts no longer stood out from those of other ballet performers. In fact, those plays that most overtly promoted Louis XIV's royal image were not performed at all outside the court. These examples testify to Molière's readiness to adapt his plays according to the venue and the audience.<ref> Julia Prest, "Dancing King: Louis XIV's Roles in Moliere's Comedies-ballets, from Court to Town." ''Seventeenth Century'' 2001 16(2): 283-298. Issn: 0268-117x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>
===Piety===
Brought up to respect Catholicism, Louis was a pious and devout king. Seeing himself as the protector of the French Church, he made his devotions every day, wherever he was, following regularly the liturgical calendar. The royal religion, related and spread through the press, took place in the Chapelle Royale. Ostentation was a distinguishing feature of the daily masses, annual celebrations, like those of the Holy Week, and special ceremonies.<ref> Sébastien Gaudelus, "La Mise en Spectacle De La Religion Royale: Recherches sur la Devotion de Louis XIV," ''Histoire, Economie et Société'' 2000 19(4): 513-526.</ref>
===Public opinion===
Alongside official images and the discourse emanating from the court, Frenchmen followed a nonofficial discourse comprised mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumors, which provided an alternative interpretation of the king and his government. They focused the miseries caused by bad government, but also carried the hope for a better future in the event that the king escaped the influence of his ministers and mistresses and took the government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to the king or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of the monarchy and king, while the numerous denouncers of fake conspiracies against the king sought to manipulate the weaknesses of the monarchical system for their own ends. These varying images of the king abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the ideal of the monarchy.<ref> Jens Ivo Engels, "Denigrer, Esperer, Assumer La Realite. Le Roi de France perçu par ses Sujets, 1680-1750" ["Disparaging, Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 1680-1750"]. ''Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine'' 2003 50(3): 96-126. </ref>

====notes====
<references/>
==Bibliography==
* Ashley, Maurice P. ''Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France'' (1965) [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-Greatness-France-Maurice-Ashley/dp/0029010802/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467644&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]
* Beik, William. ''Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Absolutism-Documents-Bedford/dp/031213309X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Burke, Peter. ''The Fabrication of Louis XIV'' (1994) [http://www.amazon.com/Fabrication-Louis-XIV-Peter-Burke/dp/0300059434/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* ''Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV'' (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1 complete text online]
* Dunlop, Ian. ''Louis XIV'' (2000), 512pp [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Ian-Dunlop/dp/0312261969/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]
* Lewis, W. H. ''The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Splendid-Century-Life-France-Louis/dp/0881339210/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/6019084 online complete edition]
* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the [[Annales School]] [http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Mitford, Nancy. ''The Sun King''(1995), popular [http://www.amazon.com/Sun-King-Nancy-Mitford/dp/0140239677/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rowlands, Guy. ''The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661-1701'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/105134626 online edition]
* Shennan, J. H. ''Louis XIV'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/read/108828773 online edition]
* Wilkinson, Rich. ''Louis XIV'' (2007)
* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]
====Notes====
<references/>
[[Category:French Monarchs]]
[[Category:French History]]

Brittany

2007-12-05T13:20:22Z

Sporean:

'''Brittany''' (Fr.: ''Bretagne'') is a region of north-west France, bounded by the [[English Channel]] to its north and the [[Bay of Biscay]] to its south. Its chief towns are [[Rennes]] and the port of [[Brest]]. As well as French, the [[Celtic]] language [[Breton]] is spoken in Brittany. Breton is similar to [[Welsh]], and the region has a distinct Celtic heritage. Its name derives from the migration here of native British following the Anglo-Saxon conquest of what was to become [[England]]. The name [[Great Britain]] (''Grande Bretagne'' in French) has the prefix 'Great' to distinguish it from 'little' Brittany (''Bretagne'').
[[Category:France]]

Versailles

2007-12-05T13:18:04Z

Sporean: This was a HUGE error, XVI instead of XIV.

[[Image:Pissaro_La_Route_de_Versailles_a_Louveciennes.jpg|thumb|Pissaro La Route de Versailles a Louveciennes]]
'''Versailles''' is a suburb of [[Paris]] best known for the huge palace where the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was signed at the end of [[World War I]]. The famous Palace of Versailles was mainly built under the reign of King [[Louis XIV]].

[[Category:France]]

Notre Dame de Paris

2007-12-05T13:16:59Z

Sporean:

[[Image:Notre-Dame.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Notre Dame de Paris, western facade]]
'''Notre Dame de Paris''' is a [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral located in [[Paris]], [[France]]. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Paris, and is a well known French cultural and national icon.

==Prehistory==
Notre Dame is located on the southeastern part of the Île de la Cité, the historic heart of Paris. This location has been used for religious purposes going back to the time of the Roman Empire, when the Gallo-Roman boatmen erected a monument to [[Jupiter]] there. During the Christian era, the site was used for two Romanesque style churches, which were eventually demolished.

==Construction==
The church was first conceptualized in 1160 by bishop Maurice de Sully, who made the original plans. Construction of the church officially began in 1163, and Pope Alexandre III was present at the ceremony to dedicate the first stone. As was typical of such large construction projects of the day, it took about 100 years to complete. Most of the work was finished around 1250, but there was no ceremonial setting of the last stone, and small work projects continued well into the 1300s.

==Style==
The architecture of Nore Dame is early Gothic. It is interesting to note that architectural styles were changing at the time of construction. One visible result of the long process of construction, is that the church incorporates several different styles, the oldest being at the east end of the church, and the newest being the towers on the west end. Today it is considered a kind of hybrid building, and it is one of the first gothic cathedrals ever built.

==History==
Several notable events have occured within the church of Notre Dame. The [[Third Crusade]] was called for in 1185, and it was also the location of many royal weddings and coronations. The most notable coronation took place in 1804, when [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] crowned himself emperor.

Beginning in 1789 and throughout the [[French Revolution]], Notre Dame became a target of vandalism, since many people in Paris considered the church a symbol of the old regime. The church was looted, and many of the statues were broken down, including the 28 statues of the Kings' Gallery, located just above the main portals on the western facade. These kings were originally mean to represent the kings of [[Judah]], but they were misinterpreted as kings of France. As part of the anti-Christian aspect of the French Revolution, the Roman Church was deposed from the building, and Notre Dame was declared a "Temple of Reason".

By the 19th century, French author [[Victor Hugo]] became fascinated with the cathedral, and lamented the fact that it was in such disrepair. He wrote his now famous novel ''Notre Dame de Paris'' (commonly known to the English-speaking world as ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'') in part to express these concerns. The novel was heavily critical of certain aspects of French society, including the public apathy regarding the state of the church. As a result of the immense popularity of the novel, a great restoration effort was initiated.

The restoration was led by a French architect named Viollet-le-Duc. Much of the modern appearance of the cathedral is a direct result of his restoration. The great spire located over the crossing is entirely le-Duc's creation.

==References==
[http://www.notredamedeparis.fr/index.php official site]

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Catholicism]]

Alencon

2007-12-05T13:15:01Z

Sporean: This is the name of the city.

Alençon is a city in [[Normandy]], [[France]] with a population of 30,380 as of 1999. Alençon is located 105 miles west of [[Paris]], the capital of France.

[[category:France]]

France

2007-09-09T13:41:05Z

Sporean: rm rubbish, the "City of Lights" has nothing to do with the Eiffel Tower, it was already nicknamed this way before 1889.

{{country
|map=map_of_france.jpg
|flag=FranceE_3.gif‎
|capital=Paris
|government=Republic
|language=French
|president=Nicolas Sarkozy
|pm=François Fillon
|area=260,558 sq. mi.
|pop=64,102,140
|pop-basis=(2007 estimate)
|gdp=1.871 trillion
|gdp-year=(2007 estimate)
|gdp-pc=$30,100
}}
'''France''' (Official title: ''French Republic''/''République Française'') is a country in Western [[Europe]].

At its height, the French Empire rivaled the British Empire, with colonies in every corner of the world. It continues to be a strong presence in academia and has been the birthplace of countless renowned scholars, such as [[Voltaire]] and [[Descartes]]. It remains a powerhouse in the [[European Union]], often at odds with the [[United Kingdom]] on issues of EU policy. The capital city is Paris, often called the "City of Lights".

Military aid was given to the American colonies in their attempt to gain independence. The sacrifice of her navy and commitment to the American cause became vital to the survival of the United States.

Also in this time, France was a center for the enlightenment. Philosophes like Descartes, Montesquieu and others theorised many ideas that are now synonymous with Western Civilization and the Democratic system.

The success of the American Revolution and the development of the above ideas inspired France to have a revolution of her own. As a thanks to the [[United States]] for inspiration, France gave the [[Statue of Liberty]] to the U.S. in 1886.

France is also renowned for its cuisine and its wines. Good food is highly valued in France.

It was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel treaty which led to the EEC and EU.

In March 2003, France was one of over a hundred nations that did not participate in the alliance that liberated [[Iraq]], with its aim of removing the [[Baathist]] regime of the dictator [[Saddam Hussein]], though France had committed substantial forces to the First [[Gulf War]]. French forces did, however, participate in the war in Afghanistan, and suffered casualties in the fighting <ref>http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2004/oef.casualties/,/</ref>

==Gaul==
Back during the time of the [[Roman Republic]], France was a territory called [[Gaul]], populated by [[Celtic]] tribes. [[Julius Caesar]] conquered Gaul, thanks to the lack of unity among the tribes. Gaul remained an important part of the [[Roman Empire]] for several centuries.

==Frankland under Clovis==
France is named after the [[Franks]], a Saxon tribe who established Soissons, the capital. A Frank called [[Clovis]] united the Franks and established Frankland. Franks were [[pagans]] but Clovis converted to [[Christianity]] (legend has it he prayed to Christ during a difficult battle, offering to become a Christian in exchange for victory ; shortly after that, the enemy fled).

==Government==
France is a democratic Republic, governed by a [[President]] and [[Parliament]]. Its current [[President]] is center-right [[reformer|reformist]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], who has promised to modernize France's economy. France has for years had one of the highest unemployment rates in western Europe, currently at 8.6%, and has a tax burden of almost 50% of GDP.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fr.html</ref>. Two million Frenchmen have left France for other countries. Many of these have stated their concern with France's high taxes and "anti-growth" economic policies and many have settled in [[Great Britain]].<ref>http://www.cato-at-liberty.org/2007/05/02/two-million-french-have-escaped-france/</ref>

==See also==
*[[French Wars]]

==References==

<References/>

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:France| ]]

Apostasy

2007-08-01T17:45:51Z

Sporean: New page: apostasy is the act of leaving a religion, either to convert to another religion, or to atheism, deism, or agnosticism. In some theocratic countries apostasy...

apostasy is the act of leaving a religion, either to convert to another [[religion]], or to [[atheism]], [[deism]], or [[agnosticism]].

In some [[theocracy|theocratic]] countries apostasy is punishable by death.

Diabetes

2007-07-31T13:30:52Z

Sporean:

'''Diabetes''' is caused by a problem with the body's [[immune system]]. In a healthy body, specialized cells (called [[beta cell]]s) in the [[pancreas]] make insulin. [[Insulin]] is a [[hormone]] that allows the body to use energy from food. In diabetes, the immune system mistakes beta cells for invaders and attacks them. When enough beta cells are destroyed, symptoms of diabetes appear. If the beta cells still produce insulin but do not respond properly to the insulin or the insulin produced naturally is not enough to meet the needs of the body, people can work to keep it under control by losing [[weight]], changing their [[diet]], and increasing their [[exercise]]. Others take one or more medications, including insulin. Unchecked diabetes can result in [[death]].

Consumption of [[coffee]] can reduce the risk of being diabetic.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Medicine]]

Obesity

2007-07-31T01:56:43Z

Sporean:

'''Obesity''' is a physical illness which consists in excessive weight. A major consequence of obesity is [[diabetes]]. Obesity is a common illness in the [[United States]] and is becoming common in many developed countries.

Obesity

2007-07-31T01:54:54Z

Sporean: New page: '''Obesity''' is a physical illness which consists in excessive weight. A major consequence of obesity is diabetes

'''Obesity''' is a physical illness which consists in excessive weight. A major consequence of obesity is [[diabetes]]

Florence

2007-07-31T01:45:03Z

Sporean:

'''Florence''' (''Firenze'' in Italian) is a city on the River Arno in the Italian region of [[Tuscany]]. It is known for [[Michaelangelo]]'s statue of [[The David|David]], the [[Baptistery]] and the [[Duomo Santa Maria del Fiore]].

[[Category: Italy]]

Charles de Gaulle

2007-07-31T01:44:18Z

Sporean: the true quote is 365.

'''Charles de Gaulle''' was the leader of the [[Free French]] forces during [[World War II]]. His relations with Roosevelt were notoriously strained. After France was liberated, he established a temporary government.

In 1958, France faced a major crisis due to the war in [[Algeria]] and de Gaulle was called back to solve the situation. He was nominated Prime Minister, had a new constitution drafted and approved by referendum and finally became the 18th president of the French republic. He was in office from 1959 until 1969. In 1969, feeling he did not have popular support anymore, de Gaulle organized a referendum, ostensibly about minor institutional reforms. When the voters rejected the reforms he advocated, de Gaulle voluntarily stepped down from office.

De Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 and died on November 9,1970 at age 79.

==Notable Quoutes==
:''Faced with crisis, the man of character falls back on himself. He imposes his own stamp of action, takes responsibility for it, makes it his own.'' <ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-faced-with-crisis-the-man-of-character-070486.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''How can you govern a country with 365 varieties of cheese?''<ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-how-can-anyone-govern-a-nation-070490.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaulle, Charles de}}
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category: World War II Commanders]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:French people]]

Icelandic language

2007-07-30T17:22:10Z

Sporean: New page: '''Icelandic''' is the official language of Iceland. It is one of the most well-preserved languages in the world. The alphabet comports additional letters, such as æ, ð and þ.

'''Icelandic''' is the official language of [[Iceland]]. It is one of the most well-preserved languages in the world. The alphabet comports additional letters, such as æ, ð and þ.

Equilateral triangle

2007-07-30T17:18:01Z

Sporean:

An equilateral triangle has, by definition, three sides that are equal in length.

In classical geometry it can easily be proved that an equilateral triangle is also ''equiangular,'' that is each of its three angles is equal; since another theorem states that the three angles of a triangle total 180°, each of its angle is 60° each.

In some geometries (like sphere surface geometry) an equilateral triangle can have angles being more than 60° each: for example the North pole, the point situated 0°N 0°E and the point situated 0°N 90°E form an equilateral triangle with angles of 90°. This can be seen pointing for example the North Pole, Sao Tome & Principe and Singapore on a globe.

Note that it is only ''triangles'' that have the characteristic that equilateral means equiangular. For polygons of more than three sides, this is not true. A quadrilateral can have four equal sides—be a [[rhombus]]—without necessarily being a square.

[[Image:Triangle.Equilateral.svg]]
[[category:geometry]]

Equilateral triangle

2007-07-30T17:08:02Z

Sporean:

An equilateral triangle has, by definition, three sides that are equal in length.

In classical geometry it can easily be proved that an equilateral triangle is also ''equiangular,'' that is each of its three angles is equal; since another theorem states that the three angles of a triangle total 180°, each of its angle is 60° each.

In some geometries (like sphere surface geometry) an equilateral triangle can have angles being more than 60° each: for example the North pole, the point situated 0°N 0°E and the point situated 0°N 90°E form an equilateral triangle with angles of 90°.

Note that it is only ''triangles'' that have the characteristic that equilateral means equiangular. For polygons of more than three sides, this is not true. A quadrilateral can have four equal sides—be a [[rhombus]]—without necessarily being a square.

[[Image:Triangle.Equilateral.svg]]
[[category:geometry]]

Xenophobia

2007-07-30T17:04:12Z

Sporean:

''Xenophobia'', from the Greek ξένος (xénos, foreign) + φόβος (phobos, fear). A fear of that which is inherently ''other''. Xenophobia is inherent in human history and human nature to some degree.<ref>Edward Said, "Orientalism."</ref> Understandable examples of xenophobia are evident in common American culture, such as the fear of the influx of Mexican culture in the border states.

Technically, xenophobia is not [[racism]]; racism is however a manifestation of xenophobia.

== References ==
<references/>

[[category:phobias]]

French Guiana

2007-07-30T17:01:03Z

Sporean:

'''French Guiana''' is a [[French]] regular administrative division located in [[Latin America]]. It has the status of ''département'' and not of ''territory'' only.

{{expand}}

{{Nb countries south america}}

Rule of St. Benedict

2007-07-30T16:51:59Z

Sporean: sorry

The '''Rule of St. Benedict''' is a set of rules for monks written by [[Saint Benedict]]. It requires giving away all of one's possessions and vowing obedience to the abbot. It was used as the basis of [[Europe|European]] monasticism.

A famous monument is the abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire in [[France]].

[[Category:Christianity]]

Rule of St. Benedict

2007-07-30T16:51:41Z

Sporean:

Talk:Circumcision

2007-07-30T16:48:49Z

Sporean: Why say "male reproductive organ"?

* The article says circumcision is common in western countries, but in Europe it isn't nearly as widely practiced. Being intact is far more common there than being circumcised, esp. in Scandinavia. [[User:Alf84|Alf84]] 19:17, 28 May 2007 (EDT)

:That's very true. Circumcision is actually really rare in Europe. I also have a problem with the statistic of Americans who are circumcised - surely that should be referenced? Surely it's not that high? [[User:Blackjuice|Blackjuice]] 13:58, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

:: It is rare in the United Kingdom. [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 16:38, 17 July 2007 (EDT)

== Why say "male reproductive organ"? ==

I think the word "penis" is not obscene, are you reluctant to writing it in the first sentence?[[User:Sporean|Sporean]] 12:48, 30 July 2007 (EDT)