The '''Arabic alphabet''' is a set of characters used to write the [[Arabic language]], as well as several other unrelated languages in the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]] (for example, Farsi). It is based on the Phoenician alphabet, from which the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] and [[Greek alphabet]]s are also descended. Unlike its sister scripts, the Arabic alphabet is cursive, and often each letter has several variants depending on their position in a word.

Like Hebrew, Arabic is not a true alphabet, and can more accurately be described as an abjad: that is, a set of characters with no specific symbols for vowels. Instead, diacritical marks (''harakat'') are used to render short vowels, and the consonants ʾalif, wāw, and yā are used to render long vowels (similar to ''matres lectionis'' in Hebrew). However, which letters and which diacritics are used largely depends on the national variant of the alphabet.

The Arabic alphabet, in its most basic form, consists of: ''ʾalif'', ''bāʼ'', ''tāʼ'', '''''ṯ'''āʼ'', ''ǧīm'', ''ḥāʼ'', ''ḫāʼ'', ''dāl'', ''ḏāl'', ''rāʼ'', ''zāī'', ''sīn'', ''šīn'', ''ṣād'', ''ḍād'', ''ṭāʼ'', ''ẓāʼ'', ''ʿayn'', ''ġayn'', ''fāʼ'', ''qāf'', ''kāf'', ''lām'', ''mīm'', ''nūn'', ''hāʼ'', ''wāw'', and ''yāʼ''

==See also==
*[[Alphabet]]
*[[Cyrillic alphabet]]

{{stub}}

[[Category:Alphabets]]
[[Category:Middle East]]

2008-12-14T18:27:09Z

SamY: /* Lead */ new section

Leon Trotsky

2008-12-14T18:25:16Z

SamY: bypass redirect

[[Image:Trockiy2.jpg|right|thumb|Leon Trotsky]]

'''Leon Trotsky''', born '''Leon Davidovich Bronstein''' (1879-1940) was a participant with [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin|V. I. Lenin]] in the [[communist revolution]] in [[Russia]] in 1917. However, he had previously been a member of the [[Mensheviks]], a communist party that had once been aligned with the [[Bolsheviks]]. They did not believe in actively pursuing revolution, that it would happen when the people were ready, unlike the Bolsheviks who believed that the people needed to be led. From 1904 until 1917 Trotsky had a stormy relationship with Lenin, with him accusing Lenin of wanting to become a dictator. But the two of them resolved their differences in 1917, and after that point arguably Trotsky was totally loyal to Lenin.

Trotsky was the most powerful orator in the Bolshevik party, and due to his numerous spells in jail and his active role in the failed 1905 revolution he was much more famous than Lenin was to ordinary Russians. He was the actual organizer behind the [[October Revolution]], as Lenin was still in exile and so unable to participate.

Trotsky also helped build the [[Red Army]] that defeated the White Russian Army in the subsequent Civil War in Russia, despite having no military experience of any kind.

When Lenin died in 1924, a lengthy power struggle began between Trotsky and [[Stalin]]. Trotsky took the view that socialism in the Soviet Union must await a revolution in western Europe and even worldwide. Stalin wanted power immediately and offered a rival ideology, ''Socialism in one country''. To fend off accusations of becoming the new 'Napoleon', he gave up his command of the Red Army. However Stalin expelled Trotsky from the Bolshevik party in 1927 and exiled him from Russia in 1929.

Trotsky eventually settled in [[Mexico]] in 1937. He was hunted down and murdered at his house, in [[Mexico City]] by an assassin, [[Ramon Mercador]], sent by Stalin in 1940. He was murdered with an ice pick.

One of Trotsky's famous quotes (which also sums up the [[Atheism]] in the Communist Movement) was : "Religions are illogical primitive ignorance. There is nothing as ridiculous and tragic as a religious government."
== See also ==

*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]]
*[[Communist Party]]
*[[Trotskyism]]
*[[neoconservatism]]
*[[Diego Rivera]]
*[[Anna Colloms]]
*[[Elizabeth Zarubina]]
*[[Zalmond Franklin]]
*[[Natalia Sedova]]
*[[Floyd Miller]]
*[[Jacob Epstein (spy)]]
*[[Pavel Sudaplatov]]
*[[Gregory Rabinovich]]
*[[Sylvia Callen]] (4,899 bytes)
*[[Jack Soble]] (2,734 bytes)
*[[Ruth Wilson]]
*[[Lydia Altschuler]]
*[[Altschuler group]]
*[[Sante Fe Drugstore]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trotsky, Leon}}
[[Category:Russian Political People]]
[[Category:Communists]]

Leon Trotsky

2008-12-14T18:24:16Z

SamY: /* See also */ cat

[[Image:Trockiy2.jpg|right|thumb|Leon Trotsky]]

'''Leon Trotsky''', born '''Leon Davidovich Bronstein''' (1879-1940) was a participant with [[V. I. Lenin]] in the [[communist revolution]] in [[Russia]] in 1917. However, he had previously been a member of the [[Mensheviks]], a communist party that had once been aligned with the [[Bolsheviks]]. They did not believe in actively pursuing revolution, that it would happen when the people were ready, unlike the Bolsheviks who believed that the people needed to be led. From 1904 until 1917 Trotsky had a stormy relationship with Lenin, with him accusing Lenin of wanting to become a dictator. But the two of them resolved their differences in 1917, and after that point arguably Trotsky was totally loyal to Lenin.

Trotsky was the most powerful orator in the Bolshevik party, and due to his numerous spells in jail and his active role in the failed 1905 revolution he was much more famous than Lenin was to ordinary Russians. He was the actual organizer behind the [[October Revolution]], as Lenin was still in exile and so unable to participate.

Trotsky also helped build the [[Red Army]] that defeated the White Russian Army in the subsequent Civil War in Russia, despite having no military experience of any kind.

When Lenin died in 1924, a lengthy power struggle began between Trotsky and [[Stalin]]. Trotsky took the view that socialism in the Soviet Union must await a revolution in western Europe and even worldwide. Stalin wanted power immediately and offered a rival ideology, ''Socialism in one country''. To fend off accusations of becoming the new 'Napoleon', he gave up his command of the Red Army. However Stalin expelled Trotsky from the Bolshevik party in 1927 and exiled him from Russia in 1929.

Trotsky eventually settled in [[Mexico]] in 1937. He was hunted down and murdered at his house, in [[Mexico City]] by an assassin, [[Ramon Mercador]], sent by Stalin in 1940. He was murdered with an ice pick.

One of Trotsky's famous quotes (which also sums up the [[Atheism]] in the Communist Movement) was : "Religions are illogical primitive ignorance. There is nothing as ridiculous and tragic as a religious government."
== See also ==

*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]]
*[[Communist Party]]
*[[Trotskyism]]
*[[neoconservatism]]
*[[Diego Rivera]]
*[[Anna Colloms]]
*[[Elizabeth Zarubina]]
*[[Zalmond Franklin]]
*[[Natalia Sedova]]
*[[Floyd Miller]]
*[[Jacob Epstein (spy)]]
*[[Pavel Sudaplatov]]
*[[Gregory Rabinovich]]
*[[Sylvia Callen]] (4,899 bytes)
*[[Jack Soble]] (2,734 bytes)
*[[Ruth Wilson]]
*[[Lydia Altschuler]]
*[[Altschuler group]]
*[[Sante Fe Drugstore]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trotsky, Leon}}
[[Category:Russian Political People]]
[[Category:Communists]]

Boris Yeltsin

2008-12-14T18:22:50Z

SamY: wording, cat

[[Image:byeltsin.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Boris Yeltsin]]

''' Boris Yeltsin ''' '''(1931 - 2007)''' was a [[Russian]] politician who helped challenge and bring an end to the [[Soviet Union]]. After he led Russia for eight years, he then became the first ever in Russian history to voluntarily relinquish power to a successor, whom he handpicked.

== Early career ==

Yeltsin resigned from the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] on July 12, 1990 after 29 years in the party. His relative lack of enthusiasm for the communists even as a young man can be evaluated in part on the basis of his having not joined until six years after he began practicing his profession, [[construction engineer]], in the 1950's. Prior to his resignation, Yeltsin had been a popular mayor of [[Moscow]] and was a powerful member of the parliament. Yeltsin was elected president of a new [[Russian Federation]] in Russia's first democratic election in June 1991.

== Role in last days of the Soviet Union ==

[[Communists]] were angry and determined to stop Yeltsin’s challenge. In August 1991, they ordered the soldiers to kill Yeltsin{{fact}}. Providence must have intervened{{fact}}, because the troops refused the order. Rarely, if ever, do troops refuse orders like this. In a communist country such refusal was unheard of prior to the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1989. Many{{fact}} explain this as occurring because by 1991 almost everyone could see the writing on the wall: the West was winning and Russia had an opportunity to embrace [[capitalism]]. By 1991 ordinary Russians were very cynical about their system of government and envied the material success of their Western neighbors. Blaming Gorbachev for this state of affairs, more traditional Communists confined him in his dacha on the [[Black Sea]] for three days, announcing he had stepped down for health reasons. They probably intended to kill him once things settled down{{fact}}. Thanks mostly to Yeltsin, who brought tens of thousands of his supporters into [[Red Square]] to protect the [[Russian State Duma]], things never did.

Although the attempted [[coup d'etat]] failed, it and Yeltsin's response demonstrated Gorbachev's irrelevance to the future of Russia. He promptly resigned as head of the Communist Party, and then [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]] and other Soviet republics declared their independence as [[Lithuania]] had. On [[Christmas]] Day, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the [[Soviet Union]], which formally ceased to exist on the same day.<ref>http://www.conservapedia.com/World_History_Lecture_Thirteen</ref>

American [[liberal bias|liberal media]] sources persistently favored maintaining Communist domination in Soviet Russia under Gorbachev over the aspirations of a popular movement led by the democratic reformer Yeltsin. <ref>[http://www.mrc.org/cyberalerts/2007/cyb20070424.asp#4 Liberal Media Favored Communist 'Reformer' Gorbachev Over Yeltsin] </ref>

== Presidency, 1991-1999 ==

Yeltsin's greatest achievement was to play a central role in ending the communist dictatorship in the Soviet Union. He defeated another attempt by anti-democratic forces led by [[Alexander Rutskoi]] to take power in Russia in October 1993. Notably, soldiers who had refused orders to storm the Duma two years previously carried out the same orders on this occasion.

He agreed to the [[START II treaty]], which reduced the number of [[U.S.]] and Russian [[nuclear weapons]] by approximately 20,000 warheads. Congruent with this treaty and the spirit of European unification promoted by Gorbachev, the great powers persuaded [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]] and [[Kazakhstan]] to hand over their nuclear arsenals to Russia, which also succeeded to the Soviet Union's permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]].

Yeltsin's legacy is not unmixed, however. Average [[life expectancy]] for Russians, especially men, dropped significantly during Yeltsin's first term. This is partly due to increased abuse of [[alcohol]] (a vice shared by Yeltsin himself - it is reported that his daily intake of vodka was two liters) and other substances, and partly due to the collapse of Russia's system of [[socialized medicine]]. Indeed, Russian [[infrastructure]] across the board was in a state of collapse for several years after Yeltsin took power, complicating the [[privatization]] of the Russian [[economy]] and discouraging much-needed [[investment]]. The average Russian's living standard accordingly did not rise as his life expectancy fell, and he also had to deal with [[unemployment]], unknown in Soviet times. These factors help explain the increased rate of alcoholism{{fact}}.

The flip side of [[disarmament]] was sharply reduced Russian influence in [[geopolitics]]. The Russian defense budget reached its nadir of $17 billion in 1994. Consequently, [[corruption]] spread throughout the [[Russian armed forces]]. It is widely believed that some Russian nuclear weapons may have fallen into the hands of [[terrorists]] during this period{{fact}}, although if this is the case, the terrorists' failure to use any since is somewhat inexplicable. The armed forces had been withdrawn from most [[Warsaw Pact]] countries under Gorbachev, but were compelled to remain in several of the newly independent Soviet republics to protect Russians and other ethnic [[minorities]]. Indeed, Russians were in the minority in some parts of Russia itself, notably [[Chechnya]]{{fact}}, which had declared its independence around the same time as the Baltic states.

On December 11, 1994, Yeltsin authorized an [[invasion]] to restore central government authority in Chechnya. Unable to match Russia in [[conventional warfare]], the Chechens had by summer 1995 fallen back on [[guerrilla]] and terrorist tactics, including the famous raid led by [[Shamil Basayev]] on [[Budyonnovsk]], which indicated that it would no longer be possible to confine the war to Chechnya. The latter was probably the most successful mass hostage taking in history{{fact}}; after a failed rescue attempt, Russian forces permitted Basayev and his men to return to Chechnya, where they released approximately 1,000 surviving hostages. The humiliation of Russian arms was so great that no Russian commander has permitted it to be repeated{{fact}}: subsequent similar actions such as the [[Beslan school siege of 2004]] have invariably ended with many of the hostages and all or nearly all of the terrorists dead. Less than eighteen months after the invasion, with at least 40,000 people having been killed on both sides, Yeltsin signed an [[armistice]] and withdrew Russian forces from Chechnya.

Yeltsin was re-elected in spring 1996. His most prominent rival, [[General]] [[Alexander Lebed]], had died earlier that year in a [[helicopter]] accident. This left Communist leader [[Gennady Zyuganov]] as the leading opposition candidate. Voters found both Zyuganov and his message uninspiring and Yeltsin won easily.

Yeltsin's second term was marked by increasing reliance on his [[prime ministers]] and more troubles with Chechnya. In the three years following the end of the first war, the government of Chechnya had been unable to establish a monopoly on the use of force, and the region was increasingly dominated by [[jihadists]]. In the summer of 1999, armed groups staged attacks from its territory against neighboring parts of Russia, notably [[Dagestan]]. Any remaining doubts about how to deal with this menace were settled approximately a month after the defeat of the jihadists in Dagestan when apartment buildings in both [[Moscow]] and other parts of Russia were destroyed in early-morning bomb attacks, with heavy civilian loss of life. Yeltsin was compelled to order a second invasion.

This operation was supervised by Prime Minister [[Vladimir Putin]], who impressed Yeltsin as none of his predecessors had. Yeltsin's popularity was in free fall by this time as a result of the bombings and of his government's perceived foreign policy failures, particularly the inability to stop [[Bill Clinton]]'s war against [[Yugoslavia]] or get sanctions lifted against [[Iraq]], both countries having come since the end of Communism to be seen as [[allies]] of Russia. One day, Yeltsin allegedly said to Putin, "Something very important has happened: People trust you." Rather than risk a victory by Communists or other [[totalitarians]] in the 2000 election, Yeltsin chose to resign eight years to the day after Gorbachev had, resulting in the elevation of Putin, who had less baggage, to the presidency. In his farewell speech, Yeltsin apologized to the Russian people "for the dreams you had which never came true."

==Yeltsin, KAL 007, and American Pows==

American POW matters had become intertwined with [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], shot down by the Soviets in 1983, when Senator Jesse Helms of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations wrote to Boris Yeltsin requesting information concerning both matters. On December 5, 1991, Senator Helms had written to Yeltsin concerning the US servicemen. "The status of thousands and thousands of American servicemen who are held by Soviet and other Communist forces, and who were never repatriated after every major war this century, is of grave concern to the American people." Yeltsin would ultimately respond with a statement made on June 15, 1992, while being interviewed aboard his presidential jet on his way to the United States, "Our archives have shown that it is true - some of them [American POWs from [[World War II]] and the [[Vietnam War]]] were transferred to the territory of the U.S.S.R. and were kept in labor camps... We can only surmise that some of them may still be alive."

On December 10, just five days after Senator Helms had written Yeltsin concerning American servicemen, Helms would write to Yeltsin concerning KAL 007, "One of the greatest tragedies of the Cold War was the shoot-down of the Korean Airlines flight KAL-007 by the Armed Forces of what was then the Soviet Union on September 1, 1983... The KAL-007 tragedy was one of the most tense incidences of the entire Cold War. However, now that relations between our two nations have improved substantially, I believe that it is time to resolve the mysteries surrounding this event. Clearing the air on this issue could help further to improve relations." Then, in June of 1992, Yeltsin revealed the existence of KGB memo reporting the existence of documents related to KAL 007. Speaking in Washington, he said, "It was a memorandum from (the) [[KGB]] to the Central Committee of the Communist Party where it says that such a tragedy has taken place, and so on and so forth, and that there are documents which would clarify the entire picture. And the next line then says these documents are so well concealed that it is doubtful that our children will be able to find them, those who come after us will be able to
find them." <ref>UPI, Washington, June 17, 1992</ref>. Yeltsin would ultimately respond on January 8, 1993 by handing over to the International Civil Aviation Organization what the Russians had for so many years denied possessing, the subject of Soviet Naval deception of the U.S. Seventh Fleet <ref>http://www.rescue007.org/ruse.htm</ref> - the vaunted and much sought after tapes of the KAL 007's "Black Box", the tapes from the Digital Flight Data Recorder and the Cockpit Voice Recorder <ref>http://www.rescue007.org/docs/Is%20This%20the%20Final%20Word.pdf</ref>. With the return of the tapes, Yeltsin would hand over the real-time Soviet military communications of the shootdown requested by Helms, reopening the question about the fate of KAL 007 and its passengers (See [[KAL 007: Timeline of Interception and Shootdown]] for the reconstruction of KAL 007's flight after the attack based on these military communications)

== Reference ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yeltsin, Boris}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category:Russian People]]
[[Category:Russian Political People]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rescue007.org/ The website of the International Committee for the Rescue of KAL 007 Survivors]

Vladimir Lenin

2008-12-14T18:21:01Z

SamY: /* References */ cat

[[Image:Khvhkgfiy.jpg|right|thumb|Lenin]]
'''Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, Lenin''' (Russian: Владимир Ильич Улянов, Ленин) (1870-1924) was the 1st Premier of the [[USSR]] which came into power after overthrowing the [[Tsar]] and setting up the world's first Communist regime.

==Revolution==

In November 1917, Lenin, the leader of the [[Communist Party]], led a [[Proletarian Revolution]] to overthrew the [[Provisional Government]] that had replaced the [[Russian Empire]] (His elder brother was hanged for the attempted assassination of [[Czar Alexander III]]).

Lenin was one of the most devious persons in all of history. He was a revolutionary, [[atheist]], and mass murderer. In 1889, he became a [[Marxist]] (as previously formulated by [[Karl Marx]]). He obtained a law degree shortly afterwards, and by 1895 was a [[subversion (political)|subversive]] who was arrested and sent to [[Siberia]] as punishment. Once he served his time he left for Western [[Europe]], where he developed his plans further and became a leader of the [[Bolsheviks]]. He returned to Russia after the [[tsar]] abdicated in March 1917, and led the Bolsheviks to power in the "[[October Revolution]]" (November in the Gregorian calendar) by overthrowing the government. (In the night of July 16-17, 1918, a squad of Bolshevik secret police murdered Russia's last emperor, Tsar Nicholas II, along with his wife, Tsaritsa Alexandra, their 14-year-old son, Tsarevich Alexis, and their four daughters.)<ref>[http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v14/v14n1p-4_Weber.html Assessing the Grim Legacy of Soviet Communism]</ref> He then ruled the [[Soviet Union]] under Marxism-Leninism, until 1922, when he retired due to ill health. Lenin's government was notable for placing a woman, Alexandra Kollontai, as Commissar of Social Welfare at a time when positions of authority routinely went to men. She resigned early the following year over a difference of opinion where she was in the minority, but continued to be active in Soviet politics.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/into.htm]</ref>. Lenin's government also denounced anti-Semitism by the old Russian government in a speech in March 1919 <ref>[http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/articleview/718/1/78]</ref>.

Lenin died in 1924 following a series of progressively more serious strokes.

Lenin used [[concentration camp]]s and "reeducation" to impose the atheistic ideology upon the population.

{{Cquote|A wide campaign of "education" was undertaken to show the people why "workers' rule" meant, in practice, [[Nomenklatura|managers]]' rule. Where necessary, the education by the word was supplemented with education by [[firing squad]] or [[concentration camp]] or forced labour battalion. <ref>James Burnham, ''The Managerial Revolution'', Indiana University Press, Bloomingham 1966.</ref> }}

The régime of [[Josef Stalin]], the next [[Premier]] of the USSR, continued the oppression of the masses initiated by Lenin.

== See also ==

*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Baldomero Ortoneda]]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich}}
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Mass Murderers]]
[[Category:Russian Political People]]
[[Category:Soviet Leaders]]

Mikhail Gorbachev

2008-12-14T18:20:09Z

SamY: cat

[[Image:03-026.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв), born March 2, 1931, was the last effective leader of the [[Soviet Union]]. Embarking on a new openness with the outside world not previously seen under Soviet rule, Gorbachev became quite popular in the West.

Born in the agricultural region of [[Stavropol]], Gorbachev attended [[Moscow]] University, where he studied law. In 1953 he married Raisa Titorenko, a fellow student. He returned to [[Stavropol]] and began to move gradually upward in the Communist Party. Following the death of Communist leader [[Konstantin Chernenko]] in 1985, Gorbachev was elected General Secretary.<ref>http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037405/Mikhail-Gorbachev</ref> As General Secretary, Gorbachev improved relations with the [[United States]] and embarked on an extensive mission of reforming the Communist Soviet Union. He succeeded in reforming it politically, economically, and socially under policies known as ''[[glasnost]]''("openness") and ''[[perestroika]]'' ("restructuring"). It is questioned to what extent he intended to bring about the wholesale changes that swept the Soviet Union and its satellites and how much events moved out of control.

After surviving the unsuccessful August Coup of 1991, and following subsequent referendums in the constituent Soviet republics seeking independence, Gorbachev was forced to resign office on December 25. The Soviet Union was dissolved the following day. Although still thought of fondly in the West, Gorbachev did not maintain his popularity at home. After his "retirement" he was forced to live on a pension that deteriorated quickly in value as the Russian currency collapsed in the post-Communist era. Gorbachev was awarded the 1990 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/ Nobel Peace Prize]</ref>

In 1992 Gorbachev founded The International Foundation for Socio-Economic and Political Studies (The Gorbachev Foundation), an independent think tank committed to "democratic values and moral, humanistic principles in the life of society".<ref>http://www.gorby.ru/en/rubrs.asp?rubr_id=302</ref> He is also the founding president and a board member of the environmental group Green Cross International.<ref>http://dev.gci.creativ-conseil.ch/joomy/</ref>

==Religious views==
Gorbachev, as Soviet president, campaigned for the establishment of [[freedom of religion]] laws in the Soviet Union, viewing the exercise of religious expression as a valuable source of societal cohesion. However, he remains a lifelong atheist.<ref>http://www.christianpost.com/article/20080324/31660_Gorbachev_Dispels_'Closet_Christian'_Rumors%3B_Says_He_is_Atheist.htm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.mikhailgorbachev.org/ Official website]
*[http://www.gorby.ru/en/default.asp The Gorbachev Foundation]
*[http://dev.gci.creativ-conseil.ch/joomy/ Green Cross International]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gorbachev, Mikhail}}
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Russian People]]
[[Category:Russian Political People]]
[[Category:Soviet Leaders]]

Vladimir Putin

2008-12-14T18:19:40Z

SamY: cat

[[Image:Vladtheimpaler.jpg|right|thumb|Vladimir Putin]]
'''Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin''' (''Russian'': Владимир Владимирович Путин) (born October 7, 1952) is the [[prime minister]] of the [[Russian Federation]] (since May 8, 2008). He previously was [[president]] of Russia, assuming that office as acting president on December 31, 1999, the day [[Boris Yeltsin]] resigned from the presidency. Putin was later elected president by approximately 52.94 percent of the Russian electorate on March 26, 2000. He is mainly backed by the [[United Russia]] (''Единая Россия'') party, which currently holds a majority in the lower chamber of the Russian parliament, known as the ''Duma''. The party usually reflects the political views of Putin, which are that of moderate conservatism and nationalism. On March 14, 2004, he was elected to a second term as president with 71 percent of the vote. Barred from a third term by the Russian constitution, Putin ceded the presidency to [[Dmitry Medvedev]] on May 7, 2008.

Putin was born in [[Leningrad]] on [[October]] 7, 1952 and was baptized as an Orthodox Christian and continue to be a member to this day. He was educated in law and economics at Leningrad State University before being assigned to work in the [[KGB]]. After five years in [[East Germany]], he took up various political positions before becoming [[prime minister]] in 1999.

Putin is seen as an antagonist to the West; his presidency has become increasingly authoritarian and opponents are murdered. It is certain that his military alliance with China, his rigged election system, nationalized oil, weapons sales to Iran Venezuala and the invasion of Georgia, are a real threat to a new Cold War. KGB Putin has complete control of Russia's future, as a [[dictator]] would. For example, on April 14, 2007, Russian riot police beat a number of protesters and journalists at an anti-Putin rally at Pushkin Square in [[Moscow]], <ref>''The Economist'', April 21, 2007</ref> and Putin rigged national elections for his party <ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/homepageCrisis/idUSL03585550._CH_.2400</ref> Despite these political trends, Putin remains popular in Russia<ref>http://www.levada.ru/prezident.html Putin's Approval Ratings</ref>. Since coming to power, Putin has expanded Russia's economy and reduced inflation. <ref>''Time Magazine'', February 26, 2007</ref> The majority of Russians are relatively uninterested in politics outside of issues affecting their personal prosperity. <ref>''The Economist'', April 21, 2007</ref> and journalist [[Anna Politkovskaya]] argued that the Russian people, as a whole, have been willing to tolerate violence in the name of "comfort and peace and quiet". <ref>Politkovskaya, Anna. Putin's Russia. London: Harvill Press, 2004</ref> Politkovskaya, an outspoken critic of Putin, was assassinated in 2006 <ref>http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article1819666.ece</ref>, and it is widely believed that the Russian government had some involvement in this death. There were 13 journalists killed in contract-style slayings during Vladimir Putin's eight-year presidency. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,438381,00.html Russian Lawyer in Slain Journalist Case Says She, Family Poisoned] AP, October 15, 2008</ref>

He is married to Lyudmila Putina since July 28, 1983 (former airline stewardess). They have two daughters.

== See also ==

*[[Communism]]
*[[New Economic Policy]]
*[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]

==References==
<references/>

==Links==
[http://www.kremlin.ru/articles/V_Putin.shtml Official Putin Biography]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Putin, Vladimir}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category:Russian People]]
[[Category:Russian Political People]]

Dmitry Medvedev

2008-12-14T18:19:17Z

SamY:

'''Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Дми́трий Анато́льевич Медве́дев) is the third president of [[Russia]], succeeding the current prime minister, [[Vladimir Putin]]. He was inaugurated on May 7, 2008, having won the March 2nd election with 70% of the vote. He is not a member of any political party, though he was endorsed by several.

{{stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Medvedev, Dmitry}}
[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category:Russian People]]
[[Category:Russian Political People]]

Category:Russian Political People

2008-12-14T18:19:09Z

SamY: New page: Category:Political People Category:Russian People

[[Category:Political People]]
[[Category:Russian People]]

New Democratic Party

2008-12-14T18:16:04Z

SamY: little bit long

The '''New Democratic Party''' or '''NDP''' is a [[democratic socialist]] [[Canadian]] political party. Its current leader is [[Jack Layton]]. It is noted for being the party of [[Tommy Douglas]]<ref>[http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/study_guide/roots/ccf2ndp.html NDP Party history]</ref>, founder of Canada's [[universal healthcare]] system and grandfather of Kiefer Sutherland, star of the television series ''[[24]]''<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000662/bio IMDB trivia and Bio page for Keifer Sutherland]</ref>. Said of Douglas "He pursued his radical ideas relentlessly until they became so mainstream rival politicians claimed them as their own". Douglas also criticized [[liberalism]]. <ref>[http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/parties_leaders/topics/851/ CBC historical archive on Tommy Douglas and the NDP.]</ref>

The NDP has traditionally been an opponent to both the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] and [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] as well as the separatist [[Bloc Québécois]].

[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

== References ==
<references/>

New Democratic Party

2008-12-14T18:14:09Z

SamY:

The '''New Democratic Party''' or '''NDP''' is a [[democratic socialist]] [[Canadian]] political party. Its current leader is [[Jack Layton]]. It is noted for being the party of [[Tommy Douglas]]<ref>[http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/study_guide/roots/ccf2ndp.html NDP Party history, tracing its roots from the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, which had to change its image as it was seen by some as nearly Communist.]</ref>, founder of Canada's [[universal healthcare]] system and grandfather of Kiefer Sutherland, star of the television series ''[[24]]''<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000662/bio IMDB trivia and Bio page for Keifer Sutherland]</ref>. Said of Douglas "He pursued his radical ideas relentlessly until they became so mainstream rival politicians claimed them as their own". Douglas also criticized [[liberalism]]. <ref>[http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/parties_leaders/topics/851/ CBC historical archive on Tommy Douglas and the NDP.]</ref>

The NDP has traditionally been an opponent to both the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] and [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] as well as the separatist [[Bloc Québécois]].

[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

== References ==
<references/>

Nintendo

2008-12-14T18:09:25Z

SamY: /* Nintendo Video game systems */

[[Image:765px-Nintendo svg.png|right|thumb|Nintendo logo.]]
'''Nintendo''' is commonly known as one of the major [[video game]] [[hardware]] and [[software]] manufacturers in the world.

==Origins==
Nintendo got its start in [[Japan]] in 1889, as a company manufacturing cards for [[Hanafuda]], a Japanese [[card game]]. In the 1960s, it diversified into a number of ultimately unsuccessful product lines, including a [[toy]] company. In the 1970s, it moved into electronic gaming, where it was ultimately successful.

In 1981, it created the popular arcade game "[[Donkey Kong]]", which brought it international attention, and introduced Nintendo to the [[United States|American]] market. Nintendo's products in the United States are released through Nintendo of America, their American subsidiary.

The word 'Nintendo' (任天堂株式会社) is said by the companies own sources to literally translate to 'leave luck to [[heaven]]'<ref>Touch Generations: [http://www.touchgenerations.com/enGB/discover_nintendo/what_nintendo_means.php What Nintendo Means]</ref>. The term has its origins in [[gambling]] done with Hanafuda cards.

==Nintendo Video game systems==
[[Image:Bible_adventures.jpg|right|190px|thumb|An unlicensed NES game cartridge.]]
*[[NES]] - Nintendo Entertainment System.
*[[Game Boy]] - A classic handheld games console.
*[[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] - Super Nintendo, a 16-bit console.
*[[Virtual Boy]] - A mobile system which utilised 2 screens to provide a 3D view.
*[[N64]] - [[Nintendo 64]], Nintendo's first 64bit console.
*[[GBC]] - Game Boy Color, evolution of the original with a color screen.
*[[GBA]] - Game Boy Advance, a 32bit handheld.
*[[GBA SP]]- Game Boy Advance SP, an upgraded version of the Game Boy Advance.
*[[Gamecube]] - Nintendo's entry to the 128bit console war with Sony's PS2 ([[Playstation2]]) & Microsoft [[Xbox]].
*[[DS]] - An innovative 64bit handheld.
*[[DS Lite]] - Nintendo DS Lite, an improved version of the original.
*[[Wii]] - Nintendo Wii, an innovative game console, and Nintendo's latest offering, with sales exceeding expectations against stiff competition between the [[Xbox 360]] & [[Playstation 3]].<ref>http://nexgenwars.com/</ref>

==Notable series of Videogames by Nintendo==

*[[Super Mario]]
*[[The Legend of Zelda]]
*[[Metroid]]
*[[Pokémon]]

== See also ==

*[[Japanese animation]]
*[[Sony]]

==References==

<references />

[[Category:Japanese Companies]]
[[Category:Nintendo]]

Canadian Alliance

2008-12-14T18:08:22Z

SamY:

'''The Canadian Alliance''' was a [[conservative]] [[Canadian]] political party. Formerly known as the Reform Party of Canada, the Canadian Alliance merged with the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservatives]] to become the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in December 2003.
[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

{{stub}}

Atlas Shrugged

2008-12-14T18:05:59Z

SamY: slight expansion

[[Image:Ghfut674.jpg|right|thumb]]

'''''Atlas Shrugged''''' is novel by [[Ayn Rand]], first published in 1957 in the [[United States of America|United States]]. It was partially an allegory to promote the author's philosophy of [[Objectivism]]. The plot concerns the crumbling of the United States economy due to [[collectivism]] and [[altruism]], which Rand considered detrimental to society, and the identity of John Galt, the mysterious protagonist of the story.

==Film Adaptation==
A film adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is in the works.

{{stub}}
[[category:Novels]]

Aar

2008-12-14T17:59:18Z

SamY: move template

'''Aar''' is a large [[Swiss]] river about 200 m. long, which falls into the [[Rhine]] as it leaves [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{Nuttall|Aar}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{stub}}
[[category:rivers]]
[[Category:Switzerland]]

Dmitry Medvedev

2008-12-14T17:55:50Z

SamY:

2008-12-14T16:35:07Z

SamY: /* Political Party Websites */ included Greens in major...which is possibly contentious, but it makes sense to me

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="300" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:Canada pol99.jpg|300px]]
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|''Canada''
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Flag
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|50px|]]
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Arms
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Canada arms.png|48px|]]
|-
|-
|Capital
|[[Ottawa]]
|-
|Government
|[[Parliamentary Democracy]]/[[Federal]] [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|-
|Monarch
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
|-
|Official Languages
|[[English]] and [[French]]
|-
|Governor General
|Her Excellency the Right Honourable [[Michaëlle Jean]]
|-
|Prime Minister
|The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]]
|-
|Area
|3,854,085 sq mi 9,984,670 km2
|-
|Population (2007 estimate)
|32,907,500
|-
|GDP (2007 estimate)
|$1.105 trillion
|-
|GDP per capita (2007 estimate)
|$35,133
|-
|}
'''Canada''' is the largest country in [[North America]], and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation. Canada borders the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>
==Etymology==
The name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, two Huron youths directed [[Jacques Cartier]] to "kanata", their village. The village they referred to was Stadacona, the future site of Quebec City.<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867, and kept until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the only legal name.

== History and the Constitution ==
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
Canada was officially created by the signing of the British North America Act, which came into force on July 1, 1867. The BNA Act was an [[Act of Parliament|Act of the British Parliament]], and is also referred to as the Constitution Act of 1867. The first Prime Minister, [[John A Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]], was a member of the Liberal-Conservative Party.
The BNA Act was later amended in 1982 by the Constitution Act of 1982. The Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], the Liberal Prime Minister of Canada at the time, also established the Canadian [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] as part of the Constitution Act. The Charter sets clear, fundamental freedoms for all Canadians. It has been cited in thousands of court challenges and is the fundamental legal document supporting the national legalization of same-sex marriages and the prevention of government intervention regarding abortion.

The Canadian national flag was officially adopted February 15, 1965; prior to that time and subsequent to Confederation in 1867, Canada used a variant of the Red Ensign, a British merchant flag, as its national flag. The Liberal government refused to hold a referendum on the subject; instead the public was invited to submit designs.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df3_e.cfm Birth of the Canadian Flag]</ref> The introduction of the new flag was not without controversy.

In a memo from Diefenbaker’s personal files he wrote:
<blockquote>The Pearson flag is a meaningless Flag. There is no recognition of history; no indication of the existence of French and English Canada; the partnership of the races; no acknowledgement of history. It is a flag without a past, without history, without honour and without pride.” (Source – I Stand for Canada: The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag ).<ref>[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/cultural/flag/national-flag-canada.html The Debate Over the Maple Leaf Flag]</ref></blockquote>

While the debate has been largely forgotten today, the Red Ensign can still be seen flying on some private homes and the debate does reemerge into the public domain occasionally. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070321.wxflag21/BNStory/National/ PM wants Red Ensign to fly at Vimy, sources say]</ref>

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada.

== Provinces and Territories ==
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A satellite image of Canada.]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government

== Government ==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of sentors appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governer General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The Governor General is, in the absence of the Queen, Canada's Head of State, and the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Forces]]. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, based on the British system.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].

== Present Day ==
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occured on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while Her Excellency [[Michaëlle Jean]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[minority government]].

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>

== Public Health Care ==
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for necessary surgeries depending on the nature of the surgery, and province of residence.{{fact}} The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

== Secession movements ==
There are separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Québec. The only movement of real significance is in Québec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

== Culture ==
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] cultures and traditions. In more modern times, Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by United States' culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, [[television]] shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world <ref>.http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as an official language, New Brunswick both French and English, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitu and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognises French and English.

Canada tends to reflect more liberal ideals than the United States. Two such examples are the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> and, in some regions, the decriminalization of medicinal [[marijuana]] and small amounts of other psychoactive substances.

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The next winter Olympics, to be held in 2010 will be held in Vancouver and Whistler.

==Religion==
For the total population, approximately 44% of the population of Canada is [[Catholicism|Catholic]], with a another 29% being [[Protestantism|Protestant]] (all denominations). However, while 16% of the total population has no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics), 20% of the population under 25 has declared no religion, congruent with the world-wide trend of increasing secularism in young demographics. <ref>Statistics Canada - Cat. No. 97F0022XCB2001002</ref> Other religions of significance in Canada include Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, and Buddhism.

== Taxation ==
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

==Cultural style==
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints -- even the (very strong) view that Quebec should declare independence and break up Canada.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures] </ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although the economy, society and culture closely resembles the U.S. , and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. (The main difference is the state-provided health care system.) Much of the anti-Americanism comes from exiles who left the U.S., for example in fleeing the draft during the Vietnam War (1965-72). Recent surges in oil prices have lifted the Canadian economy, and shifted power toward the oil-rich province of [[Alberta]].

== Education ==
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kidergarten beginning at age 5 through grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and separate (e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

The Canadian grading scale markedly differs from the grading scale in the United States. In the US, a 59% or below earns you an F, a 60% nets a D-, and 80% a B. However, in Canadian universities, only 49% or below is an R, 60% will net a C+, and 80% is an A-. <ref>http://www.federal-realestate.com/info-schools/mcgill-university.html</ref>. Marking in Canadian universities, however, tends to be lower with grades over 90% extremely rare in the humanities and social sciences, and higher entrance marks required for those entering from American high schools.

In some Canadian secondary schools, the mark F is absent and substituted by R. A ranges from 100%-80%, B from 79%-70%, C from 69%-60%, D from 59%-50% and R is any mark less than 50%. However, as education is under provincial jurisdiction marking varies regionally and it is difficult to make generalisations across the board.

This may vary from province to province; it is also important to note that comparison of educational achievement requires more than a cursory observation of grading scales. Perhaps a better source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, with Iceland at number one, Canada falls in at number four and the United States ranks at 12.

== Military ==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defence.

The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force, the Reserve Force, and the Special Force (when so in service). The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defence spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism & reconstruction operations, and another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces]

=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

===Political Advocacy Websites===
*[http://www.canadadivided.com/ Canada Divided]
*[http://www.projectalberta.com/ Project Alberta]
*[http://onthefencefilms.com/video/twowomen.html Two Women]
*[http://www.westcan.org/ Western Canada Concept]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]