Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Rovas Script Family

2012-08-07T07:27:12Z

Rovas: ins link

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Steppean Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Steppean Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Steppean Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Steppean_Rovas|Steppean Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continuously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, available in Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA19
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Family of the Rovas scripts in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info
* Rovaspedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Steppean Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

==Unicode proposals==
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2012-08-07T07:26:05Z

Rovas: ins link

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Steppean Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There are proposals for encoding the script:
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA107
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info
* Rovaspedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Carpathian_Basin_Rovas

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

2012-08-07T07:24:56Z

Rovas: ins link

The '''Szekely-Hungarian Rovas''' is a contemporary, albeit not an official writing system of the Hungarians ([[Magyar]]). It was developed about 800, and it was continuously used during the whole history of [[Hungary]].

The Szekely-Hungarian Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]] and one of the [[Hungarian scripts]].

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. The latest proposal and some contributions of the Hungarian Standard Body:

* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4007.pdf Revised proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 21, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4120.pdf Response to the Ad-hoc Report N4110 about the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, July 5, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4055.pdf Notes on the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 15, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4076.pdf Comments on encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 22, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4080.pdf Issues of encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 25, 2011

==References==

* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Szekely-Hungarian Rovas in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA177
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info
* Rovaspedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2012-08-07T07:22:34Z

Rovas: corr

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Steppean Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There are proposals for encoding the script:
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA107
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Khazarian Rovas

2012-08-07T07:21:44Z

Rovas: Redirecting to the presently used name of the script

#REDIRECT [[Steppean Rovas]]

Steppean Rovas

2012-08-07T07:21:09Z

Rovas: corr

The Steppean Rovas /rovaːʃ/ (other names: Khazarian Rovas, Volga-Don script, etc.) is an extinct script that was mainly used in the area of the Khazar Empire (from 6th century AD to 965) by the different constituent nations, in the Volga Bulgaria, and after the Settlement of Magyars (Hungarians) in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century by the Hungarians, Khavars (Khazar subjects rebelled against the Khazar Khagane and than joined the Hungarians) and other joined tribes.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> There are known relics mainly in Turkic including Common Turkic and Ogur, and in As or Alan.

Steppean Rovas is exclusively right-to-left; there is no casing and known numerals in the known relics. It belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], including the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]].

Some Steppean Rovas relics:
* Steppean Rovas relics from the Khazar Khaganate
** Steppean Rovas word on the Kievan letter
** Mayaki amphora inscription in Ogur
** The Stanitsa Krivyanskoe clay flask inscription in Preossetic (As/Alan)
** Mayatskoe Gorodishche large building inscription
* Steppean Rovas relics from the Carpathian Basin
** Alsószentmihály inscription
** Homokmégy-Halom inscription
* Steppean Rovas relics from Central Asia
** The Achiktash inscription from the Talas valley in old Bashkir
** Spindle disk of Minusinsk
* Steppean Rovas relic from the Volga Bulgaria
** Pottery of Bilyar

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. Its latest proposal (it uses the "Khazarian Rovas" term):

* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Khazarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21st, 2011, revised: May 19th, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3999, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3999.pdf

== References ==

* Dienes, István (1972): A honfoglaló magyarok [Hungarians of the Landtaking Period]. Budapest.
* Dienes, István (1992): A Kalocsa környéki rovásemlékről. [About the Rovas relic from the vicinity of Kalocsa], pp. 31–40. In: Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas scripting in the Carpathian Basin]. In series: Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics. ISBN 963 481 885 4
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA144
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info
* Rovaspedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Steppean_Rovas

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Rovas Script Family

2012-08-07T07:16:23Z

Rovas: update

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Steppean Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Steppean Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Steppean Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Steppean_Rovas|Steppean Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continuously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, available in Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA19
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Family of the Rovas scripts in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Steppean Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

==Unicode proposals==
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Rovas Script Family

2012-02-08T06:41:59Z

Rovas: /* Notes */

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Khazarian Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Khazarian Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Khazarian Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Khazarian_Rovas|Khazarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, available in Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA19
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Family of the Rovas scripts in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Khazarian Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

==Unicode proposals==
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

2012-02-08T06:40:14Z

Rovas: /* Unicode */ ins ref

The '''Szekely-Hungarian Rovas''' is a contemporary, albeit not an official writing system of the Hungarians ([[Magyar]]). It was developed about 800, and it was continuously used during the whole history of [[Hungary]].

The Szekely-Hungarian Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]] and one of the [[Hungarian scripts]].

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. The latest proposal and some contributions of the Hungarian Standard Body:

* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4007.pdf Revised proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 21, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4120.pdf Response to the Ad-hoc Report N4110 about the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, July 5, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4055.pdf Notes on the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 15, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4076.pdf Comments on encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 22, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4080.pdf Issues of encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 25, 2011

==References==

* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Szekely-Hungarian Rovas in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA177
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Khazarian Rovas

2012-02-08T06:39:06Z

Rovas: /* Unicode */ ins ref

The Khazarian Rovas /qasarɪən rovaːʃ/ is an extinct script that was mainly used in the area of the Khazar Empire (from 6th century AD to 965) by the different constituent nations and after the Settlement of Magyars (Hungarians) in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century by the Hungarians, Khavars (Khazar subjects rebelled against the Khazar Khagane and than joined the Hungarians) and other joined tribes.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> There are known relics mainly in Turkic including Common Turkic and Ogur, and in As or Alan.

Khazarian Rovas is exclusively right-to-left; there is no casing and known numerals in the known relics. It belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], including the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]].

Some Khazarian Rovas relics:
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Khazar Khaganate
** Khazarian Rovas word on the Kievan letter
** Mayaki amphora inscription in Ogur
** The Stanitsa Krivyanskoe clay flask inscription in Preossetic (As/Alan)
** Mayatskoe Gorodishche large building inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Carpathian Basin
** Alsószentmihály inscription
** Homokmégy-Halom inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from Central Asia
** The Achiktash inscription from the Talas valley in old Bashkir
** Spindle disk of Minusinsk
* Khazarian Rovas relic from the Volga Bulgaria
** Pottery of Bilyar

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. Its latest proposal:

* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Khazarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21st, 2011, revised: May 19th, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3999, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3999.pdf

== References ==

* Dienes, István (1972): A honfoglaló magyarok [Hungarians of the Landtaking Period]. Budapest.
* Dienes, István (1992): A Kalocsa környéki rovásemlékről. [About the Rovas relic from the vicinity of Kalocsa], pp. 31–40. In: Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas scripting in the Carpathian Basin]. In series: Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics. ISBN 963 481 885 4
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA144
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2012-02-08T06:37:15Z

Rovas: /* Unicode */

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There are proposals for encoding the script:
* Dr. Gábor Hosszú (Hungarian Standards Institute):[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4227.pdf Code chart font for Rovas block], National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2012-02-06
* Dr. Hosszú, Gábor (Hungarian Standards Institute) [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4183.pdf Proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas, Carpathian Basin Rovas and Khazarian Rovas scripts into the Rovas block in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2011. December 15
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA107
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szarvas Rovas inscription

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Rovas: /* References */ ins ref

On 27 April 1983, I. Juhász, archaeologist of the Szarvas Museum discovered a bone needle case near the town of Szarvas (Hungary).<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), 34.</ref> On the needle case, there is a magical inscription from the second half of the 8th century, the Late Avar Period (700-791). A. Róna-Tas, Cs. Bálint,<ref>Bálint Csanád (2003): Nagyszentmiklósi kincs, 2003. In: Hungarian Virtual Encyclopedia, Published by the Research Institute of Philosophy Hungarian Academy of Sciences</ref> and I. Vásáry<ref>Vásáry István (2003): A régi Belső-Ázsia története. Szerk.: Ildikó Bende, sor. szerk.: István Zimonyi. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó</ref> stated that the alphabet of the bone needle case of Szarvas is identical to the characters of the golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós (which was found about 100 km from Szarvas, as Róna-Tas noted).<ref>Róna-Tas András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép. Bevezetés a korai magyar történelem ismeretébe. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4</ref>

Archaeologist Gábor Vékony deciphered it first.<ref>Vékony Gábor (1985): Késő népvándorláskori rovásfeliratok. In: Életünk Vol. XXII. No. 1, 71-84.</ref> The inscription was written with [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas]].

== References ==
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, available in Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA124
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Rovas Script Family

2012-01-03T17:26:45Z

Rovas: /* References */ ins ref

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Khazarian Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Khazarian Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Khazarian Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Khazarian_Rovas|Khazarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, available in Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA19
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Family of the Rovas scripts in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Khazarian Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions

2012-01-03T17:25:22Z

Rovas: /* References */ ins ref

The Golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós is a tableware collection of 23 gold pieces found in Nagyszentmiklós, Torontál County, Hungary (currently Sânnicolau Mare, [[Romania]]) in 3 July 1799.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139</ref> The treasure is unique in the region; the total weight is 10 kg. Its style cannot be connected to any great cultural centre; most possibly, it is a local product.<ref>Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation</ref> It has several Rovas inscriptions. Archaeologist Gábor Vékony deciphered them first.<ref>Vékony Gábor (1985): Késő népvándorláskori rovásfeliratok. In: Életünk Vol. XXII. No. 1, 71-84.</ref> The inscription was written with [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas]].

== References ==
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bálint, Csanád (2004): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós], Budapest: MTA Institute
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA127
* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Németh, J. (1932): Die Inschriften des Schatzes von Nagy-Szent-Miklós von J. Németh. Bibliotheca Orientais Hungarica II., Mit Unterstützung der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Budapest: Kőrösi Csoma-Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1932.
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

2012-01-03T17:22:50Z

Rovas: /* References */ ins ref

The '''Szekely-Hungarian Rovas''' is a contemporary, albeit not an official writing system of the Hungarians ([[Magyar]]). It was developed about 800, and it was continuously used during the whole history of [[Hungary]].

The Szekely-Hungarian Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]] and one of the [[Hungarian scripts]].

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. The latest proposal and some contributions of the Hungarian Standard Body:

* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4007.pdf Revised proposal for encoding the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 21, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4120.pdf Response to the Ad-hoc Report N4110 about the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, July 5, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4055.pdf Notes on the Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 15, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4076.pdf Comments on encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 22, 2011
* G. Hosszú: [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4080.pdf Issues of encoding the Rovas scripts]. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, May 25, 2011

==References==

* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Szekely-Hungarian Rovas in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA177
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Hungary

2012-01-03T17:20:48Z

Rovas: /* Principal Government Officials */ Update

{{Country
|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

In Hungary, the official [[orthography]] is the [[Hungarian#Orthography|Latin-based Hungarian alphabet]], albeit, the earlier [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] are also used sporadically.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: Pál Schmidt
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]
*[[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
*[[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26566.htm]}}}.
|}

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2012-01-03T17:19:27Z

Rovas: /* References */ Update

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA107
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Khazarian Rovas

2012-01-03T17:16:47Z

Rovas: /* References */ update

The Khazarian Rovas /qasarɪən rovaːʃ/ is an extinct script that was mainly used in the area of the Khazar Empire (from 6th century AD to 965) by the different constituent nations and after the Settlement of Magyars (Hungarians) in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century by the Hungarians, Khavars (Khazar subjects rebelled against the Khazar Khagane and than joined the Hungarians) and other joined tribes.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> There are known relics mainly in Turkic including Common Turkic and Ogur, and in As or Alan.

Khazarian Rovas is exclusively right-to-left; there is no casing and known numerals in the known relics. It belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], including the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]].

Some Khazarian Rovas relics:
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Khazar Khaganate
** Khazarian Rovas word on the Kievan letter
** Mayaki amphora inscription in Ogur
** The Stanitsa Krivyanskoe clay flask inscription in Preossetic (As/Alan)
** Mayatskoe Gorodishche large building inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Carpathian Basin
** Alsószentmihály inscription
** Homokmégy-Halom inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from Central Asia
** The Achiktash inscription from the Talas valley in old Bashkir
** Spindle disk of Minusinsk
* Khazarian Rovas relic from the Volga Bulgaria
** Pottery of Bilyar

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. Its latest proposal:

* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Khazarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21st, 2011, revised: May 19th, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3999, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3999.pdf

== References ==

* Dienes, István (1972): A honfoglaló magyarok [Hungarians of the Landtaking Period]. Budapest.
* Dienes, István (1992): A Kalocsa környéki rovásemlékről. [About the Rovas relic from the vicinity of Kalocsa], pp. 31–40. In: Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas scripting in the Carpathian Basin]. In series: Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics. ISBN 963 481 885 4
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1
* Gábor Hosszú (2011): ''Heritage of Scribes. The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems.'' First edition. Budapest: Rovas Foundation, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6, fully available from Google Books at http://books.google.hu/books?id=TyK8azCqC34C&pg=PA144
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Rovas Script Family

2011-10-06T04:27:56Z

Rovas: /* References */ inserting link

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Khazarian Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Khazarian Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Khazarian Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Khazarian_Rovas|Khazarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Family of the Rovas scripts in the RovasPedia: http://wiki.rovas.info/index.php/Rovas_Script_Family
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Khazarian Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

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Rovas: Inserting link

Magyars

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Rovas: /* Orthography */ correction

The '''Magyar''' peoples are a [[Hungarian]]-speaking group that migrated into what is now [[Hungary]] around the year 896AD.
[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]

The group's remote ancestors, who spoke languages belonging to the Eastern (Ugric) branch of the Finno-Ugric language family, lived on the middle Volga River and its eastern tributaries. They moved east around 500 BC, where they encountered the more warlike and culturally more advanced Turkish groups. The two groups merged, speaking Ugric, with the addition of many Turkic words, and using Turkic grammatical structure. They were typical nomadic steppe dwellers.

==To Hungary==
Around 500 AD the Magyars moved from Asia to the steppes north of the Caucasus mountains, where they remained about 400 years. The false notion is widely held that they were part of Attila's Huns.

They were nomadic horsemen who moved into the grassy plain within the curve of the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe now called [[Hungary]] in 896 AD, under Prince Árpád. This area became Hungary, and the language became modern Hungarian.

Over the next 60 or so years they raided into [[Germany]], north and central [[France]] and [[Italy]]. Their superior horsemanship proved unbeatable on the plains, but they were vulnerable in the mountains or when returning home with their booty, a fact not lost on their victims who began attacking them on mountain passes and at river crossings. In 933 they were defeated by Germans under Henry the Fowler, and in 955 they were finally defeated by the German [[Otto I]] at the battle of Lechfield. Their leaders were killed and they settled back into their plains.

The Magyar Duke Géza (r. 972-997) began to convert his people to Christianity; the task was finished by Géza's son and successor, St. Stephen (r. 997-1038), who also received a royal crown from Pope Sylvester (1000). Stephen enacted a body of laws, and gave Hungary the unified political structure it was to retain in one form or another from his time on.

==Social structure==
The Magyars at first formed a caste of free men ruling over both the slaves they had brought with them as well as local tribes in Hungary. After a few hundred years there emerged a large unfree Magyar class comprising by 1500 about 75% of the total Magyar population. The ruling elite had a policy of admitting Germans and other outsiders to the Magyar nobility on condition they adopt the Magyar language and culture. Thus Hungary was to be essentially Magyar in terms of ethnicity and culture. Wars with the Ottoman Empire led to much migration and resettlement of depopulated areas. By 1800 the Magyars comprised just under half of the total population in Hungary; they were a majority only in the central plains. Hungary was politically united with Austria in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Hungarians were in full control in Hungary, just as Germans were elsewhere in the Empire. Nationalistic movements among the minority groups were recognized when the Empire was broken up in 1918-1919, but about a fourth of the Magyar-speakers were left outside Hungary. In the 21st century there are still large Magyar-speaking minorities in the neighboring states. At the end of the 19th century, agrarian depression had caused a large-scale emigration of Magyars to the United States; they moved to industrial centers and have become assimilated into the larger Catholic population. There have been smaller migrations, political in character, in 1945-1946 fleeing the Soviets, and again after the failed 1956 revolution.

==Orthography==
The official [[Hungarian#Orthography|orthography of Hungary]] is the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet. However, there are further scripts, namely the Rovas orthographies: the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]. There scripts are part of the cultural heritage of Hungary and sporadically they are in use as well.

==Nationalism==
Historian Hans Kohn contrasted the liberal, democratic, and political nationalism of the West and the aristocratic, authoritarian, backward, and ethnic nationalism of Eastern Europe. Deme (1992) argues that Magyar nationalism belongs in the former category rather than the latter. The historical development of nationalism in Hungary centers around writings of Sándor Bessenyei (1747-1811), who focused on both political liberty and cultural nationalism, and Count István Széchenyi, the leading statesman of Hungary in the 1830s, who tried to transform Hungary into a modern constitutional state and establish institutions to support Magyar nationalism.<ref> Laszlo Deme, "Pre-1848 Magyar Nationalism Revisited: Ethnic and Authoritarian or Political and Progressive?" ''East European Quarterly'' 1992 27(2): 141-169. </ref>

== See also ==

*[[History of Hungary]]

==Further reading==
* Deme, Laszlo. "Writers and Essayists and the Rise of Magyar Nationalism in the 1820s and 1830s". ''Slavic Review'' 1984 43(4): 624-640.
* Vermes, Gabor. ''István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist.'' (1986). 627 pp.
==References==
<references/>
[[category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:Medieval History]]
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Hungary]]
[[Category:European History]]

History of Hungary

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The '''History of Hungary''' covers the period from 1000 to the present.

[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]
The Magyar peoples migrated to the Danube basin from the east around 900AD. [[Hungary]] was united as a nation in 1001 under King Saint Stephen I.

It fell under Ottoman rule in the sixteenth century, and subsequently became part of the [[Habsburg]] [[Austrian Empire]]. In 1848-49 the Hungarian people rebelled against the Austrians to gain independence, a movement led by [[Lajos Kossuth]] (1802-1894), but the rebellion was crushed with Russian aid. The creation of the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867 gave Hungary a measure of equality with Austria within the empire. Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the First World War, Hungary became an independent state. However, the Treaty of Trianon stripped Hungary of much of its territory and population. [[Slovakia]] and [[Ruthenia]] went to the new state of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Transylvania]] and [[Partium]] to [[Romania]] and the area around Novi Sad to [[Yugoslavia]]. A small area on the western border was ceded to [[Austria]]. In the 1920s around one-third of the Magyar people lived outside the new boundaries of Hungary.
==Early modern==
[[File:Entry into Jerusalem Hajdudorog.jpg|thumb|Greek Catholic icon depicting scene of Jesus' entry into [[Jerusalem]], that is celebrated on [[Palm Sunday]]. The icon was painted in the end of the 18th century as part of the iconostasis of the Greek Catholic Cathedral of Hajdúdorog.]]
The [[Counter Reformation]] brought limited toleration of non-Catholic religions in 1681, accompanied by intensive re-Catholicization, and attempts to reunite the Christian churches under Catholic leadership. Lutheran church communities in the kingdom of Hungary, which included Slovakia, had to seek foreign authorities, in the form of German universities, to deal with frequent internal conflicts. The growth of Protestantism ended and Catholicism became the dominant religion.

==19th century==
[[File:Budapest Parliament Hungary.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Parliament, Budapest.]]
Hungary's parliamentary oligarchy of noble landowners consisted of the magnates, with life memberships in the Upper House, and the gentry, whose more affluent minority dominated the Lower House and, after 1830, parliamentary life. The tension between "crown" (the German-speaking [[Habsburgs]] in Vienna) and "country" remained a constant political fixture as the Compromise of 1867 enabled the Magyar nobility to run the country but left the Emperor with much leverage in maintaining governments. A complex interaction or conflict between magnates and gentry appeared regarding agricultural protection against cheap imports (1870s), the Church-state problem (1890s), and the "constitutional crisis" (1900s). Though gentry politicians exerted leadership during much of the period, they gradually lost their footing in the counties and derived power increasingly from office-holding rather than landownership. Leaning on the state apparatus for support, they came to depend on the dualist status quo.<Ref> László Péter, "The Aristocracy, the Gentry and their Parliamentary Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Hungary." ''Slavonic and East European Review'' 1992 70(1): 77-110. </Ref>

The need for education in the Magyar language united Catholic and Protestant Hungarians against continued instruction in Latin. In the 1832-36 Diet the conflict between Catholic laymen and clergy sharpened considerably and a mixed commission was established, the findings of which offered the Protestants certain limited concessions. The basic issue of this religious and educational struggle was how to promote the Magyar tongue and Magyar mationalism and independence from Austria.
===1848===
The failed revolution of 1848 was an uprising against the Habsburgs. It failed because of the intervention of the [[History_of_Russia|Russian Tzar Nicholas I]]. In the end the Habsburgs easily restored their domination in East Central Europe.

==1914 to 1939==

== World War II ==
Hungary sought revision of these treaty losses and allied itself (under the autocratic regent, Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]] (1868-1957)) with [[Germany]]. In the 1939 carve-up of Czechoslovakia, Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and Ruthenia. In 1940 Hitler forced [[Romania]] to return northern Transylvania to Hungarian rule, and Hungary also regained territory from Yugoslavia following Germany's conquest of that country in 1941. As a quid pro quo, Hungarian troops fought with the Germans on the Eastern Front, and as the Germans retreated in 1944 and 1945 Hungary came under Soviet occupation; it was also stripped of all its gains between 1939 and 1945.

== Communist Control ==
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|Statue of Endre Ságvári, Hungarian communist activist in Makó.]]
Under Soviet protection, the Hungarian communists, led by Mátyás Rákosi (1892-1971) were able to seize control of the state by 'salami tactics' (picking off adversaries one by one). Once in power, Rákosi was a fierce Stalinist, even by the standards of the Soviet bloc; he was removed from office and exiled to the Soviet Union under Soviet pressure following the denouncing of Stalin by [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1956.

In October 1956 a small student demonstration exploded into a [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|major uprising]] against the Communist Party which rapidly spread throughout the whole country. The new party leader, [[Imre Nagy]] (1896-1958) agreed to a number of popular demands, including the disbanding of the hated secret police, the ÁVH, and he further announced that Hungary would withdraw from the [[Warsaw Pact]]. This prompted a massive Soviet invasion on 4 November 1956 which, despite fierce resistance, crushed the rebellion by 10 December. Many thousands were executed including (in 1958) Nagy himself.

== The Fall of Communism ==

Nagy was replaced as leader by János Kádár (1912-1989) who instituted 'Goulash Communism': strict political control coupled with more liberal economic and cultural policies. In the short term this led to improved living standards for the Hungarian people: in material terms they, and the East Germans, were the most prosperous nations in the eastern bloc. It also created a readiness to take advantage of the relaxations of ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'' being advocated in the 1980s Soviet Union. In 1989 the Hungarian government opened its border with Austria. This led to a flood of refugees from [[East Germany]] and thus ultimately to the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the reunification of [[Germany]], and the domino-like collapse of Communist regimes across the Soviet bloc. Democratic elections were first held in 1990.

Hungary joined [[NATO]] in 1999 and the [[European Union]] in 2004. It has been hard-hit by the world-wide [[Recession of 2008]].

== See also ==

*[[Magyar]]
*[[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
*[[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

==Further reading==
* Frucht, Richard. ''Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106917725 online edition]
* Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. ''A History of Modern Hungary, 1867-1994'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27024260 online edition]
* Hanak, Peter et al. ''A History of Hungary'' (1994)
* Kontler, Laszlo. ''A History of Hungary'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Hungary-Laszlo-Kontler/dp/1403903174/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. ''A Concise History of Hungary'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Hungary-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521667364/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

====References====
<references/>

[[category:European History]]
[[category:Medieval History]]
[[category:Central Europe]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hungary, History}}

Hungary

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Rovas: /* People */ ins link

{{Country
|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

In Hungary, the official orthography is the [[Hungarian#Orthography|Latin-based Hungarian alphabet]], albeit, the earlier [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] are also used sporadically.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: László Sólyom
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]
*[[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
*[[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
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|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
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|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26566.htm]}}}.
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[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Hungary

2011-07-07T15:57:28Z

Rovas: Extending

{{Country
|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

In Hungary, the official orthography is the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet, albeit, the earlier [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] are also used sporadically.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: László Sólyom
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]
*[[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
*[[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
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|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26566.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions

2011-07-07T15:51:35Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cats

The Golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós is a tableware collection of 23 gold pieces found in Nagyszentmiklós, Torontál County, Hungary (currently Sânnicolau Mare, [[Romania]]) in 3 July 1799.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139</ref> The treasure is unique in the region; the total weight is 10 kg. Its style cannot be connected to any great cultural centre; most possibly, it is a local product.<ref>Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation</ref> It has several Rovas inscriptions. Archaeologist Gábor Vékony deciphered them first.<ref>Vékony Gábor (1985): Késő népvándorláskori rovásfeliratok. In: Életünk Vol. XXII. No. 1, 71-84.</ref> The inscription was written with [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas]].

== References ==
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bálint, Csanád (2004): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós], Budapest: MTA Institute
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Németh, J. (1932): Die Inschriften des Schatzes von Nagy-Szent-Miklós von J. Németh. Bibliotheca Orientais Hungarica II., Mit Unterstützung der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Budapest: Kőrösi Csoma-Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1932.
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szarvas Rovas inscription

2011-07-07T15:51:21Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cats

On 27 April 1983, I. Juhász, archaeologist of the Szarvas Museum discovered a bone needle case near the town of Szarvas (Hungary).<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), 34.</ref> On the needle case, there is a magical inscription from the second half of the 8th century, the Late Avar Period (700-791). A. Róna-Tas, Cs. Bálint,<ref>Bálint Csanád (2003): Nagyszentmiklósi kincs, 2003. In: Hungarian Virtual Encyclopedia, Published by the Research Institute of Philosophy Hungarian Academy of Sciences</ref> and I. Vásáry<ref>Vásáry István (2003): A régi Belső-Ázsia története. Szerk.: Ildikó Bende, sor. szerk.: István Zimonyi. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó</ref> stated that the alphabet of the bone needle case of Szarvas is identical to the characters of the golden Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós (which was found about 100 km from Szarvas, as Róna-Tas noted).<ref>Róna-Tas András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép. Bevezetés a korai magyar történelem ismeretébe. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4</ref>

Archaeologist Gábor Vékony deciphered it first.<ref>Vékony Gábor (1985): Késő népvándorláskori rovásfeliratok. In: Életünk Vol. XXII. No. 1, 71-84.</ref> The inscription was written with [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas]].

== References ==
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-07T15:51:05Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ order

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Rovas Script Family

2011-07-07T15:50:21Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cat

There are at least three known scripts which were used by Hungarians during their history.<ref>Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6</ref> Their scripts are called Rovas Scripts. The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian Gábor Vékony.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and [[Khazarian Rovas]] inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> The close relation of Carpathian Basin Rovas to [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] has been shown by Gyula Németh in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref> Moreover, according to the archaeologist-historian István Erdélyi the Khazarian Rovas is related to Carpathian Basin Rovas and Szekely-Hungarian Rovas.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

==The members of Rovas Script Family==
Each of these scripts are described in details in their appropriate articles. In this section, only some general, comprehensive features and comparisons should be presented.

In the middle of the [[20th century]], the scholars believed that this is a medieval writing system derived from the [[Old Turkic script]] used to write [[Old Hungarian|the medieval version of the Hungarian language]].<ref>In Hungary, the Old Hungarian period of the Hungarian language is not considered as a quasi-individual language, since the difference is small between the current Hungarian and the medieval Hungarian</ref><ref>Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44</ref> However, in the last decades of the [[20th century]], several new Rovas relics were explored by the archaeologists.<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó</ref> Based on these, the Hungarian scholars were able to decipher some inscriptions, including the Rovas scripts of the Nagyszentmiklós Golden Treasure and the newly explored Szarvas relic.<ref>Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35, p. 34</ref><ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Acheologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, pp. 211-256</ref> Based on these, the view of the Rovas scripts significantly changed.

== Opinions of scholars ==

A number of officially acknowledges researchers have already agreed in the strong relation of the '''Rovas scripts'''. Some of them are the followings:

* The archaeologist-historian '''István Erdélyi''' (doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) showed that the Khazarian Rovas is related to CBR and SHR.<ref>Erdélyi, István (1982): Az avarság és Kelet a régészeti források tükrében [The Avars and the East in the mirror of the archaeological sources]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó [Publisher of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], ISBN 963 05 2705 7</ref>

* The close relation of CBR to SHR has been shown by linguist '''Gyula Németh''' in 1932.<ref>Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language]. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65-85 and 129-139</ref>

* '''András Róna-Tas''' Turkologist (member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences): According to him, the Bodrog-Alsóbű Szekely-Hungarian Rovas relic is an important chain between the [[Rovas_Script_Family|East-European scripts]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas|Szekely script]].<ref>Magyar Kálmán (2001): Szent István államszervezésének régészeti emlékei, Kaposvár-Segesd: Local Government of Segesd</ref>

* '''Klára Sándor''' linguist (PhD)<ref>Sándor Klára (1992a, ed.), Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében. Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics</ref>

* The comprehensive view of the Rovas alphabets was introduced first at the end of the twentieth century by the archaeologist-historian '''Gábor Vékony''' (1944-2004, PhD, Assoc. Prof. of the Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest: Életünk szerkesztősége. ISBN: 978-963-025-132-7</ref> He gave transcriptions of CBR and KR inscriptions by using Rovas alphabets cognate to each other.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely írás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Budapest: Nap Kiadó. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref>

===[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas|Carpathian Basin Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the last third of the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Original use between the 8th century and the 11th century
** Revitalized in 2009

===[[Khazarian_Rovas|Khazarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from the 7th century.
* Periods of use:
** Between the 8th century and the 11th or 13th century

===[[Szekely-Hungarian_Rovas|Szekely-Hungarian Rovas script]]===
* Its first relic is from around 900.
* Period of use:
** Used continously from the 8th or 9th century.
** Popular contemporary writing as alternative for latin based script

== References ==

* Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3
* Juhász, Irén (1983): Ein Avarenzeitlicher Nadelbehälter mit Kerbschrift aus Szarvas. In: Acta Acheologica 35 (1983), p. 34
* Juhász, Irén (1985): A szarvasi avar rovásírásos tűtartó [The Avar need-case of Szarvas with Rovas script]. Magyar Tudomány [Journal of the Hungarian Science], 85:2, pp. 92-95
* Németh, Gyula (1917-1920): A régi magyar írás eredete [The origin of the ancient Hungarian script]. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények, vol. XLV, pp. 31–44
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. In: Acta Archeologica Hungarica. Vol. 39, 211-256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: * Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

See detailed references on pages of [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]], [[Khazarian Rovas]], [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

2011-07-07T15:49:55Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cat

Khazarian Rovas

2011-07-07T15:49:38Z

Rovas: ins cat

The Khazarian Rovas /qasarɪən rovaːʃ/ is an extinct script that was mainly used in the area of the Khazar Empire (from 6th century AD to 965) by the different constituent nations and after the Settlement of Magyars (Hungarians) in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century by the Hungarians, Khavars (Khazar subjects rebelled against the Khazar Khagane and than joined the Hungarians) and other joined tribes.<ref>Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1</ref> There are known relics mainly in Turkic including Common Turkic and Ogur, and in As or Alan.

Khazarian Rovas is exclusively right-to-left; there is no casing and known numerals in the known relics. It belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], including the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]] and the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]].

Some Khazarian Rovas relics:
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Khazar Khaganate
** Khazarian Rovas word on the Kievan letter
** Mayaki amphora inscription in Ogur
** The Stanitsa Krivyanskoe clay flask inscription in Preossetic (As/Alan)
** Mayatskoe Gorodishche large building inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from the Carpathian Basin
** Alsószentmihály inscription
** Homokmégy-Halom inscription
* Khazarian Rovas relics from Central Asia
** The Achiktash inscription from the Talas valley in old Bashkir
** Spindle disk of Minusinsk
* Khazarian Rovas relic from the Volga Bulgaria
** Pottery of Bilyar

==Unicode==

This script is not yet in the Unicode. Its latest proposal:

* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Khazarian Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21st, 2011, revised: May 19th, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3999, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3999.pdf

== References ==

* Dienes, István (1972): A honfoglaló magyarok [Hungarians of the Landtaking Period]. Budapest.
* Dienes, István (1992): A Kalocsa környéki rovásemlékről. [About the Rovas relic from the vicinity of Kalocsa], pp. 31–40. In: Rovásírás a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas scripting in the Carpathian Basin]. In series: Library of the Hungarian Ancient History 4. Szeged: József Attila University of Sciences, Department of Altayistics. ISBN 963 481 885 4
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Vékony, Gábor (2004): A székely rovásírás emlékei, kapcsolatai, története [The Relics, Relations and the History of the Szekely Script]. Publisher: Nap Kiadó, Budapest. ISBN 963 9402 45 1
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]][[Category:Rovas scripts]]

Category:Rovas Scripts

2011-07-07T15:48:21Z

Rovas: ins descr

A category for the Rovas writing systems.

[[Category:Alphabets]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-07T15:47:17Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cat

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Rovas scripts]][[Category:Alphabets]]

Hungary

2011-07-07T15:45:10Z

Rovas: /* See also */ ins links

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|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: László Sólyom
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]
*[[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
*[[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26566.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Hungarian

2011-07-07T15:44:51Z

Rovas: /* Orthography */ extend

The Hungarian language is member of the [[Finno-Ugric]] branch of languages; however, the set of the basic Hungarian words contains more than 300 Turkic words.

The Hungarian language is spoken by 10 million people in [[Hungary]] and about 5-6 million people outside of [[Hungary]].

==Linguistic periods of the Hungarian language==
The Hungarian linguistics uses the following system:<ref>Kiss, Jenő and Pusztai, Ferenc (2003, ed.): Magyar Nyelvtörténet [Hungarian Language History], Budapest: Osiris Kiadó</ref>
*'''Ancient Hungarian Period''' (1000 BC-896)
*'''Old Hungarian Period''' (896-1526)
*'''Middle Hungarian Period''' (1526-1772)
*'''New Hungarian Period''' (1772-1920)
*'''Latest Hungarian Period''' (1920-present-day)

==Orthography==

The official script is the Hungarian Latin based script, it is shortly called as '''Hungarian alphabet''' or '''Hungarian orthography'''. Its earlier version is called '''Old Hungarian orthography'''. The Old Hungarian orthography was in use up to 1832.

Moreover, there are two historical scripts, which are used for presenting the Hungarian language:
* [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
* [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

==References==
*Benkő, Loránd (1991, editor-in-chief): A magyar nyelv történeti nyelvtana. A korai ómagyar kor és előzményei [The historical grammar of the Hungarian language. The early Old Hungarian period and its preliminaries]. Vol. I. Editors: Erzsébet E. Abaffy and Endre Rácz. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
*Benkő, Loránd (1998): Név és történelem. Tanulmányok az Árpád-korról [Name and history. Studies about the Arpadian age]. Budapest.
*Benkő, Loránd (1999): A székely nemzetségnevek történetéhez [To the history of the Szekely clan names]. In: Emlékkönyv Imreh István születésének nyolcvanadik évfordulójára [Album for the 80th birthday of István Imreh]. Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, Kolozsvár, pp. 47-58.
*Benkő, Loránd (2001): Észrevételek Erdély déli részeinek korai Árpád-kori történetéhez [Observations to the history of the south parts of Transylvania in the early Arpadian age]. In: Erdély a keresztény Magyar Királyságban [Transylvania in the Christian Hungarian Kingdom]. Ser. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek [Scientific Booklets of Transylvania] No. 231. Ser. ed.: Gyula Dávid. ISBN 973 8231 05 1, Kolozsvár, pp. 7-68.
*Benkő, Loránd (2002): Az ómagyar nyelv tanúságtétele [Testimony of the Ancient Hungarian language]. Perújítás Dél-Erdély korai Árpád-kori történetéről [Revision of the judgment of the history of South Transylvania in the Early Arpadian age]. In: Társadalmi és Művelődéstörténeti Tanulmányok [Studies of Social and History of Culture]. Budapest: Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2002. ISBN: 963 9312 815.
*Benkő, Loránd (editor-in-chief) (1992-1994): Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Vol. I–II. 1992, Vol. III. 1993, Vol. IV. 1994.
*E. Abaffy, Erzsébet (1992): Az igemód- és igeidőrendszer [The systems of the grammatical mood and tense]. In: TNyt. Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 120-183
*Kiss, Jenő and Szűts, László (1991, ed.): Tanumányok a magyar nyelvtudomány történetének témaköréből [Studies from the topic of the history of the Hungarian linguistics], Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó
*Kiss, Jenő (2001): Magyar dialektológia [Hungarian Dialectology]. Osiris, Budapest, ISBN 9789633798799

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

Szekely-Hungarian Rovas

2011-07-07T15:26:49Z

Rovas: /* Unicode */ ins ref

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:49:36Z

Rovas: /* Character repertoire */ ins links

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, [[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:47:42Z

Rovas: Format

The '''Carpathian Basin Rovas''' /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|||A||/a/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||B||/b/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||D||/d/||Környe, Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||FORKED E||/a/,/ɛ/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||F||/f/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SHORT G||/g/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||H||/x/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||CH||/x/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED I||/i/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||ARCHED I||/i/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||J||/j/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||OPEN K||/k/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||KUE||/ky/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||L||/l/||Szarvas
|- align="center"
|||SIMPLE L||/l/||Környe
|- align="center"
|||M||/m/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||N||/n/,/ɲ/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||NY||/n/,/ɲ/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||O||/o/,/u/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||GH||/ɣ/||Környe, Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE R||/r/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||S||/ʃ/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||SZ||/s/||Jánoshida, Ozora, Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||CLOSE T||/t/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||ANGLED T||/t/||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|||U||/w/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||RAISED U||/o/||Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||UE||/y/||Jánoshida, Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||OPEN V||/β/||Környe, Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|||Z||/z/||Szarvas, Nagyszentmiklós

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]]

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:47:05Z

Rovas: /* Character repertoire */ Correction

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:46:41Z

Rovas: /* Character repertoire */ Correction

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:45:59Z

Rovas: /* Character repertoire */ ins table

Carpathian Basin Rovas

2011-07-02T19:36:47Z

Rovas: /* The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics */ ins section

The Carpathian Basin Rovas /kaːˈpeɪθjən ˈbeɪsn rovaːʃ/ script is an extinct writing system. It was was revitalized in 2009. This scripts is a kind of the [[Hungarian scripts]]. Based on the archaeological relics the use of Carpathian Basin Rovas is proved in the 7th - 11th centuries. The clear majority of the historical texts on the relics are in Hungarian. However, there are some inscriptions also in Onogur, As-Alan, Slavic, and Eurasian Avar as well. The Carpathian Basin Rovas belongs to the [[Rovas_Script_Family|family of the Rovas scripts]], it is close relative to the [[Khazarian Rovas]].

== Character repertoire ==

{| class="wikitable wide" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|+ Carpathian Basin Rovas
! Carpathian Basin Rovas character ||Character name||Historical sound value||Example
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Khazarian_and_Carphatian_Basin_Rovas_letter_A.svg|15px]]||A||{{IPA|/a/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:B_(rovásbetű).svg|15px]]||B||{{IPA|/b/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR D.svg|20px]]||D||{{IPA|/d/}}||Környe, [[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR E forked.svg|20px]]||FORKED E||{{IPA|/a/}},{{IPA|/ɛ/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Carpathian Basin Rovas F.png|12px]]||F||{{IPA|/f/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR short G.svg|20px]]||SHORT G||{{IPA|/g/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR H.svg|20px]]||H||{{IPA|/x/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR CH.svg|20px]]||CH||{{IPA|/x/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Carpathian Basin Rovas ANGLED I.png|12px]]||ANGLED I||{{IPA|/i/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR I arched.svg|20px]]||ARCHED I||{{IPA|/i/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Carpathian Basin Rovas J.png|12px]]||J||{{IPA|/j/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Mély_k_(rovásbetű).svg|15px]]||OPEN K||{{IPA|/k/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], Nagyszentmiklós
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR KUE.svg|20px]]||KUE||{{IPA|/ky/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR L.svg|20px]]||L||{{IPA|/l/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR L simple.svg|20px]]||SIMPLE L||{{IPA|/l/}}||Környe
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR M.svg|20px]]||M||{{IPA|/m/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Khazarian Rovas N.png|12px]]||N||{{IPA|/n/}},{{IPA|/ɲ/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR NY.svg|20px]]||NY||{{IPA|/n/}},{{IPA|/ɲ/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR O.svg|20px]]||O||{{IPA|/o/}},{{IPA|/u/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR GH.svg|20px]]||GH||{{IPA|/ɣ/}}||Környe, [[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR R close.svg|20px]]||CLOSE R||{{IPA|/r/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Carpathian Basin Rovas letter S.png|15px]]||S||{{IPA|/ʃ/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Sz (rovásbetű).svg|10px]]||SZ||{{IPA|/s/}}||Jánoshida, Ozora, [[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR T close.svg|20px]]||CLOSE T||{{IPA|/t/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR T angled.svg|20px]]||ANGLED T||{{IPA|/t/}}||Kunágota, Ozora, Környe, Kiskőrös
|- align="center"
|[[Image:Carpathian Basin Rovas U.png|15px]]||U||{{IPA|/w/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR U raised.svg|20px]]||RAISED U||{{IPA|/o/}}||[[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR UE.svg|20px]]||UE||{{IPA|/y/}}||Jánoshida, [[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR V open.svg|20px]]||OPEN V||{{IPA|/β/}}||Környe, [[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:CBR Z.svg|15px]]||Z||{{IPA|/z/}}||[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas]], [[Carpathian_Basin_Rovas#The_Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós]]

|}‎

== The Carpathian Basin Rovas relics ==
* '''Silver mug of Kunágota'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the beginning of the [[7th century]<ref>Bóna, István (1982-83): Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-83. vol. 98, p. 140</ref>
** ''Language'': (probably) Eurasian Avar
* '''Silver vessel of Ozora-Tótipuszta'''<ref>Erdélyi, István and Ráduly, János (2010): A Kárpát-medence rovásfeliratos emlékei a Kr. u. 17. századig [The relics of the Carpathian Basin with Rovas inscriptions up to the 17th century]. Ed. István Erdélyi. Budapest: Masszi Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-9851-28-3</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Needle case of Jánoshida'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1958b): Новая руническая надпись из Венгрии [New Rovas inscriptions from Hungary]. In: Эпиграпхика Востока [Epigraphyka Vostoka], pp. 55-56</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Drinking cup of Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd'''<ref>Garam, Éva (1976): Adatok a későavarkor és az avar fejedelmi sírok régészeti és történeti kérdéseihez. In: Folia Archeologica XXVII. évf. (~), 1976, pp. 143-144</ref>
** ''Date'': the last third of the 7th century
** ''Language'': Ogur (probably Onogur)
* '''Bow of Környe'''<ref>Erdélyi, István (1961): Új magyarországi rovásfelirat [New Rovas inscription of Hungary]. In: Archeológiai Értesítő [Acheological Communications], pp. 279-280</ref>
** ''Date'': the end of the 7th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]] (the first known inscription in Hungarian)
* '''[[Szarvas_Rovas_inscription|Szarvas Rovas inscription]]'''
** ''Date'': second half of the 8th century
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]
* '''[[Nagyszentmiklós_Rovas_inscriptions|Nagyszentmiklós Rovas inscriptions]]'''
** ''Date'': 9th-10th c.
** ''Language'': The clear majority of the inscriptions are in [[Hungarian]]; however, there are some (probably Onogur) words, three [[Slavic]] words and one As/Alan word.
* '''Pot fragment of Torja'''<ref>Székely, Zoltán (1996): Árpád-kori rovásjelek a Székelyföldről [Arpadian age Rovas signs from Szekelyland]. In: Acta Vol. I., Székely Nemzeti Múzeum [Szekely National Museum], Sepsiszentgyörgy, 1996, pp. 171-174</ref>
** ''Date'': 11th c.
** ''Language'': [[Hungarian]]

==Unicode==
Carpathian Basin Rovas has not yet been assigned a Unicode range. There is a proposal for encoding the script:
* G. Hosszú: Proposal for encoding the Carpathian Basin Rovas script in the SMP of the UCS. National Body Contribution for consideration by UTC and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, January 21, 2011, revised: May 19, 2011, Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4006, http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4006.pdf

== References ==

* Németh, Gyula (1932): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs feliratai [The inscriptions of the Nagyszentmiklós treasure], In: Magyar Nyelv [Hungarian Language] Vol. XXVIII, N. 3-6, 1932, pp. 65–85 and 129-139.
* Bálint, Csanád (2002): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs [Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]. In: História, Vol. 2002. No. 3, Budapest: História Foundation.
* Bóna, István (1984): A XIX. század nagy avar leletei. Die grossen Awarenfunde des 19. Jahrhunderts. Szolnok Megyei Múzeumi Évkönyv 1982-1983 (1984) pp. 81–160
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Későnépvándorláskori rovásfeliratok a Kárpát-medencében [Rovas inscriptions from the Late Migration Period in the Carpathian Basin]. Szombathely-Budapest
* Vékony, Gábor (1987): Spätvölkerwanderungszeitliche Kerbinschriften im Karpatenbecken. Acta Acheologica Hungarica Vol. 39, pp. 211–256.
* Róna-Tas, András (1996): A honfoglaló magyar nép [The landtaking Hungarian nation]. Bevezetés a korai Magyar történelem ismeretébe [Introduction to the knowledge of the early Hungarian history]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, ISBN 963 506 106 4
* Hosszú, Gábor (2011): Heritage of Scribes. The Rovas Scripts’ Relations to Eurasian Writing Systems. First edition. Budapest, ISBN 978-963-88437-4-6
* Rovas Writing Home Page: http://rovasirashonlap.fw.hu
* Rovas Info: http://rovas.info

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]]

History of Hungary

2011-07-02T19:33:24Z

Rovas: /* 1848 */ ins link

The '''History of Hungary''' covers the period from 1000 to the present.

[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]
The Magyar peoples migrated to the Danube basin from the east around 900AD. [[Hungary]] was united as a nation in 1001 under King Saint Stephen I.

It fell under Ottoman rule in the sixteenth century, and subsequently became part of the [[Habsburg]] [[Austrian Empire]]. In 1848-49 the Hungarian people rebelled against the Austrians to gain independence, a movement led by [[Lajos Kossuth]] (1802-1894), but the rebellion was crushed with Russian aid. The creation of the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867 gave Hungary a measure of equality with Austria within the empire. Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the First World War, Hungary became an independent state. However, the Treaty of Trianon stripped Hungary of much of its territory and population. [[Slovakia]] and [[Ruthenia]] went to the new state of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Transylvania]] and [[Partium]] to [[Romania]] and the area around Novi Sad to [[Yugoslavia]]. A small area on the western border was ceded to [[Austria]]. In the 1920s around one-third of the Magyar people lived outside the new boundaries of Hungary.
==Early modern==
[[File:Entry into Jerusalem Hajdudorog.jpg|thumb|Greek Catholic icon depicting scene of Jesus' entry into [[Jerusalem]], that is celebrated on [[Palm Sunday]]. The icon was painted in the end of the 18th century as part of the iconostasis of the Greek Catholic Cathedral of Hajdúdorog.]]
The [[Counter Reformation]] brought limited toleration of non-Catholic religions in 1681, accompanied by intensive re-Catholicization, and attempts to reunite the Christian churches under Catholic leadership. Lutheran church communities in the kingdom of Hungary, which included Slovakia, had to seek foreign authorities, in the form of German universities, to deal with frequent internal conflicts. The growth of Protestantism ended and Catholicism became the dominant religion.

==19th century==
[[File:Budapest Parliament Hungary.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Parliament, Budapest.]]
Hungary's parliamentary oligarchy of noble landowners consisted of the magnates, with life memberships in the Upper House, and the gentry, whose more affluent minority dominated the Lower House and, after 1830, parliamentary life. The tension between "crown" (the German-speaking [[Habsburgs]] in Vienna) and "country" remained a constant political fixture as the Compromise of 1867 enabled the Magyar nobility to run the country but left the Emperor with much leverage in maintaining governments. A complex interaction or conflict between magnates and gentry appeared regarding agricultural protection against cheap imports (1870s), the Church-state problem (1890s), and the "constitutional crisis" (1900s). Though gentry politicians exerted leadership during much of the period, they gradually lost their footing in the counties and derived power increasingly from office-holding rather than landownership. Leaning on the state apparatus for support, they came to depend on the dualist status quo.<Ref> László Péter, "The Aristocracy, the Gentry and their Parliamentary Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Hungary." ''Slavonic and East European Review'' 1992 70(1): 77-110. </Ref>

The need for education in the Magyar language united Catholic and Protestant Hungarians against continued instruction in Latin. In the 1832-36 Diet the conflict between Catholic laymen and clergy sharpened considerably and a mixed commission was established, the findings of which offered the Protestants certain limited concessions. The basic issue of this religious and educational struggle was how to promote the Magyar tongue and Magyar mationalism and independence from Austria.
===1848===
The failed revolution of 1848 was an uprising against the Habsburgs. It failed because of the intervention of the [[History_of_Russia|Russian Tzar Nicholas I]]. In the end the Habsburgs easily restored their domination in East Central Europe.

==1914 to 1939==

== World War II ==
Hungary sought revision of these treaty losses and allied itself (under the autocratic regent, Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]] (1868-1957)) with [[Germany]]. In the 1939 carve-up of Czechoslovakia, Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and Ruthenia. In 1940 Hitler forced [[Romania]] to return northern Transylvania to Hungarian rule, and Hungary also regained territory from Yugoslavia following Germany's conquest of that country in 1941. As a quid pro quo, Hungarian troops fought with the Germans on the Eastern Front, and as the Germans retreated in 1944 and 1945 Hungary came under Soviet occupation; it was also stripped of all its gains between 1939 and 1945.

== Communist Control ==
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|Statue of Endre Ságvári, Hungarian communist activist in Makó.]]
Under Soviet protection, the Hungarian communists, led by Mátyás Rákosi (1892-1971) were able to seize control of the state by 'salami tactics' (picking off adversaries one by one). Once in power, Rákosi was a fierce Stalinist, even by the standards of the Soviet bloc; he was removed from office and exiled to the Soviet Union under Soviet pressure following the denouncing of Stalin by [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1956.

In October 1956 a small student demonstration exploded into a [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|major uprising]] against the Communist Party which rapidly spread throughout the whole country. The new party leader, [[Imre Nagy]] (1896-1958) agreed to a number of popular demands, including the disbanding of the hated secret police, the ÁVH, and he further announced that Hungary would withdraw from the [[Warsaw Pact]]. This prompted a massive Soviet invasion on 4 November 1956 which, despite fierce resistance, crushed the rebellion by 10 December. Many thousands were executed including (in 1958) Nagy himself.

== The Fall of Communism ==

Nagy was replaced as leader by János Kádár (1912-1989) who instituted 'Goulash Communism': strict political control coupled with more liberal economic and cultural policies. In the short term this led to improved living standards for the Hungarian people: in material terms they, and the East Germans, were the most prosperous nations in the eastern bloc. It also created a readiness to take advantage of the relaxations of ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'' being advocated in the 1980s Soviet Union. In 1989 the Hungarian government opened its border with Austria. This led to a flood of refugees from [[East Germany]] and thus ultimately to the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the reunification of [[Germany]], and the domino-like collapse of Communist regimes across the Soviet bloc. Democratic elections were first held in 1990.

Hungary joined [[NATO]] in 1999 and the [[European Union]] in 2004. It has been hard-hit by the world-wide [[Recession of 2008]].

== See also ==

*[[Magyar]]

==Further reading==
* Frucht, Richard. ''Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106917725 online edition]
* Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. ''A History of Modern Hungary, 1867-1994'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27024260 online edition]
* Hanak, Peter et al. ''A History of Hungary'' (1994)
* Kontler, Laszlo. ''A History of Hungary'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Hungary-Laszlo-Kontler/dp/1403903174/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. ''A Concise History of Hungary'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Hungary-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521667364/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

====References====
<references/>

[[category:European History]]
[[category:Medieval History]]
[[category:Central Europe]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hungary, History}}

History of Hungary

2011-07-02T19:31:05Z

Rovas: /* 1848 */ Correcting, making it more realistic

The '''History of Hungary''' covers the period from 1000 to the present.

[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]
The Magyar peoples migrated to the Danube basin from the east around 900AD. [[Hungary]] was united as a nation in 1001 under King Saint Stephen I.

It fell under Ottoman rule in the sixteenth century, and subsequently became part of the [[Habsburg]] [[Austrian Empire]]. In 1848-49 the Hungarian people rebelled against the Austrians to gain independence, a movement led by [[Lajos Kossuth]] (1802-1894), but the rebellion was crushed with Russian aid. The creation of the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867 gave Hungary a measure of equality with Austria within the empire. Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the First World War, Hungary became an independent state. However, the Treaty of Trianon stripped Hungary of much of its territory and population. [[Slovakia]] and [[Ruthenia]] went to the new state of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Transylvania]] and [[Partium]] to [[Romania]] and the area around Novi Sad to [[Yugoslavia]]. A small area on the western border was ceded to [[Austria]]. In the 1920s around one-third of the Magyar people lived outside the new boundaries of Hungary.
==Early modern==
[[File:Entry into Jerusalem Hajdudorog.jpg|thumb|Greek Catholic icon depicting scene of Jesus' entry into [[Jerusalem]], that is celebrated on [[Palm Sunday]]. The icon was painted in the end of the 18th century as part of the iconostasis of the Greek Catholic Cathedral of Hajdúdorog.]]
The [[Counter Reformation]] brought limited toleration of non-Catholic religions in 1681, accompanied by intensive re-Catholicization, and attempts to reunite the Christian churches under Catholic leadership. Lutheran church communities in the kingdom of Hungary, which included Slovakia, had to seek foreign authorities, in the form of German universities, to deal with frequent internal conflicts. The growth of Protestantism ended and Catholicism became the dominant religion.

==19th century==
[[File:Budapest Parliament Hungary.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Parliament, Budapest.]]
Hungary's parliamentary oligarchy of noble landowners consisted of the magnates, with life memberships in the Upper House, and the gentry, whose more affluent minority dominated the Lower House and, after 1830, parliamentary life. The tension between "crown" (the German-speaking [[Habsburgs]] in Vienna) and "country" remained a constant political fixture as the Compromise of 1867 enabled the Magyar nobility to run the country but left the Emperor with much leverage in maintaining governments. A complex interaction or conflict between magnates and gentry appeared regarding agricultural protection against cheap imports (1870s), the Church-state problem (1890s), and the "constitutional crisis" (1900s). Though gentry politicians exerted leadership during much of the period, they gradually lost their footing in the counties and derived power increasingly from office-holding rather than landownership. Leaning on the state apparatus for support, they came to depend on the dualist status quo.<Ref> László Péter, "The Aristocracy, the Gentry and their Parliamentary Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Hungary." ''Slavonic and East European Review'' 1992 70(1): 77-110. </Ref>

The need for education in the Magyar language united Catholic and Protestant Hungarians against continued instruction in Latin. In the 1832-36 Diet the conflict between Catholic laymen and clergy sharpened considerably and a mixed commission was established, the findings of which offered the Protestants certain limited concessions. The basic issue of this religious and educational struggle was how to promote the Magyar tongue and Magyar mationalism and independence from Austria.
===1848===
The failed revolution of 1848 was an uprising against the Habsburgs. It failed because of the intervention of the Russian Tzar. In the end the Habsburgs easily restored their domination in East Central Europe.

==1914 to 1939==

== World War II ==
Hungary sought revision of these treaty losses and allied itself (under the autocratic regent, Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]] (1868-1957)) with [[Germany]]. In the 1939 carve-up of Czechoslovakia, Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and Ruthenia. In 1940 Hitler forced [[Romania]] to return northern Transylvania to Hungarian rule, and Hungary also regained territory from Yugoslavia following Germany's conquest of that country in 1941. As a quid pro quo, Hungarian troops fought with the Germans on the Eastern Front, and as the Germans retreated in 1944 and 1945 Hungary came under Soviet occupation; it was also stripped of all its gains between 1939 and 1945.

== Communist Control ==
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|Statue of Endre Ságvári, Hungarian communist activist in Makó.]]
Under Soviet protection, the Hungarian communists, led by Mátyás Rákosi (1892-1971) were able to seize control of the state by 'salami tactics' (picking off adversaries one by one). Once in power, Rákosi was a fierce Stalinist, even by the standards of the Soviet bloc; he was removed from office and exiled to the Soviet Union under Soviet pressure following the denouncing of Stalin by [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1956.

In October 1956 a small student demonstration exploded into a [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|major uprising]] against the Communist Party which rapidly spread throughout the whole country. The new party leader, [[Imre Nagy]] (1896-1958) agreed to a number of popular demands, including the disbanding of the hated secret police, the ÁVH, and he further announced that Hungary would withdraw from the [[Warsaw Pact]]. This prompted a massive Soviet invasion on 4 November 1956 which, despite fierce resistance, crushed the rebellion by 10 December. Many thousands were executed including (in 1958) Nagy himself.

== The Fall of Communism ==

Nagy was replaced as leader by János Kádár (1912-1989) who instituted 'Goulash Communism': strict political control coupled with more liberal economic and cultural policies. In the short term this led to improved living standards for the Hungarian people: in material terms they, and the East Germans, were the most prosperous nations in the eastern bloc. It also created a readiness to take advantage of the relaxations of ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'' being advocated in the 1980s Soviet Union. In 1989 the Hungarian government opened its border with Austria. This led to a flood of refugees from [[East Germany]] and thus ultimately to the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the reunification of [[Germany]], and the domino-like collapse of Communist regimes across the Soviet bloc. Democratic elections were first held in 1990.

Hungary joined [[NATO]] in 1999 and the [[European Union]] in 2004. It has been hard-hit by the world-wide [[Recession of 2008]].

== See also ==

*[[Magyar]]

==Further reading==
* Frucht, Richard. ''Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106917725 online edition]
* Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. ''A History of Modern Hungary, 1867-1994'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27024260 online edition]
* Hanak, Peter et al. ''A History of Hungary'' (1994)
* Kontler, Laszlo. ''A History of Hungary'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Hungary-Laszlo-Kontler/dp/1403903174/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. ''A Concise History of Hungary'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Hungary-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521667364/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240128084&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

====References====
<references/>

[[category:European History]]
[[category:Medieval History]]
[[category:Central Europe]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hungary, History}}

Hungary

2011-07-02T19:28:18Z

Rovas: /* See also */ ins cat

{{Country
|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: László Sólyom
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]

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!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
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!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26566.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Hungarian

2011-07-02T19:26:07Z

Rovas: /* Notes */ ins cat

The Hungarian language is member of the [[Finno-Ugric]] branch of languages; however, the set of the basic Hungarian words contains more than 300 Turkic words.

The Hungarian language is spoken by 10 million people in [[Hungary]] and about 5-6 million people outside of [[Hungary]].

==Linguistic periods of the Hungarian language==
The Hungarian linguistics uses the following system:<ref>Kiss, Jenő and Pusztai, Ferenc (2003, ed.): Magyar Nyelvtörténet [Hungarian Language History], Budapest: Osiris Kiadó</ref>
*'''Ancient Hungarian Period''' (1000 BC-896)
*'''Old Hungarian Period''' (896-1526)
*'''Middle Hungarian Period''' (1526-1772)
*'''New Hungarian Period''' (1772-1920)
*'''Latest Hungarian Period''' (1920-present-day)

==Orthography==

The official script is the Hungarian Latin based script, it is shortly called as '''Hungarian alphabet'''.

Moreover, there are two historical scripts, which are used for presenting the Hungarian language:
* [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
* [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

==References==
*Benkő, Loránd (1991, editor-in-chief): A magyar nyelv történeti nyelvtana. A korai ómagyar kor és előzményei [The historical grammar of the Hungarian language. The early Old Hungarian period and its preliminaries]. Vol. I. Editors: Erzsébet E. Abaffy and Endre Rácz. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
*Benkő, Loránd (1998): Név és történelem. Tanulmányok az Árpád-korról [Name and history. Studies about the Arpadian age]. Budapest.
*Benkő, Loránd (1999): A székely nemzetségnevek történetéhez [To the history of the Szekely clan names]. In: Emlékkönyv Imreh István születésének nyolcvanadik évfordulójára [Album for the 80th birthday of István Imreh]. Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, Kolozsvár, pp. 47-58.
*Benkő, Loránd (2001): Észrevételek Erdély déli részeinek korai Árpád-kori történetéhez [Observations to the history of the south parts of Transylvania in the early Arpadian age]. In: Erdély a keresztény Magyar Királyságban [Transylvania in the Christian Hungarian Kingdom]. Ser. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek [Scientific Booklets of Transylvania] No. 231. Ser. ed.: Gyula Dávid. ISBN 973 8231 05 1, Kolozsvár, pp. 7-68.
*Benkő, Loránd (2002): Az ómagyar nyelv tanúságtétele [Testimony of the Ancient Hungarian language]. Perújítás Dél-Erdély korai Árpád-kori történetéről [Revision of the judgment of the history of South Transylvania in the Early Arpadian age]. In: Társadalmi és Művelődéstörténeti Tanulmányok [Studies of Social and History of Culture]. Budapest: Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2002. ISBN: 963 9312 815.
*Benkő, Loránd (editor-in-chief) (1992-1994): Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Vol. I–II. 1992, Vol. III. 1993, Vol. IV. 1994.
*E. Abaffy, Erzsébet (1992): Az igemód- és igeidőrendszer [The systems of the grammatical mood and tense]. In: TNyt. Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 120-183
*Kiss, Jenő and Szűts, László (1991, ed.): Tanumányok a magyar nyelvtudomány történetének témaköréből [Studies from the topic of the history of the Hungarian linguistics], Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó
*Kiss, Jenő (2001): Magyar dialektológia [Hungarian Dialectology]. Osiris, Budapest, ISBN 9789633798799

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

Hungarian

2011-07-02T19:25:15Z

Rovas: ins link

The Hungarian language is member of the [[Finno-Ugric]] branch of languages; however, the set of the basic Hungarian words contains more than 300 Turkic words.

The Hungarian language is spoken by 10 million people in [[Hungary]] and about 5-6 million people outside of [[Hungary]].

==Linguistic periods of the Hungarian language==
The Hungarian linguistics uses the following system:<ref>Kiss, Jenő and Pusztai, Ferenc (2003, ed.): Magyar Nyelvtörténet [Hungarian Language History], Budapest: Osiris Kiadó</ref>
*'''Ancient Hungarian Period''' (1000 BC-896)
*'''Old Hungarian Period''' (896-1526)
*'''Middle Hungarian Period''' (1526-1772)
*'''New Hungarian Period''' (1772-1920)
*'''Latest Hungarian Period''' (1920-present-day)

==Orthography==

The official script is the Hungarian Latin based script, it is shortly called as '''Hungarian alphabet'''.

Moreover, there are two historical scripts, which are used for presenting the Hungarian language:
* [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
* [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

==References==
*Benkő, Loránd (1991, editor-in-chief): A magyar nyelv történeti nyelvtana. A korai ómagyar kor és előzményei [The historical grammar of the Hungarian language. The early Old Hungarian period and its preliminaries]. Vol. I. Editors: Erzsébet E. Abaffy and Endre Rácz. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
*Benkő, Loránd (1998): Név és történelem. Tanulmányok az Árpád-korról [Name and history. Studies about the Arpadian age]. Budapest.
*Benkő, Loránd (1999): A székely nemzetségnevek történetéhez [To the history of the Szekely clan names]. In: Emlékkönyv Imreh István születésének nyolcvanadik évfordulójára [Album for the 80th birthday of István Imreh]. Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, Kolozsvár, pp. 47-58.
*Benkő, Loránd (2001): Észrevételek Erdély déli részeinek korai Árpád-kori történetéhez [Observations to the history of the south parts of Transylvania in the early Arpadian age]. In: Erdély a keresztény Magyar Királyságban [Transylvania in the Christian Hungarian Kingdom]. Ser. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek [Scientific Booklets of Transylvania] No. 231. Ser. ed.: Gyula Dávid. ISBN 973 8231 05 1, Kolozsvár, pp. 7-68.
*Benkő, Loránd (2002): Az ómagyar nyelv tanúságtétele [Testimony of the Ancient Hungarian language]. Perújítás Dél-Erdély korai Árpád-kori történetéről [Revision of the judgment of the history of South Transylvania in the Early Arpadian age]. In: Társadalmi és Művelődéstörténeti Tanulmányok [Studies of Social and History of Culture]. Budapest: Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2002. ISBN: 963 9312 815.
*Benkő, Loránd (editor-in-chief) (1992-1994): Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Vol. I–II. 1992, Vol. III. 1993, Vol. IV. 1994.
*E. Abaffy, Erzsébet (1992): Az igemód- és igeidőrendszer [The systems of the grammatical mood and tense]. In: TNyt. Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 120-183
*Kiss, Jenő and Szűts, László (1991, ed.): Tanumányok a magyar nyelvtudomány történetének témaköréből [Studies from the topic of the history of the Hungarian linguistics], Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó
*Kiss, Jenő (2001): Magyar dialektológia [Hungarian Dialectology]. Osiris, Budapest, ISBN 9789633798799

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]]

Hungarian

2011-07-02T19:22:37Z

Rovas: /* References */ format

The Hungarian language is member of the Finno-Ugric branch of languages; however, the set of the basic Hungarian words contains more than 300 Turkic words.

The Hungarian language is spoken by 10 million people in [[Hungary]] and about 5-6 million people outside of [[Hungary]].

==Linguistic periods of the Hungarian language==
The Hungarian linguistics uses the following system:<ref>Kiss, Jenő and Pusztai, Ferenc (2003, ed.): Magyar Nyelvtörténet [Hungarian Language History], Budapest: Osiris Kiadó</ref>
*'''Ancient Hungarian Period''' (1000 BC-896)
*'''Old Hungarian Period''' (896-1526)
*'''Middle Hungarian Period''' (1526-1772)
*'''New Hungarian Period''' (1772-1920)
*'''Latest Hungarian Period''' (1920-present-day)

==Orthography==

The official script is the Hungarian Latin based script, it is shortly called as '''Hungarian alphabet'''.

Moreover, there are two historical scripts, which are used for presenting the Hungarian language:
* [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]]
* [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]

==References==
*Benkő, Loránd (1991, editor-in-chief): A magyar nyelv történeti nyelvtana. A korai ómagyar kor és előzményei [The historical grammar of the Hungarian language. The early Old Hungarian period and its preliminaries]. Vol. I. Editors: Erzsébet E. Abaffy and Endre Rácz. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
*Benkő, Loránd (1998): Név és történelem. Tanulmányok az Árpád-korról [Name and history. Studies about the Arpadian age]. Budapest.
*Benkő, Loránd (1999): A székely nemzetségnevek történetéhez [To the history of the Szekely clan names]. In: Emlékkönyv Imreh István születésének nyolcvanadik évfordulójára [Album for the 80th birthday of István Imreh]. Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, Kolozsvár, pp. 47-58.
*Benkő, Loránd (2001): Észrevételek Erdély déli részeinek korai Árpád-kori történetéhez [Observations to the history of the south parts of Transylvania in the early Arpadian age]. In: Erdély a keresztény Magyar Királyságban [Transylvania in the Christian Hungarian Kingdom]. Ser. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek [Scientific Booklets of Transylvania] No. 231. Ser. ed.: Gyula Dávid. ISBN 973 8231 05 1, Kolozsvár, pp. 7-68.
*Benkő, Loránd (2002): Az ómagyar nyelv tanúságtétele [Testimony of the Ancient Hungarian language]. Perújítás Dél-Erdély korai Árpád-kori történetéről [Revision of the judgment of the history of South Transylvania in the Early Arpadian age]. In: Társadalmi és Művelődéstörténeti Tanulmányok [Studies of Social and History of Culture]. Budapest: Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2002. ISBN: 963 9312 815.
*Benkő, Loránd (editor-in-chief) (1992-1994): Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Vol. I–II. 1992, Vol. III. 1993, Vol. IV. 1994.
*E. Abaffy, Erzsébet (1992): Az igemód- és igeidőrendszer [The systems of the grammatical mood and tense]. In: TNyt. Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 120-183
*Kiss, Jenő and Szűts, László (1991, ed.): Tanumányok a magyar nyelvtudomány történetének témaköréből [Studies from the topic of the history of the Hungarian linguistics], Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó
*Kiss, Jenő (2001): Magyar dialektológia [Hungarian Dialectology]. Osiris, Budapest, ISBN 9789633798799

== Notes ==
<references>

[[Category:Writing systems]][[Category:Alphabets]]

Hungary

2011-07-02T19:21:35Z

Rovas: /* People */ ins link

{{Country
|name =''Magyarország''
|map =Hungary rel 94.jpg
|map2 =Location of Hungary.PNG
|flag =Flag of Hungary.png
|arms =Arms of Hungary.png
|capital =Budapest
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary republic
|government-raw =
|language =Magyar
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Pál Schmitt
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Viktor Orbán
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =35,910 sq. mi.
|pop =9,956,108
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$163.9 billion
|gdp-year =2008
|gdp-pc =$16,400
|currency =Forint
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'') is a central [[Europe]]an country bounded by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]]. The capital city is [[Budapest]]; other major centres include Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs, Szeged, and Győr.

==Geography==
[[File:Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Windmill in the Museum of Szentendre.]]
Hungary is landlocked and mainly forms a low-lying plain; it is crossed by the rivers [[Danube]] (''Duna'') and Tisza. The west of the country includes the large [[Lake Balaton]], on the shores of which a number of resort towns are situated.
*Area: 93,030 sq. km. (35,910 sq. mi.); about the size of Indiana.
*Cities: Capital--Budapest (est. pop. 2 million). Other cities--Debrecen (220,000); Miskolc (208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pécs (183,000).
*Terrain: Mostly flat, with low mountains in the north and northeast and north of Lake Balaton.
*Climate: Temperate.
 

==People==
[[File:Ancient Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional coppersmith.]]
Ethnic groups in Hungary include Magyar (nearly 90%), Romany, German, Serb, Slovak, and others. The majority of Hungary's people are Roman Catholic; other religions represented are Calvinist, Lutheran, Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and Unitarian. Magyar is the predominant language.
*Nationality: Noun and adjective--[[Hungarian]](s).
*Population (July 2007 est.): 9,956,108.
*Ethnic groups: [[Magyar]] 89.9%, Romany 4% (est.), German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%.
*Religions (2001 census): Roman Catholic 51.9%, Calvinist 15.9%, Lutheran 3%, Greek Catholic 2.6%, Jewish 1%, others, including *Baptist Adventist, Pentecostal, Unitarian 3%.
*Languages: Magyar 98.2%, other 1.8%.
*Education: Compulsory to age 16. Attendance--96%. Literacy--99.4%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--8.21/1,000. Life expectancy--men 68.73 yrs., women 77.38 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 4.21 million): Agriculture--5.5%; industry and commerce--33.3%; services--61.2%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Budapest Parliament.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Budapest Parliament.]]
The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest state authority body and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in April 2006). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
{{Clear}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*President: László Sólyom
*Prime Minister: Viktor Orbán
*Minister of Foreign Affairs: János Martonyi
*Ambassador to the United Nations: Gábor Bródi

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Estonian politician Paet meets with Hungarian colleague.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Péter Balázs, (in that time) Foreign Minister of Hungary and Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister.]]
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those now defunct organizations.

As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War--and a geography of regional instability and separation from [[Hungarian]] minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. To this end, Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in May of 2004. Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.

==Defense==
[[File:Hungary_cross.gif|left]]
Hungary's key national security focus since joining NATO in 1999 has been contributing to the stability of the region while integrating its armed forces into NATO's force structure. Hungary takes a keen interest in NATO expansion and in the transatlantic link. It shares a more acute sense of the threat than many other European countries and is watching events in the Balkans, Ukraine, and Russia with great interest. Hungarians believe that Hungary's own security and that of its ethnic minorities in neighboring countries will be best served by a peaceful, unified region, which will be achieved when EU and NATO membership is extended to the entire region.

Hungary has been slowly modernizing and downsizing its armed forces since it left the Warsaw Pact in 1990. Transitioning from a heavy, slow-moving Warsaw Pact force to a lighter, versatile NATO force, the Hungarian military has gone from 130,000 in 1989 to approximately 24,000 combat and combat support forces in 2008. Implementing a new training, logistics, and leadership system and a new Joint Forces Command structure, the Hungarian military has gained considerable practical experience working with NATO and other forces serving in international military missions (about 1,000 at any given time). Hungary was especially helpful during the implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords in the Balkans from 1995-2004, when its airbase at Taszar was used by coalition forces transiting the region. Hungary currently leads a Provisional Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Afghanistan, and has an Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT), as well as Special Forces personnel, without caveat, in Afghanistan in 2009. A second OMLT is scheduled to deploy in 2010. The Hungarian military took over command of a joint battalion in the Balkans in 2008. Hungary’s Papa Airbase will be the home base of the Strategic Airlift Consortium’s C-17 operations, expanding its contribution to NATO and other European partners. Hungary’s military still faces numerous challenges to its modernization program, as reflected in the 2008 Hungarian defense budget, set at 1.17% of GDP, well below the NATO target of two percent.

==Economy==
Prior to World War II, the Hungarian economy was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization following the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state farms and state-owned enterprises or cooperatives. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, reopened Hungary to foreign trade, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
[[File:Floodgate in Bekes Hungary.jpg|thumb|330px|Floodgate in Békés.]]
Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s. Belated reaction to the economic crisis of the early 1970s and deteriorating terms of trade resulted in increasing indebtedness. In response, the Hungarian Government launched a restrictive economic policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by the “Dynamization Program of 1985,” which increased consumer subsidies and investments--mainly in unprofitable state enterprises--eventually leading to a doubling of foreign debt levels. By 1993, Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly--from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion. Liberalization of the economy continued, however, and in 1988-89 Hungary passed a joint venture law, adopted tax legislation, and joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary developed a two-tier banking system and enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
*GDP: HUF 27,220 billion (approx. $163.9 billion) ($1=HUF 172 - average exchange rate Jan.-Dec. 2008).
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 1.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2008 est.): $16,400.
*Natural resources: bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.
*Agriculture/forestry (2008 est., 3.4% of GDP): Products--meat, corn, wheat, sunflower seeds, potatoes, sugar beets, dairy products.
*Industry and construction (2008 est., 45.4% of GDP): Types--machinery, vehicles, chemicals, precision and measuring equipment, computer products, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
*Trade (2008): Exports ($95.0 billion)--machinery, vehicles, food, beverages, tobacco, crude materials, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy. Imports ($94.9 billion)--machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, fuels and electric energy, food, beverages, and tobacco. Major markets--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, U.K., Romania, Poland). Major suppliers--EU (Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Netherlands, Poland), Russia, China.
[[File:Church of St. Anne in Budapest WC PD.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Church of St. Anne in Budapest.]]
The Antall government of 1990-94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. As a result of the collapse of Eastern markets and the inability of state-owned companies to compete with foreign competitors, industrial production fell by 50% between 1989 and 1994, and the country faced high unemployment and inflation rates, as well as a deteriorating trade balance. By 1994, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. In 1996, austerity measures referred to as the “Bokros package” (for then-Finance Minister Lajos Bokros) improved both the fiscal and external balance situation, and increased investor confidence. Simplified and accelerated privatization led to significant inflow of foreign capital in industry, energy, and telecommunications sectors, and a number of greenfield investments were launched. Hungary's early openness to foreign direct investment (FDI) led to a sustained period of high growth and made Hungary a magnet for FDI in the late 1990s and early parts of this century.

In 1995, Hungary's currency--the forint (HUF)--became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. In 2001, the Orban government lifted remaining currency controls and broadened the band around the exchange rate, allowing the forint to appreciate by more than 12% in a year. Trade with European Union (EU) and OECD countries now comprises over 75% and 85% of Hungary's total trade, respectively. Germany is Hungary's most important trading partner, followed by Italy and France. The United States has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd-largest export market for the United States. Bilateral trade between the two countries has increased to more than $1 billion per year.

With more than $60 billion in FDI since 1989, Hungary has been a leading destination for FDI in central and eastern Europe, although this level is beginning to decline. The largest U.S. investors include GE, Alcoa, General Motors, Coca-Cola, Ford, IBM, and PepsiCo. As a result of extensive and continuing liberalization, the private sector produces about 80% of Hungary’s output.

Close relationship with the economies of the EU helped pave the way for Hungary's EU accession in 2004. As part of its EU membership agreement, Hungary agreed to meet the economic criteria necessary to adopt the euro. In 2005 and 2006, however, it became clear that not only was a high budget deficit hurting the economy (nearly surpassing 10% of GDP in 2006), but that Hungary was moving away from meeting euro entry requirements, and would be subject to EU excessive deficit procedures. Against this backdrop, in fall 2006, Prime Minister Gyurcsany launched a program of fiscal consolidation by raising taxes, decreasing subsidies, and streamlining the public sector. Businesses have complained, however, that increased taxes, particularly on labor, have decreased Hungary's economic competitiveness compared to other countries in the region. Greater fiscal discipline allowed the government to reduce its deficit to 3.4% of GDP by 2008, but decreasing government spending during this period also reduced domestic consumption and contributed to a decrease in Hungary's GDP growth.

In October 2008, the effects of the global financial crisis spilled over into Hungary. Despite its success in reducing its fiscal deficit, years of high budget deficits and Hungary’s high external debt levels fueled investor risk aversion, and negatively affected the foreign exchange, government securities, and equity markets in Hungary. The country was hit hard by global de-leveraging, and weak demand for government bonds. A sharp decline in the share of non-resident investors in the government securities market raised concerns that Hungary would be unable to meet its external financing requirements. In order to increase investor confidence and ensure liquidity in domestic financial markets, Hungary concluded a $25 billion financial stabilization package with the IMF, EU, and World Bank in November 2008.
[[File:Cupola of the St. Stephen s Basilica in Budapest Hungary.jpg|thumb|Cupola of the St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.]]
Under the agreement, Hungary committed to further fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and enacting banking sector support measures. Terms also include periodic assessment of macroeconomic and fiscal targets. The second review under the agreement took place in May 2009. Taking into consideration the worsening global economic and financial crisis, the IMF and the EU revised their projections of Hungary’s GDP decline in 2009 to minus 6.7%, and agreed to increasing the 2.9% deficit target to 3.9% for 2009. Public debt is expected to increase to 83% of GDP in 2009 before fiscal tightening returns it to more sustainable levels. The government bond market has yet to fully recover, although the Hungarian Debt Management Agency (AKK) successfully re-launched regular bond auctions in spring 2009.

To respond to the crisis, the Bajnai government has enacted a series of economic reforms and spending cuts intended to reduce the tax burden on labor, encourage employment, improve Hungary's economic competitiveness, and offset lost government revenue due to the deeper-than-expected recession. These measures include reforms to the pension and entitlement systems, as well as tax changes to shift the tax burden from labor to wealth and consumption. In addition to cuts in taxes for businesses and employees, tax changes include raising the value added tax (VAT), and a proposal for the introduction of a property tax.

==History==
See [[History of Hungary]]

[[File:Von.jpg|thumb|[[John von Neumann]]]]
Hungary has long been an integral part of Europe. It converted to Western Christianity before AD 1000. Although Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000 years, its constitutional system preceded by several centuries the establishment of Western-style governments in other European countries.

Following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end of [[World War I]], Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and nearly as much of its population. It experienced a brief but bloody communist dictatorship under [[Bela Kuhn]] in 1919, followed by a 25-year regency under Adm. Miklos Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most of World War II as a German ally, it fell under German military occupation following an unsuccessful attempt to switch sides on October 15, 1944. Under occupation, the Hungarian Government deported or executed and seized the property of hundreds of thousands of its minority citizens, mostly members of the Jewish community. On January 20, 1945, a provisional government concluded an armistice with the Soviet Union and established the Allied Control Commission, under which Soviet, American, and British representatives held complete sovereignty over the country. The Commission's chairman was a member of Stalin's inner circle and exercised absolute control.

====Communist Takeover====
[[File:Statue of Ságvári Endre Hungary.JPG|thumb|left|Statue in Makó of Endre Ságvári (b. 1913, in Budapest; died there July 27, 1944.), Hungarian communist activist.]]
The provisional government, dominated by the Hungarian communist party (MKP), was replaced in November 1945 after elections which gave majority control of a coalition government to the Independent Smallholders' Party. The government instituted a radical land reform and gradually nationalized mines, electric plants, heavy industries, and some large banks. The communists ultimately undermined the coalition regime by discrediting leaders of rival parties and through terror, blackmail, and framed trials. In elections tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc gained control of the government.

By February 1949, all opposition parties had been forced to merge with the MKP to form the Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the communists held a single-list election and adopted a Soviet-style constitution, which created the Hungarian People's Republic. Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian economy was reorganized according to the Soviet model. In 1949 and the country joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, or Comecon.) All private industrial firms with more than 10 employees were nationalized. Freedom of the press, religion, and assembly were strictly curtailed. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Forced industrialization and land collectivization soon led to serious economic difficulties, which reached crisis proportions by mid-1953. Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in 1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's economic program of forced collectivization and heavy industry. He also ended political purges and freed thousands of political prisoners. However, the economic situation continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for "right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization the same year.
{{Clear}}

====1956 Revolution====
[[File:Budapest Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial.jpg|thumb|280px|Budapest, Hungarian revolution 1956 memorial, nearby Parliament building.]]
Pressure for change reached a climax on October 23, 1956, when security forces fired on Budapest students marching in support of Poland's confrontation with the Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly grew into a massive popular uprising. Fighting did not abate until the Central Committee named Imre Nagy as prime minister on October 25. Nagy dissolved the state security police, abolished the one-party system, promised free elections, and negotiated with the U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.

Faced with reports of new Soviet troops pouring into Hungary, despite Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances to the contrary, on November 1 Nagy announced Hungary's neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, the Soviet Union launched a massive military attack on Hungary on November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy. Party First Secretary Janos Kadar, defected from the Nagy cabinet, fleeing to the Soviet Union. On November 4 he announced the formation of a new government. He returned to Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried out severe reprisals; thousands of people were executed or imprisoned. Despite a guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was arrested and deported to Romania. In June 1958, following a closed trial, the government announced that Nagy and other former officials had been executed.

====Reform Under Kadar====
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us," and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to overcome the inefficiencies of central planning, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

====Transition to Democracy====
Hungary's transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the neo-populist national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kadar was replaced as General Secretary of the MKP, and that same year, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national roundtable, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties--such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats--the communist party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

====Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary====
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister Jozsef Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the Parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Peter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died and the Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free market economy.
[[File:Tibor Rubin The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor Hungarian.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The U.S. Army - Medal of Honor: Cpl. Tibor Rubin.]]
In May 1994, the Socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful but necessary policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. However, dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orban, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

In April 2002, the country voted to return the MSZP-Free Democrat coalition to power. The Medgyessy government placed special emphasis on solidifying Hungary's Euro-Atlantic course, which culminated in Hungary’s accession to the European Union on May 1, 2004. Prime Minister Medgyessy resigned in August 2004 after losing coalition support following an attempted cabinet reshuffle. Ferenc Gyurcsany succeeded Medgyessy as Prime Minister in September 29, 2004.

In the April 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany and his Socialist-liberal coalition were re-elected, the first time since communism that a sitting government renewed its mandate. Currently, the MSZP is ruling as a minority government, as the SZDSZ pulled out of the coalition in April 2008. Prime Minister Gyurcsany resigned in March 2009, succeeded by Gordon Bajnai, former Minister of Economy and National Development. The present configuration of Parliament includes MSZP with 189 seats, SZDSZ with 19 seats, Fidesz with 139 seats, KDNP with 23 seats, and 15 independent Members of Parliament. One seat is currently vacant, awaiting a by-election in June 2009. Following the dissolution of the coalition with SZDSZ, Prime Minister Gyurcsany reduced the number of ministries in the cabinet from 17 to 13.

==See also==
*[[Magyar]]
*[[History of Hungary]]

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[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

Magyars

2011-07-02T19:19:36Z

Rovas: /* Orthography */ ins link

The '''Magyar''' peoples are a [[Hungarian]]-speaking group that migrated into what is now [[Hungary]] around the year 896AD.
[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]

The group's remote ancestors, who spoke languages belonging to the Eastern (Ugric) branch of the Finno-Ugric language family, lived on the middle Volga River and its eastern tributaries. They moved east around 500 BC, where they encountered the more warlike and culturally more advanced Turkish groups. The two groups merged, speaking Ugric, with the addition of many Turkic words, and using Turkic grammatical structure. They were typical nomadic steppe dwellers.

==To Hungary==
Around 500 AD the Magyars moved from Asia to the steppes north of the Caucasus mountains, where they remained about 400 years. The false notion is widely held that they were part of Attila's Huns.

They were nomadic horsemen who moved into the grassy plain within the curve of the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe now called [[Hungary]] in 896 AD, under Prince Árpád. This area became Hungary, and the language became modern Hungarian.

Over the next 60 or so years they raided into [[Germany]], north and central [[France]] and [[Italy]]. Their superior horsemanship proved unbeatable on the plains, but they were vulnerable in the mountains or when returning home with their booty, a fact not lost on their victims who began attacking them on mountain passes and at river crossings. In 933 they were defeated by Germans under Henry the Fowler, and in 955 they were finally defeated by the German [[Otto I]] at the battle of Lechfield. Their leaders were killed and they settled back into their plains.

The Magyar Duke Géza (r. 972-997) began to convert his people to Christianity; the task was finished by Géza's son and successor, St. Stephen (r. 997-1038), who also received a royal crown from Pope Sylvester (1000). Stephen enacted a body of laws, and gave Hungary the unified political structure it was to retain in one form or another from his time on.

==Social structure==
The Magyars at first formed a caste of free men ruling over both the slaves they had brought with them as well as local tribes in Hungary. After a few hundred years there emerged a large unfree Magyar class comprising by 1500 about 75% of the total Magyar population. The ruling elite had a policy of admitting Germans and other outsiders to the Magyar nobility on condition they adopt the Magyar language and culture. Thus Hungary was to be essentially Magyar in terms of ethnicity and culture. Wars with the Ottoman Empire led to much migration and resettlement of depopulated areas. By 1800 the Magyars comprised just under half of the total population in Hungary; they were a majority only in the central plains. Hungary was politically united with Austria in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Hungarians were in full control in Hungary, just as Germans were elsewhere in the Empire. Nationalistic movements among the minority groups were recognized when the Empire was broken up in 1918-1919, but about a fourth of the Magyar-speakers were left outside Hungary. In the 21st century there are still large Magyar-speaking minorities in the neighboring states. At the end of the 19th century, agrarian depression had caused a large-scale emigration of Magyars to the United States; they moved to industrial centers and have become assimilated into the larger Catholic population. There have been smaller migrations, political in character, in 1945-1946 fleeing the Soviets, and again after the failed 1956 revolution.

==Orthography==
The official [[orthography of Hungary]] is the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet. However, there are further scripts, namely the Rovas orthographies: the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]. There scripts are part of the cultural heritage of Hungary and sporadically they are in use as well.

==Nationalism==
Historian Hans Kohn contrasted the liberal, democratic, and political nationalism of the West and the aristocratic, authoritarian, backward, and ethnic nationalism of Eastern Europe. Deme (1992) argues that Magyar nationalism belongs in the former category rather than the latter. The historical development of nationalism in Hungary centers around writings of Sándor Bessenyei (1747-1811), who focused on both political liberty and cultural nationalism, and Count István Széchenyi, the leading statesman of Hungary in the 1830s, who tried to transform Hungary into a modern constitutional state and establish institutions to support Magyar nationalism.<ref> Laszlo Deme, "Pre-1848 Magyar Nationalism Revisited: Ethnic and Authoritarian or Political and Progressive?" ''East European Quarterly'' 1992 27(2): 141-169. </ref>

== See also ==

*[[History of Hungary]]

==Further reading==
* Deme, Laszlo. "Writers and Essayists and the Rise of Magyar Nationalism in the 1820s and 1830s". ''Slavic Review'' 1984 43(4): 624-640.
* Vermes, Gabor. ''István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist.'' (1986). 627 pp.
==References==
<references/>
[[category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:Medieval History]]
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Hungary]]
[[Category:European History]]

Magyars

2011-07-02T19:18:42Z

Rovas: update

The '''Magyar''' peoples are a [[Hungarian]]-speaking group that migrated into what is now [[Hungary]] around the year 896AD.
[[File:Magyar.jpg|thumb|290px|Arrival of the Magyar peoples]]

The group's remote ancestors, who spoke languages belonging to the Eastern (Ugric) branch of the Finno-Ugric language family, lived on the middle Volga River and its eastern tributaries. They moved east around 500 BC, where they encountered the more warlike and culturally more advanced Turkish groups. The two groups merged, speaking Ugric, with the addition of many Turkic words, and using Turkic grammatical structure. They were typical nomadic steppe dwellers.

==To Hungary==
Around 500 AD the Magyars moved from Asia to the steppes north of the Caucasus mountains, where they remained about 400 years. The false notion is widely held that they were part of Attila's Huns.

They were nomadic horsemen who moved into the grassy plain within the curve of the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe now called [[Hungary]] in 896 AD, under Prince Árpád. This area became Hungary, and the language became modern Hungarian.

Over the next 60 or so years they raided into [[Germany]], north and central [[France]] and [[Italy]]. Their superior horsemanship proved unbeatable on the plains, but they were vulnerable in the mountains or when returning home with their booty, a fact not lost on their victims who began attacking them on mountain passes and at river crossings. In 933 they were defeated by Germans under Henry the Fowler, and in 955 they were finally defeated by the German [[Otto I]] at the battle of Lechfield. Their leaders were killed and they settled back into their plains.

The Magyar Duke Géza (r. 972-997) began to convert his people to Christianity; the task was finished by Géza's son and successor, St. Stephen (r. 997-1038), who also received a royal crown from Pope Sylvester (1000). Stephen enacted a body of laws, and gave Hungary the unified political structure it was to retain in one form or another from his time on.

==Social structure==
The Magyars at first formed a caste of free men ruling over both the slaves they had brought with them as well as local tribes in Hungary. After a few hundred years there emerged a large unfree Magyar class comprising by 1500 about 75% of the total Magyar population. The ruling elite had a policy of admitting Germans and other outsiders to the Magyar nobility on condition they adopt the Magyar language and culture. Thus Hungary was to be essentially Magyar in terms of ethnicity and culture. Wars with the Ottoman Empire led to much migration and resettlement of depopulated areas. By 1800 the Magyars comprised just under half of the total population in Hungary; they were a majority only in the central plains. Hungary was politically united with Austria in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Hungarians were in full control in Hungary, just as Germans were elsewhere in the Empire. Nationalistic movements among the minority groups were recognized when the Empire was broken up in 1918-1919, but about a fourth of the Magyar-speakers were left outside Hungary. In the 21st century there are still large Magyar-speaking minorities in the neighboring states. At the end of the 19th century, agrarian depression had caused a large-scale emigration of Magyars to the United States; they moved to industrial centers and have become assimilated into the larger Catholic population. There have been smaller migrations, political in character, in 1945-1946 fleeing the Soviets, and again after the failed 1956 revolution.

==Orthography==
The official orthography of Hungary is the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet. However, there are further scripts, namely the Rovas orthographies: the [[Szekely-Hungarian Rovas]] and the [[Carpathian Basin Rovas]]. There scripts are part of the cultural heritage of Hungary and sporadically they are in use as well.

==Nationalism==
Historian Hans Kohn contrasted the liberal, democratic, and political nationalism of the West and the aristocratic, authoritarian, backward, and ethnic nationalism of Eastern Europe. Deme (1992) argues that Magyar nationalism belongs in the former category rather than the latter. The historical development of nationalism in Hungary centers around writings of Sándor Bessenyei (1747-1811), who focused on both political liberty and cultural nationalism, and Count István Széchenyi, the leading statesman of Hungary in the 1830s, who tried to transform Hungary into a modern constitutional state and establish institutions to support Magyar nationalism.<ref> Laszlo Deme, "Pre-1848 Magyar Nationalism Revisited: Ethnic and Authoritarian or Political and Progressive?" ''East European Quarterly'' 1992 27(2): 141-169. </ref>

== See also ==

*[[History of Hungary]]

==Further reading==
* Deme, Laszlo. "Writers and Essayists and the Rise of Magyar Nationalism in the 1820s and 1830s". ''Slavic Review'' 1984 43(4): 624-640.
* Vermes, Gabor. ''István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist.'' (1986). 627 pp.
==References==
<references/>
[[category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:Medieval History]]
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Hungary]]
[[Category:European History]]