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Barracks Emperor

2009-12-05T05:16:25Z

Rdkaster:

A.D. 2008-Present, American Emperor who seized power through a campaign of mass deception.

[[Category:Romans]]

Flying Spaghetti Monster

2009-12-05T05:14:05Z

Rdkaster:

The '''Flying Spaghetti Monster''' is the "god" in "'''Pastafarianism'''", a [[parody]] [[religion]] that began as a critique of the Kansas Board of Education's decision to allow the teaching of [[intelligent design]] in public schools. Arguing that intelligent design was a thinly-veiled attempt to bring [[religion]] into the classroom, Bobby Henderson constructed "Pastafarianism" as a new theological system and argued that, if schools wished to "teach the controversy," they should teach "Pastafarianism" alongside evolution and intelligent design<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/27/AR2005082700019.html?nav=most_emailed Verbatim: Noodle This, Kansas - Washington Post]</ref>.

Since then, many [[atheist]]s and [[secularist]]s have claimed to be "Pastafarians", implicitly using its obvious shortcomings to criticize actual religions, especially [[Christianity]]. More prominent atheists have also mentioned it, such as [[Richard Dawkins]] in his book ''[[The God Delusion]]'' ''(sic)''.

==Teachings==
"Pastafarians" worship the Flying Spaghetti Monster, a flying pile of spaghetti and meatballs, by eating spaghetti and dressing in pirate regalia. "Pastafarianism" also holds pirates in high esteem, claiming that they were good men whose deeds were perverted by the media. They attribute [[global warming]] to the decrease of pirates, presenting graphs showing that global temperatures have risen over the past centuries in rough inverse correlation to the number of pirates.

According to the letter by Bobby Henderson to the Kansas Board of Education, the Flying Spaghetti Monster has the following powers:
*Flight
*Invisibility
*Can travel through solid matter
*Can create and alter anything
*Plants evidence and changes test results to confuse [[evolutionists]].

=Logical Shortcomings=

Unlike Christianity, the religion of Pastafarians falls apart under any sort of inspection. The pirates, who they elevate to near godhood beside their flying bowl of pasta, have been proven to historically be a violent, bloodthirsty group, not the child-loving persecuted pacifists the Pastafarians believe them to be. Also, the very idea that pirate population could affect carbon emissions is absurd; pirates declined due to public resentment and more efficient naval operations. It belongs with discarded, poorly-backed theories like global warming.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />

[[category:culture]]

Wisconsin

2009-12-04T05:55:27Z

Rdkaster:

{{USState
|name=Wisconsin
|flag=wisc_flag.jpg
|motto=Forward
|nick=The Badger State
|capital=Madison
|language=English
|governor=Jim Doyle
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=Russ Feingold
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-5323
|s1email=http://feingold.senate.gov/contact_opinion.html Contact
|senator2=Herb Kohl
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-5653
|s2email=http://kohl.senate.gov/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=May 29, 1848 (30th)
}}
[[Image:Wisconsin ref 2001.jpg|300 px|thumb|right|Geographic map of Wisconsin]]
'''Wisconsin''', the "Badger State", or unofficially "America's Dairyland", was the thirtieth state to enter the union, on May 29, 1848. The capital city of Wisconsin is [[Madison]].

The town of Ripon in Wisconsin was "The Birthplace of the [[Republican Party]]" in 1854.

The state tree is the sugar maple, the state song is "[[On Wisconsin]]", the state flower is the wood violet, the state bird is the American [[robin]], the state animal is the [[badger]], the state [[fossil]] is the [[trilobite]], and the state fish is the [[muskellunge]].<ref>http://www.legis.state.wi.us/senate/scc/kids/facts.htm</ref>
==History==
The state attracted fur trappers before the American Revolution, and enjoyed a lead mining boom in the 1830s. Wisconsin was a mining state before it was a farm state. Metallic lead could be picked up from the ground without digging. Cornish miners (from Britain) were some of the earliest European settlers of the state.<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-026/?action=more_essay Lead Mining in Southwestern Wisconsin]</ref>

Southwestern Wisconsin is now a less heavily populated agricultural region, but for a while it was the economic center of the state. The first territorial capital was Belmont,<ref>[http://www.belmontwi.com/pages/1/index.htm Belmont Wisconsin] town website</ref> located about thirty miles from Dubuque, Iowa). Lead mining peaked in the mid-1840s, and the [[California]] gold rush of 1849 drew many miners away. The current population of Belmont is 891.<ref>[http://www.idcide.com/citydata/wi/belmont.htm Belmont profile], idcide website.</ref>

Wisconsin cannot be stereotyped politically. It is often associated with the name of anti-communist crusader of the 1950s [[Joseph McCarthy]], but is equally tied to that of [[Robert M. La Follette]] and his Progressive faction of the Republican Party and the [[Progressive Party]]. Socialists flourished in [[Germania]] in Milwaukee, typified by [[Victor Berger]], the first Socialist Party candidate elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Frank Zeidler, the Mayor of Milwaukee from 1948-1960 was the last in a string of twelve socialist mayors of Milwaukee, whose emphasis on the basics of municipal service led them to be called "sewer socialists."<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-043/?action=more_essay Milwaukee Sewer Socialism, Wisconsin State Historical Association]</ref> The state is usually a battleground in presidential elections. Its Republicans tend to be moderates, such as [[Tommy Thompson]], who served as a four-term governor from 1987 to 2001, then entered the cabinet.
[[File:C-library.jpg|thumb|290px|The Carnegie Library in Ripon, built 1910]]

==Sports in Wisconsin==

[[Milwaukee]] is home to three professional sports teams. The [[Milwaukee Brewers|Brewers]] (baseball), the [[Milwaukee Bucks|Bucks]] (basketball), and the Admirals (hockey). Wisconsin is also home to the [[Green Bay Packers]] football team which has largest following of any professional sports team. Wisconsin is also home to various college sports programs, most notably the Wisconsin Badgers and the Marquette Golden Eagles.

== Abortion in Wisconsin ==

Wisconsin has the 8th lowest [[abortion rankings|abortion rate]] in the United States, and it has declined to a record low since 1974, the first year after ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'':<ref>Steven Ertelt, LifeNews.com (Apr. 9, 2007)
http://www.lifenews.com/state2218.html</ref>

:There were 9,580 [[abortion]]s done in the state in 2006, down from 9,817 in 2005. This is the third year in a row that abortions in the Midwestern state have decreased and the number is the lowest since 1974.

:"Wisconsin Right to Life is ecstatic that Wisconsin abortion numbers continue to decline," Barbara Lyons, the group's director, told LifeNews.com in a statement.

:"In addition, the abortion rate (which represents the number of abortions per 1000 women of childbearing age) remains at 8, which is one of the lowest abortion rates in the nation," Lyons added. The national abortion rate is about 15 per 1,000 women.

:In the statement, Wisconsin Right to Life<ref>http://www.wisconsinrighttolife.org</ref> suggests that the abortions are on the decline because of its work and pro-life legislation the state has enacted and polls showing that younger Americans are more pro-life than previous generations. ...

:There are 14 abortions per 100 life births in Wisconsin, lower than the 24 per 100 live births nationwide.

:In 2006, there were 596 abortions on minors. Written consent (usually by a parent) was provided in 530 of these; the patient was an emancipated minor in 24; and a court granted a petition to waive the parental consent requirement in 42. There were no teens who got abortions after being victimized by sexual assault. ...

:Some 85 percent of the abortions were surgical and 15 percent involved abortion drugs, an increase of one percent over 2005.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Campbell, Henry C. ''Wisconsin in Three Centuries, 1684-1905'' (4 vols., 1906), highly detailed popular history
* James K. Conant. ''Wisconsin Politics And Government: America's Laboratory of Democracy'' (2006)
* Richard Current, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (2001)
* Larry Gara; ''A Short History of Wisconsin'' 1962
* Holmes, Fred L. ''Wisconsin'' (5 vols., Chicago, 1946), detailed popular history with many biographies
* Robert C. Nesbit, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (rev. ed. 1989)
* Quaife, Milo M. ''Wisconsin, Its History and Its People, 1634-1924'' (4 vols., 1924), detailed popular history & biographies
* Raney, William Francis. ''Wisconsin: A Story of Progress'' (1940),
* A. H. Robinson and J. B. Culver, ed., ''The Atlas of Wisconsin'' (1974)
* I. Vogeler, ''Wisconsin: A Geography'' (1986);
* WPA, ''Wisconsin: A Guide to the Badger State'' 1941; detailed guide to every town and city, and cultural history

===Detailed scholarly studies===
* Anderson, Theodore A. ''A Century of Banking in Wisconsin'' (1954)
* Braun, John A ''Together in Christ: A history of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod'' (2000), 55 pp
* Buenker, John D. ''The History of Wisconsin. Volume IV The Progressive Era, 1893-1914'' (1998), highly detailed history
* Brøndal, Jørn. ''Ethnic Leadership and Midwestern Politics: Scandinavian Americans and the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1914.'' University of Illinois Press, 2004 ISBN 0-87732-095-0.
* Bungert, Heike, Cora Lee Kluge, and Robert Ostergren, eds. ''Wisconsin: German Land and Life.'' (Madison: Max Kade Institute, 2006. 260 pp. isbn 0-92411-926-8.)
* Butts, Porter. ''Art in Wisconsin'' ( Madison, 1936).
* Clark, James I. ''Education in Wisconsin'' (1958).
* Cochran, Thomas C. ''The Pabst Brewing Company'' (1948), the best history of any brewery
* Mike Corenthal. ''Illustrated History of Wisconsin Music 1840-1990: 150 Years'' (1991)
* Richard Nelson Current. ''History of Wisconsin: The Civil War Era, 1848-1873'' (1976) standard state history
* Curti, Merle and Carstensen, Vernon. ''The University of Wisconsin: A History'' (2 vols., 1949)
* Curti, Merle. ''The Making of an American Community A Case Study of Democracy in a Frontier County'' (1969), in-depth quantitative social history
* Fries, Robert F. ''Empire in Pine: The Story of Lumbering in Wisconsin, 1830-1900'' (1951).
* Paul Geib; "From Mississippi to Milwaukee: A Case Study of the Southern Black Migration to Milwaukee, 1940-1970" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 83, 1998
* Glad, Paul W. ''The History of Wisconsin, Volume 5: War, a New Era and Depression, 1914-1940'', standard state history
* Haney, Richard C. ''A History of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin since World War II''
* Jensen, Richard. ''The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896'' (1971)
* Lampard, Eric E. ''The Rise of the Dairy Industry in Wisconsin'' (1962).
* McBride, Genevieve G. ''On Wisconsin Women: Working for Their Rights from Settlement to Suffrage''
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96272178 Herbert F. Margulies; ''The Decline of the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1920'' (1968)]
* Merrill, Horace S. ''William Freeman Vilas: Doctrinaire Democrat'' (1954) Democratic leader in 1880s and 1890s
* Olson, Frederick I. ''Milwaukee: At the Gathering of the Waters''
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.HistAgSchaf ''A History of Agriculture in Wisconsin''], by Schafer, Joseph (1922)
* Schafer, Joseph. "The Yankee and Teuton in Wisconsin", ''Wisconsin Magazine of History,'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Dec. 1922, pp. 125-145, compares Yankee and German settlers
* Still, Bayrd. ''Milwaukee, the History of a City'' 1948 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/milwaukee-the-history-of-a-city-by-bayrd-still.jsp online edition]
* Thelen, David. ''Robert M. LaFollette and the Insurgent Spirit'' 1976.
* Unger, Nancy C. ''Fighting Bob LaFollette: The Righteous Reformer'' (2000)

===Primary sources===
*[http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/WIReader/Contents.html Wisconsin Electronic Reader] full text of many primary source books
* ''The Badger State: A documentary history of Wisconsin'' (1979)
*[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=750 La Follette's Autobiography, a personal narrative of political experiences, 1913]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]

Diomedes

2009-12-03T23:43:47Z

Rdkaster:

The term Diomedes can refer to either '''Diomedes''' , who was the son of [[Tydeus]] and king of [[Argos]] during the [[Trojan War]], or Diomedes, an ancient Greek and a fervent supporter of the oligarchical government who sought to use violent means to secure his objectives.
{{Nb mythology iliad}}

Islam

2009-12-03T23:37:52Z

Rdkaster: /* Jihad */

'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen was limited to the crusade era, although it makes reappearance in premodern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denoted the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam.<ref>For example see the account of Jeremias Cacavelas: The Siege of Vienna,1683</ref>

Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The faith teaches that the [[Archangel]] [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim".

Muslims believe that God revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad and, despite his illiteracy, caused him to transcribe it <ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and [[holy]] word of God. Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam claims to trace its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, [[the Bible]], [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]], is believed to have become corrupted through he translations and misinterpretations accumulated over the millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. ''For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]]''

[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]
Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.5 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Many believe that Islam is, with [[Atheism]], currently the greatest threat to [[Christianity]] and [[Christian values]], <ref>[http://christianblogs.christianet.com/1134840164.htm Is Islam a Threat to Christianity?]</ref><ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/5/8/183305.shtml Islam's Threat to the West]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/stock/050413 Why Islam Hates Christianity]</ref> and the overwhelming majority of modern international [[terrorist|terrorists]] who make headlines are Muslims. It should be noted that only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions. It should also be noted that contrary to popular conception the department of homeland security considers right wing white supremacist terrorist groups to be the most important domestic terror threat<ref>citation needed</ref>.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the bloody military spread of Islam into Christian countries in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====
For the most part, the Qur'an treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.

Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, and point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, and point to past Christian-dominated cultures such as medieval Europe as examples that other religions can be distorted to justify oppression.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect, not constrict, women, or that many Muslim women adopt the life style of the veil voluntarily. There are Muslim women who agree and disagree with the critics.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that Christians will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified:

"Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."

Qur'an 5:73-75

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.<ref>citation needed</ref> Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

==Prominent Muslims==
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Muhammad Ali]]
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
*[[Yusef Islam]]
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Muhammad Yunus]]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Wisconsin

2009-12-03T23:32:38Z

Rdkaster:

{{USState
|name=Wisconsin
|flag=wisc_flag.jpg
|motto=Forward
|nick=The Badger State
|capital=Madison
|language=None
|governor=Jim Doyle
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=Russ Feingold
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-5323
|s1email=http://feingold.senate.gov/contact_opinion.html Contact
|senator2=Herb Kohl
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-5653
|s2email=http://kohl.senate.gov/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=May 29, 1848 (30th)
}}
[[Image:Wisconsin ref 2001.jpg|300 px|thumb|right|Geographic map of Wisconsin]]
'''Wisconsin''', the "Badger State", or unofficially "America's Dairyland", was the thirtieth state to enter the union, on May 29, 1848. The capital city of Wisconsin is [[Madison]].

The town of Ripon in Wisconsin was "The Birthplace of the [[Republican Party]]" in 1854.

The state tree is the sugar maple, the state song is "[[On Wisconsin]]", the state flower is the wood violet, the state bird is the American [[robin]], the state animal is the [[badger]], the state [[fossil]] is the [[trilobite]], and the state fish is the [[muskellunge]].<ref>http://www.legis.state.wi.us/senate/scc/kids/facts.htm</ref>
==History==
The state attracted fur trappers before the American Revolution, and enjoyed a lead mining boom in the 1830s. Wisconsin was a mining state before it was a farm state. Metallic lead could be picked up from the ground without digging. Cornish miners (from Britain) were some of the earliest European settlers of the state.<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-026/?action=more_essay Lead Mining in Southwestern Wisconsin]</ref>

Southwestern Wisconsin is now a less heavily populated agricultural region, but for a while it was the economic center of the state. The first territorial capital was Belmont,<ref>[http://www.belmontwi.com/pages/1/index.htm Belmont Wisconsin] town website</ref> located about thirty miles from Dubuque, Iowa). Lead mining peaked in the mid-1840s, and the [[California]] gold rush of 1849 drew many miners away. The current population of Belmont is 891.<ref>[http://www.idcide.com/citydata/wi/belmont.htm Belmont profile], idcide website.</ref>

Wisconsin cannot be stereotyped politically. It is often associated with the name of anti-communist crusader of the 1950s [[Joseph McCarthy]], but is equally tied to that of [[Robert M. La Follette]] and his Progressive faction of the Republican Party and the [[Progressive Party]]. Socialists flourished in [[Germania]] in Milwaukee, typified by [[Victor Berger]], the first Socialist Party candidate elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Frank Zeidler, the Mayor of Milwaukee from 1948-1960 was the last in a string of twelve socialist mayors of Milwaukee, whose emphasis on the basics of municipal service led them to be called "sewer socialists."<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-043/?action=more_essay Milwaukee Sewer Socialism, Wisconsin State Historical Association]</ref> The state is usually a battleground in presidential elections. Its Republicans tend to be moderates, such as [[Tommy Thompson]], who served as a four-term governor from 1987 to 2001, then entered the cabinet.
[[File:C-library.jpg|thumb|290px|The Carnegie Library in Ripon, built 1910]]

==Sports in Wisconsin==

[[Milwaukee]] is home to three professional sports teams. The [[Milwaukee Brewers|Brewers]] (baseball), the [[Milwaukee Bucks|Bucks]] (basketball), and the Admirals (hockey). Wisconsin is also home to the [[Green Bay Packers]] football team which has largest following of any professional sports team. Wisconsin is also home to various college sports programs, most notably the Wisconsin Badgers and the Marquette Golden Eagles.

== Abortion in Wisconsin ==

Wisconsin has the 8th lowest [[abortion rankings|abortion rate]] in the United States, and it has declined to a record low since 1974, the first year after, indicating the superior moral fiber of the constituents of the state. ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'':<ref>Steven Ertelt, LifeNews.com (Apr. 9, 2007)
http://www.lifenews.com/state2218.html</ref>

:There were 9,580 [[abortion]]s done in the state in 2006, down from 9,817 in 2005. This is the third year in a row that abortions in the Midwestern state have decreased and the number is the lowest since 1974.

:"Wisconsin Right to Life is ecstatic that Wisconsin abortion numbers continue to decline," Barbara Lyons, the group's director, told LifeNews.com in a statement.

:"In addition, the abortion rate (which represents the number of abortions per 1000 women of childbearing age) remains at 8, which is one of the lowest abortion rates in the nation," Lyons added. The national abortion rate is about 15 per 1,000 women.

:In the statement, Wisconsin Right to Life<ref>http://www.wisconsinrighttolife.org</ref> suggests that the abortions are on the decline because of its work and pro-life legislation the state has enacted and polls showing that younger Americans are more pro-life than previous generations. ...

:There are 14 abortions per 100 life births in Wisconsin, lower than the 24 per 100 live births nationwide.

:In 2006, there were 596 abortions on minors. Written consent (usually by a parent) was provided in 530 of these; the patient was an emancipated minor in 24; and a court granted a petition to waive the parental consent requirement in 42. There were no teens who got abortions after being victimized by sexual assault. ...

:Some 85 percent of the abortions were surgical and 15 percent involved abortion drugs, an increase of one percent over 2005.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Campbell, Henry C. ''Wisconsin in Three Centuries, 1684-1905'' (4 vols., 1906), highly detailed popular history
* James K. Conant. ''Wisconsin Politics And Government: America's Laboratory of Democracy'' (2006)
* Richard Current, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (2001)
* Larry Gara; ''A Short History of Wisconsin'' 1962
* Holmes, Fred L. ''Wisconsin'' (5 vols., Chicago, 1946), detailed popular history with many biographies
* Robert C. Nesbit, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (rev. ed. 1989)
* Quaife, Milo M. ''Wisconsin, Its History and Its People, 1634-1924'' (4 vols., 1924), detailed popular history & biographies
* Raney, William Francis. ''Wisconsin: A Story of Progress'' (1940),
* A. H. Robinson and J. B. Culver, ed., ''The Atlas of Wisconsin'' (1974)
* I. Vogeler, ''Wisconsin: A Geography'' (1986);
* WPA, ''Wisconsin: A Guide to the Badger State'' 1941; detailed guide to every town and city, and cultural history

===Detailed scholarly studies===
* Anderson, Theodore A. ''A Century of Banking in Wisconsin'' (1954)
* Braun, John A ''Together in Christ: A history of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod'' (2000), 55 pp
* Buenker, John D. ''The History of Wisconsin. Volume IV The Progressive Era, 1893-1914'' (1998), highly detailed history
* Brøndal, Jørn. ''Ethnic Leadership and Midwestern Politics: Scandinavian Americans and the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1914.'' University of Illinois Press, 2004 ISBN 0-87732-095-0.
* Bungert, Heike, Cora Lee Kluge, and Robert Ostergren, eds. ''Wisconsin: German Land and Life.'' (Madison: Max Kade Institute, 2006. 260 pp. isbn 0-92411-926-8.)
* Butts, Porter. ''Art in Wisconsin'' ( Madison, 1936).
* Clark, James I. ''Education in Wisconsin'' (1958).
* Cochran, Thomas C. ''The Pabst Brewing Company'' (1948), the best history of any brewery
* Mike Corenthal. ''Illustrated History of Wisconsin Music 1840-1990: 150 Years'' (1991)
* Richard Nelson Current. ''History of Wisconsin: The Civil War Era, 1848-1873'' (1976) standard state history
* Curti, Merle and Carstensen, Vernon. ''The University of Wisconsin: A History'' (2 vols., 1949)
* Curti, Merle. ''The Making of an American Community A Case Study of Democracy in a Frontier County'' (1969), in-depth quantitative social history
* Fries, Robert F. ''Empire in Pine: The Story of Lumbering in Wisconsin, 1830-1900'' (1951).
* Paul Geib; "From Mississippi to Milwaukee: A Case Study of the Southern Black Migration to Milwaukee, 1940-1970" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 83, 1998
* Glad, Paul W. ''The History of Wisconsin, Volume 5: War, a New Era and Depression, 1914-1940'', standard state history
* Haney, Richard C. ''A History of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin since World War II''
* Jensen, Richard. ''The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896'' (1971)
* Lampard, Eric E. ''The Rise of the Dairy Industry in Wisconsin'' (1962).
* McBride, Genevieve G. ''On Wisconsin Women: Working for Their Rights from Settlement to Suffrage''
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96272178 Herbert F. Margulies; ''The Decline of the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1920'' (1968)]
* Merrill, Horace S. ''William Freeman Vilas: Doctrinaire Democrat'' (1954) Democratic leader in 1880s and 1890s
* Olson, Frederick I. ''Milwaukee: At the Gathering of the Waters''
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.HistAgSchaf ''A History of Agriculture in Wisconsin''], by Schafer, Joseph (1922)
* Schafer, Joseph. "The Yankee and Teuton in Wisconsin", ''Wisconsin Magazine of History,'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Dec. 1922, pp. 125-145, compares Yankee and German settlers
* Still, Bayrd. ''Milwaukee, the History of a City'' 1948 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/milwaukee-the-history-of-a-city-by-bayrd-still.jsp online edition]
* Thelen, David. ''Robert M. LaFollette and the Insurgent Spirit'' 1976.
* Unger, Nancy C. ''Fighting Bob LaFollette: The Righteous Reformer'' (2000)

===Primary sources===
*[http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/WIReader/Contents.html Wisconsin Electronic Reader] full text of many primary source books
* ''The Badger State: A documentary history of Wisconsin'' (1979)
*[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=750 La Follette's Autobiography, a personal narrative of political experiences, 1913]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]

Flying Spaghetti Monster

2009-12-03T23:25:44Z

Rdkaster:

"Pastafarianism" is the worship of a flying pile of spaghetti and meatballs as a God. Pastafarians call their God the "Flying Spaghetti Monster." They worship him by eating spaghetti and dressing in pirate regalia. Members of the religion also hold pirates in high esteem, claiming that they were good men whose deeds were perverted by the media. They cite the decline of their heroes to the increase in carbon emissions over the past centuries, instead of attributing it to the true cause of public resentment and more efficient naval operations.
=Logical Shortcomings=

Unlike Christianity, the religion of Pastafarians falls apart under any sort of inspection. The pirates, who they elevate to near godhood beside their flying bowl of pasta, have been proven to historically be a violent, bloodthirsty group, not the child-loving persecuted pacifists the Pastafarians believe them to be. Also, the very idea that carbon emissions could affect pirate population is absurd. It belongs with discarded, poorly-backed theories like global warming.
==Powers and Abilities==
According to the letter by Bobby Henderson, the Flying Spaghetti Monster has the following powers:
*Flight
*Invisibility
*Can travel through solid matter
*Can create and alter anything
*Plants evidence and changes test results to confuse [[evolutionists]]

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />

[[category:culture]]

Mayan 2012 prediction

2009-12-03T23:21:13Z

Rdkaster:

The Mayan 2012 prediction refers to a belief that the ''Long Count calendar'' (the modern term) of the ancient [[Maya]] civilization, foretells the end of the world on December 21 or 23, 2012, the date of the winter solstice, at the end of the ''Grand (or Great) Cycle''. The prediction is an interpretation of an inscription on the ''Monument Six'' tablet, found at an obscure ruin in southern Mexico, which was uncovered during highway construction in the 1960s.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,563621,00.html?test=latestnews</ref> However, the prediction that the world will end in December 2012 is seen to have begun by misconstruing Sumerian documents.<ref>David Morrison, ''Nibiru and Doomsday 2012: Questions and Answers'', NASA, June 1, 2009, http://astrobiology.nasa.gov</ref>

The Long Count calendar, which was discontinued under [[Spanish]] colonization, is also called the 13th ''baktun'', and tracks more than 5,000 years, then resets at year zero. A “Grand Cycle” consists of 13 baktuns, each of which numbers 144,000 days, making for a grand total 1,872,000 days, equating to 5,139.44 solar years, and marking the number of days that have elapsed since the beginning of the present world, as determined an unknown priest in the year 236 B.C.<ref>Vincent H. Malmström, Professor Emeritus (Geography) Dartmouth College, ''The Astronomical Insignificance of Maya Date 13.0.0.0.''</ref>

On the winter solstice in 2012, at 11:11 p.m. (UT), the sun will be aligned with the center of the Milky Way for the first time in about 26,000 years, which is expected to result in somewhat of a disruption of energy which usually streams to Earth from the center of the Milky Way.

However, scientists greatly doubt that the Mayas foresaw any event of astronomical significance taking place on that date, and astronomer Phil Plait<ref>Bad Astronomy blog</ref> states that the alignment do not fall precisely in 2012, and that distant stars do not exert any force which could harm Earth.

In addition, the use of the Long Count among Mayan city-states was not uniform, and some evidence suggests that some of the [[pagan]] priests understood that the cycle would end after 20 baktuns.<ref>[http://www.famsi.org/research/vanstone/2012/index.html by Mark Van Stone, ''It's Not the End of the World: What the Ancient Maya Tell Us About 2012]</ref> Archaeologist, Guillermo Bernal of Mexico's National Autonomous University states there are other inscriptions at Mayan sites for dates far beyond 2012. The Mayan LongCount calendar is seen to allow a far greater age for the earth. <ref>[http://www.blackcatsys.net/calMayan.html The Mayan Calendar]</ref>

Erosion and a crack in the Monument Six stone also renders the end of the inscription to be almost illegible. Bernal understands the final and eroded symbolic art as perhaps stating, "He will descend from the sky", and states there are other inscriptions at Mayan sites for dates far beyond 2012.

The general scientific consensus is that there is no evidence that the Mayans thought that the world would come to an end at the end of the Great Cycle.<ref>Susan Milbrath, Florida Museum of Natural History</ref> David Stuart, a specialist in Mayan epigraphy at the University of Texas at Austin, states, "The Maya never said the world is going to end, they never said anything bad would happen necessarily, they're just recording this future anniversary on Monument Six."<ref>Mark Stevenson, ''2012 isn't the end of the world, Mayans insist'', Associated Press, Sunday, October 11, 2009 </ref> Rather than an apocalypse being expected, research reveals that this day would have been a grand celebration, due to having made it to the end of a whole cycle, and construing Dec. 21, 2012 to be a doomsday is “a complete fabrication and a chance for a lot of people to cash in.”<ref>Sandra Noble, executive director of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies in Crystal River, Florida.</ref>

As of October 11, 2009, there were over 264 results for books listed on Amazon.com dealing with dealing with 2012 prophecy. Its popularity over Bible prophecy may be seen as being due to the lack of a moral message, which is seen in the prophecies of the Bible.

The supposed date for the end of the world is December 21, 2012, during the time in which Barack Obama would be taking aggressive actions to push through his socialist agenda in the likely event that he is ousted in the next election.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

Sarah Palin

2009-12-03T23:15:52Z

Rdkaster:

{{Officeholder
|name=Sarah Palin
|image=Sarah Palin.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=[[Todd Palin]]
|religion=Christian
|offices=

{{Officeholder/governor
|state=Alaska
|terms=December 4, 2006-July 26, 2009
|preceded=[[Frank Murkowski]]
|former=n
|succeeded=[[Sean Parnell]]
}}
}}

'''Sarah Louise Heath Palin''' (pronounced pay'-lynn) (born February 11, 1964) served as the [[conservative]] [[Republican Party|Republican]] [[Governor]] of [[Alaska]] from 2006 through 2009. She is the youngest person to hold this office as well as the first woman to do so in the state's history, with the ensuing speculation suggesting that she might be doing so in order to prepare to win the White House from Barry Soetoro (aka Barack Obama) in 2012. On July 3, 2009 Palin announced that she would resign as Governor of Alaska. <ref>http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/palin_not_running/2009/07/03/231789.html</ref> Executive power was transferred to [[Lieutenant Governor]] [[Sean Parnell]].
Palin was Senator [[John McCain]]'s Vice Presidential running mate in the [[2008 Presidential Election]]<ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/08/palins_vp_selection_speech.html Acceptance Speech by Palin]</ref>, and the first woman to appear on a Republican Presidential ticket.

She brought a [[populism|populist]] image and a record of cutting wasteful spending and reforming government to McCain's ticket. In the summer of 2007, she was the most popular governor in America, after cutting 13% of [[Alaska]]'s budget.<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/013/851orcjq.asp</ref> She is strongly [[pro-life]] and a prominent spokesperson for [[special needs]] children. She favors more competition in health care, and pushed for abolishing the [[certificate of need]] regulations that interfere with opening new medical clinics.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/04/AR2008090403253.html?referrer=emailarticle</ref>

Married for 20 years, Sarah Palin's husband is a member of the United Steelworkers Union and her eldest son (of five children) is in the [[United States Army]], scheduled to go to Iraq. In an appearance on August 30, 2008 in Washington, Pennsylvania, she was greeted by a surprisingly large crowd as she promoted the new McCain-Palin ticket.

She earned her Journalism degree from the University of [[Idaho]]<ref>http://www.adn.com/palin/story/516085.html</ref> and worked in the media and the utility industry before beginning her public service 14 years ago.

==Personal Background==
[[Image:Sarah Palin Todd Trig.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this April 23, 2008 file photo, Alaska Gov. Sarah Palin, left, and her husband, Todd Palin, hold their baby boy Trig in Anchorage, Alaska. 
''Photo courtesy of Newsmax.com'']]
Palin arrived in Alaska with her family in 1964, when her parents came to teach school in Skagway. Palin attended Wasilla High School where her extracurricular activities included captaining the basketball team which went on to win the state championship <ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122108935141721343.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Obama Can't Win Against Palin] Wall Street Journal, September 11, 2008</ref> after graduating in 1982. She went on to college, after attending several institutions she received a bachelor of science degree in communications-journalism from the University of Idaho in 1987. Over the course of her 44 years in Alaska she has lived in Skagway, Eagle River and Wasilla. To earn money for college, Palin entered beauty pageants.

She is married to [[Todd Palin]], part Yupik [[Eskimo]], who is a lifelong Alaskan, works at a non-management union job in the oil industry, and also as a commercial salmon fisherman. He is a four-time champion of the Iron Dog, the world's longest snowmobile race.

Sarah Palin is a [[Labor union | union]] member, a [[moose]] hunter and holds a membership in the [[NRA]].<ref>[http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/08/29/mccain-to-name-running-mate-on-friday/ McCain Names Alaska Gov. Palin as Running Mate] Fox News, August 29, 2008</ref> Todd and Sarah have five children together: Track, Bristol, Willow, Piper, and Trig.

Palin has been widely praised among conservatives for acting on her [[pro-life]] beliefs in the case of her youngest son, Trig, who was diagnosed with [[Down syndrome]] in the fourth month of her pregnancy. After researching the condition, she and her husband agreed to continue to pregnancy:
: "[My husband Todd said,] we shouldn't be asking 'Why us?' We should be saying 'Well, why not us?' We've both been very vocal about being pro life. We understand that every innocent life has wonderful potential. I'm looking at him right now, and I see perfection. Yeah, he has an extra chromosome. I keep thinking, in our world, what is normal and what is perfect?" <ref>http://www.celebrity-babies.com/2008/05/gov-sarah-palin.html</ref> <ref>[http://www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=29242 Canadian Doctors 'Fear' Sarah Palin's Choice May Start a Trend] Catholic Online, September 11, 2008</ref>

Trig was born on April 18, 2008, four months before his mother was announced as the vice-presidential candidate. Palin wrote:
:"This new person in your life can help everyone put things in perspective and bind us together, and get everyone focused on what really matters ... Those who love him will think less about self and focus less on what the world tells [us] is 'normal' or 'perfect.'"<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

:"It's a sign of the times to be able to do this," she said. "I can think of so many male candidates who watched a families grow while they were in office. There is no reason to believe a woman can't do it with a growing family. My baby will not be at all or in any sense neglected."<ref>Alaska governor balances newborn's needs, official duties [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-05-10-4082128881_x.htm]</ref>

Palin's older son, Track, serves in the U.S. Army, and was deployed to [[Iraq War|Iraq]] in September 2008. Palin says, "I'm proud of him but I worry."<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

In September of 2008, Palin announced that her daughter Bristol was five months pregnant. After having been given the choice, Bristol bravely chose to keep the child. Palin stated "We're proud of Bristol's decision to have her baby and even prouder to become grandparents."<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080901/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_palin_daughter Palin says 17-year-old daughter is pregnant]</ref> Bristol has since gone on to promote abstinence as a realistic choice for teenagers, stating, "[A]bstinence is the only way you can effectively, 100% foolproof way you can prevent pregnancy."<ref>http://www.lifenews.com/nat5025.html</ref>

[[Image:Palin Family..jpg|thumb|left|Palin family members at the announcement of Palin's vice presidential selection, August 29, 2008. From left: Todd, Piper, Willow, Bristol, and Trig.]]

==Political Career==
Palin was elected to two terms on the Wasilla City Council, and then two terms as the Mayor / Manager of Alaska's fastest growing community (Population: 5400 in 2000)<ref>[http://wasilla.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm Wasilla Population and Demographics]</ref>. During her time as mayor, Palin hired a Washington lobbying firm to help secure $8 million in congressionally directed spending projects, otherwise known as earmarks.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-08-31-palin-bridge_N.htm Palin backed 'bridge to nowhere' in 2006]</ref> Ms. Palin's leadership qualities were recognized when she was elected as President of the Alaska Conference of Mayors. In 2002, she ran for Lieutenant Governor, but came in second in a four-way race. Later that year, when [[Frank Murkowski]] resigned his [[Senate]] seat to become [[governor]], she interviewed for the opening. Instead, Murkowski appointed his daughter to the seat. From there, she went on to run for governor and won, becoming the first female governor of Alaska and its youngest.

In 2003, then-Governor Mukowski appointed Palin to serve as Panel Ethics Commissioner of Alaska's Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, which regulates Alaska's [[non-renewable energy|non-renewable]] resources: [[oil]] and [[gasoline|gas]]. She resigned in 2004 as a protest over the "lack of ethics" of fellow panelists who had ignored her complaints of legal violations and conflicts of interest. In a similar vein, Palin took a great political risk by revealing that Randy Reudrich, chairman of the state Republican party, was doing political business on state time. She did this to fulfil a [[conflict of interest]] statement that required her to report such things; to omit the revelation would have been dishonest. But it turned out that this action endeared her to the people of Alaska.<ref>[http://churchformen.blogspot.com/2008/09/people-around-world-are-asking-who-is.html Sarah Palin, a friend of mine] </ref>

To help cultivate influence and political clout in the state, Palin served from 2003 - June, 2005 as one of three directors of the "Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.", a 527 group that raised funds from corporate donors.<ref>[http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/09/01/palin_was_a_director_of_embatt.html#more Palin Was a Director of Embattled Sen. Ted Stevens's 527 Group]</ref> The stated purpose of the group is, "To increase the number of Republican women in elected offices and in appointed governmental and political positions, including advisory and regulatory commissions through training and education."<ref>[http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/527/ted_stevens_excellence_in_public_service_inc.asp Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.]</ref>

She ran for Governor in 2006 on a clean government platform, and accomplished a political rarity in defeating the incumbent Governor [[Frank Murkowski]] in his own Republican primary. Palin went on to defeat former Governor [[Tony Knowles]] in the general election.

She has also served on the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission. She was named one of Alaska's "Top 40 Under 40", Alaska's Public Works "Person of the Year", and was recently inducted into the Sigma Beta Delta Honor Society at Alaska Pacific University.

Palin has served on numerous boards and commissions throughout the State, and stays active as a marathon runner, sports team mom, hockey manager and school volunteer. A lifetime member of the [[NRA]], she enjoys hunting, fishing, and Alaska history. <ref>http://gov.state.ak.us/bio.php Alaska Governor Sarah Palin</ref>
===Resignation===
In July of 2009, Governor Palin shocked Alaska and the nation with her announcement that she would resign her office effective July 26, 2009. She explained:
{{Cquote|My choice is to take a stand and effect change – not hit our heads against the wall and watch valuable state time and money, millions of your dollars, go down the drain in this new environment. Rather, we know we can effect positive change outside government at this moment in time, on another scale, and actually make a difference for our priorities – and so we will, for Alaskans and for Americans.<ref>[http://www.gov.state.ak.us/exec-column.php Executive Column: Palin's resignation announcement]</ref>}}

==Record as Governor==
===Energy and Oil===

A strong supporter of harnessing [[oil]] and natural [[gas]] resources, Palin presented the Alaska Gasline Inducement Act (AGIA) in March 2007, which would be the new legal vehicle for building a natural gas pipeline from the state's North Slope.<ref>http://www.newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/29/palin-alaska-gasline-inducement-act-nears-completi/</ref> It received bipartisan support and was signed into law by Governor Palin in June. In August of 2008 she signed legislation giving state authority to award TransCanada Corp a license to build and operate a multibillion-dollar pipeline to ship natural gas from the North Slope.<ref>http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/story.html?id=2e84b1e8-9a4a-4558-ad05-21b517c50fae</ref> As Governor, Palin created a new subcabinet that will develop policies to reduce greenhouse gases and help the state adapt to [[climate change]]. She supports oil production in ANWR, connecting it with national security.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GE11URmmnc</ref>

In 2007, over the objections of oil companies, Palin worked with the Alaska state legislature to approve a major increase in taxes on the oil industry. <ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2008103325_alaskatax07.html Windfall tax lets Alaska rake in billions from Big Oil]</ref> The state then gave Alaskans a $1200 check to pay for increased gas prices, using the increased revenues from the tax.<ref>[http://hotair.com/archives/2008/08/11/palin-backed-alaskan-windfall-profits-tax/ Palin backed Alaskan windfalls-profit tax]</ref>

Palin also announced on May 21, 2008 that the state would challenge a recent listing of [[polar bears]] as a threatened species as she and other Alaska elected officials feared such a listing would cripple oil and gas development in prime polar bear habitat off the state's northern and northwestern coasts. Palin's belief is that there is not enough evidence to support a listing, asserting that polar bears are well-managed and their population has dramatically increased over 30 years as a result of conservation.

===State Economy===
[[Image:Govp_2008stos_large.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gov. Sarah Palin delivering her 2008 State of the State address]] At first, Palin supported the Gravina Island Bridge Project, otherwise known as the "Bridge to Nowhere". In September 2006, during a stop in [[Ketchikan]] as part of her gubernatorial campaign, Palin stated, "OK, you've got Valley trash standing here in the middle of nowhere," Palin said, according to an account in the Ketchikan Daily News. "I think we're going to make a good team as we progress that bridge project."<ref>[http://www.adn.com/sarahpalin/story/511471.html Palin touts stance on 'Bridge to Nowhere']</ref> The $398 million bridge would have connected Ketchikan, on Revillagigedo Island in southern southeast Alaska, to its airport on nearby Gravina island. The Anchorage Daily News also quoted her in an October, 2006 article as saying yes, she would continue state funding for the bridge because she wanted swift action on infrastructure projects. "The window is now while our congressional delegation is in a strong position to assist," she said.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080831/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_bridge_to_nowhere;_ylt=Am.NkRx1mLWk9A34FLhn8IADW7oF Critics: Palin used 'Bridge to Nowhere' for gain]</ref> Palin announced her opposition to the project in a 2007 press release.

She has stated her opposition arose because of the excessive amount of pork-barrel spending in the project, and that she would not fund the $329 million that was short for the budget.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/09/22/alaska.bridge.ap/</ref> This reversal cost her the support of prominent Alaskan Republicans like Former state House Speaker Gail Phillips, who said, "You don't tell a group of Alaskans you support something and then go to someplace else and say you oppose it". Palin instead said that the best option would be to upgrade the ferry system. However, the money that was retained from the earmark was not used for the ferry system, but was spent building a road on Gravina Island that links to the site of the canceled bridge.<ref name="bridge">http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN3125537020080901 Palin "bridge to nowhere" line angers many Alaskans</ref>

Prominent Alaskan politicians criticized Palin for not "giving back" money earmarked for the project. These critics included her Republican campaign coordinator in Ketchikan, who stated that "She said 'thanks but no thanks,' but they kept the money".<ref name="bridge" /> However, state governments do not "give back" money in the manner proposed.

Three times during Palin's time as mayor, earmark funding for projects in Wasilla were noted in [[John McCain]]'s list of "objectionable" spending in 2001 and 2002. McCain's list of spending approved without normal budget scrutiny identified a $500,000 earmark for a public transportation project in the city and a $1 million earmark for an emergency communications center while $450,000 was set aside for an agricultural processing facility.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/la-na-earmarks3-2008sep03,0,6145252.story McCain had criticized earmarks from Palin]</ref> Palin, of course, as mayor of a small town had no ability to put these items in a Congressional bill, but her town did benefit from earmarked spending given to Alaska.

=== Foreign Policy ===
[[Image:Ftwainwright_govp_05s.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Governor Sarah Palin visits Strykers at Fort Wainwright, where she is briefed on how the troops are trained and what the training grounds provide.]]
Palin served as Commander in Chief of the Alaska Army [[National Guard]]. In 2007 she visited troops in [[Germany]] and [[Kuwait]]. According to Major General Craig E. Campbell, the adjutant general of the Alaska National Guard who commands the roughly 3,800 state militia members, the Alaskan governor is not in the site's chain of command and has no authority over its operations. He told the Associated Press on August 31st that he and Palin play no role in national defense activities, even when they involve the Alaska National Guard. He went on to state that the entire operation is under federal control.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/08/31/ap/politics/main4401854.shtml GOP Cites Palin's Skill, But How Relevant Is It?]</ref>

During her first major interview, with ABC's [[Charlie Gibson]], Gibson asked Palin if she agreed with the "[[Bush Doctrine]]". Palin responded, "In what respect, Charlie?" Gibson followed, "What do you interpret it to be?" Palin answered with another question, "His world view?" Gibson still refused to answer directly but instead stated it was the doctrine Bush had proposed in September of 2002, before the Iraq war. Palin gave a response concerning Bush's attempt to eradicate Islamic extremism. Gibson then explained that the Bush doctrine refers to the right of anticipatory defense, a right to a preemptive strike against any country that we think is going to attack us. <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpJsQch9uZo Asked about the Bush Doctrine...Palin is Clueless]</ref> What Gibson did not point out is that he himself once gave a definition of the "Bush doctrine" (a concept made up by the press that has no clear definition) that was similar to Palin's answer. Indeed it has been pointed out since that there are actually four different versions of what the Bush doctrine is and the term and meaning changes over time and place.<ref>http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/09/12/palins-definition-of-bush-doctrine-hits-the-gibson-mark/</ref>

===Legislature Investigation===
In August of 2008, the [[Alaska]] state legislature began an investigation of Palin and her staff for potential abuse of power in regards to a firing of Commissioner of Public Safety Walter Monegan. Legally, Palin could dismiss Monegan at any time as he serves at the pleasure of the governor. Monegan was dismissed from his position in July of 2008, which Palin's political opponents claim was due to Monegan's refusal to fire trooper Mike Wooten, Palin's former brother-in-law who had a history of complaints including tasering his 10 year old stepson.<ref name="pc">http://www.postchronicle.com/news/original/article_212168861.shtml</ref> Palin says she released Monegan due to differences on budgeting. In an interview Monegan said that he was never told specifically by Sarah Palin to fire the state trooper Mike Wooten. <ref name="pc" />

Palin has denied the charges and, as is customary, the State of Alaska has hired a lawyer to represent her office in the investigation. August 25th, the Legislative Council voted 12-0 to hire Hollis French as the investigator. <ref>[http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=59d_1220063478 Investigation into Governor Sarah Palin's abuse of powers] CBS 11, August 30, 2008</ref> The Senate Judiciary Committee voted 3-2 and the House Judiciary Committee voted 7-0. The State's attorney released this statement:<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/cvn_palin_troopergate Palin hires attorney for Troopergate investigation]</ref>

:The governor of every state gets legal counsel and this attorney is part of a weeks-old effort to provide this governor defense in a series of outlandish politically motivated charges. This legal defense is neither new nor uncommon nor at all political. It is a matter of her job and is not recent and it is not related to her selection on the McCain-Palin ticket.

The McCain campaign came out with a picture that includes three lead state Democratic legislators investigating the Branchflower probe, known as ‘Troopergate'. The photo shows the three of them at [[Obama]] headquarters in Anchorage, Alaska in July. The McCain campaign said the whole investigation is politically tainted and compromised. Republican Rep. John Coghill of North Pole called on managing investigator, legislator French to step down from the probe, saying he no longer had confidence in his objectivity. "These statements cause me to think that the report is already written even though the investigation is only just begun and the most important witnesses have not even been interviewed,” Coghill wrote in a letter calling for French’s replacement. “The investigation appears to be lacking in fairness, neutrality and due process.” <ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/2078644/posts McCain Camp has pictures of "troopergate" investigators at Obama Headquarters] FreeRepublic.com, September 9, 2008</ref> Democratic State Senator Kim Elton, head of the legislative council overseeing the investigation, said the decisions made by Sen. Hollis French "have been appropriate, bipartisan ... and unchallenged" and that French has called the comments he made last week "regrettable".<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/08/palin.investigation/ Head of Palin trooper probe will stay, lawmaker says]</ref> Lawyer Thomas Van Flein called the investigation "unlawful and unconstitutional" and said the man hired to run it, former prosecutor Stephen Branchflower, has a conflict of interest because he is a friend of the fired commissioner. <ref>[http://www.adn.com/troopergate/story/522488.html Palin's attorney calls investigator biased] Ap, September 11, 2008</ref>

The investigation issued its report for the Alaska State Legislative Council on October 10, 2008, concluding that Monegan's refusal to fire the trooper was not the sole reason he was dismissed, but was likely a contributing factor. The author of the report, Stephen Branchflower, focused on two questions of the inquiry: did Palin fire Walt Monegan improperly, and was the firing solely because of his refusal to fire her ex brother-in-law. "Governor Palin knowingly permitted a situation to continue where impermissible pressure was placed on several subordinates in order to advance a personal agenda, to wit: to get Trooper Michael Wooten fired," Branchflower wrote.<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref> Based on this, Branchflower claims that "I find that Governor Sarah Palin abused her power by violating Alaska Statute 39.52.110(a) of the Alaska Executive Branch Ethics Act."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/DOWNLOAD.pdf Page 8</ref>

In accordance with the second question the report focused on, Branchflower wrote, "I find that, although Walt Monegan's refusal to fire Trooper Michael Wooten was not the sole reason he was fired by Governor Sarah Palin, it was likely a contributing factor to his termination as Commissioner of Public Safety," Branchflower wrote. The second finding of the report reads: "In spite of that, Governor Palin's firing of Commissioner Monegan was a proper and lawful exercise of her constitutional and statutory authority to hire and fire executive branch department heads." Branchflower also dismissed the Palins' assertions that they were afraid of Wooten because of threats they said he made. "Such claims of fear were not bona fide and were offered to provide cover for the Palins' real motivation: to get Trooper Wooten fired for personal family related reasons," he wrote. <ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_10692757?source=most_viewed</ref> A preemptive response to this report was issued by the McCain/Palin campaign on October 9th, in which the campaign's own investigation concluded that Palin "acted within her proper and lawful authority in the reassignment of Walt Monegan".<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref>

In the end the "October Surprise" predicted by the head of the commission came to pass. Although the commission was asked not to release its findings until after the election to avoid political posturing, they refused to do so. Apart from tarring and feathering Palin, the report made no recommendations for any further inquiries or punishment, as it was understood that there was no case to do so. No direct reports of Sarah Palin abusing her power were ever produced or asking for the official to be fired were ever produced, but that didn't stop the report from drawing its conclusions based upon conjecture without evidence. Indeed, after the hoopla over the report subsided, the state personnel board released its finding that exonnerated her of any wrongdoing.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081104/ap_on_el_pr/palin_troopergate</ref>

==Vice Presidential Candidate==

[[Image:Mccainpalin.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Sarah Palin vice presidential announcement, 08/29/08.]] On August 29, 2008, Palin was announced to be the Vice Presidential nominee for Republican Senator John McCain <ref>http://www.newsmax.com/headlines/sarah_palin_vp/2008/08/29/126138.html</ref>. The selection was a surprise, as those in the media were expecting [[Minnesota]] Governor [[Tim Pawlenty]] or former [[Massachusetts]]'s Governor [[Mitt Romney]]. Palin adds youth and executive experience to the ticket. She is the second female Vice Presidential candidate of a major party in U.S. history and the first one on a Republican ticket. The first was [[Geraldine Ferraro]], who the Democratic Party put on the ticket under [[Walter Mondale]] in 1984.

Palin's speech before the Republican convention on Wednesday, September 3rd was watched by over 40 million people. She had as many people turn in to see her as watched Obama's acceptance speech on the final day of the Democratic convention. Palin has also been attacked by the press on a level not seen since [[Dan Quayle]], although she ultimately handled it much better.
===Democrat Responses===
In a possible problem for the Democratic ticket, a majority of people believed that the press was trying to hurt Palin<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/story/rasmussen/20080904/pl_rasmussen/palinmedia20080904;_ylt=AqErk__wZIKdoVvqUXdr44Nh24cA</ref> and that type of unwarranted attack could have backfired into more support for the McCain/Palin ticket especially with unaffiliated voters believing the press is purposely attacking Palin by a 49% to 32% margin.

Many Democrats had advised the Obama campaign to ignore Palin, fearing that emphasis on her inexperience will backfire against Obama himself.<ref>[http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/capital/2008/09/05/tips-for-obama-ignore-palin-dis-mccain Matt Coopoer, "Tips for Obama: Ignore Palin, Dis McCain," Sept. 5, 2008, ''Conde-Nast Portfoloio.com'']</ref> She participated in a debate with the Democratic VP candidate Joe Biden on October 2, 2008, ending up being declared the winner by most credible news sources that are not influenced by liberal bias. Palin "kept Joe Biden on the defensive" and "ended up dominating [the debate]".<ref>http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1008/14234.html</ref>

During a campaign event in [[Virginia]], Barack Obama said of the McCain/Palin ticket's similar policies, "...You can put lipstick on a pig, it's still a pig."<ref>http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94481288</ref> Given the fact that she's stated "The difference between a hockey mom and a pitbull (is) lipstick" and the fact that only a female candidate would wear lipstick, the McCain camp released a web ad implying that the comment was targeting Governor Palin. The ad featured video clips of Gov. Palin convention speech, Obama's remarks at the campaign event, and a clip of Katie Couric commenting on pervasive sexism in the campaign. After extensive discussion in the news media, the ad was removed from McCain's website and other video sites following a copyright claim by CBS news. <ref>[http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/0908/CBS_takes_down_McCain_webad_suggests_its_misleading.html?showall]</ref>

Palin is a lightning rod to the established [[liberal]] women's movement. She, like many high profile conservative females, has taken much abuse from the left. Palin has been forced to set up a legal defense fund to help pay for fees related to an onslaught of ethic complaints, which are always frivolous. <ref>[http://primebuzz.kcstar.com/?q=node/18738 Palin blasts Obama administration: Government wants to "control the people"] CNN</ref> Because she is retiring from being governor of Alaska, the anti-American liberals pat themselves on the back in glee. Liberals still fail to understand that she is ''the'' typical conservative that the majority of Americans identify with. Her principles and her outlook on Americanism is a model for all future leaders.

Palin said of the people who have filed the complaints:
{{cquote| '''Those are the folks who want to tell me, they want to tell you, to sit down and shut up. We will not do that. I just can't, because I love my state. I love my country.''' }}

===Impact on Ticket===

In the run-up to the Vice-Presidential debate on October 2, 2008, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center attempted to measure the degree to which Palin impacted the GOP ticket positively or negatively in September.<ref>http://people-press.org/report/456/obama-regains-lead</ref> The survey compared the answers to two identical questions about her qualifications and overall favorable/unfavorable rating between polls taken in early and late September. The results show that public opinion of Palin has fallen significantly since the Republican convention, particularly in the public's opinion of her qualification to be Vice President. Faced with a barrage of negative press attacks after her nomination, some prominent Republicans like [[Mitt Romney]] believe that the isolation of Palin from the media in September was a mistake, and are calling for an increase in unscripted encounters with the press and public to counter that perception. According to Romney, "Holding Sarah Palin to just three interviews and microscopically focusing on each interview I think has been a mistake. I think they’d be a lot wiser to let Sarah Palin be Sarah Palin. Let her talk to the media, let her talk to people." <ref>http://features.csmonitor.com/politics/2008/09/30/doubts-about-palin-grow-even-among-conservatives/</ref> Exit polling from the election itself had the final say on the matter of her impact on the ticket. For those who considered her nomination on the ticket to be unimportant, 57% voted for Obama. For those who considered her nomination to be important, 53% voted for Obama, thereby showing a positive overall impact on the ticket. Considering that exit polling tilts Democratic, the actual impact may have been greater.

When asked by liberal-media pundit Katie Curic what newspapers and magazines Palin read during a TV interview, Palin fumbled and was unable to name any particular news source because of the side-swipe. This added fuel to charges that she was not qualified to run for President but she was clearly qualified by her service as governor. Palin charges back at Curic in her book, "GOING ROUGE" where she mentions the attacks on her by the liberal media.

==Palin in 2012==
Palin is a celebrity with a large, enthusiastic base on the right that is ready to work for her in Republican primaries. She has been coy about announcing plans for 2012, but she is well positioned for a presidential run, assuming she can raise the $50+ million required to campaign effectively. Given her personal charisma and Reagan-esque connection with average, conservative Americans, she may be able to pull off a resounding victory. <ref>[http://www.capitalcityweekly.com/stories/120308/new_363163237.shtml Sarah Palin hits Republican talking points while stumping in Georgia]</ref>

==SarahPAC==

On January 27, 2009 Palin formed the political action committee (PAC) SarahPAC. The organization supports "energy independence and reform" and will endorse candidates who "share Governor Palin’s ideas and goals." <ref>http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=azCCxotgdG1E&refer=home</ref>

==Beliefs==
Palin filled out a policy questionnaire for the Eagle Forum Alaska during her 2006 gubernatorial race. One question asked, "Will you support funding for abstinence-until-marriage education instead of for explicit sex-education programs, school-based clinics, and the distribution of contraceptives in schools?" Palin responded, "Yes, the explicit sex-ed programs will not find my support." Yet [[public schools]] still resist teaching abstinence and instead promote sexual behavior by teenagers.

Another question asked, "Are you offended by the phrase 'Under God' in the Pledge of Allegiance? Why or why not?" Palin replied, "Not on your life. '''If it was good enough for the founding fathers''', it's good enough for me and I'll fight in defense of our Pledge of Allegiance."

Many liberals ignorant of the history of "under God" have tried to ridicule Palin's remark, even calling her an "idiot" for it.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/michaeltomasky/2008/sep/01/week</ref><ref>The Pledge of Allegiance was written in 1892, and George Washington's phrase "under God" was added to it in June 1954.</ref> In fact, the origin of the phrase "under God" is the General Orders of [[George Washington]] on July 2 and 9, 1776: "The fate of unborn millions will now depend, under God, on the courage and conduct of this army" (July 2); "the peace and safety of the Country now depends, under God, solely on the success of our arms" (July 9).<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/003/264xqezm.asp?pg=2</ref> George Washington was indeed a [[Founding Father]], and the Founding Fathers made no secret of their Christian faith and unfailing belief in God in the [[Declaration of Independence]] and later writings.

Palin also believes that students need to learn of the controversy surrounding the [[Theory of evolution|Theory of evolution]], and that discussing Creationism should not be banned from schools. During the 2006 campaign for the Alaskan Governorship, Palin was answering a question from the moderator near the conclusion of Wednesday night's televised debate on KAKM Channel 7 when she said, "Teach both. You know, don't be afraid of information. Healthy debate is so important, and it's so valuable in our schools. I am a proponent of teaching both."<ref>http://dwb.adn.com/news/politics/elections/story/8347904p-8243554c.html</ref> She later clarified her position by stating "I don't think there should be a prohibition against debate if it comes up in class. It doesn't have to be part of the curriculum." She added that, if elected, she would not push the state Board of Education to add such creation-based alternatives to the state's required curriculum. As of September 2008 she has kept that pledge.

In an example of liberal mockery, the [[Huffington Post]] attempted to make light of Sarah Palin's creationist beliefs, highlighting the creationism belief that [[dinosaur|dinosaurs]] and man coexisted.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/28/palin-claimed-dinosaurs-a_n_130012.html</ref> SNL likewise did a skit in which they had her refer to the Museum of Natural History as "that evolution museum".

==Church Life==
[[Image:Palin.JPG|thumb]]
Sarah Palin was baptized as a Roman Catholic and, at age 12, she was rebaptized in the Wasilla Assembly of God church. <ref>{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-08-30
|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-mccainveepbio30-2008aug30,0,2159346.story
|title=Palin has risen quickly from PTA to VP pick
|author=Decker, Cathleen and Michael Finnegan,
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=August 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| last = Gorsk| first = Eric
| url = http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5g4-w_DCWffagBaQb8Il9a0R2hkPAD92SL7E00
| title = Evangelicals energized by McCain-Palin ticket
| publisher =Associated Press
| date = 2008-08-30
| accessdate = 2008-08-30}}</ref>

Palin attends the Wasilla Bible Church<ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Pepper |title=Regarding Governor Palin: A Letter from Pastor David Pepper |url=http://churchontherockak.org/Regarding-Sarah-Palin.html |publisher=Church on the Rock |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>, an independent congregation,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wasillabible.org/faq.htm |title=Wasilla Bible Church FAQ |accessdate=2008-09-05 |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref><ref name="miller">Lisa Miller and Amanda Coyne. "[http://www.newsweek.com/id/156679 A Visit to Palin's Church: Scripture and discretion on the program in Wasilla]." ''Newsweek''. Sept. 2, 2008.</ref> when at home and the Juneau Christian Center when in Juneau as governor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement Concerning Sarah Palin |url=http://www.jccalaska.com/images/10000/3000/582JU/user/palin.htm |publisher=Juneau Christian Center |date=2008-09-03 |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

==Popularity==
Palin earned the highest TV ratings at the Republican convention when she spoke, even surpassing McCain's acceptance speech, and matched Obama's acceptance speech<ref>http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/palin-triggers-rnc-ratings-spike/</ref>, gaining unprecedented attention. Likewise her Vice Presidential debate with [[Joe Biden]] had more viewers than any of the three debates between McCain and Obama.<ref>http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1008/14201.html</ref> Also, her brief appearance on Saturday Night Live in October 2008 gave the show its highest ratings in 14 years, and was actually the third highest ranked show for the week based on the number of people who tuned in originally to watch her, 17 million, even though it ran at midnight.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/oct/20/ustelevision-tvratings</ref>

==Publications==

Sarah Palin's [[memoir]], published by HarperCollins: ''[[Going Rogue: An American Life]]'' (November 2009)<ref>[http://www.audacityofhypocrisy.com/2009/10/01/amazing-palin%E2%80%99s-book-number-one-on-both-amazon-and-barnes-unprecedented/ Amazing: Palin’s book number one on both Amazon and Barnes & Noble bestseller list, Audacity of Hypocrisy, October 1, 2009]</ref><ref>Rush Limbaugh. [http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/home/daily/site_111709/content/01125120.guest.html Rush Interviews Governor Sarah Palin], ''RushLimbaugh.com'', November 17, 2009.</ref><ref>Robert Shaffer. [http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/11/17/ap-turns-heads-devoting-reporters-palin-book-fact-check/ AP Turns Heads for Devoting 11 Reporters to Palin Book 'Fact Check'], ''FOXNews.com'', November 17, 2009.</ref> ISBN 0061939897
Palin has decided that her book royalties will be donated to families of Ft. Hood victims. ''"I'm joining the efforts of many others by donating my royalties from the book sales during our stop at Fort Hood to the families of the victims whose lives have been forever changed by the tragic events."''

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ State of Alaska - Governor Sarah Palin Official Website]
*[http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=864bb9006da3f010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD National Governor's Association - Alaska Governor Sarah Palin]
*[http://votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=27200 Project Vote Smart - Governor Sarah H. Palin]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Sarah_Palin.htm Sarah Palin On the issues]
*[http://parentingfreedom.com/2008/09/03/sarah-palin-mother-and-first-female-vice-president-pictures-children-parenting/ Sarah Palin: Mother and First Female Vice President], ''Parenting Freedom'', September 03, 2008
*[http://churchformen.blogspot.com/2008/09/people-around-world-are-asking-who-is.html Sarah Palin, a friend of mine]
*[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDE3MmE5MDVmMGM1YjQ2NmVhMjJkN2I2ZTcxMzhlNjU=&w=MA== I Still Hate You, Sarah Palin] National Review Online

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palin, Sarah}}
[[Category:Alaska Governors]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:United States Mayors]]
[[Category:Women]]

Pastafarianism

2009-12-03T23:08:36Z

Rdkaster:

"Pastafarianism" is the worship of a flying pile of spaghetti and meatballs as a God. Pastafarians call their God the "Flying Spaghetti Monster." They worship him by eating spaghetti and dressing in pirate regalia. Members of the religion also hold pirates in high esteem, claiming that they were good men whose deeds were perverted by the media. They cite the decline of their heroes to the increase in carbon emissions over the past centuries, instead of attributing it to the true cause of public resentment and more efficient naval operations.

=Logical Shortcomings=
Unlike Christianity, the religion of Pastafarians falls apart under any sort of inspection. The pirates, who they elevate to near godhood beside their flying bowl of pasta, have been proven to historically be a violent, bloodthirsty group, not the child-loving persecuted pacifists the Pastafarians believe them to be. Also, the very idea that carbon emissions could affect pirate population is absurd. It belongs with discarded, poorly-backed theories like global warming.

Nineteen Eighty-Four

2009-12-03T21:53:05Z

Rdkaster: /* Governmental Structure */

[[Image:1984first.jpg|right|thumb|First edition of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' published in Britain, 1949.]]
'''''Nineteen Eighty-Four''''' (also '''''1984''''') <ref>The title is spelled out, in words, in the original 1949 editions, both as published in England by Secker and Warburg[http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v1=87&ti=76,87&Search%5FArg=Orwell%2C%20George&Search%5FCode=NAME%5F&CNT=25&PID=11284&SEQ=20070323140446&SID=1] and in the United States by Harcourt, Brace[http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v1=86&ti=76,86&Search%5FArg=Orwell%2C%20George&Search%5FCode=NAME%5F&CNT=25&PID=11284&SEQ=20070323140446&SID=1]. It is sometimes presented numerically, in digits – '''''1984''''', in modern reprints and derivative works such as screenplays.</ref>
is a novel by [[George Orwell]] about the excesses of [[totalitarian]] regimes and specifically of [[Stalinist]] [[communism]].
The book's original title was ''The Last Man in Europe'', but it was changed at the publisher's suggestion. <ref>It is often suggested that "eighty-four" is a reversal of "forty-eight", the year in which the book was written, but this has never been confirmed.</ref>

Orwell was influenced by Jack London's novel ''[[The Iron Heel]]'', and Yevgeny Zamyatin's ''We''. The ideas of the American [[conservative]] James Burnham were especially influential in shaping the political situation described in the book.

Though Orwell was deeply critical of communism, 1984 is not meant to be taken as a condemnation of all left-of-center ideologies, as evidenced by a quote from one of his essays: "My recent novel [Nineteen Eighty-Four] is NOT intended as an attack on Socialism or on the [[British Labour Party]] (of which I am a supporter) but as a show-up of the perversions ... which have already been partly realized in Communism and Fascism. ...The scene of the book is laid in Britain in order to emphasize that the English-speaking races are not innately better than anyone else and that totalitarianism, if not fought against, could triumph anywhere."<ref>''The Collected Essays: Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 4,'' p. 546 </ref>

== Plot Summary ==
In the world of Nineteen Eighty-Four, individual, free nations no longer exist; the world has been divided up into three massive empire-states: Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia. [[Christianity]] has been stamped out and an amoral, [[liberal]] [[paganism]] has become the ruling ideology.

Oceania is, roughly, the English-speaking world: the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Britain]], [[Australia]], and [[South Africa]]. It is perpetually at war with either Eurasia or Eastasia, and allied with the other. The book describes a hyper-[[liberal]] dystopia where the government, known as the Party, monitors and controls nearly all aspects of every individual's life. Extreme [[liberal]] fanaticism and ignorance are promoted by Oceania through relentless [[propaganda]]. This is practiced to the point that citizens unthinkingly (or, in Newspeak, use ''bellyfeel'') accept everything said and done by the Party, and hate everything associated with the empire-state which happens to the enemy at the moment. It is later revealed that in reality all three empire-states have the same government and are essentially identical in their pursuit of a [[liberal]], [[pagan]] social system.

The [[protagonist]], Winston Smith, works in the Ministry of Truth, a department of the Oceanian government altering records to fit the Party's current version of history. However, Smith gradually grows to disagree with the Party and what it stands for. Julia, a woman who also works in the Ministry of Truth, becomes Winston's lover, and after meeting in several different places, they finally rent an upstairs room in a prole shop. However, the owner of the shop turns out to be an agent of the Thought Police and Winston and Julia are captured by the thought police right in their room, brought to the Ministry of Love, and tortured to the point where they once again love the Party.

Much of the novel is taken up with discussions of the nature of power and societal control, and words and mottoes from the novel – "[[doublethink]]", "We have always been at war with Eastasia", "the memory hole" and many more – have become standard shorthand in political discussions, while terms such as "thought police", "Room 101" and "[[Big Brother]]" have entered the language.

== Background of Novel ==
The environmental background to the action of the story is a satirical portrayal of late-1940s London, a city where war damage was still very evident, and rationing and shortages a way of life. The Ministry of Truth, as described by Orwell in the novel, is based upon the Senate House building of London University, at the time one of the tallest buildings in the capital, and home during the Second World War to the Ministry of Information.

== Governmental Structure ==

The structure of government in Oceania is sharply pyramidal; the mythical, probably non-existent Big Brother rests forever at the top of the pyramid, followed by the tiny Inner Party made up of only 1 million people. Then follows the larger Outer Party, and lastly the "proles," or the Proletariat, who make up, according to the novel, 95 percent of the population. Since Big Brother is probably only a personification of government, it is really the Inner Party which rules Oceania, making it an oligarchy. Goldstein's book refers to the system as "Oligarchical Collectivism." [[Conservative]] commentators have noted that the system Orwell describes seems like a parody of the worst aspects of [[liberalism]].

The government is horribly inefficient in all things except constant and oppressive surveillance over Party members. The proles are considered mindless and unimportant, and so are allowed to go free, kept occupied by trashy entertainment known as ''prolefeed.''

There are four "ministries" or sections of government: the Ministry of Truth, which primarily rewrites history (and in which Winston, the story's protagonist, is employed); the Ministry of Plenty, which squanders resources; the Ministry of Peace, which fuels the perpetual war with Eastasia or Eurasia by using these resources for war purposes; and finally the Ministry of Love, where Party enemies, usually those guilty of ''thoughtcrime,'' defined as any slight deviation from the main Party line, are tortured and brainwashed into loving the Party before eventually being killed. The novel describes the Ministry of Love as the most terrifying, as it has no windows and is surrounded by barbed wire and gorilla-like guards with truncheons. Note that all of these names are heavily ironic: the Ministry of Truth spreads lies, the Ministry of Plenty rations food and drink, the Ministry of Peace conducts perpetual war, and the Ministry of Love deals with those who don't love Big Brother.

==Online version==
*[http://orwell.ru/library/novels/1984/ Orwell library]

==Notes and references==
<references/>

== See also ==

*[[Mystery:Did George Orwell Become a Conservative?]]

[[Category:Novels]]

Aerosol

2009-12-03T14:11:22Z

Rdkaster: /* Climate change */

'''Aerosol''' is particles of liquid or solid dispersed as a [[suspension]] in gas. <ref> [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=all NASA Earth Observatory glossary] </ref>

==Climate Change Myths==

*small droplets or particles suspended in the atmosphere, typically containing [[sulfur]] ("natural aerosols"), or
*a product that relies on a pressurized gas to propel substances out of a container ("man-made aerosols").

=== Natural Aerosols ===

Aerosols are emitted naturally (e.g., in volcanic eruptions) and as the result of human activities (e.g., by burning fossil fuels). There is no connection between particulate aerosols and pressurized products also called aerosols (see below).

=== Man-made Aerosols ===

Consumer aerosol products in the US have not used ozone-depleting substances (ODS) since the late 1970s because of voluntary switching followed by federal regulation. The Clean Air Act and EPA regulations further restricted the use of ODS for non-consumer products. All consumer products, and most other aerosol products, now use propellants that do not deplete the [[ozone layer]], such as hydrocarbons and compressed gases.
[[category:environment]]

==Notes==
<references/>

Richard Shelby

2009-12-03T14:07:32Z

Rdkaster:

{{Officeholder
|name=Richard Shelby
|image=Shelby.jpg
|party=[[Democrat]] (1979-1994) [[Republican]]
|spouse=Annette Shelby
|religion=Presbyterian
|offices=
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Alabama
|terms=January 6, 1987 – Present
|preceded=[[Jeremiah Denton]]
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=Alabama
|district=7th
|terms=January 3, 1979 – January 3, 1987
|preceded=Walter Flowers
|former=n
|succeeded=Claude Harris, Jr.
}}
}}

'''Richard Craig Shelby''' (born May 6, 1934) is the senior [[United States]] [[Senator]] from [[Alabama]]. Originally elected to the Senate as a [[Democrat]], Shelby converted to the [[Republican Party]] in 1994 when it gained the majority in [[Congress]].

==Early Life==
Shelby was born in [[Birmingham]], Alabama to Alice L. Skinner and Ozie Houston Shelby. He attended the [[University of Alabama]], graduating in 1957 and from its law school in 1963. After graduating, Shelby practiced law in Tuscaloosa, home of the University of Alabama, from 1963 to 1978. He is a member of the American Bar Association and Alabama Bar Association, as well as the American Judicature Society, [[Alabama]] Law Institute, Delta Chi Fraternity, and Phi Alpha Delta legal fraternity.

==Political career==
Shelby began his legislative career as a member of the Alabama Senate in 1970, serving until 1978, when he was elected to the [[House of Representatives]] from the Tuscaloosa-based 7th District. He was reelected three times. In 1986, Shelby was elected to the United States Senate by a narrow margin. He was easily re-elected in 1992 even as Democrat Presidential nominee [[Bill Clinton]] lost Alabama's electoral votes. A [[conservative Democrat]], Shelby voted to confirm [[Clarence Thomas]] to the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] and voted for the 1991 [[Persian Gulf War]] after [[Iraq]] invaded [[Kuwait]]. Like most southern Democrats, Shelby was [[conservative]] on issues such as [[gun control]], [[abortion]] and [[gay]] rights. He was a strong critic of President Clinton's tax increases. On November 9, 1994, Shelby switched his party affiliation to Republican one day after the Republicans won control of both houses in the midterm elections, giving the Republicans a 53-47 majority in the Senate. He won his first full term as a Republican in 1998 by a large margin, and faced no significant opposition in 2004. Additionally, he is heavily favored to win reelection in 2010.

Shelby is currently co-chair of the Congressional Privacy Caucus and Zero Capital Gains Tax Caucus. He is also the Senate co-chair of the National Security Caucus. In addition, he is a member of the [[National Republican Senatorial Committee]] and the Senate Centrist Coalition.

==External links==
*[http://shelby.senate.gov/public/ Official Website]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Senate/Richard_Shelby.htm Shelby On the Issues]
*[http://www.opencongress.org/people/show/300089_richard_shelby OpenCongress]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shelby, Richard}}

[[Category:United States Senators]]
[[Category: 110th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Republican Party]]

Raymond Burke

2009-12-03T07:51:12Z

Rdkaster:

[[File:Archbishop Raymond Leo Burke.jpg|right|thumb|Archbishop Raymond Burke]]

'''Raymond Leo Burke''' is the former Archbishop of [[St. Louis]] and Bishop of LaCrosse who currently serves as the highest ranking American clergyman in the Catholic Church, holding a position in the [[Vatican]] that is comparable to the Chief Justice of the United States.

He is a strong advocate of moral principles, such as [[pro-life]] and traditional marriage, and a conservative interpretation of the Bible.

==Early Life==
Fr. Burke was born June 30, 1948 in Richland Center, [[Wisconsin]] to Thomas and Marie Burke. He attended elementary school at St. Mary School in Richland Center, secondary school at St. Joseph School in Stratford and high school at Holy Cross Seminary in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Burke attended college at Catholic University of America in Washington. He studied at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome and was ordained to the priesthood by [[Pope Paul VI]] on June 29, 1975, at the Basilica of St. Peter. <ref>[http://www.mariancatechist.com/html/general/archbishopburkespage.htm Archbishop Burke’s Page] Marian Catechist</ref> Fr. Burke returned to Wisconsin as associate rector of the Cathedral of St. Joseph and teacher of religion at Aquinas High School in La Crosse. In 1980, Father Burke returned to Rome to study Canon Law at the Pontifical Gregorian University. In 1989, [[Pope John Paul II]] named him Defender of the Bond of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the first American to hold this position on the Church’s highest court. Bishop Burke was ordained to the episcopacy by Pope John Paul II on January 6, 1995, at the Basilica of St. Peter and became Bishop for the Diocese of La Crosse on February 22, 1995.

==Bishop Burke==
Fr. Burke sent private letters to three local politicians advising them that they risked their spiritual wellbeing by not giving up their pro-abortion voting patterns. The letters were leaked to the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel and published with accompanying criticism. He proceeded to put additional concepts into practice. The following week, Fr. Burke published more letters in which he advised the Central Wisconsin HIV/AIDS Ministry to withdraw from an annual AIDS fundraising due to pro-homosexual groups participation. In a hail of criticism he said, "I have no regret whatsoever. It was my duty as bishop.... " <ref>[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Bishop+Raymond+Burke-a0113854907 Bishop Raymond Burke] The Free Library.com</ref> Shortly after, Bishop Burke was informed that he had been appointed Archbishop of St. Louis. He was appointed Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura by His Holiness [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on June 27, 2008.

{{cquote|“My greatest joy is to teach the faith and celebrate the Sacraments for the flock which God has entrusted to my pastoral care. Having been called by Christ to the priesthood, I am ever more humbled by the reality of the priestly life and ministry. At the same time, I am filled with confidence, because the ministry belongs to Christ Whom I, through no merit of mine, have the privilege to serve.”}}

==Writings==
<ref>[http://www.archstl.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=86&Itemid=74 Archbishop Raymond Leo Burke] archstl.org</ref>
*"The Discipline Regarding the Denial of Holy Communion to Those Obstinately Persevering in Manifest Grave Sin," Periodica, Vol. 96 (2007), 3-58.
*"The Natural Moral Law: Foundation of Legal Realism," Die fragile Demokratic – The Fragility of Democracy, Berlin: Dunker and Hamboldt, 2007, 29-45.
*"Prophecy for Justice," America Magazine June 21, 2004; Vol. 190, No. 20.
*Commentary on the General Directory for Catechesis. Bardstown: Eternal Life, 2002.
*Rechristianize America: Become a Marian Catechist. Bardstown: Eternal Life, 2002.
*"Response: Role of Law Award," Proceedings of the Sixty-second Annual Convention, Canon Law Society of America, October 2-5, 2000, pp. 495-500.
*"The Bishop as Shepherd," Lay Witness, 20 (1999), No. 8, 54-55. (Reprinted as *"Tending God's Flock: The Bishop as Shepherd," in Servants of the Gospel: Essays by American Bishops on Their Role as Shepherds of the Church, ed. Leon J. Surprenant, Jr. Steubenville: Emmaus Road Publishing, 2000, pp. 65-71.)
*"‘Thou Hast Given Him Dominion:' God's Plan for Man Within Creation," Be (July-August, 2001), 8-10.
*"The Church and the Current Crisis in Rural America: A Time to Act," Catholic Rural Life, 41 (1999), No. 2, 4-7.
*"A Crisis in Rural America," America, 181 (1999), No. 13, 8-11.
*"Agricultural Ethic from the Perspective of the Christian Faith," Earth Ethics, 9 (1998), Nos. 3 & 4, 10-13.
*"The Farm Crisis: What Does the Church Propose?" Origins, 27 (1997), 309-311.
*"La confessio iudicialis e le dichiarazioni giudiziali delle parti." In I mezzi di prova nelle cause matrimoniali secondo la giurisprudenza rotale. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1995, pp. 15-30.
*"Abogados, uniones matrimoniales irregulares y causas de nulidad matrimonial: Texto y comentario de una respuesta del Tribunal Supremo de la Signatura Apostolica." Revista Española de Derecho Canonico, 51 (1994), 639-645.
*"The application of Canon 1095 and sacramental-pastoral activity concerning marriage." In Ius in vita et missione Ecclesiae: Acta Symposii Internationalis Iuris Canonici occurrente X Anniversario promulgationis Codicis Iuris Canonici diebus 19-24 aprilis 1993 in Civitate Vaticana celebrata. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1994, pp. 1095-1102.
*"Doubt Concerning the Admission of Advocates Living in an Irregular Union to Patronise Marriage Cases in Diocesan Tribunals: Commentary." Forum 5 (1994), 49-55.
*"The Distinction of Personnel in Hierarchically-Related Tribunals." Studia canonica 28 (1994), 85-98.
*"Acta Tribunalium S. Sedis: Commentarium de responso in casu particulari de inidoneitate advocatorum qui in unione irregulari vivunt ad patrocinium in causis nullitatis matrimonii exercendum." Periodica de re canonica 82 (1993), 699-708.
*"I divorziati risposati in un recente documento della Chiesa in Francia." Quaderni di diritto ecclesiale, 6 (1993), 261-279.
*"Presentation." In The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches: A Study and Interpretation (Essays in Honour of Joseph Cardinal Parecattil), eds. Jose Chiramel and Kuriakose Bharanikulangara. Alwaye, India: St. Thomas Academy for Research, 1992, pp. 1-10.
*"Il processo di dispensa dal matrimonio rato e non consumato: la grazia pontificia e la sua natura." In I procedimenti speciali nel diritto canonico. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992, pp. 135-144.
*"La procedura amministrativa per la dichiarazione di nullità del matrimonio." In I procedimenti speciali nel diritto canonico. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992, pp. 93-105.
*"Grave difetto di discrezione di giudizio: fonte di nullità del consenso matrimoniale." Ius Canonicum, 31 (1991), 139-154. Also in: Incapacidad consensual para las obligaciones matrimoniales, ed. Jose A. Fuentes. Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., 1991, pp. 135-154.
*"The Psychology of the Christian Vocation: Interpretative Key of Canon 1095." In Iustus Iudex: Festgabe für Paul Wesemann zum 75 Geburtstag von Seinen Freunden und Schülern, eds. Klaus Lüdicke, Heinrich Mussinghoff and Hugo Schwendenwein. Essen: Ludgerus-Verlag, 1990, pp. 199-213.
*"Vatican Council II and Matrimonial Law: The Perspective of Canon 1095." In Vatican II: Assessment and Perspectives Twenty-Five Years After (1962-1987), Vol. 2. New York: Paulist Press, 1989, pp. 217-230.
*"Canon 1095: Canonical Doctrine and Jurisprudence, Part I, Canon 1095, 1° and 2°." In Proceedings of the Forty-Eighth Annual Convention, 13-16 Oct. 1986, Washington, D.C.: Canon Law Society of America, 1987, pp. 94-107.
*"Canon 1095, 1° and 2°." In Incapacity for Marriage: Jurisprudence and Interpretation, Acts of the Third Gregorian Colloquium. Rome: Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Gregorian Colloquium, 1987, pp. 79-155.
*"Lack of Discretion of Judgment: Canonical Doctrine and Legislation." The Jurist, 45 (1985), 171-209.
*"Defectus discretionis iudicii propter schizophreniam: doctrina et recens iurisprudentia rotalis." Periodica de re morali, canonica, liturgica, 73 (1984), 555-570.
*Lack of Discretion of Judgment Because of Schizophrenia, Analecta Gregoriana, No. 238. Roma: Editrice Pontificia University, Gregoriana, 1986.
*On the Memorial of Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha, June 21, 2005
*On the Reorganization of the Archdiocesan Curia, June 4, 2005
*On the Pastoral Reorganization of the South City Deanery, Feb. 25, 2005
*On the Pastoral Reorganization of the Northeast County Deanery, Feb. 11, 2005
*On Our Civic Responsibility for the Common Good, Oct. 1, 2004
*On the Dignity of Human Life and Civic Responsibility, Nov. 23, 2003
*On the Christian Burial of the Dead, Nov. 2, 2000
*On the Celebration of Mass for Special Occasions or Special Gatherings or Associations of the Faithful, Especially on Saturdays and Sundays, June 7, 1997
*On the Preparation of the Jubilee Year 2000, Dec. 1, 1996

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Catholic Church]]

Raymond Burke

2009-12-03T07:50:22Z

Rdkaster:

[[File:Archbishop Raymond Leo Burke.jpg|right|thumb|Archbishop Raymond Burke]]

'''Raymond Leo Burke''' is the former Archbishop of [[St. Louis]] and Bishop of LaCrosse who currently serves as the highest ranking American clergyman in the Catholic Church, holding a position in the [[Vatican]] that is comparable to the Chief Justice of the United States.

He is a strong advocate of moral principles, such as [[pro-life]] and traditional marriage.

==Early Life==
Fr. Burke was born June 30, 1948 in Richland Center, [[Wisconsin]] to Thomas and Marie Burke. He attended elementary school at St. Mary School in Richland Center, secondary school at St. Joseph School in Stratford and high school at Holy Cross Seminary in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Burke attended college at Catholic University of America in Washington. He studied at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome and was ordained to the priesthood by [[Pope Paul VI]] on June 29, 1975, at the Basilica of St. Peter. <ref>[http://www.mariancatechist.com/html/general/archbishopburkespage.htm Archbishop Burke’s Page] Marian Catechist</ref> Fr. Burke returned to Wisconsin as associate rector of the Cathedral of St. Joseph and teacher of religion at Aquinas High School in La Crosse. In 1980, Father Burke returned to Rome to study Canon Law at the Pontifical Gregorian University. In 1989, [[Pope John Paul II]] named him Defender of the Bond of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the first American to hold this position on the Church’s highest court. Bishop Burke was ordained to the episcopacy by Pope John Paul II on January 6, 1995, at the Basilica of St. Peter and became Bishop for the Diocese of La Crosse on February 22, 1995.

==Bishop Burke==
Fr. Burke sent private letters to three local politicians advising them that they risked their spiritual wellbeing by not giving up their pro-abortion voting patterns. The letters were leaked to the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel and published with accompanying criticism. He proceeded to put additional concepts into practice. The following week, Fr. Burke published more letters in which he advised the Central Wisconsin HIV/AIDS Ministry to withdraw from an annual AIDS fundraising due to pro-homosexual groups participation. In a hail of criticism he said, "I have no regret whatsoever. It was my duty as bishop.... " <ref>[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Bishop+Raymond+Burke-a0113854907 Bishop Raymond Burke] The Free Library.com</ref> Shortly after, Bishop Burke was informed that he had been appointed Archbishop of St. Louis. He was appointed Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura by His Holiness [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on June 27, 2008.

{{cquote|“My greatest joy is to teach the faith and celebrate the Sacraments for the flock which God has entrusted to my pastoral care. Having been called by Christ to the priesthood, I am ever more humbled by the reality of the priestly life and ministry. At the same time, I am filled with confidence, because the ministry belongs to Christ Whom I, through no merit of mine, have the privilege to serve.”}}

==Writings==
<ref>[http://www.archstl.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=86&Itemid=74 Archbishop Raymond Leo Burke] archstl.org</ref>
*"The Discipline Regarding the Denial of Holy Communion to Those Obstinately Persevering in Manifest Grave Sin," Periodica, Vol. 96 (2007), 3-58.
*"The Natural Moral Law: Foundation of Legal Realism," Die fragile Demokratic – The Fragility of Democracy, Berlin: Dunker and Hamboldt, 2007, 29-45.
*"Prophecy for Justice," America Magazine June 21, 2004; Vol. 190, No. 20.
*Commentary on the General Directory for Catechesis. Bardstown: Eternal Life, 2002.
*Rechristianize America: Become a Marian Catechist. Bardstown: Eternal Life, 2002.
*"Response: Role of Law Award," Proceedings of the Sixty-second Annual Convention, Canon Law Society of America, October 2-5, 2000, pp. 495-500.
*"The Bishop as Shepherd," Lay Witness, 20 (1999), No. 8, 54-55. (Reprinted as *"Tending God's Flock: The Bishop as Shepherd," in Servants of the Gospel: Essays by American Bishops on Their Role as Shepherds of the Church, ed. Leon J. Surprenant, Jr. Steubenville: Emmaus Road Publishing, 2000, pp. 65-71.)
*"‘Thou Hast Given Him Dominion:' God's Plan for Man Within Creation," Be (July-August, 2001), 8-10.
*"The Church and the Current Crisis in Rural America: A Time to Act," Catholic Rural Life, 41 (1999), No. 2, 4-7.
*"A Crisis in Rural America," America, 181 (1999), No. 13, 8-11.
*"Agricultural Ethic from the Perspective of the Christian Faith," Earth Ethics, 9 (1998), Nos. 3 & 4, 10-13.
*"The Farm Crisis: What Does the Church Propose?" Origins, 27 (1997), 309-311.
*"La confessio iudicialis e le dichiarazioni giudiziali delle parti." In I mezzi di prova nelle cause matrimoniali secondo la giurisprudenza rotale. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1995, pp. 15-30.
*"Abogados, uniones matrimoniales irregulares y causas de nulidad matrimonial: Texto y comentario de una respuesta del Tribunal Supremo de la Signatura Apostolica." Revista Española de Derecho Canonico, 51 (1994), 639-645.
*"The application of Canon 1095 and sacramental-pastoral activity concerning marriage." In Ius in vita et missione Ecclesiae: Acta Symposii Internationalis Iuris Canonici occurrente X Anniversario promulgationis Codicis Iuris Canonici diebus 19-24 aprilis 1993 in Civitate Vaticana celebrata. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1994, pp. 1095-1102.
*"Doubt Concerning the Admission of Advocates Living in an Irregular Union to Patronise Marriage Cases in Diocesan Tribunals: Commentary." Forum 5 (1994), 49-55.
*"The Distinction of Personnel in Hierarchically-Related Tribunals." Studia canonica 28 (1994), 85-98.
*"Acta Tribunalium S. Sedis: Commentarium de responso in casu particulari de inidoneitate advocatorum qui in unione irregulari vivunt ad patrocinium in causis nullitatis matrimonii exercendum." Periodica de re canonica 82 (1993), 699-708.
*"I divorziati risposati in un recente documento della Chiesa in Francia." Quaderni di diritto ecclesiale, 6 (1993), 261-279.
*"Presentation." In The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches: A Study and Interpretation (Essays in Honour of Joseph Cardinal Parecattil), eds. Jose Chiramel and Kuriakose Bharanikulangara. Alwaye, India: St. Thomas Academy for Research, 1992, pp. 1-10.
*"Il processo di dispensa dal matrimonio rato e non consumato: la grazia pontificia e la sua natura." In I procedimenti speciali nel diritto canonico. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992, pp. 135-144.
*"La procedura amministrativa per la dichiarazione di nullità del matrimonio." In I procedimenti speciali nel diritto canonico. Città del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992, pp. 93-105.
*"Grave difetto di discrezione di giudizio: fonte di nullità del consenso matrimoniale." Ius Canonicum, 31 (1991), 139-154. Also in: Incapacidad consensual para las obligaciones matrimoniales, ed. Jose A. Fuentes. Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., 1991, pp. 135-154.
*"The Psychology of the Christian Vocation: Interpretative Key of Canon 1095." In Iustus Iudex: Festgabe für Paul Wesemann zum 75 Geburtstag von Seinen Freunden und Schülern, eds. Klaus Lüdicke, Heinrich Mussinghoff and Hugo Schwendenwein. Essen: Ludgerus-Verlag, 1990, pp. 199-213.
*"Vatican Council II and Matrimonial Law: The Perspective of Canon 1095." In Vatican II: Assessment and Perspectives Twenty-Five Years After (1962-1987), Vol. 2. New York: Paulist Press, 1989, pp. 217-230.
*"Canon 1095: Canonical Doctrine and Jurisprudence, Part I, Canon 1095, 1° and 2°." In Proceedings of the Forty-Eighth Annual Convention, 13-16 Oct. 1986, Washington, D.C.: Canon Law Society of America, 1987, pp. 94-107.
*"Canon 1095, 1° and 2°." In Incapacity for Marriage: Jurisprudence and Interpretation, Acts of the Third Gregorian Colloquium. Rome: Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Gregorian Colloquium, 1987, pp. 79-155.
*"Lack of Discretion of Judgment: Canonical Doctrine and Legislation." The Jurist, 45 (1985), 171-209.
*"Defectus discretionis iudicii propter schizophreniam: doctrina et recens iurisprudentia rotalis." Periodica de re morali, canonica, liturgica, 73 (1984), 555-570.
*Lack of Discretion of Judgment Because of Schizophrenia, Analecta Gregoriana, No. 238. Roma: Editrice Pontificia University, Gregoriana, 1986.
*On the Memorial of Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha, June 21, 2005
*On the Reorganization of the Archdiocesan Curia, June 4, 2005
*On the Pastoral Reorganization of the South City Deanery, Feb. 25, 2005
*On the Pastoral Reorganization of the Northeast County Deanery, Feb. 11, 2005
*On Our Civic Responsibility for the Common Good, Oct. 1, 2004
*On the Dignity of Human Life and Civic Responsibility, Nov. 23, 2003
*On the Christian Burial of the Dead, Nov. 2, 2000
*On the Celebration of Mass for Special Occasions or Special Gatherings or Associations of the Faithful, Especially on Saturdays and Sundays, June 7, 1997
*On the Preparation of the Jubilee Year 2000, Dec. 1, 1996

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Catholic Church]]

Napoleon Bonaparte

2009-12-03T07:42:19Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
'''Napoleon''' ('''Napoleon Bonaparte''' or, after 1804, '''Napoleon I, Emperor of the French''') (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a world historic figure and dictator of [[History of France|France]] as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, and Emperor of the French, 1804 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended it when he betrayed it and became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

He was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island near Rome). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. He was exiled to St. Helena--a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he died.

Napoleon's image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

==Early History==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer of the minor nobility; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonopartes, proud members of the lower aristocracy, were destitute. Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest, newest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in Paris to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made 5 extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

==Rise to Power==
[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off Egypt. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Mamelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref> Although he won great victories in Egypt, disease and the heat decimated his ranks. He left most of his forces in Egypt under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kleber, who continued to fight in Egypt for another two years.

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he forced the Council of 500 into electing a consular government as the executive branch. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: there was no longer an elected representative government.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]--Napoleon actually rode a sure-footed mule over the Alps]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a combined arms formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for synchronizing operations, than had previous military commanders.

His spectacular failure in [[Russia]] in 1812 was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The corps was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated logistics (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight. At the same time the British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.
The Peace of Pressburg deprived Austria of territory and forced her to pay an indemnity. Napoleon then turned his attention to Prussia, who was going to attack France but didn't mobilize in time for the fighting. Napoleon declared war after the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg and destroyed the Prussian army at the battle of Jena-Aurstadt. Napoleon, remembering that Russia hadn't sued for peace after Austerlitz decided to pursue the retreating Russian army through Poland. He enjoyed early sucess, pushing the Russians back and capturing Warsaw but was weakened at a bloody stalemate at Eylau. Napoleon, determined on a "spring recovery" pushed the Russians further into Poland, delivering a crippling blow at the Battle of Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit between Prussia, Russia and France did little to the Russians, instead depriving Prussia of huge amounts of land while Russia only had to give up part of Poland. Aside from that, Prussia had to pay an indemnity and had its army restricted to a certain size while Russia only had outlaw British goods from its ports. Napoleon and the Tsar became close friends after the Treaty.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancient régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Law: Code Napoléon ===
Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Religion===
Religion had been a major issue during the [[French Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>
===Taxes===
The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.
===Conscription===
Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by [[Jacques-Louis David|J. L. David]]]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>
[[Image:Napoleon's Tomb.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides, in Paris.]]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

<blockquote>
''After being defeated by the British in 1815, the French Emperor was exiled to St. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Six years later, at the age of 52, Bonaparte whispered his last words, "Head of Army!"'' <ref>[http://www.livescience.com/history/070116_napoleon_bonaparte.html Mystery of Napoleon's Death Said Solved] </ref>
</blockquote>

<center>

[[File:Steuben Mort de Napoleon.jpg|thumb|420px|center|Death of Napoleon I at Santa Elena, May 5, 1821 by Charles de Steuben]]

</center>

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Bell, David A. ''The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Total-War-Napoleons-Warfare/dp/0618919813/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216 pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803-1815 '' (2008), 656pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Wars-International-History-1803-1815/dp/0670020303/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Datta, Venita. "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Dwyer, Philip G. "Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 379-403,
* Forrest, Robert F. "Rumor into Myth: the Image of Napoleon among the Romanians, 1800-1848," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1992 21: 98-105
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition], debates among scholars
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. ''The Legend of Napoleon'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Napoleon-Sudhir-Hazareesingh/dp/1862077894/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255822534&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Bonapartist Memory and Republican Nation-building: Revisiting the Civic Festivities of the Second Empire," ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 2003 11(3): 349-364
* Heit, Siegfried. "German Romanticism: an Ideological Response to Napoleon," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 1: 187-197. Argues that German opposition to Napoleon led German Romanticism to reject the chief ideals represented by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Uses the works of Arndt, Fichte, Jahn, Kleist, and Schleiermacher, to show how German Romanticism became identified with political reaction and nationalism, and how it opposed political liberalism, rationalism, neoclassicism, and cosmopolitanism.
* Horward, Donald D. "Napoleon and Beethoven," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 2: 3-13,
* Markham, J. David. "Napoleon and the Romantic Poets," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1998: 651-663,
* Newman, Edgar Leon. "Defanging the Revolution: How the Memory of the French Revolution Was Changed in French Working-class Poetry and Song, 1830-52," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1995: 591-605,
* Nieuwazny, Andrzej. "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55
* O'Brien, David. ''After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and Propaganda under Napoleon'' (2006) 288p.
*{{cite book|last=Prendergast|first=Christopher|title=Napoleon and History Painting: Antoine-Jean Gros's La Bataille d'Eylau|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|location=Oxford|date=1997|isbn=0-19-817422-5}}
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)
* Schönpflug, Daniel. "So Far, and Yet So Near: Comparison, Transfer and Memory in Recent German Books on the Age of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 446-462
* Stock, Paul. "Imposing on Napoleon: the Romantic Appropriation of Bonaparte," ''Journal of European Studies'' 2006 36(4): 363-388, deals with English Romantic writers
* Wilson-Smith, Timothy. ''Napoleon and His Artists'' (1996)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Military History]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:French Revolution]]

Bear

2009-12-03T07:34:49Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Polar bear.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Polar bear]]

[[Image:Giant panda.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Giant panda]]

'''Bears''' are members of the family '''Ursidae'''.
A bear is a large and heavy mammal with thick fur. All bears are [[omnivores]], even those which eat a mostly meat diet (polar bears) or a mostly plant diet (pandas). There are eight generally recognized [[extant]] species of bears:

* [[Polar Bear]] - Lives in the Arctic maritime region and hunts (primarily) seals.
* [[Brown Bear]] - The species to which the Grizzly bear belongs. More subspecies include the Kodiak bear and the European brown bear. Lives in temperate forested regions of North America, Europe, and Asia.
* [[American Black Bear]] - Smaller than the grizzly, and lives in North America. Subspecies include the Kermode bear which lives in British Columbia.
* [[Asiatic Black Bear]] - A bear species that lives in Asia.
* [[Giant Panda]] - Lives in China and eats a plant diet of bamboo.
* [[Spectacled Bear]] - A small bear that lives in South America.
* [[Sloth Bear]] - Lives in South Asia and eats termites.
* [[Sun Bear]] - A small bear that lives in Southeast Asia.

Bears are frequent mascots for schools and sports teams, including the Chicago Bears (football), the Chicago Cubs (baseball), the UCLA Bruins, and the Brown University Bears, and the Coel(IN) College Bears.

Two she-bears make an appearance in II Kings 2:23-24, verses concerning the prophet Elisha frequently cited by atheists and nonbelievers.

"And he went up from thence unto Bethel: and as he was going up by the way, there came forth little children out of the city, and mocked him, and said unto him, Go up, thou bald head; go up, thou bald head.
And he turned back, and looked on them, and cursed them in the name of the LORD. And there came forth two she bears out of the wood, and tare forty and two children of them."

Though the two verses seem on the surface incompatible with modern Christian values, it should be noted that "little children" is most a mistranslation, and should probably be interpreted as "youths", possibly a gang of juvenile delinquents. Also, God cannot and should not allow his prophets to be mocked without reproach.

==External Links==
*[http://mfile.akamai.com/27176/wmv/nationalpark.download.akamai.com/27176/prod/yell/photosmultimedia/video/insideyell/wmvs/256/0042b_grizzly_or_blackbear_256.asx Yellowstone's Bears], Videos © 2008 Yellowstone Association

[[Category:Bears| ]]
[[Category:Animals]]
[[Category:Dangerous Animals]]

Wisconsin

2009-12-03T07:25:00Z

Rdkaster:

{{USState
|name=Wisconsin
|flag=wisc_flag.jpg
|motto=Forward
|nick=The Badger State
|capital=Madison
|language=None
|governor=Jim Doyle
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=Russ Feingold
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-5323
|s1email=http://feingold.senate.gov/contact_opinion.html Contact
|senator2=Herb Kohl
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-5653
|s2email=http://kohl.senate.gov/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=May 29, 1848 (30th)
}}
[[Image:Wisconsin ref 2001.jpg|300 px|thumb|right|Geographic map of Wisconsin]]
'''Wisconsin''', the "Badger State", or unofficially "America's Dairyland", was the thirtieth state to enter the union, on May 29, 1848. The capital city of Wisconsin is [[Madison]]. The state is expected to be a key battleground in the [[2008 Presidential Election]]. It is the home state of former Secretary of Health and Human services, [[Tommy Thompson]], who served as a four-term governor from 1987 to 2001.

The town of Ripon in Wisconsin was "The Birthplace of the [[Republican Party]]" in 1854.

The state tree is the sugar maple, the state song is "[[On Wisconsin]]", the state flower is the wood violet, the state bird is the American [[robin]], the state animal is the [[badger]], the state [[fossil]] is the [[trilobite]], and the state fish is the [[muskellunge]].<ref>http://www.legis.state.wi.us/senate/scc/kids/facts.htm</ref>
==History==
The state attracted fur trappers before the American Revolution, and enjoyed a lead mining boom in the 1830s. Wisconsin was a mining state before it was a farm state. Metallic lead could be picked up from the ground without digging. Cornish miners (from Britain) were some of the earliest European settlers of the state.<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-026/?action=more_essay Lead Mining in Southwestern Wisconsin]</ref>

Southwestern Wisconsin is now a less heavily populated agricultural region, but for a while it was the economic center of the state. The first territorial capital was Belmont,<ref>[http://www.belmontwi.com/pages/1/index.htm Belmont Wisconsin] town website</ref> located about thirty miles from Dubuque, Iowa). Lead mining peaked in the mid-1840s, and the [[California]] gold rush of 1849 drew many miners away. The current population of Belmont is 891.<ref>[http://www.idcide.com/citydata/wi/belmont.htm Belmont profile], idcide website.</ref>

Wisconsin cannot be stereotyped politically. It is often associated with the name of anti-communist crusader of the 1950s [[Joseph McCarthy]], but is equally tied to that of [[Robert M. La Follette]] and his Progressive faction of the Republican Party and the [[Progressive Party]]. Socialists flourished in [[Germania]] in Milwaukee, typified by [[Victor Berger]], the first Socialist Party candidate elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Frank Zeidler, the Mayor of Milwaukee from 1948-1960 was the last in a string of twelve socialist mayors of Milwaukee, whose emphasis on the basics of municipal service led them to be called "sewer socialists."<ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-043/?action=more_essay Milwaukee Sewer Socialism, Wisconsin State Historical Association]</ref>

Wisconsin was the first state to allow women to vote in local elections, in 1840, though the right was later rescinded.

[[File:C-library.jpg|thumb|290px|The Carnegie Library in Ripon, built 1910]]

==Sports in Wisconsin==

[[Milwaukee]] is home to three professional sports teams. The [[Milwaukee Brewers|Brewers]] (baseball), the [[Milwaukee Bucks|Bucks]] (basketball), and the Admirals (hockey). Wisconsin is also home to the [[Green Bay Packers]] football team which has largest following of any professional sports team. Wisconsin is also home to various college sports programs, most notably the Wisconsin Badgers and the Marquette Golden Eagles.

== Abortion in Wisconsin ==

Wisconsin has the 8th lowest [[abortion rankings|abortion rate]] in the United States, and it has declined to a record low since 1974, the first year after ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'':<ref>Steven Ertelt, LifeNews.com (Apr. 9, 2007)
http://www.lifenews.com/state2218.html</ref>

:There were 9,580 [[abortion]]s done in the state in 2006, down from 9,817 in 2005. This is the third year in a row that abortions in the Midwestern state have decreased and the number is the lowest since 1974.

:"Wisconsin Right to Life is ecstatic that Wisconsin abortion numbers continue to decline," Barbara Lyons, the group's director, told LifeNews.com in a statement.

:"In addition, the abortion rate (which represents the number of abortions per 1000 women of childbearing age) remains at 8, which is one of the lowest abortion rates in the nation," Lyons added. The national abortion rate is about 15 per 1,000 women.

:In the statement, Wisconsin Right to Life<ref>http://www.wisconsinrighttolife.org</ref> suggests that the abortions are on the decline because of its work and pro-life legislation the state has enacted and polls showing that younger Americans are more pro-life than previous generations. ...

:There are 14 abortions per 100 life births in Wisconsin, lower than the 24 per 100 live births nationwide.

:In 2006, there were 596 abortions on minors. Written consent (usually by a parent) was provided in 530 of these; the patient was an emancipated minor in 24; and a court granted a petition to waive the parental consent requirement in 42. There were no teens who got abortions after being victimized by sexual assault. ...

:Some 85 percent of the abortions were surgical and 15 percent involved abortion drugs, an increase of one percent over 2005.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Campbell, Henry C. ''Wisconsin in Three Centuries, 1684-1905'' (4 vols., 1906), highly detailed popular history
* James K. Conant. ''Wisconsin Politics And Government: America's Laboratory of Democracy'' (2006)
* Richard Current, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (2001)
* Larry Gara; ''A Short History of Wisconsin'' 1962
* Holmes, Fred L. ''Wisconsin'' (5 vols., Chicago, 1946), detailed popular history with many biographies
* Robert C. Nesbit, ''Wisconsin: A History'' (rev. ed. 1989)
* Quaife, Milo M. ''Wisconsin, Its History and Its People, 1634-1924'' (4 vols., 1924), detailed popular history & biographies
* Raney, William Francis. ''Wisconsin: A Story of Progress'' (1940),
* A. H. Robinson and J. B. Culver, ed., ''The Atlas of Wisconsin'' (1974)
* I. Vogeler, ''Wisconsin: A Geography'' (1986);
* WPA, ''Wisconsin: A Guide to the Badger State'' 1941; detailed guide to every town and city, and cultural history

===Detailed scholarly studies===
* Anderson, Theodore A. ''A Century of Banking in Wisconsin'' (1954)
* Braun, John A ''Together in Christ: A history of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod'' (2000), 55 pp
* Buenker, John D. ''The History of Wisconsin. Volume IV The Progressive Era, 1893-1914'' (1998), highly detailed history
* Brøndal, Jørn. ''Ethnic Leadership and Midwestern Politics: Scandinavian Americans and the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1914.'' University of Illinois Press, 2004 ISBN 0-87732-095-0.
* Bungert, Heike, Cora Lee Kluge, and Robert Ostergren, eds. ''Wisconsin: German Land and Life.'' (Madison: Max Kade Institute, 2006. 260 pp. isbn 0-92411-926-8.)
* Butts, Porter. ''Art in Wisconsin'' ( Madison, 1936).
* Clark, James I. ''Education in Wisconsin'' (1958).
* Cochran, Thomas C. ''The Pabst Brewing Company'' (1948), the best history of any brewery
* Mike Corenthal. ''Illustrated History of Wisconsin Music 1840-1990: 150 Years'' (1991)
* Richard Nelson Current. ''History of Wisconsin: The Civil War Era, 1848-1873'' (1976) standard state history
* Curti, Merle and Carstensen, Vernon. ''The University of Wisconsin: A History'' (2 vols., 1949)
* Curti, Merle. ''The Making of an American Community A Case Study of Democracy in a Frontier County'' (1969), in-depth quantitative social history
* Fries, Robert F. ''Empire in Pine: The Story of Lumbering in Wisconsin, 1830-1900'' (1951).
* Paul Geib; "From Mississippi to Milwaukee: A Case Study of the Southern Black Migration to Milwaukee, 1940-1970" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 83, 1998
* Glad, Paul W. ''The History of Wisconsin, Volume 5: War, a New Era and Depression, 1914-1940'', standard state history
* Haney, Richard C. ''A History of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin since World War II''
* Jensen, Richard. ''The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896'' (1971)
* Lampard, Eric E. ''The Rise of the Dairy Industry in Wisconsin'' (1962).
* McBride, Genevieve G. ''On Wisconsin Women: Working for Their Rights from Settlement to Suffrage''
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96272178 Herbert F. Margulies; ''The Decline of the Progressive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1920'' (1968)]
* Merrill, Horace S. ''William Freeman Vilas: Doctrinaire Democrat'' (1954) Democratic leader in 1880s and 1890s
* Olson, Frederick I. ''Milwaukee: At the Gathering of the Waters''
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.HistAgSchaf ''A History of Agriculture in Wisconsin''], by Schafer, Joseph (1922)
* Schafer, Joseph. "The Yankee and Teuton in Wisconsin", ''Wisconsin Magazine of History,'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Dec. 1922, pp. 125-145, compares Yankee and German settlers
* Still, Bayrd. ''Milwaukee, the History of a City'' 1948 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/milwaukee-the-history-of-a-city-by-bayrd-still.jsp online edition]
* Thelen, David. ''Robert M. LaFollette and the Insurgent Spirit'' 1976.
* Unger, Nancy C. ''Fighting Bob LaFollette: The Righteous Reformer'' (2000)

===Primary sources===
*[http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/WIReader/Contents.html Wisconsin Electronic Reader] full text of many primary source books
* ''The Badger State: A documentary history of Wisconsin'' (1979)
*[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=750 La Follette's Autobiography, a personal narrative of political experiences, 1913]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]

Diomedes

2009-12-03T07:21:48Z

Rdkaster:

Diomedes

2009-12-03T07:21:37Z

Rdkaster:

The term Diomedes can refer to either'''Diomedes''' , who was the son of [[Tydeus]] and king of [[Argos]] during the [[Trojan War]], or Diomedes, an ancient Greek and a fervent supporter of the oligarchical government.
{{Nb mythology iliad}}

Star Wars

2009-12-03T06:58:13Z

Rdkaster: /* Expanded Universe */

[[Image:462px-Star wars dvd cover.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of the 2004 [[DVD]] widescreen release of Star Wars Trilogy.]]
:''Note: This article deals with the science fiction saga, not the American [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI).''

''For the original'' '''Star Wars''' ''film, see'' [[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]].

'''Star Wars''' is a [[science fiction]] film saga and fictional universe created by American director [[George Lucas]]. The original ''Star Wars'' movie (Episode IV) came out on May 25th, 1977. The earlier set of ''Star Wars'' movies (''Episodes IV, V, and VI'') are renowned as classics of cinema, and were some of the first "summer blockbusters" ever made. Episodes I, II and III were released in 1999, 2002 and 2005 respectively. All six movies are amongst the top 50 highest grossing films of all time.<ref>http://imdb.com/boxoffice/alltimegross</ref>
In 1984 and 1985, two spinoff movies to the original trilogy (Episode IV, V, and VI) were made featuring the Ewok characters seen in ''Episode VI: Return of the Jedi''. An animated film called ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars'' was released in 2008.

== Films ==
*''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]''
*''[[Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi]]''

==Development of the Monomyth==

[[George Lucas]] built on the idea of the [[monomyth]] - a dominant mythic structure that resounds strongly with the human psyche - in structuring his narrative. He consulted closely with [[Joseph Campbell]], author of the book, "Hero of a Thousand Faces," in his utilizing of the [[monomyth]] structure for the movie. In ''Star Wars'' (now known as Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope), the reluctant hero is [[Luke Skywalker]], the teacher [[Obi-Wan Kenobi]], and the archetype villain [[Darth Vader]].

==Fan Films==
There have been many short films created by Star Wars Fans. One major website is www.fanfilms.com; which contains many fanfilms including TROOPS, The Essense of The Force, The Jedi Hunter, the Pink Five trilogy, Revelations, and Ryan Vs. Dorkman 1 and 2. One major high-quality fan based movie is I.M.P.S: The Relentless; which can be found at www.impstherelentless.com, and is the first chapter of a future full-length, chapter-based movie based on the Imperial Starship Relentless and her crew.

==Expanded Universe==
Since the success of the film [[franchise]], Lucasfilm has licensed a number of novels, comic books, and video games that take place in the Star Wars universe, otherwise known as the Expanded Universe (EU). Hundreds of novels and comics and dozens of video games have been, and continue to be produced. Although these spin-off media often take place before, after or inbetween the films, some take place in "alternate realities." A major focus of the EU is to feature characters not on-screen or only briefly shown in the films. Though only the Heir to the Empire Trilogy is considered canon, these officially licensed EU books can help provide the reader with a deeper understanding of the fictional universe. There are also two cartoon series and three TV movies, two about the Ewoks and the Star Wars Holiday Special, which represented a secularized version of [[Christmas]] known as "Life Day." The last has been disowned by Lucas--not for any particular religious reason, but for its exceptionally poor quality.

Of note is [[Star Wars: The Clone Wars]], the only part of the Expanded Universe to reach the big screen.

==Miscellaneous==

''Star Wars'' became forever linked to politics when a [[Strategic Defense Initiative|missile-defense plan]], devised under the Reagan administration, was nicknamed Star Wars. Attempts to bring back such a system are still referred to by this name.

== See also ==
*[[The Hidden Fortress]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Star Wars| ]]

Kate Michelman

2009-12-03T06:55:22Z

Rdkaster:

'''Kate Michelman''' was born in 1942. She is a longtime [[feminist]] and [[pro-abortion]] activist and a known atheist. She served as president of [[NARAL]] from 1985 to 2004.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Michelman, Kate}}

[[Category:Abortion Advocates]]
[[Category:Feminists]]

Harry Potter

2009-12-03T06:51:59Z

Rdkaster: /* Criticisms */

[[Image:67486ruy.jpg|right|thumb|British edition of '''Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone'''.]]
The '''''Harry Potter''''' books are a hugely popular<ref> The author has sold 350 million books and counting, been translated into 65 languages and had her work made into highly successful movies. [http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=3811481&page=1 ABC News] </ref> series of seven fantasy novels by [[J.K. Rowling]] about three students at a British boarding school for [[Witch|'witchcraft and wizardry']]: Harry, Ron and Hermione. The children grow from age 11 to 17 in the books, giving them appeal to a broad range of readers including children and teenagers, but also appealing to adults.
==Harry Potter==
'''Harry Potter''' is the [[protagonist]] and the plot of each book focuses on Harry's adolescence and fight against the [[antagonist]] wizard Lord Voldemort. The books combine elements of whimsy reminiscent of ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]'', the strange adult immaturity of ''[[Through the Looking Glass]]'', and the implacable good vs. evil fight of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.

When Harry was a mere baby, his parents were murdered by the evil [[Voldemort]]. Harry didn't know that his parents were [[wizard (fiction)|wizard]]s until his 11th birthday; it came as a giant surprise. [[Hagrid]] took him to [[Diagon Alley]] for robes, books and wand; then on to [[Hogwarts]], a boarding school for wizards and witches. He had many adventures there learning [[magic]] and using it to fight the forces of the [[Voldemort|wizard]] who killed his [[parent]]s when he was an [[infant]]. Lord Voldemort seeks to become immortal by any means. Voldemort also leads forces of "Death Eaters" who follow Voldemort's ideology of a "pure-blood" (wizard who was born to wizard parents) society and persecute Muggles, non-magical folk. Along the way, Harry learns about life and [[death]] and grapples with questions of [[morality]] and [[friendship]].

The seven books in the series have been fabulously successful, selling 300 million copies, and ''[[Forbes]]'' estimates that they have made Rowling the first billion-dollar author in history.<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/maserati/billionaires2004/cx_jw_0226rowlingbill04.html J. K. Rowling And The Billion-Dollar Empire].</ref> To date, five of them have been made into movies, the sixth to begin filming September 2007.

The ''Harry Potter'' series of books are sizable volumes. The 870 pages of ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix'', even though printed in large type, contain 255,000 words—about twice as long as ''A Tale of Two Cities''. The "Lexile" measure of reading level puts the series between 880L and 950L,<ref>For comparison: ''Charlotte's Web'' 680L, ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' 890L, ''Moby Dick'' 1200L</ref> comparable to sixth-grade texts<ref>[http://www.lexile.com/DesktopDefault.aspx?view=fa&tabindex=4&tabid=22 The Lexile framework for reading].</ref>

== Popularizing the Occult? ==

Some [[Fundamentalists]] have attacked the books. Most mainline Protestant and Catholic leaders have taken a more favorable position. For example, the official organization of American Catholic bishops (the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops) has rated each film "A-II", --that is, suitable for adults and adolescents and was not found to be morally offensive.The episcopal conference even named the film adaptation of "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" one of the ten best family films of 2004.

Dr. [[James Dobson]], head of the [[Focus on the Family]] organization, complains that:
:Magical characters — witches, wizards, ghosts, goblins, werewolves, poltergeists and so on — fill the Harry Potter stories, and given the trend toward witchcraft and New Age ideology in the larger culture, it's difficult to ignore the effects such stories (albeit imaginary) might have on young, impressionable minds.

Furthermore Fundamentalist critics have charged that the books have the potential of driving children away from Christian knowledge of good and evil toward the occult more than anything else in western society: "a generation of children is becoming desensitized to the occult. But with Hollywood's help, Harry Potter will likely surpass all these influences, potentially reaping some grave spiritual consequences"<ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/harrypotter.html</ref>

Witchcraft is expressly forbidden by the Old Testament, but not by the New Testament.

Some Fundamentalists have praised the moral values of the books. For example, Scott Moore, philosophy professor at Baylor University, has found some remarkable Christian symbolism in the Potter series.

James L. Evans, pastor of Crosscreek Baptist Church, concludes, "Instead of condemning Harry, maybe we should learn courage from him to name as evil what apparently we are afraid to speak."<ref>Jim Evans, [http://www.ethicsdaily.com/news.php?viewStory=2737 "Harry Potter As Teacher Of Christian Values" ''EthicsDaily.com'' June 24, 2003]</ref>

Fundamentalists say the ''Harry Potter'' series is written in a way that embeds fantasy and wizardry into a real world setting. This could potentially lead to some children exploring witchcraft, Wicca, and paganism. Indeed, the Pagan Federation in Britain has received a flood of inquiries from young ''Harry Potter'' fans.<ref>About.com: Agnosticism/Atheism - [http://atheism.about.com/od/harrypotter/i/witchcraft_2.htm Does Harry Potter Promote Wicca or Witchcraft? Is Harry Potter a Pagan Book?] (page 2)</ref>

The children's fantasy genre and slick storytelling style may make the danger more severe, say Fundamentalists: "This is a true representation of witchcraft, and the black arts, and black magic. And yet we have people that say this is merely fantasy and harmless reading for our children. Actually, what makes this more dangerous is that it is couched in fantasy language, and children's literature, and made to be humorous, and beautifully written and extremely provocative reading. and it just opens up children to want to have the next one. This is what is so harmful."<ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/harrypotter.html</ref>

==Criticisms==

The ''Harry Potter'' series is written in a way that embeds fantasy and wizardry into a real world setting. This could potentially lead to some children potentially exploring witchcraft, Wicca, and paganism. Indeed, the Pagan Federation in Britain has received a flood of inquiries from young ''Harry Potter'' fans. There is also a multitude of documented cases where children attempted to use magic spells learned in the series to escape real life situations.<ref>About.com: Agnosticism/Atheism - [http://atheism.about.com/od/harrypotter/i/witchcraft_2.htm Does Harry Potter Promote Wicca or Witchcraft? Is Harry Potter a Pagan Book?] (page 2)</ref>

Some expect children's literature to present characters that are role models and teach simple truths that will help children grow and know the difference between right and wrong. However, the world of ''Harry Potter'' is one in which adult authority figures are complex, imperfect, and occasionally ludicrous. Some teachers in the series are boring, or outright incompetent, while others are supportive and protective (like [[Dumbledore]] and [[Lupin]]). In the first book Harry disobeys the teachers and is successful and later praised, a questionable message for younger minds.

The books also present witches and wizards as being both normal people and abundant. This deceit causes children to likewise accept magic and witchcraft as normal, and they identify with the children in the books, again furthering their acceptance and witchcraft. The reality about magic - that witches are evil and, thankfully, not common - is not presented.

==Literary Criticisms==
{{spoiler}}

Throughout the series a constant theme is the almost criminal incompetence of the Ministry of Magic. We are told at various stages throughout the book that some of Voldemorts followers managed to escape justice by lying to the courts that they were controlled by the Imperius curse. However, in book four it is revealed that there is a potion which forces the victim to tell the truth. Why, therefore, didn't the Ministry use this potion on the defendants to find out if they were really controlled or not? This would have led to their imprisonment, preventing them from assisting Voldemort to return to full strength. The use of this potion would also have allowed the Ministry to find out about Peter Pettigrew's betrayal, perhaps leading to his arrest and preventing him from assisting Voldemort to regain his strength (Pettigrew was the man who found Voldemort and nursed him back to a state of health from which it was possible for him to prepare for his rise to power). It is possible that J K Rowling had not thought of this potion at the start of the series, causing her to introduce a near Deus-Ex-Machina miracle on behalf of the evil side.

==Notable Ban Attempts==

On the week of April 10, 2006, Georgia mother of four Laura Mallory filed an appeal with the Gwinnett Board of Education in an attempt to remove the ''Harry Potter'' series from Gwinnett schools. Ms. Mallory (who has only read excerpts of the books) stated on the appeal form that she wished the books removed due to their "evil themes, witchcraft, demonic activity, murder, evil blood sacrifice, spells and teaching children all of this."<ref>[http://www.gwinnettdailypost.com/index.php?s=&url_channel_id=32&url_subchannel_id=&url_article_id=14074&change_well_id=2]</ref> The local board of education denied the request, as they felt the banning of ''Harry Potter'' would necessitate the banning of all books with reference to witches, including plays like ''[[Macbeth]]'' and even stories like [[Cinderella]].<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15127464/ Georgia mom seeks ban on Harry Potter]</ref> Ms. Mallory has since appealed the ruling twice to no avail.<ref>[http://www.wtvm.com/Global/story.asp?S=5022462&nav=8fap]</ref> <ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16204853/from/]</ref> <ref>[http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/education/stories/011807dnentpotterprotest.a89cec.html]</ref>

Similar concerns have been voiced by Christian cartoonist [[Jack Chick]], pastor and author [[Dave Hunt]], the British group [[Christian Voice]] and various others. None of these has resulted in any form of legal action.

==Series titles==
*''[[Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone]]'' (original title as published in England and all other English-speaking countries other than U.S.A: ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'')
*''[[Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets]]''
*''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]''
*''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]''
*''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]''
*''[[Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince]]''
*''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows]]''

Also, three companion books have been made to go along with the series: ''The Tale of the Beedle the Bard'', ''Quidditch Through the Ages'', and ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''. ''Quidditch Through the Ages'' and ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' are both written under pen names, but all three are written by J.K. Rowling. <ref>www.jkrowling.org</ref>
==Further reading==
* Brown, Nancy Carpentier. ''The Mystery of Harry Potter: A Catholic Family Guide'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Mystery-Harry-Potter-Catholic-Family/dp/1592763987/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254259810&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Cherrett, Lisa. "Harry Potter and the Bible" (2003) [http://www.harrypotterforseekers.com/articles/hpandthebible.php online version]
* Cockrell, Amanda. "Harry Potter and the Witch Hunters: a Social Context for the Attacks on 'Harry Potter'", ''Journal of American Culture'' 2006 29(1): 24-30, in [[EBSCO]]

* Granger, John. ''Looking for God in Harry Potter'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/How-Harry-Cast-His-Spell/dp/1414321880/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254259810&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search, 2nd edition under ''How Harry Cast His Spell'']

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Harry Potter Universe]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Ghost Stories]]
[[category:Witchcraft]]

Objectivism

2009-12-02T22:50:01Z

Rdkaster: /* History of Objectivism */

[[Objectivism]] ([[Latin]] ''ob-'' out of and ''iacio'' I am throwing, and [[Greek]] '''-ισμος''' or ''-ismos'' the doing of a thing) is a school of [[philosophy]] that holds that things in the natural world exist independently of anyone's perception of them or efforts (or lack of effort) to understand them. Objectivism ''also'' holds that ''nothing'' is provably real that one cannot ''demonstrate'' independently of one person's percept of it.

== History of Objectivism ==
Objectivism as a formal discipline began with [[Ayn Rand]], a [[Russia|Russian]]-born émigrée to the [[United States]]. Ayn Rand attended The University of Petrograd where she studied philosophy and history. She graduated in 1924. In her work, showed more than a passing familiarity with the great philosophers of ancient Western civilization. The ancient philosopher she respected the most was [[Aristotle]].

By far the most complete expression of Objectivism in a single volume is in her novel, ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''<ref name=Atlas>[[Ayn Rand|Rand, Ayn]]. ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. New York: Random House Publishers, 1957, 1168 pages, cloth. ISBN 0394415760</ref>. However, her philosophy found expression in innumerable essays, which she published in a number of newsletters and magazines that she edited from time to time: ''The Objectivist Newsletter'', ''The Objectivist'', and ''The Ayn Rand Letter.''

Since her death in 1982, other students of hers, most notably [[Leonard Peikoff]] and Erick Werman, have tried to carry on her work. Whether they have enjoyed any success is a debatable question. For better or worse, the history of Objectivism is largely the history of Ayn Rand herself, and by the time she died, the name ''Objectivism'' was known chiefly to her admirers and to readers of her works.<ref name=Passion>[[Barbara Branden|Branden, Barbara]]. ''The Passion of Ayn Rand''. New York: Anchor Publishers, 1987, 464 pages, paperback. ISBN 038524388X</ref>

== The Fundamental Tenets of Objectivism ==
Objectivism attempts to be a "unified theory of everything worth thinking about." As such it addresses prominent issues in [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[Political philosophy|politics]], and [[aesthetics]].

=== The Central Axiom and its Corollaries ===
Objectivism starts with a simple [[axiom]]: ''existence exists.''<ref name=Atlas/> To grasp that axiom is to realize two other, corollary axioms:

# Something exists that someone perceives.<ref name=Atlas/>
# Someone exists who possesses ''consciousness'', which is the faculty of perceiving what exists.<ref name=Atlas/>

=== Metaphysical Axioms and Theorems ===
Objectivism continues with a number of other corollaries:

# A is A.<ref name=Atlas/> This is also known as the Law of Identity and suggests a similar law in [[formal logic]]. But more than that, the Law of Identity holds that A has certain properties, or ''attributes'', that distinguish it incontrovertibly from B or C. If a thing has no attributes, then it is a nonentity--it does not and cannot exist.
# Consciousness exists--the Law of Consciousness. But consciousness implies something independent of consciousness. What one perceives, one does not invent--and furthermore, a thing exists whether one perceives it or not.

From these axioms, several [[theorem]]s necessarily follow, among them the Law of Non-Contradiction. Aristotle stated it thus: "the same attribute cannot at the same time belong and not belong to the same subject in the same respect." Objectivism states it more simply: ''contradictions do not exist.'' Therefore, if one encounters a contradiction, one should check the assumptions he has made, because at least one of them is false.

=== Epistemology ===
[[Epistemology]] (from [[Greek]] words roughly meaning "the word stands on something") deals with what a human being knows and how he knows it. Objectivism states that perception is only the beginning. Perception is sensation extended over time, and perception becomes knowledge only through ''measurement.'' On the other hand, one forms a ''concept'' of something by developing a list of attributes ''without'' the measurements of them. Apply the measurements, and instead of a concept one has an object that fits the concept.

One important result of pure Objectivism is that what one cannot perceive, one cannot know--and what no one has perceived, no one need admit the existence of. Indeed, [[Nathaniel Branden|Branden]]<ref name=BrandenBenHaz>[[Nathaniel Branden|Branden, Nathaniel]]. [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/catalog/articles_essays/benefits_and_hazards.html The Benefits and Hazards of the Philosophy of Ayn Rand]. Association for Humanistic Psychology, 1984.</ref> observed that Objectivism teaches that <blockquote>(A)ny form of irrationalism, supernaturalism, or mysticism, (and) any claim to a nonsensory, nonrational form of knowledge, is to be rejected.</blockquote>

This includes [[God]], a Concept that almost no Objectivist has ever accepted. This might be Objectivism's greatest weakness: that it will not admit that which one cannot perceive directly, but which has affected ''something else'' that one perceives, and that in a measurable way.

=== Ethics ===
[[Ethics]] is about values. What is value? From ''Atlas Shrugged''<ref name=Atlas/>:<blockquote>"Value" is what one acts to gain and/or keep; "virtue" is how one acts to gain or keep it.</blockquote>

The central contribution of Objectivism to ethics is the definition of morality. Again from ''Atlas Shrugged''<ref name=Atlas/>:<blockquote>"Value" presupposes an answer to the question, "Of value to whom, and to what?" "Value" presupposes a ''standard''...A code of values accepted by choice is a code of morality.</blockquote>

Objectivism then declares that the only moral code proper to man has ''man's life'' as its standard of value. Rand, Peikoff, and other students of Objectivism have always drawn a stark contrast between this standard and the standard of those they regarded as their opponents: "the greatest good for the greatest number."

But this does not mean that Objectivism extols what most people mean by ''selfishness''. Objectivism regards that sort of "selfishness" as shortsighted and non-rational. Objectivism requires that a person ''choose'' to be rational in his thinking, and should work to enhance his self-interest ''after determining what that interest is after rational and logical analysis.''

Objectivism makes at least two definitions that non-adherents might find harsh and symptomatic of [[Logical fallacy#Overgeneralization|overgeneralization]]:

# "Sacrifice" is the giving away of a greater value in favor of a lesser value or a non-value.<ref name=Atlas/>
# "Altruism" is sacrifice, as defined above, for the sake of persons other than oneself.

Actually, what Objectivism calls ''sacrifice'', other schools of philosophy call ''waste''. Sacrifice, according to these other schools, is actually the giving of a great value for another, still greater value. Furthermore, the definition of ''altruism'' implies that no man should be obliged, let alone forced, to care or act for the sake of other people.

Indeed, in only one context does Objectivism itself lay any obligation on its adherents to act for the sake of another, and that is in an ''emergency''--which Objectivism defines as an immediate life-threatening casualty event or condition.

Rand, Peikoff, and other adherents to Objectivism held that their greatest objection was to the use of force in social relationships. This leads directly to the Objectivist theory of politics.

=== Politics ===
[[Political philosophy|Politics]] (from the [[Greek]] '''πολις''' a city, from the organization of [[Greece|Greek]] civilization around independent city-states) is the philosophy of [[government]]--the need for it, its proper sphere, and the obligations of its subjects. The central axiom of Objectivist politics is that<blockquote>Force is permissible ''only'' in retaliation and ''only'' against those who initiate its use.<ref name=Atlas/></blockquote>

This is the Law of Retaliation, or ''Lex talionis'' in [[Latin]].

Thus a government ought not compel charity--and in this context, ''compulsion'' is the application of force to induce another person toward an action he might not otherwise take. Nor should the government compel anyone to associate with those with whom he would prefer not to associate. Freedom of association is very important in Objectivist politics.

Objectivism holds that an individual has a fundamental right to life--but this "right to life" means the right to live one's life as his self-interest dictates, not the right to expect someone else either to protect his life or to guarantee his survival.

From these principles, the only economic system with which Objectivism has any sympathy is [[capitalism]], with its emphasis on the rights of the individual. Objectivism rejects the [[welfare state]] as an improper exercise of the government's police power. (But Objectivism also would object strenuously to the body of special tax incentives and other legal provisions and regulations often called "[[corporate welfare]]." Objectivism holds that every individual, and by extension every business, must stand or fall on his, her, or its own merits.)

However, Objectivism also holds that the government ought to reserve to itself a [[monopoly]] on the exercise of force, when necessary, in retaliation against the initiators of force. As a repeated theme in Rand's novels and essays, a government ought to confine itself to three major functions:

# The police power--to protect against criminals.
# The military power--to protect against invasion from without.
# The judicial power--to protect contracts from breach or fraud, and to provide a forum for the settlement of disputes without resort to force.

From the above, one may conclude that Objectivism rejects the [[code duello]] as an improper feature of society, and even as an attribute of [[anarchy]]. In fact, Rand herself specifically stated that government must be a [[monopoly]], because any "competitive [[economy]]" of government would inevitably lead to a state not much different from gang warfare.

However, Rand herself advocated many things the support for which, from a strict read of Objectivism, is doubtful. She repeatedly stated, in a number of essays and in at least one magazine interview, that <blockquote>Just as the [[United States]] had the right to invade [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], so the United States has the right to invade [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet Russia]] or any other slave pen.</blockquote> She justified this aggressive foreign policy stance by drawing up a set of four evil policies that, if any country engaged in all of the same, would make it liable for invasion by a society that did not do these things:

# Execution without a proper, fair trial
# Detention without charge
# Denial of the right of dissatisfied subjects to emigrate
# Censorship

By "censorship" Rand meant not only restrictions on political speech, but in fact any restriction on any form of artistic expression--even on forms of expression that she explicitly despised and suggested that any rational being would despise.

By her theory, then, if people were at least free to leave a society that executed people without trial, then if they did not leave, no country ought to be obliged to relieve their suffering by invasion. But if they ''could not'' leave, then their country would be liable for invasion, because they could not rationally help themselves. The freedom of emigration follows from the freedom of association--and the obligation, such as it was, of other nation-states and their militaries to come to such people's aid follows from the Objectivist ethic of emergencies, defined above.

Of course, any country that invades or otherwise attacks another, either directly or through surrogates, lays itself open to a counterinvasion by the country so attacked. This follows from the principle of the Law of Retaliation defined above.

=== Aesthetics ===
[[Art]], according to Objectivism, serves a need to allow man to ''perceive'' directly that which normally he can only ''conceive''. Art, in short, makes things real. An [[artist]] is any person who presents abstract concepts in concrete ways.

Objectivism's take on art is simple: art should uplift, and present uplifting things. The favorite school of art among students of Objectivism is [[Romantic realism]], the name that Rand gave to a school of art that emphasizes human reason and ideals and primarily portrays people striving to do great deeds, rather than suffering great disasters--in short, being ''proactive'' rather than ''reactive''. Good art, in other words, celebrates that which Objectivism itself celebrates: the ideal rational man. Forms of art that which emphasized emotion over reason, and especially anything that divorced emotion from reason, earned the consistent disdain of Rand and her colleagues. Similarly, Objectivism decries any form of art that shows human beings being reactive and slaves to emotion.

Pornography excited an interesting reaction. Objectivists detested it, on the grounds that sex was too important an activity for public display. But they feared censorship even more, on the ground that a government that stopped prurient content could stop political speech all the more easily. (Neither [[Ayn Rand]] nor any of her associates ever commented on such strictly private efforts as the [[Hays office]].)

== Controversies ==
[[Nathaniel Branden]], Rand's closest-ever associate and confidant, set forth in 1984 a number of defects in Objectivist philosophy, or at least Rand's theory and practice of it:

# A tendency to confuse "reason" with "the reasonable," essentially a problem in informal logic.
# The encouragement of its students to repress all emotion as somehow unworthy, all in the name of being proactive rather than reactive.
# A tendency toward "moralizing," or condemning others for not adhering to a strict emotional discipline.
# The [[Logical fallacy#Conflation|conflation]] of "sacrifice" with benevolence.
# Emphasizing philosophical premises to an unhealthy degree, leading to an often unwarranted judgment of ''character'' by the criterion of ''belief''.
# A dogmatic, inflexible approach to philosophy and its various disciplines, leading to the inability to forgive a mistake in philosophical formulation or application.

In this last context, Branden specifically decried Rand's conclusion that "no woman should aspire to be [[President of the United States of America]]." Rand did say that, and her justification of that stance flowed directly, oddly enough, from her theory of sex.

(In this context, Rand had no patience with the proponents and practitioners of [[feminism]] that were contemporary to her. She once said of them, with questionable justice, that they complained about the sexual objectification of women, when those who complained the loudest were "clearly in no such danger." Yet on the other hand, she regarded homemakers as "uninteresting women," and then suggested that some of them were "[[monster]]s" for advocating, for example, the prohibition of [[abortion]] and restrictions on [[contraception]].)

Rand's surviving friends tend to dismiss Branden's criticism as [[Logical fallacy#Argumentum ad hominem|argumentum ad hominem]] (or perhaps more accurately, ''argumentum ad feminam'') arising out of the rather brutal break-up of Rand and Branden's eighteen-year association. But those arguments tend to commit the same [[logical fallacy]] whereof they accuse Branden. Branden's wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]] presents perhaps the most balanced treatment of the Rand-Branden Affair and the ensuing controversy.

Objectivism's unabashed advocacy of capitalism often led to repeated charges that Objectivism was the ally of "big business." (In fact, on the occasion of a 1980 political demonstration called "Big Business Day," ''The Objectivist Forum'' commented quite wryly on the irony of the spectacle of hundreds of anti-business conventioneers using the services of "big business" to attend an event intended to advocate increased regulation of the largest corporations merely because they ''were'' large.) But Branden said quite clearly that the executives of large business companies ''were not'' friendly to Objectivism, because Objectivism advocates a market completely free not only of onerous taxes but also of the myriad special protections that some businesses tended to win from [[Congress]] against their competitors.

For decades, Rand did not appear to excite much enduring controversy, mainly because those who did not hold to her philosophy, or to the political theory that flows from it, generally preferred to ignore her. An early exception was the famous (some say infamous) review of Rand's ''magnum opus'', ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', by [[Whittaker Chambers]].<ref name=Chambers>[[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers, Whittaker]]. [http://www.nationalreview.com/flashback/flashback200501050715.asp Big Sister Is Watching You]. ''[[National Review]]'', December 28, 1957. Republished on [http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review Online], January 5, 2005.</ref> Chambers "[[Atlas Shrugged (criticism)#Whittaker Chambers|panned]]" this novel severely and charged that Rand, and by extension Objectivism ''per se'', owed more to the harsh, "conquering-man" philosophy of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] than to Aristotle. He also charged that Rand, in her relentless attack upon the [[Communism|Communist]] philosophy of [[Karl Marx]], had almost become that which she professed to despise. Specifically, he suggested that while Marx advocated a [[Socialism|socializing]] elite, Rand advocated a technocratic one, to which all less technically adept men must bow. Chambers' objections mirror those of Branden to the "moralizing" and dogmatic tone of much of Rand's material, in both that novel and her later essays.

But in light of the election and increasingly [[socialism|socialistic]] policy pronouncements and recommendations of [[Barack Obama]] and his administration, Rand's ideas are (as of April 2009) undergoing a serious re-examination. [[Tax Day Tea Party]] participants reported seeing signs saying, "Ayn Rand Was Right" and "Stop Spending, or Atlas Will Shrug." The Ayn Rand Institute reports that sales of ''Atlas Shrugged'' tripled in February 2009 as compared to February 2008. They attribute this brisk increase in sales directly to the recognition by many of Barack Obama and his associates as antitypes of the [[Literary type#Villain|villains]] in the novel, and of his policies as antitypes of some of the more egregious policies of [[Mr. Thompson]] and some of other characters. [[Directive 10-289]] springs especially to mind.

== Can Objectivism develop further? ==
This question is [[Conservapedia:Can Objectivism develop beyond Ayn Rand's original formulation?|debatable]]. Many students of Objectivism are not likely to admit that Ayn Rand's original system had any flaws. Branden, of course, asserted that Objectivism ''was'' flawed, but was not prepared to reject it entirely. He still found its emphasis on logic and of an independent reality important and beneficial.

Objectivism's chief limitation appears to be the unwillingness of its adherents and formulators to consider that anything might exist ''outside'' of perceptual reality, that might nevertheless influence that reality. This either led to, or followed from, the [[atheism]] that is one of this school's most prominent attributes. Branden reports one interesting interaction, however: Rand was not willing to accept the theory of [[evolution]] as more than an hypothesis. She couldn't accept [[Creationism|creation]], but evolution discomfited her nevertheless--perhaps because it blurred the distinction between man and animal.<ref name=BrandenBenHaz/> <ref name=Parille>[[Neil Parille|Parille, Neil]], [http://rebirthofreason.com/Articles/Parille/Ayn_Rand_and_Evolution.shtml Ayn Rand and Evolution], at RebirthofReason.com</ref>

In regard to this last: Diana Mertz Hsieh accuses Branden of distorting Rand on this point, and says that Rand refused to endorse evolution merely because she believed she did not have the required scientific knowledge to make an informed judgment.<ref name=poisonwell>Hsieh, Diana Mertz, [http://www.dianahsieh.com/blog/2005/07/poisoning-well.html Poisoning the Well], 24 March 2007</ref> In actual fact, Branden details that conversation:<blockquote>I remember being astonished to hear her say one day, "After all, the [[theory of evolution]] is only a hypothesis." I asked her, "Ayn, you mean you seriously doubt that more complex life forms, including humans, evolved from less complex life forms?" She shrugged and responded, "I'm really not prepared to say," or words to that effect. I do not mean to imply that she wanted to substitute for the theory of evolution the religious belief that we are all [[God]]'s [[creation]]; but there was definitely something about the concept of evolution that made her uncomfortable.<ref name=BrandenBenHaz/></blockquote>What that something was, Branden never said. [[Neil Parille]] offers this explanation: that evolution cannot explain the development of consciousness, and that some of evolution's proponents, among them [[Ernst Haeckel]], put Rand off by their explicit rejection of the human will.<ref name=Parille/>

== References ==
<references/>

== See Also ==
* [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_pobs Objectivism] from the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]
* [http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society -- home of The Objectivist Center]
* [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/ The Objectivism Wiki]
* [http://www.importanceofphilosophy.com/ The Importance of Philosophy]
* [[Logic]]

[[Category:Philosophical systems]]

Ayn Rand

2009-12-02T22:47:22Z

Rdkaster: /* Her views */

[[Image:Jhyu65.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Ayn Rand''' ("Ayn" rhymes with "mine"), born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' (1905-1982) was a [[Russian]]-born [[philosopher]], screenwriter, and novelist, who began her career in Hollywood. She used her novels to promote her philosophy, known as [[Objectivism]]. Her best-known novels are [[Atlas_Shrugged|''Atlas Shrugged'']] and ''[[The Fountainhead]]''.

She is a highly political author, with her novels often serving as political messages. She advocated minimal government interference in business and strongly objected to socialism and nationalism. Combined, more than twelve million copies of her two best-known novels have been sold in the U.S. alone.

==Her views==
{{Main|Objectivism}}

Ayn Rand attracted a following based on her opposition to [[collectivism]], as articulated in her novels, particularly ''Atlas Shrugged''. Her followers today tend to be [[libertarians]] and predominantly unmarried men, many of whom are drawn to a self-indulgent lifestyle consistent with Rand's philosophy. Rand often called herself a "radical for capitalism," by which she meant the pure, ''laissez-faire'' variety.

Rand's most famous and powerful follower was [[Alan Greenspan]] (b. 1926), long-time head of the Federal Researve System (1987-2006).

Rand's philosophy was anti-Christian to the point of even declaring that "faith, as such, is extremely detrimental to human life: it is the negation of reason."<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=media_topic_religion</ref> The movement she founded supports an "absolute right" to [[abortion]] at any time during pregnancy,<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5105</ref> including partial-birth abortion.

Ayn Rand's philosophy and followers also support a "right" to have same-sex marriage, and opposed California's [[Proposition 8]] defining marriage as between one man and woman.<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=21821</ref>

Rand had very little in common with [[conservatives]] except for a mutual opposition to communism and socialism. Rand was an [[atheism|atheist]] and opponent of traditional family values, who personally adhered more to [[Hollywood Values]] than conservative ones.<ref>http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html</ref> She was a strident opponent of altruism. As far back as 1957, [[Whittaker Chambers]] denounced the “wickedness” of ''Atlas Shrugged'' in ''National Review'' and Dr. Gabe Vertin derided her "senseless self-agrrandizement."

==Quotes==
"We are fast approaching the stage of the ultimate inversion: The stage where the government is free to do anything it pleases, while the citizens may act only by permission – which is the stage of the darkest periods of [[human]] history, the stage of rule by brute force."<ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=45735 WorldNetDaily.com Should Democratic Party merge with Communist Party?, August 12, 2005</ref>

==Books Written==
*''We the Living''
*''[[Anthem (book)|Anthem]]''
*''The Fountainhead''
*''Atlas Shrugged''
*''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal''
*''The Romantic Manifesto''
*''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution''
*''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''

==References==
* Burns, Jennifer. ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right'' (2009), standard scholarly history, by a conservative historian. [http://www.amazon.com/Goddess-Market-Rand-American-Right/dp/0195324870/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256927458&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Doherthy, Brian. ''Radicals for Capitalism a Freewheeling History of the Modern Libertarian Movement.'' (2007), popular history.
* Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. ''The Ayn Rand Companion'' (1984) 130 pp. good starting point
* Heller, Ann C. ''Ayn Rand and the World She Made'' (2009)
* Kirsch, Adam. "Ayn Rand’s Revenge" [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/01/books/review/Kirsch-t.html?nl=books&emc=booksupdateema1 ''New York Times Sunday Book review'' Nov. 1, 2009]
* Uyl, Douglas J. Den, and Douglas B. Rasmussen, eds. ''The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand'' (1984) 235 pp.; dense essays by professional philosophers

====References====
<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer Ayn Rand Institute]
*[http://www.ARIwatch.com ARI Watch] — argues that the above misrepresents Ayn Rand.
*[http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society — home of The Objectivist Center]
*[http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/wiki/Main_Page Objectivism Wiki]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}}

[[Category:Women Authors]]
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]

Vibraphone

2009-12-02T01:00:26Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Vibraphone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Top of a vibraphone]]
The '''Vibraphone''', sometimes just called the '''vibes''' is a [[mallet]] [[instrument]] in the [[percussion]] family, commonly used in [[Jazz]] music. Vibraphones look similar to a [[xylophone]] or [[marimba]], but have [[aluminum]] bars and a motor, and uses a sustain pedal to achieve different harmonic affects.

The first vibraphone was developed in 1921 in the United States. The design was changed significantly from 1921 until it was more or less finalized in 1928.

Typical vibraphones have a range of three octaves, begining from the F below middle C, though other sizes are available.

==Notable Vibraphone Performers==
*Peter Appleyard
*Tito Puente
*Gloria Parker
*Terry Gibbs

[[Category:Percussion Instruments]]

Christian apologetics

2009-12-01T23:22:17Z

Rdkaster:

'''Christian apologetics''' is the defense of the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith through logical arguments. The term comes from the [[Greek]] word ''apologia'', which means "defense". There are a
number of subfields within apologetics. Some apologists specialize in internal biblical consistency (such as JP Holding, owner of tektonics.org), others in scientific defenses of the Bible, and still others in historical or philosophical defenses of Christianity (such as [[Gary Habermas]] or [[Lee Strobel]]). Christian apologist [[JP Holding]] has recommended that prospective apologists choose one area of focus rather than trying to be a "jack of all trades". <ref>http://www.tektonics.org/qt/sowant.html</ref> Some feel that faith alone should need no justification, however, many feel that Christians should be prepared to defend and spread their faith by intellectual means, especially as many people will not accept Christianity without a "rational" reason to do so.
{{Christianity}}
==History of Christian Apologetics==
Christian apologetics has existed as long as Christianity itself. [[Jesus]] himself spent time in the temples and synagogues, debating and explaining the meaning of the scriptures. The [[Saint Peter|Apostle Peter]] exhorted early Christians to apologetics, writing,
:"Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander." 1 Peter 3:15-16.

The Apostle Paul also spent time in [[Athens]], debating [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Epicurianism|Epicurian]] philosophers. Acts 17:16.

Great theologians such as [[Origen]], [[Athanasius]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Martyr]], [[Augustine]], and [[Acquinas]] continued the tradition of apologetics on a dramatic scale. At the same time, apologetics was practiced by countless individual Christians, explaining and defending their beliefs.

===Purposes===
Apologetics has generally been used for two purposes: Efforts to ''persuade'' others of the truth of Christianity, and efforts to ''defend'' the reasonableness of one's own beliefs, while not seeking to convince others of their truth.

==Types of Christian Apologetics==

===Evidentialist apologetics===

Evidential apologetics seeks to defend Christian belief through [[evidence]]. This can take the form of:
* Arguments based on the historical accounts of the Bible;
* Defense of the historical accuracy of the Bible;
* [[Christian Legal Apologetics]]
* [[Biblical Archaeology]], seeking to show that the Bible is consistent with the physical evidence;
* [[Creation science]] and [[Creationism]], seeking to show that the creation accounts of the Bible are the most reasonable explanation for life as we know it.

===Philosophical apologetics===
Philosophical apologetics seeks to defend Christian belief through philosophical argument: primarily [[arguments for the existence of God]]. This can take the form of:
* [[Teleological argument]]: When you find a watch in the sand, you infer that it is designed, even if you do not see the designer, because it is complex, has a definite purpose, and could not have come to be through any known non-intelligent causes. Therefore, when we observe a complex, purposeful universe which could not have come to be through any known non-intelligent cause, it is reasonable to infer the existence of a designer, aka God.

:This is related to the [[anthropic principle]], which is sometimes misused by [[atheist]]s such as [[Richard Dawkins]]. The fact that so many details had to be just so, including physical constants, to allow us to be here, argues for an intelligent designer.
* [[Cosmological argument]]: Every event in the universe is caused by something. It is impossible that everything should have a cause, going back to eternity. Therefore, there must be a [[first cause]], which itself is not caused, and that first cause must be capable of causing the universe, aka God.
In the 20th century, this argument has been strongly supported by [[science]], with the discovery that the universe had a beginning. Prior to the 1920s, it had been widely believed that the universe's existence had been eternal. <ref>http://www.harvardhouse.com/Science-Religion.htm</ref> This verifies the very first three words of the [[Bible]]: "In the beginning".
* [[Ontological argument]]: God is the being than which no greater can be conceived. It is greater to exist than to not exist. Therefore if you conceive God as not existing, you are not conceiving the being than which no greater can be conceived, and are therefore not conceiving God. Therefore it is impossible to conceive of God as not existing. Therefore God exists.
* [[Argument from morality]]: All humans are born with a natural, moral code. A moral code implies a moral code giver, aka God.

===Presuppositional apologetics===
[[Presuppositional Apologetics]] seek to defend Christian belief by showing that belief in Christian precepts is necessary to make sense of the human experience as a whole.

== Christian Apologetics and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ==
The [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]] is critical to the Christian faith. The Apostle Paul wrote, "if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain" (I Cor:15:14). Traditionally, Christianity has believed in a physical resurrection of Jesus Christ. <ref>http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt</ref>

In recent history, Dr. [[Gary Habermas]] is considered the foremost Christian apologist for defending the resurrection of Jesus.<ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/dialog_rexperience/dialog_rexperiences.htm</ref><ref>http://www.tektonics.org/books/lichabrvw.html</ref><ref>http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/NTeSources/NTArticles/CTR-NT/Habermas-Resurrection2-CTR.pdf</ref> <ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_explainingaway/crj_explainingaway.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html</ref> Dr. Habermas had a debate against the philosopher Antony Flew regarding the resurrection which was chronicled in the work ''Did Jesus Rise from the Dead? The Resurrection Debate'' and the debate had a panel of debate judges. J. Hampton Keathley, III , Th.M. in his essay ''Evidences for the Resurrection'' wrote: "The decision of the judges were as follows. The panel of philosophers judging content cast four votes for Habermas who argued for the fact of the resurrection, none for Flew, and one draw. The panel of professional debate judges voted three to two, also in favor of Habermas, this time regarding the method of argumentation technique." <ref>http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=639</ref>

In recent history some notable defenders of the resurrection include: [[William Lane Craig]], [[Ben Witherington]], [[Lee Strobel]], [[Josh McDowell]], [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]], [[N.T. Wright]] and [[Michael Horner]]. <ref>http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/historical.html</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/yama.html</ref><ref>http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Early_Traditions.htm</ref><ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/index.html</ref>

Legal scholars, legal authorities, and eminent lawyers such as [[Simon Greenleaf]], [[John Warwick Montgomery]], [[Lord Darling]], [[John Singleton Copley]], [[Hugo Grotius]], [[Lord Caldecote]], [[J. N. D. Anderson]], [[Lionel Luckhoo]], and many others have asserted that western legal standards argue for the resurrection of Christ. <ref>http://www.bibleteacher.org/sgtestimony.htm</ref><ref>http://www.mtio.com/articles/bissart1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.ankerberg.com/Articles/apologetics/AP0302W3.htm</ref><ref>http://lawreligionculturereview.blogspot.com/2005_01_01_lawreligionculturereview_archive.html</ref><ref>http://www.trinitysem.edu/journal/philjohnsonpap.html</ref>

== Christian Apologetic Ministries ==
There are a number of [[internet]] based Christian apologetic Ministries or Christian apologetics ministries which have a internet presence. Some of the more notable Christian apologetic ministries are: [[Tekton Apologetics Ministries]], [[LeadershipU]], [[Probe Ministries]], [[Christian Answers Network]], [[Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]], and [[A Christian Thinktank]].

==See Also==

*[[Israel Tourism]] for some biblical archaeological sites available to tourists
*[[Atheism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.allaboutgod.com All About GOD] — Answers to many questions regarding Christianity
* [http://www.carm.org/apologetics.htm Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]
* [http://www.windmillministries.org Windmill Ministries]
* [http://www.apologetics.com Apologetics.com]
* [http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/resource.html Apologetics Information Ministry]
* [http://www.tektonics.org Tekton Apologetics Ministries]
* [http://www.tektonics.org/classics/classics.html Classic Works of Apologetics] (Tektonics)
* [http://hisdefense.org/Links/Authors/tabid/297/Default.aspx Academy of Christian Apologetics]
* [http://www.leaderu.com/menus/theology.html Leadership U]
* [http://www.lifeway.com/apologetics LifeWay Apologetics]
* [http://www.probe.org/ Probe Ministries -Christian Apologetics]
* [http://www.rzim.org/ Ravi Zacharias, modern apologist]
* [http://www.ses.edu/Resources/ApologeticsJournal/tabid/104/Default.aspx Christian Apologetics Journal]
* [http://www.str.org/ Stand to Reason]
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com Christian Thinktank]
* [http://www.worldview.org Worldview Academy]
* [http://www.arcapologetics.org/ Apologetics Resource Center]
* [http://www.ApologeticsWiki.com/ Christian Apologetics Wiki] — [[Wiki]]-based Christian apologetics
* [http://www.actministry.org Academy for Christian Thought]
* [http://www.rbc.org/rtb/ 10 Reasons to Believe]

[[Category: Christian Apologetics]]

American Revolution

2009-12-01T23:21:26Z

Rdkaster:

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="300" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:AmRev Logo.PNG|300px]]
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: gray no-repeat scroll top left;"|American Revolutionary War
|-
|Begun
|19 April 1775
|-
|Ended
|13 September 1783
|-
|Victor
|Americans
|}
The '''American Revolution''' (1775-1783) was the process by which the thirteen American colonies became an independent nation, the United States of America. It involved new ideas, based on [[republicanism]], and required victory in a long war with [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]. After the fighting raged for a year the Americans declared independence on July 4, 1776, as a separate nation, and after the Battle of Saratoga formed an alliance with France that equalized the military and naval strengths of the two sides.

The basic cause was the refusal of the British government to allow Americans a voice in setting taxes. Those that favored independence were called [[Patriot]]s and those that remained loyal to King [[George III]] were called [[Loyalists]]. Many people tried to remain neutral.

[[Image:american-revolution-map.gif|thumb|200px|The 13 colonies in 1775]]
==Causes==
* [[Boston Tea Party]], 1773. Destruction of the hated tea caused the British to try to crush the Ameircan spirit
* [[Republicanism]], the basic political values of the Patriots--and Americans today
* [[Stamp Act of 1765]], the British asserted power to tax without represntation; foled by bold Ameircan reaction
* [[Townshend Acts]], 1767, more taxes imposed because the British insisted they could tax the Americans any time and any way

==Boston 1775==
[[Image:Concord1775.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Eyewitness drawing of British Redcoats marching to Concord in April, 1775;attacked by thousands of [[Minute Men]], they retreated & barely managed to reach Boston.<ref> This is a hand colored engraving by Amos Doolittle based on a sketch by Ralph Earl. The Colonial Williamsburg Journal, "Fields of Fire—Four Views of the Fatal Day", Summer 2006. [http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Summer06/paintings.cfm online] </ref>]]

Political tactics had failed, and the British sent a combat army to Boston to overawe the rebels. On April 18, 1775, Gage sent 700 elite troops to Concord, 21 miles from Boston, to seize illegal munitions stored there. Major John Pitcairn a month before wrote that "one active campaign, a smart action, and burning two or three of their towns, will set everything to rights." The minute men of Lexington blocked Pitcairn; someone unknown fired the first shot; the British pushed on to Concord. They found the munitions gone and began their return trek only to be stunned by the discovery the Americans were fighting back. Three thousand militia lined the route, firing muskets from behind stone fences. ("The Americans," noted General Israel Putnam, "are not at all afraid of their heads, though very much afraid of their legs; if you cover these they will fight forever.") The Yankee assault was well-planned and well-carried out. Only the timely arrival of a rescue party saved the redcoats, who suffered 270 casualties (versus 93 American casualties).

Fast riders sped word of the British aggression and American
resistance up and down the coast. The news reached General
[[Israel Putnam]], age 67, as he was plowing his Connecticut farm. He instantly unhitched a horse, left word for his militia to follow, and galloped the 100 miles in 18 hours. Within days Boston was surrounded by 10,000 patriots, enlisted for the year, armed with muskets and ready to fight. Their opportunity came in June, at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], when 2,400 redcoats attacked 1,600 patriots dug in on Breed's Hill (in front of Bunker Hill). Crouching low behind their breastworks, the Yankees were told to wait--"Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes!" The first two waves were mowed down; finally a bayonet charge took the hill. The redcoats won, at a stunning cost of 1,054 casualties, including a high proportion of officers. The Americans lost 400 casualties, and shattered the illusion that they would not or could not stand up to well-trained regulars.
[[image:Bunker hill.jpg|350px|right|thumb|Battle of Bunker Hill]]

Over the winter of 1775-76, the Americans sent expeditions to conquer Canada. Some of the habitants in French Canada welcomed the Americans and joined the invading army. Some supported the British colonial government. Most remained neutral. <ref> Mason Wade (1945) vol 1 </ref> The American invasion was hopeless. Short of supplies, outnumbered, sick with disease and too reckless, the Americans were whipped by the British regulars and Canada would continue to fly the Union Jack.

The British battened down in Boston, which was on a peninsula and could not be attacked without artillery on the hills around the city. Led by [[Henry Knox]], a brilliant young clerk who had read military treatises and knew how to seize the moment, the patriots obtained 60 heavy guns from the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga, in upstate New York. Water traffic was controlled by the Royal Navy, so Knox organized ox teams that hauled the heavy guns on sleds across the snows and ice in winter 1775-76. When the guns finally arrived in Boston in March, 1776, the British in Boston were defenseless; they withdrew to the great British naval base in Halifax, Canada. The rebellion faced by their old enemy pleased the French, who began secret shipments of gunpowder, muskets and other vitally needed munitions, and allowed American privateers to use ports in France and the French West Indies.

In full control of nearly all parts of the 13 states, and realizing they had to break from London once and for all if they ever were to secure a full scale military alliance with France, the new United States of America declared its independence on July 4, 1776. This was a proclamation of a state of affairs that had taken effect at least a year earlier, when the Continental Congress took over the forces around Boston and formally established a Continental Army. The army's mission thus was to preserve the status quo of a new nation that had seized control of its fate. The British had to crush that symbol, and reassert the supremacy of the Crown. The Royal Navy blockaded the American coastline. Washington and his armies had to trudge overland, while the British forces could be moved rapidly by water from point to point. Although they had the naval power to seize any one point, Britain never had the manpower to occupy all the rebellious colonies simultaneously. At least 200,000 soldiers would have been needed for that, and probably more. London did expand its army, but service was unpopular and it could not raise enough troops. Efforts to hire mercenary armies around Europe turned up only 30,000 men rented out by the rulers of Hesse-Cassel and other tiny German countries. (The rulers were paid so much per soldier, with a bonus for those killed.) The 3,000-mile-long supply line drastically limited the number of troops that could be maintained in America. The supply line furthermore had to be constantly protected from American privateers (privately operated armed merchant ships with a license to attack British merchantmen.) London assumed that a small number of radicals, wholly unrepresentative of American opinion, had seized control. The solution was not to negotiate but to overthrow them. The reasonable Americans would see their duty as British citizens, and renew their allegiance to the Crown once they saw the invincible British army had arrived.

==Organization==
[[Image:Am-Rev.jpg|thumb|560px|left|Advantages (top) and disadvantages (bottom) General Washington had to cope with during the Revolution]]

The [[Continental Congress]] was the national gobvernment that directed the war effort.

===George Washington===
When Congress took charge of the unorganized army at Boston in June, 1775, its consensus choice for commander in chief was [[George Washington]], age 45. His military experience totaled five years in the [[French and Indian War]], when he became colonel in charge of all Virginia forces at age 23. Now a wealthy tobacco planter, slaveholder, and political leader of Virginia, he had the stature, the energy, and the bearing of leadership the Americans needed. Washington had three roles during the war. In 1775-77, and again in 1781 he led his men against the main British forces. He lost many of his battles--save the last one--but always survived to fight another day. Second he was charged with organizing and training the army. He recruited regulars and assigned General von Steuben, a German professional, to train them.

[[Image:VonSteuben.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, German volunteer general]]

Washington had the major voice in selecting generals for command, and in planning their basic strategy. His achievements were mixed, as some of his favorites (like John Sullivan) never mastered the art of command. Eventually he found men who got the job done, like Nathaniel Greene. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and consequently they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes, at Saratoga and Yorktown, came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops. Third, and most important, Washington was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown--the representative man of the Revolution. His enormous stature and political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. By voluntarily stepping down and disbanding his army when the war was won, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs. And yet his constant reiteration of the point that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic amateurs helped overcome the ideological distrust of a standing army. There was unanimous sentiment that he had to be the first president when the first election took place in 1788.

===The Continental Army===
The [[Continental Army]] was organized along British lines. Washington was General (three stars) and Commander in Chief, reporting directly to Congress. He personally commanded the Main Army, which varied in strength from 6,000 to 18,000, and directed army wide staff commands. Washington supervised major generals (two stars) who commanded geographical divisions: Eastern (New England), Northern (New York), Highlands (West Point area of New York), Middle (New Jersey to Delaware), Southern (Virginia--the largest state--plus the [[Carolinas]] and Georgia), Western and Canadian. When the Main Army moved into a division, Washington assumed overall command there; most of the time it was based within a radius of 40 or 50 miles outside New York City. The divisional armies fluctuated in size, but usually comprised one to five brigades. Brigades comprised about 2,500 men commanded by a brigadier (one star) general. Congress approved 73 generals, 16 of whom had been officers in the British army (usually captains or majors), 36 in the colonial militias, and 21 with zero previous military experience. All that [[Nathanael Greene]] and [[Henry Knox]] knew about warfare came from reading manuals and military history, yet Greene was one of the two or three best fighters (after Benedict Arnold), and young Knox (born 1750) brilliantly handled Washington's artillery.<ref> Higginbotham, (1983)</ref>

The brigades were the main fighting units of the army. They were made up of five to ten regiments, which were called battalions when in battle. Some regiments were "Continental," that is, organized and controlled by Congress, with long terms of service. Other regiments were "militia," organized and controlled by the states, with short terms of service (usually one year). In addition to these standard regiments, when the Americans were doing well local militia companies suddenly showed up; they would depart whenever they pleased. Washington was infuriated at his lack of control over them. "They come in you cannot tell how, go, you cannot tell when; and act, you cannot tell where; consume your provisions, exhaust your stores, and leave you at last in a critical moment." He insisted that only a regular army with long terms of service could be properly trained, officered, moved from place to place, and counted upon to be around for a long campaign.<ref> Weigley, (1991) p 234; Washington quote 20 Dec 1776 ''Writings'' 6:403</ref> But Washington was too awed by the professionalism of the British Army, and anyway the new American political and financial systems were much too weak to support a large standing army. Furthermore, most patriots deeply distrusted one. To this day historians debate whether in actual battle the militia fought as well as the Continentals. The Maryland Line and Delaware Line (militia) were outstanding, performing almost as well as the British regulars in executing tactical moves on the battlefield. In any case, a large standing army would have been a tempting target for the main British force. The basic British strategy in 1775-1778 was to track down and destroy Washington's main army. They hoped its destruction would lead to Americans coming to terms, which seems unlikely.<ref> Higginbotham, (1983)</ref>

A colonel commanded an American regiment, assisted by a lieutenant colonel and a major.<ref> The colonelcy of a British regiment was honorific; the lieutenant colonel was in actual command. </ref> They usually were the organizers who recruited the regiment in the first place. The regulars had volunteered for different lengths of time (one year, three, the duration of the war), and regiments whose term had expired wanted to march home. Half the veteran officers and sergeants, and perhaps a third of the privates reenlisted; the rest called it a war and went home. It grew harder and harder to raise troops. Cash bounties were offered, a draft was imposed. A draftee could escape by paying a fine or finding a substitute; older men sent sons or younger brothers. The more established young men volunteered for war first; by 1777 it was the poor, the unemployed, immigrants, blacks, and drifters who entered the army. To organize the regiment a colonel's staff included a surgeon, quartermaster (supply officer), chaplain, paymaster, and an adjutant to quill the paperwork. The fighting power of the regiment comprised seven to ten companies, each commanded by a captain, assisted by a lieutenant or two, an ensign (the lowest ranking officer), four sergeants (who ran things), four corporals, and a drummer and fifer (to issue commands in battle). The privates, 30 to 70 per company, carried muskets, pitched their tents, cooked whatever food was available, and did what the corporals and sergeants ordered. The weakness of the American army was that the sergeants and officers had little or no experience in warfare, and the generals displayed more genius for back-room politics than for battlefield action. The Americans had great difficulty carrying off complex, coordinated maneuvers. When Washington tried a four-pronged attack at Germantown in 1777, everything collapsed in confusion. At least Washington learned his lesson: he did not have an army that could maneuver as well or fight on equal terms, so he never again tried.<ref> Buchanan, (2004); Royster, (1979)</ref>

Most regiments were strictly infantry, armed just with muskets and bayonets. Sometimes elite troops were assigned to a light infantry company, which was always kept up to full strength. Brigade commanders would assemble all their light infantry companies into a special battalion for special missions. The British used light infantry more often and more effectively than the Americans, because their command and control structure worked better. A brigade might have one artillery company, with perhaps an artillery regiment assigned to department headquarters. Cavalry units (which fought on horseback) were rarely used. Dragoons were infantry who rode horses, but dismounted to fight. They appeared in southern campaigns, but were not used more often because few Americans owned suitable mounts, and the British could not handle the logistics of sending horses and all their fodder across the Atlantic. Furthermore Washington never learned to appreciate the strong advantages of mounted forces in covering great distances. On paper a regiment numbered 500 to 1,000 men. But it probably was not at full strength in the first place. At any one time, some soldiers were sick, some assigned elsewhere, some captured or dead or deserted, or just vanished. Having 350 men fit for duty was usual. When new recruits arrived they usually came in new regiments, but sometimes they filled out understrength old ones. Every year or two old regiments might be merged, reorganized or even disbanded as their one or three year enlistment terms expired.<ref> Fischer (2004)</ref>

===Hygiene and medicine===
Associated with each regiment were civilian sutlers (who sold food and clothes in a sort of post exchange, or PX), wagoners, and often their wives. These women washed, cooked, sewed, nursed, and maintained morale, and were entitled to half rations. (Very few were prostitutes.) British and German regiments typically had far more camp followers; apparently American women disliked that kind of life. The Americans, "not being used to doing things of this sort, choose rather to let their linen, etc., rot upon their backs than to be at the trouble of cleaning 'em themselves." The lack of women had more dangerous consequences: "Many of the Americans have sickened and died of the dysentery brought upon them in great measure through an inattention to cleanliness. When at home their female relations put them washing their hands and faces and keeping themselves neat and clean, but being absent from such monitors, through an indolent needless turn of mind, they have neglected the means of health, have grown filthy, and poisoned their constitution by nastiness." Everyone scratched away at the parasitic mites that burrowed into the seams of dirty clothing. Those itching from scurvy were in fact seriously ill, and were sent to the regimental field hospital. It was a rude hut where the surgeon, surgeon's mate, and nurses (camp followers) did would little they could.<ref>Linda K. Kerber, "History Will Do It No Justice: Women’s Lives in Revolutionary America" (1987) online at [http://sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/preslectures/kerber87/index.html]; Saffron (1977); Reiss (1982)</ref>

Disease killed far more soldiers than did combat. Of the 100,000 to 150,000 men who served in U.S. forces at one time or another, about 6,800 died in battle, while disease carried away 10,000 in camp and 8,500 in British prisons. Putting thousands of men in close quarters, with bad sanitation and poor hygiene, was the prescription for epidemics. The care of the wounded was rudimentary; neither side had an ambulance service or corps of medics to apply first aid and rush the wounded back to field hospitals. A delay of several hours before any medical attention often meant bleeding to death, or the onset of fatal gangrene. Punctures made by bayonets were usually clean wounds with deep gashes; bayonets either killed immediately or offered a good chance for survival in an otherwise healthy soldier. The main function of bayonet charges, however, was not to stab the enemy but to frighten him into running away. Iron shrapnel from artillery and the lead musket balls produced torn, jagged wounds. Unlike the steel-jacketed high-velocity bullets of the late nineteenth century, the low-velocity one-ounce musket balls flattened on impact, ripped up flesh, traumatized tissue, and splintered bones. Chest, stomach and groin wounds were hopeless. Wounds of the face, neck and legs demanded immediate attention for there was still hope if the man did not go into shock. Blood transfusion was unknown so the surgeon stopped the bleeding with a tourniquet, calmed the wide-eyed patient with a slug of rum, opened the wound with a scalpel, and removed the fragments with forceps (or dirty fingers). The wound was cleaned with lint soaked in oil, bandaged, and changed daily. A serious leg or arm wound required immediate amputation to forestall gangrene; the operation took a half hour. Since the incision was made through healthy tissue, there was a better chance for survival if not much blood had been lost. Unfortunately, if the surgical patients were kept in the hospital more than a few days, they would probably catch, and perhaps die from an infectious disease--dysentery, typhoid, smallpox, or malaria. The surgeons were poorly trained (many not even doctors), and supplies were always short. Scarcely any effective drugs were available, though many popular remedies were tried, especially emetics and laxatives.

===Supplies===
When a regiment was on the march, it would send out foragers to buy (or acquisition) whatever food, fodder and fuel the local farmers had not hidden away. British, French and German supply officers paid real money. Americans could pay only with depreciating Continental paper, or in near-worthless certificates. The job of forager was as unpopular as it was essential, and often was assigned to black troops. The officers were responsible for their own food and clothing, using their pay or, more often, their private wealth. The pay, when it occasionally arrived, seldom was enough to buy much. Their relatives sent along boots and blankets. The privates, however, depended on the quartermaster corps for shoes, clothes, blankets, and everything else, and routinely were disappointed. They mutinied from time to time--the only effective way they could signal Congress and the people that the system was not working. The mutinies were not refusals to fight, nor attacks on officers, and the men calmed down quickly enough when their generals and colonels promised them relief. As for the officers, they demanded, and finally got, a Congressional promise of eventual pensions (half-pay for life) and land grants in the west.

===Comparison with British army===
The British officers were convinced the Americans would not and could not fight. Hilarious anecdotes circulated about their inept soldiering in the French and Indian War. "They are raw, undisciplined, cowardly men," insisted the First Lord of the Admiralty. The British misperceptions of the American character typified the widening gap between London and the fast maturing colonies. The rank and file British soldiers were recruited from very low social ranks, were treated shabbily by their sergeants and officers, and held in contempt by everyone. The British private was a cog in the machine, not an individual. His duty was to obey his superiors immediately, without flinching or thinking. The main tactic of the infantry was to march as close as possible to the enemy, form ranks, then fire volleys of muskets regardless of enemy fire. Severe flogging was the punishment for any disrespect; the European ideal was that the soldier should fear his officers more than the enemy. British privates enlisted for life, attracted by the free food and clothing. Patriotism was scarcely a factor. American militiamen were part-time soldiers and full-time citizens and voters. They were individualistic, with their own needs and priorities, so they evaluated military service on their own terms. The instructions for recruiters in Maryland required "great Regard to moral Character; Sobriety in particular." "You are to inlist no Man who is not able bodied, healthy and a good marcher, nor such whose attachment to the liberties of America you have cause to suspect. Young hearty robust men who are tied by Birth or Family Connections to this County; and are well practiced in the use of firearms are by much to be preferred."<ref> ''Maryland Magazine of History'' (1974) vol 69 p93 quoted in Brugger</ref> Recruits thus were integrated into their community, and reflected its values, aspirations and fears. The militia elected its own junior officers, and judged their performance with a critical eye. When their enlistments expired, they went home. (Deserters went home too, and the community protected them. The American desertion rate was a very high 20 to 25 per 100 men per year.)

The British army of 1775 had a fearsome reputation that was not fully deserved. Britain normally fought its wars by subsidizing allies, like Prussia, that did the real fighting. The army was therefore quite small for a global empire. In 1775 it had worldwide only 49,000 men: 39,000 infantry, 2,500 artillery, and 6,900 cavalry. The average soldier, aged 30, had been nine years in the ranks, but that did not mean he was well trained. Since there had been no warfare for a dozen years, only the older men had battlefield experience. In peacetime the British army was scattered about in small units, the men often boarded in private homes. In America the men lived in barracks and were drilled six hours a day, with calisthenics, goose-step marching, and musket loading. However, there were no field exercises that would give the officers a feel for maneuvering thousands of men. Parliament expanded the forces quickly after Lexington, authorizing 40,000 more soldiers. Enlistment meant lifetime service, however, and only the most destitute men looked upon it is an attractive deal. They were not quick studies, and had narrow perspectives. Never were they permitted to take any initiative or question their orders. did not know what they were fighting for, except to avoid the iron discipline of their sergeants and lieutenants. The Hessians were even less eager for warfare--they had not volunteered and were not even paid. Realizing this weakness, Americans appealed to them to desert and join the American cause. Most Hessians looked at Americans as ferocious savages, but some changed their opinions. Hessian prisoners were held in German-speaking areas of Pennsylvania, and hired out to local farmers. Only 60 percent of the mercenaries returned to Germany; 23 percent died; 17 percent deserted and became Americans.

===Discipline===
The Americans were notoriously sloppy, dirty and careless; formations were ragged, and routine discipline was at best erratic. To the martinets in red coats this proved that the rebels did not know how to make war. American officers had to learn how to elicit self discipline among their men. Parades and smart uniforms enhanced pride in the unit, which gradually became the community the long-terms regulars identified with. As drill master von Steuben later explained to a Prussian visitor, "You say to your soldier, 'Do this' and he doeth it; but I am obliged to say 'This is the reason why you ought to do that,' and then he does it." The redcoat was easy to order around. The Americans only followed orders they felt were correct; if the scene were too dangerous they would run away. If the generals were doing poorly they would go home. Conversely, if the officers could motivate them they would fight well, and if the enemy seemed in trouble they would suddenly show up by the thousands, as they did at Boston (1775), Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). The American militiaman, contrasted with a redcoat regular, was better educated, more easily trained, more accustomed to wilderness more acclimated to the disease environment, and more familiar with firearms. He was a full participant in the war because this was a struggle his home community was waging for its own independence and freedom.

===Honor and ideology inside the armies===
Europeans measured the qualities of officers not in terms of initiative, ingenuity or community ties, but in terms of honor and elevated social status. British officers were gentlemen, or even titled aristocrats who had purchased their commissions for huge sums of money. They had not attended a military academy; aristocrats thought their status alone made them deserving of command. Warfare was a way of enhancing the honor of their family; military hierarchies reflected social hierarchies, with a vast gap between top and bottom. The American armies had an amazingly small social differential between officer and private-- typified by the story of the captain-barber cutting his men's [[hair]], or the colonels who cobbled boots for prisoners. According to the [[Republicanism, U.S.|"Republican"]] ideology that had seized the American mind, it was the duty of every citizen to work for the good of the community. Sacrifice, especially the risk of life in battle, was the highest form of virtue. The bravest soldiers, the ones most dedicated to the cause, were therefore the ones with the highest virtue, and thus deserved to be officers. Their men ought to follow their orders not because of aristocratic status, or obedience to the King, but because the officers most nearly embodied the spirit of liberty and community. The officers had to uplift the men, help them reach their full potential as true Americans. Conversely, the most horrible status was that of traitor: the person who put alien allegiance ahead of civic virtue and loyalty to community. The [[Loyalists]] were seen as traitors, and worst of all was [[Benedict Arnold]], the hero who became a turncoat. King George, by the Coercion Acts and the imposition of martial law, was challenging the very existence of an autonomous American community. To give in would be slavery; to resist, the highest form of virtue. "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?" called out Patrick Henry of Virginia. "I know not what course others may take, but for me give me liberty or give me death!"

==British victory at New York City, 1776==
The Patriots' glorious spring of 1776 gave way to disasters in the summer and fall for the fledgling Continental army and its inexperienced commander. The British Royal Navy had complete control of the seas (since the French were still neutral). They could move large forces anywhere on the coastline much faster than the Americans could build defenses or march in reinforcements. As Washington discovered, "The amazing advantage the Enemy derive from their Ships and the Command of the Water, keeps us in a state of constant perplexity and the most anxious conjecture." Throughout the war the British strategy focused on cities. They realized that the colonies did not have a true center like London, but the cities were all accessible by sea, and they all contained large Loyalist contingents who wined and dined the British officers, leaving the mistaken impression that most Americans "really" favored the King. New York City was a prime target--it had the best port in the colonies, and could be used to isolate the New England region. Congress demanded that Washington defend Manhattan island (population 22,000) and nearby Long Island. But any defense was hopeless in the face of 30 British warships with 1,200 guns, and 10,000 sailors, not to mention the hundreds of transports that carried nearly half of the British army--32,000 trained regulars. This powerful force-- 45% of the Royal Navy and by far the most formidable fighting unit on the globe--was assembled only because King George III himself demanded action, and his minister for American affairs Lord George Germain brilliantly solved the logistic challenge. It was commanded by Major General William Howe and his older brother Admiral Richard Howe. Fortunately for the American cause, the Howes were trying to be conciliatory; a massive show of force on land and a tight blockade at sea would show the Yankees how insane their rebellion was, inducing them to accept the generous pardons which Howe was prepared to offer. Conciliation would be a better route to reunion, Howe felt, than annihilation of the rebel armies. But annihilation it nearly was. Washington foolishly divided his 28,000 men between Long Island and Manhattan, and neglected to defend his flanks. Instead of charging head-on, as they did in Boston, the Redcoats used their mobility to land troops in the rear, A surprise amphibious landing trapped Washington at the Battle of Long Island (Aug 1776). Miraculously he evaded the fleet and escaped to Manhattan. But another amphibious landing trapped him again. A second miraculous escape took Washington north of the city.
Washington had been whipped. Any remaining American taste for offensive warfare like the siege of Boston or the invasion of Canada dissolved in the face of British superiority in numbers and assault capability. Disorganization, shortages of supplies, fatigue, sickness, and above all, lack of confidence in the American leadership resulted in a melting away of untrained regulars and frightened militia. As Washington grumbled, "The honor of making a brave defence does not seem to be sufficient stimulus, when the success is very doubtful, and the falling into the Enemy's hands probable." The Connecticut contingent shrank from 8,000 to 2,000 in a matter of days. At White Plains. north of New York City, Washington again lost, and had to retreat to the hills of New Jersey. Meanwhile two major American forts, Lee and Washington, were surrounded and captured with 2,800 prisoners and the loss of sorely needed artillery and supplies. Manhattan and Long Island would fly the Union Jack until 1783. In December, 1776, the British seized control of New Jersey. The defeats were humiliating, but indecisive because the Howes neglected their opportunities to crush the insurgents. After all the casualties, captures, departures and desertions, Washington had only 16,000 men left--half the force he started with. He would never again battle the main British army, but would try to pick away at detachments and outposts. He knew the Redcoats could seize any city or other point they chose, but the new nation was so decentralized that it had no nerve center to be immobilized. Above all, Washington's goal was to keep his army alive as proof that the Revolution persisted.
[[Image:washington-deleware.jpg|500px|right|thumb|''Washington Crossing the Delaware'', by Emmanuel Leutze (1850)]]

Washington, however, was not finished. On Christmas Day, 1776, he crossed the ice-filled Delaware River and surprised the Hessian winter encampment at Trenton, New Jersey. Over 900 of the 1,400 Germans were captured, and 22 killed; only 4 Americans were dead. Washington followed up this brilliant stroke with a lightning attack on Princeton, New Jersey, on January 2. The overcautious General Howe decided to retreat to New York, abandoning New Jersey and thousands of Loyalist supporters. Only a small part of the great British army had been defeated, and yet New Jersey was lost. Washington broke all the rules. Well- behaved armies spent six "winter" months (December through May or June) in camp, not in the field. It was rude indeed to interrupt Hessians sleeping off their Christmas parties. And it was audacious to challenge a much larger, much better equipped enemy with a ragged, hungry little force. But battles are won by audacity, and Washington's bold moves revived patriot spirits and demonstrated to the British that conciliatory tactics would never bring the Americans to heel.

[[Image:GWashington at Princeton.jpg|200px|right|thumb|George Washington at the Battle of Princeton]]

===British occupation policy===
If this was a revolution, the British needed a counter- revolutionary policy. Assuming the ringleaders were few and easily suppressed was a cardinal mistake, delaying any effective policy until after 1776. By then it was too late. To control an area the insurgents had to accomplish three goals: win the allegiance of more people, in terms of both active support and passive acquiescence. Then the rebels had to construct a viable organization. The organization needed identity (badges, flags), recruiting capability, weapons, training, leadership, ties to the national movement, and a secure sanctuary in case in case of attack. Finally the insurgents had to crush the opposition's will to exist through techniques that ranged from ostracism to seizure of property, imprisonment, and execution. In the 1770s the patriots were younger, more committed, more vigorous, less attached to the old order, more confident and better organized than the Loyalists. They would surely win unless the British successfully competed for the allegiance of the apathetics and neutrals, throttled the rebel organization, and revitalized the old government, especially as it touched people's lives.

In Queens County New York, Loyalism was strong; about 12% of the people were patriots and 27% Loyalists.<ref> Joseph S. Tiedemann, "A Revolution Foiled: Queens County, New York, 1775-1776." ''Journal of American History'' 1988 75(2): 417-444. Issn: 0021-8723 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(198809)75%3A2%3C417%3AARFQCN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in Jstor]</ref> (The remainder were neutral, but some could be coerced one way or the other.) In addition to their rare numerical advantage, the Loyalists had the secure refuge, for New York City was only a few miles away. Furthermore the British commissary agents were paying farmers real gold for food, horses and fuel, while the rebels only had dubious paper money. In most of the country, the rebels early on seized control of local governments, and enlisted the militia on their side, but in Queens, the Loyalists won control of most of the towns. In most of the country, the religious configuration favored the rebels. The New England Congregationalists and the southern Anglicans, for example, supported the revolution. In Queens, one fifth of the people were Quakers. Ostensibly neutral, the Quakers in fact were comfortable with the royal regime that had protected them for so long. Queens had a large Anglican and Dutch Reformed population (both 4 to 1 Tory), and many Presbyterians (5 to 1 patriot). Most newspapers in the colonies favored the revolution, as did most orators. In Queens the propaganda seemed to favor the Crown. The atrocities and oppression the patriots talked about endlessly were not local matters; no one was afraid of Indians any longer. When the patriots failed to win control of the spirit of Queens in 1775, they bluntly arrested and attacked supporters of the Crown. This gave the Loyalists the image of reasonable moderates defending the community against terrorists.

When the redcoats occupied Queens from 1776 to 1783 the inhabitants discovered what the American Revolution was all about. Civilians were treated with contempt--attacked, raped, arrested, plundered, cheated, cut off from decisions. The British instituted a harsh martial law just to make sure there would be no unrest. Loyalism faded in Queens; the men increasingly refused to volunteer for Loyalist militia units, or spy on the patriots. Only one fifth of the original Tories went into exile after 1783; the remainder seemed pleased that the new government had restored peace. Not even under ideal conditions could the aristocratic British win the hearts and minds of the equalitarian Americans. But even if the British had figured out a counter-revolutionary strategy, after Saratoga it was too late.

==Burgoyne's plan: split the Colonies, 1777==
Early in the war one of the more dashing and imaginative British generals, [[John Burgoyne]], had a plan to divide and conquer:<ref> Burgoyne to Lord George Germain, 22 June 1777, in Davies ed. ''Documents of the American Revolution,'' 14:119-21; Burgoyne to Germain 11 July 1777, ibid 14:140-1</ref>
<blockquote>
A large army of such foreign troops as might be hired to begin their operations up the Hudson River; another army composed partly of old, disciplined troops and partly of Canadians, to act from Canada; a large levy of Indians, and a supply of arms for the blacks, to awe the southern provinces, conjointly with detachments of regulars; and a numerous fleet to sweep the whole coast, might possibly do the business in one campaign. </blockquote>

Burgoyne won London's approval for most of his plan, and command of the army that was to march down from Canada and seize the Hudson River. Lieutenant Colonel [[Barry St. Leger]] would lead a second army across New York from west to east, meeting up with Burgoyne in Albany. Finally, redcoats in New York City might (or might not) march north and join the other two armies. Burgoyne's basic idea was that New England was the hotbed of revolution. Cut it off and the nine central and southern colonies would lack leadership and determination. Canada was used as the main base partly because there were 10,000 regulars there who could come down the long Montreal-Hudson River corridor. By 1777, however, a hundred thousand patriotic New Englanders lived within marching range of Burgoyne's route. A campaign north from New York City would have been much shorter, safer and more effective. But Howe was the senior officer, and would command such an attack. If Burgoyne was to lead the decisive blow he would have to start from Canada. He moved deep into enemy territory, far from the Royal Navy's guns, far from his base of supplies, and out of touch with supporting troops.

Everything went smoothly for Burgoyne, at first. In June, 1777, he easily captured the important American fort at Ticonderoga. St. Leger, with 1,800 Loyalists and Indians, besieged 750 Americans at Ft. Stanwix in central New York. Indians and Loyalists led by Mohawk Chief [[Joseph Brant]] ambushed and defeated one relief party at Oriskany. But then luck turned. General Benedict Arnold (still on the American side) sent a half-wit into St. Leger's camp with exaggerated tales of vast American armies on the march. The Indians retreated when news of the superior force arrived, forcing St. Leger to withdraw. He would not be at the Albany rendezvous. Burgoyne meanwhile slowly hacked his way through dense forest south of Ticonderoga. The Loyalists he expected to rally to the Union Jack were disappointingly few. The Indians proved very difficult to coordinate; Burgoyne complained they were too bloodthirsty and too eager for plunder to be effective soldiers. "My effort," Burgoyne explained, "has been to keep up their terror and avoid their cruelty."<ref> Burgoyne to Germain, 6 Aug 1777 in Davies ed. ''Documents of the American Revolution,'' 14:156-7</ref> The French Canadians, though willing to defend their homes from the Yankees, refused to march south with Burgoyne's invading army. Howe, aware of Burgoyne's efforts, decided nonetheless to capture Philadelphia; he moved most of his army there by sea. Howe would not rendezvous in Albany either.

Washington perhaps should have moved north to cut the Hudson River between Albany and New York. Instead he tried to defend Philadelphia, the national capital. Howe whipped him in set battles at Brandywine Creek in September, and at Germantown a month later. Rather than pursuing his elusive tormentor, Howe settled down to winter quarters in affluent Philadelphia, where the wealthy Loyalists entertained his troops lavishly. The British, with plenty of gold coin, never wanted for food or fuel. Washington's barefoot men shivered and starved all winter long at nearby Valley Forge. The commissary and quartermaster departments, which reported directly to Congress, had failed their mission. The main reason was a lack of transportation to move supplies to where they were needed, and a lack of long-term planning. Since the Royal Navy blockaded the ports and controlled the seas and major rivers, supplies had to be tediously moved overland by wagon; with the British in control of New York City and Philadelphia, circuitous routes were necessary.

The British lacked good intelligence about what was happening. In Europe the armies were so large, the space so small, and the population so numerous, that everyone knew where everyone else was. Vast, open, underpopulated America was a different world. In the first few years of the war, the British commander occasionally received reports, often garbled or contradictory or, worst of all, overoptimistic, but never handled them in systematic fashion. Howe in Philadelphia did not know whether Washington was camped 5 miles away or 105. Finally after four years of warfare, in May 1779, Clinton appointed his aide Captain John Andre as intelligence officer. The energetic young spymaster set up underground networks and systematically analyzed the inflow of data from spies, Loyalist informers, captured hostiles, and escaped British prisoners. Andre's most brilliant stroke was the purchase of the plans for the defense of West Point in 1780--in the process of which he was captured in disguise and hung. His successor perfected the British intelligence network. When the Pennsylvania regulars mutinied in January 1781, Clinton learned about it the same day as Washington. His emissaries offered to pay in cash the mutineers' back wages if they would defect, but the mutineers hanged them. When the New Jersey regulars mutinied three weeks later, Clinton learned about it before Washington did, but did not try anything. The spies were getting better--soon they reported that the French naval base at Newport, Rhode Island, was poorly guarded. Clinton decided on a surprise attack, but both Admiral Graves and General Cornwallis refused to follow his orders, and the opportunity passed. Spies correctly reported the secret moves of Washington and Rochambeau toward Virginia in 1781. This time Clinton misinterpreted the data, for it contradicted his firm belief that the attack would be against him in New York rather than against Cornwallis in Virginia. The best intelligence in the world proved useless when the command structure could not deal with it.

===Decisive victory: Saratoga, 1777===

[[Image:Saratoga-1777.jpg|thumb|520px]]

After taking patriot strongholds at Crown Point and Ft. Ticonderoga, Burgoyne marched his redcoats south toward Albany, New York. He was far behind schedule because the Americans systematically blocked his way; his long train of unnecessary artillery prevented fast movement. Supplies of food and fodder were running short; his foragers found the countryside had been stripped. A cautious commander might have declared victory (because of the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga) and hurried back to Canada, as General Guy Carleton had done in nearly the same location a year earlier. But "Gentleman Johnny" was the proudest of the British generals--an amateur playwright with a flair for the dramatic. His sharp criticism of Carleton's retreat had given him this command in the first place. Success would end the war and make him the toast of London. By early August, Burgoyne was still far from Albany, and was running short of food. He sent 700 Hessians to Bennington, Vermont, to capture supplies, but only a handful returned. This was the his first indication of trouble--desperate trouble. The American militias had mobilized by the hundreds, by the thousands, and had whipped the Hessians at Bennington. Burgoyne was stunned to discover that Loyalists were refusing to join his army or supply provisions. "The great bulk of the country [upstate New York] is undoubtedly with the Congress in principle and in zeal.... Wherever the King's forces point, militia to the amount of three or four thousand assemble within twenty-four hours; they bring their own subsistence, and the alarm over they return to their farms."<ref> Burgoyne to Germain, 20 Aug 1777 in Davies 14:166 </ref> Burgoyne finally called for help, and in late September Clinton led 3,000 men--an inadequate force--to capture American forts around West Point. They never came closer than 100 miles to Burgoyne. His invading army, with 2000 British regulars, 500 Loyalists and 2500 Hessians, was outnumbered 2-1 and was trapped. On September 14 he crossed his Rubicon, to the west bank of the Hudson River, and headed inland. On September 19 he led an assault at Freeman's Farm in an attempt to move west of Bemis Heights. 4,200 redcoats encountered MG Benedict Arnold with 2,000 Americans. Colonel Daniel Morgan' riflemen and Major Henry Dearborn's light infantry were forced to withdraw after a Hessian envelopment of their right flank. The American commander, Major General [[Horatio Gates]] had only committed these troops at Arnold's insistence, and refused to give them artillery or reinforcements. At nightfall Gates conceded the field. He understood the futility of direct assaults, and by limiting his casualties to only 65 dead he had encouraged more militia to join his army. Furthermore, the British victory proved costly, since they lost 600 irreplaceable men.<ref>Burgoyne to Sir Henrty Clinton, 28 Sept 1777 in Davies 14:191 </ref>

[[Image:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg|500px|right|thumb|''Surrender of General Burgoyne'', by John Trumbull, c. 1819]]

For the next three weeks Burgoyne stood paralyzed. An attack on September 20 or 21 might have sent the Americans running. Instead he waited for reinforcements from Clinton coming up the Hudson--waited, waited, waited. By October 3 the redcoats were hungry; quartermasters reduced rations by one-third. Casualties, desertions of Loyalists and Canadians, and sickness reduced the effectives to 5,000. Gates held all the trumps. New England militia companies, sensing the kill, were pouring into camp. The Americans now held a decisive 3:1 advantage. Gates carefully buttressed Bemis Heights with earthworks and breastworks; his army was being resupplied; and he knew the whereabouts and strengths of the British. Burgoyne realized it was impossible to retreat to Canada; he had to attack. On October 7 he again tried to move west of Bemis Heights. Gates sent Morgan and Dearborn to the British right, and General Enoch Poor's 800 man brigade to its left. Riflemen high in the trees took deadly aim at redcoat officers. Soon, both British flanks were exposed and BG Ebenezer Learned's brigade in the center engaged two German battalions. Arnold, who had been relieved of command by Gates, suddenly jumped into the action and led Learned's brigade in a brilliant attack. The Germans retreated behind Balcarres Redoubt. Arnold then took command of all the troops and led an assault around Burgoyne's right which captured the critical Breymann's Redoubt. Arnold's horse was shot and his leg broken; Morgan and Dearborn continued the charge. (Today there is a monument at Saratoga to Arnold's patriotic leg.) The British retreated, but had nowhere to go.
[[File:Snake1777.jpg|thumb|300px|American rattlesnake captures British army at Saratoga, 1777. Published when peace negotiations had begun, this British cartoon warns of the futility of further efforts to defeat the Americans. The rattlesnake boasts: "Two British Armies I have thus Burgoyn'd, And room for more I've got behind." A sign is posted over a vacant third coil:"An Apartment to Lett for Military Gentlemen." Rattlesnakes symbolized American fierce determination to fight for their liberty.]]

As Burgoyne noted, the American militias were clumsy in method and movement (because of inexperienced field officers), but they were disciplined, and showed the "sobriety, subordination, regularity and courage" needed to win battles. Burgoyne had lost another 600 men, including two generals.<ref> Burgoyne letters and reports in Davies 14:212-215, 228-37; page 236-7 for quote</ref> American casualties were only 200. Burgoyne put off his formal surrender at Saratoga until October 17. Since there was still a danger of Clinton's arrival, Gates gave very generous terms. The redcoats would disarm, march to Boston, sail for home, and promise never to return. The officers did go home, but Congress reneged and kept the others prisoner for the rest of the war.

Overconfidence, poor strategy, amazingly confused coordination among Burgoyne, Howe and Clinton (which can be blamed on Lord Germain, in overall charge in London), and inadequate logistics destroyed a proud British army. Gates followed a simple, clear-cut strategy of blocking a force that was too small and too far from base. Sooner or later it had to surrender.

===World War: France joins the Americans===
The original British strategy had failed totally. Clearly there was no way to defeat the Americans in classical battles-- Washington would either disengage, or, when the odds were highly favorable, capture another British army. Unless Britain did something radically innovative, the American colonies were lost. The strategy of sending Burgoyne overland from Canada to seize the Hudson was a fundamental strategic blunder. It played to the Americans' strength and failed to use the British fleet effectively at a time it controlled the seas. Instead the British should have seized West Point 50 miles north of New York City by overland attack, then sailed small, well-armed frigates up and down the Hudson River. This would have prevented movements of supplies or soldiers between New England and New York. Washington was more alert to the geography than his enemies were, and by 1778 he had West Point well defended. Saratoga was a shattering blow. The British lost 8,000 men (plus supplies and artillery) that would be hard to replace. The Americans kept control of a strategic waterway and prevented the enemy from splitting the new nation. Americans were excited to discover that they could indeed defeat the best soldiers of a supposedly invincible superpower
Even more decisively, the American victory undercut the entire world geopolitical position of Britain. France had long been eager to enter the war, and while Britain allowed its navy to rot, the French had built a powerful fleet and knit alliances across the continent.<ref> Kennedy, ''Rise and Fall,'' 110; Goodwin, ''The American and French Revolutions'' pp, 253-7</ref>

Paris stepped up munitions shipments and in February, 1778, signed a formal treaty with the U.S., becoming a fighting ally. For the entire war the French provided loans that totaled 35 million livres ($6,352,000),<ref>The U.S. paid France back the entire amount in 1792-95.</ref> and subsidies of 10.5 million livres, ($1,996,500), which were gifts. In 1779 Paris brought Spain into the new anti-British alliance; Spain was not directly an ally of the U.S. The Netherlands joined the military alliance, and helped fund the Americans.

Paris acted in part out of revenge at the loss of Canada in the Seven Years War (1763), and even more for practical geopolitical and commercial goals. Independence for the American colonies meant that France's historic adversary would lose the richest, fastest growing, and most strategically located colonies in the world. Indeed, they would become French allies, permanently tilting the balance of power in the North Atlantic and the flow of trade. France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada. French participation reflected the desperate French diplomatic position on the European continent. The war was a tragic failure for France: American independence failed to weaken Britain. The Battle of Saratoga provided the publicity France needed to announce a policy that had already been decided. France was desperate for peace in 1781-83 but did not attempt to betray the United States. The French government was overwhelmed by debt maintenance, but war led to the financial crisis which provided the immediate occasion for the release of those forces which shattered the French political and social order.<ref> Dull (1976)</ref>

Holland joined with France, as did Spain. Madrid had only one interest, the return of Gibraltar, which Britain had captured in 1704. Spain offered to join Britain in the war if it could get Gibraltar; when London refused, she joined the allies. The Spanish navy was vital to the maintenance of the allies' military initiative. (In the end, Britain kept Gibraltar and returned Florida to the Spanish.)

In a stunning failure of diplomacy, Britain was unable to sign up any allies anywhere on the globe, and most neutrals even took hostile positions. This was a world war, but Continental Europe was controlled by the enemy or neutral. Britain would have to fight its war at sea, and the land battles in North America assumed minor importance in the large picture.
====British perspectives====
Britain now was outnumbered in population and wealth, and worst of all, outgunned on the seas by an aggregate of 120 ships of the line to 90. The potential threat of the French fleet forced Clinton (now commander in chief) to evacuate Philadelphia in June, 1778. Yankees threatened his rear guard at Monmouth, but Clinton made good his escape to New York City. The Americans were lucky to get a draw at [[Monmouth, battle of|Monmouth]]. Their commander, the brilliant, experienced and erratic [[Charles Lee]] had lost control of the situation and had to be rescued by Washington. Lee complained bitterly, sought a court martial, was convicted and disgraced. (Decades later it was discovered that before Monmouth Lee had become a traitor who gave Howe a comprehensive plan to defeat Washington.) Monmouth was the last major battle in the North; for the next three years Washington positioned his army to make sure Clinton stayed in New York City. Washington never could talk the French into a joint attack on the well-defended city. The bulk of Royal Navy had to be stationed near England to defend against a possible French-Spanish invasion. (The invasion was threatened twice, but never took place.) The alliance involved risks for the allies: Britain might well defeat their navies separately and capture one of the French West Indies, or French holdings in India. Eventually Britain did accomplish all that. Furthermore, Paris had a poor financial systems; the war bankrupted the treasury, weakened the monarchy, and hastened the French Revolution in 1789. What did the new allies contribute to the American cause? The Spanish, operating from New Orleans, cleared the redcoats out of the lower Mississippi Valley, seizing Mobile on the Gulf Coast, Pensacola (in British West Florida) and the Bahama islands. They also blockaded Gibraltar. These actions diverted British resources, and helped neutralize the pro-British Indians who were attacking patriot settlements along the Carolina-Georgia frontier.

In larger perspective, the American alliance turned a tussle in a remote part of the globe into the fifth world war; indeed, the United States became a secondary theater. Britain would now have a very difficult time defeating the rebels. The fragility of its long supply line, the stretching of already thin resources, the continued corruption and weak and vacillating leadership in London, and the grave threats from every direction spelled doom. As the Earl of Sandwich (head of the Royal Navy) lamented:<ref> Quoted in Kennedy, ''Rise and Fall'' p 97; see also Arthur Herman, ''To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern World'' (2004) Page 313</ref>
<blockquote>
England till this time was never engaged in a sea war with
the House of Bourbon [France and Spain] thoroughly united,
their naval force unbroken, and having no other war or object
to draw off their attention and resources. We unfortunately
have an additional war on our hands [vs USA] which
essentially drains our resources and employs a very
considerable part of our army and navy; we have no one friend
or ally to assist us; on the contrary all those who ought to
be our allies except Portugal act against us in supplying our
enemies with the means of equipping their fleet.</blockquote>

With defeatism rampant among British officers and politicians, the independence of the United States seemed inevitable. Britain lacked a coherent strategy, or brilliant generals or admirals with the genius to reverse the tide. London probably wanted peace with the Americans, if it could keep, as King George insisted:<ref> Brooke, ''George III'' p 301; Robson, ''The American Revolution,'' p 178; Kennedy, ''Rise and Fall'' p 108</ref>
<blockquote>
Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Floridas...and the more they are kept unlike the other [American] colonies the better, for it is by them that we are to keep a certain awe over the abandoned colonies.</blockquote>

However, there was one hope left: by fighting on perhaps the British forces could hold onto Canada, the Great Lakes, and New York City, and also chop off the most Loyalist, least developed part of the United States, the lower South. Then if the peace conference could confirm these holdings, the British Empire would emerge tattered but with honor intact, and a great deal of valuable territory as well. The US would be independent, but would be weak and not a threat. The downside to fighting on was that the alliance might win outright. France did send a large professional army which, combined with Washington's forces, had the potential to overwhelm the British. With control of the sea in doubt, the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee it could reinforce or evacuate a British land army that got in trouble. London realized that for all its corruption it was financially stronger than the allies; perhaps by holding out it could push the alliance into economic collapse. The new British strategy therefore called for a stronger navy, and an invasion of the American South. The navy was rebuilt successfully; the invasion was a disaster.

===Native Americans===
The great majority of the 200,000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi distrusted the colonists and supported the British cause.<ref> Greene and Pole (2004) chapters 19, 46 and 51; Colin G. Calloway, ''The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities'' (1995)</ref> The British provided funding and guns to attack American outposts. Some Indians tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict. A few supported the American cause.

The British provided arms for the Indians, under Loyalist leadership, to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York, massacring the men, women and children they caught, especially in Pennsylvania. The most prominent was Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, who led a band of 300 Indian warriors and 100 white loyalists multiple attacks on small settlements in New York and Pennsylvania in 1778 and 1780 .<ref>see Barbara Graymont, "Thayendanegea," [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36808&query=joseph%20AND%20brant ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''] </ref> In 1776 Cherokee war parties attacked all along the southern frontier.<ref>Tom Hatley, ''The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South
Carolinians through the Era of Revolution'' (1993); James H. O'Donnell, III, ''Southern Indians in the American Revolution'' (1973)</ref>

While the Indians could launch raids with up to 100 warriors, they could not mobilize enough forces to fight a major invasion of thousands of soldiers, so the Americans sent invasion armies against the Cherokees in 1776 and 1780. In 1779 Washington sent General [[John Sullivan]] with four well-supplied brigades of Continental soldiers (4000 men) to drive the Iroquois out of upstate western New York. There was little combat but Sullivan systematically burned 40 (empty) Indian villages and, most important, destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that comprised the winter food supply. Facing starvation the Iroquois permanently fled to the Niagara Falls area and to Canada, where the British fed them.<ref> Joseph R. Fischer, ''A Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan Campaign against the Iroquois, July-September 1779'' (1997).</ref>

At the peace conference the British abandoned their Indian allies, and the Americans took possession of all the land west of the Mississippi and north of Florida. Calloway concludes:
:Burned villages and crops, murdered chiefs, divided councils and civil wars, migrations, towns and forts choked with refugees, economic disruption, breaking of ancient traditions, losses in battle and to disease and hunger, betrayal to their enemies, all made the American Revolution one of the darkest periods in American Indian history.<ref>Calloway (1995) p. 290</ref>

The British, however, did not give up their forts in the west until 1796 and kept alive the dream of one day forming a satellite Indian nation in what is now the Ohio to Wisconsin part of the Midwest. That hostile goal was one of the causes of the [[War of 1812]].<ref> Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea" ''Northwest Ohio Quarterly'' 1989 61(2-4): 46-63</ref><ref> Francis M. Carroll, [http://books.google.com/books?id=1AjlS20Q5J8C&pg=PA24&dq=barrier+intitle:Good+intitle:and+intitle:Wise+intitle:Measure+intitle:The+intitle:Search+intitle:for+intitle:the+intitle:Canadian-American+inauthor:Francis+inauthor:M+inauthor:Carroll&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=1&as_miny_is=2009&as_maxm_is=12&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES ''A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842''], 2001, page 23 </ref>

==The Southern Campaigns of 1778-81==

The new British strategy opened smoothly with the capture of Savannah in December, 1778. In February, 1780, Clinton brought 10,000 troops and 5,000 sailors in 90 ships to overwhelm Charleston. The forts defending the harbor were in disrepair, and the artillery no match for the British men of war. Worse, General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] allowed his 5,000 troops to be trapped inside the city. Clinton besieged Lincoln methodically, digging parallel lines, maintaining a heavy bombardment, and zigzagging forward to the next parallel. In accordance with classical rules of 18th century warfare, the city surrendered before the final assault. Lincoln's regulars were held on disease-ridden prison ships, while his militia were disarmed and allowed to go home. The Americans suffered the largest surrender in their history before the Civil War.

It was one matter to control the small city of Charleston, another to control the vast rural areas. The British treated as traitors everyone who failed to take the oath to King George. This harsh policy escalated tension and pushed most of the neutrals toward the American cause. The new British commander, General [[Charles Cornwallis]], established a chain of forts inland. He sent Colonel [[Banastre Tarleton]] and his green-coated Legion of fierce Loyalist cavalry to hunt down rebel militia. Small American detachments besieged or assaulted the forts repeatedly, but were usually driven off. However, when the redcoats pursued the Americans, they lost more men by ambush, disease and desertion than they could replace. One British general offered a generous reward of 5 pounds for the return of any deserter, or 10 pounds for just his head. Food and fodder was scarce in the first place, but the Americans used a scorched earth policy to worsen the British logistical dilemma. The redcoats seized the farms and slaves of rebels, and installed Loyalists on them. Little food was produced, but much hatred and revenge. The British could hold the seacoast, the coastal towns, and a few inland forts, but they could not control the decisive locale, the countryside unless they hunted down the Americans. When small American armies (of 1,000 or 2,000 men) were defeated, they reformed as guerrilla bands. Terror and counter-terror were used. Tarleton warned the rebels, "If warfare allows me I shall give these disturbers of the peace no quarter; if humanity obliges me to spare their lives, I shall carry them close prisoners to Camden." His Legion whipped 300 militia at Waxhaw Creek, NC, and bayoneted the prisoners. "Tarleton's quarter!" the rebels spat, and promised to return the same. Old feuds resumed. Burned villages, crossroads massacres, late night arson, sudden assassination, slave stealing, rape and looting and desperate flight destroyed the social fabric of the Carolinas. Everyone realized that victory would go to the most ruthless men, with no quarter to the losers; no one recognized "innocent civilians."

Fourteen-year old [[Andrew Jackson]] joined the North Carolina militia as a messenger, and was captured after a skirmish at a patriot's house. The raiders sacked and burned the house and insulted the women. A lieutenant ordered the lad to shine his boots. Jackson refused, and was slashed by the officer's sword. He carried the scars for the rest of his life, getting his revenge at the [[New Orleans, Battle of|Battle of New Orleans]] in 1815. They took Jackson's prized pistol, a smart little gun that would "kick like sixty when loaded with a three-quarter-ounce ball or with nine buckshot." A few days later a patrol captured a Loyalist with the pistol--evidence that he had been one of the raiders. The Loyalist was hung, and Andy got his pistol back. The Loyalist who took Jackson's horse also was captured, but he was not hung because he had been shot through the stomach before he surrendered and was already dying. As Jackson later reflected, we "did not lose many points in the game of hanging, shooting and flogging." The British hard-line position indicated they had abandoned their original aim of restoring the colonies to loyalty to the Crown.

Washington sent General [[Horatio Gates]] to hold the South with a mere 1,400 regulars of the Maryland Line and the Delaware Line, and all the militia he could raise. Gates pushed his starved and sick troops through the swamps and woods of the border region between the two Carolinas, and suddenly encountered Cornwallis at [[Camden]], South Carolina. His frightened militia fled without firing a shot, the regulars retreated, and Gates personally set an all-time record by fleeing 180 miles on horseback in less than four days. His replacement General [[Nathanael Greene]], by contrast, proved a sophisticated and successful guerrilla commander. So did the subordinate generals [[Francis Marion]] (the "Swamp Fox"), [[Thomas Sumter]], and [[Andrew Pickens]]. Greene realized that Cornwallis could not replace his loses. The solution therefore was to fight a series of engagements, none decisive but all painful to the British. If there was a danger of defeat, the Americans would break off and let Cornwallis and Tarleton pursue them further from the British base of supplies. When the British split their forces to chase rebel bands, they ran a severe risk. In October, 1780, 900 backwoods militiamen, with hunting rifles, chased 1,000 Loyalist soldiers to [[King's Mountain]]. The rebels stormed the mountain, capturing or killing the entire British force.
===Cowpens, 1781===
At [[Battle of Cowpens|Cowpens]] in January, 1781, Tarleton's 1,100 mounted troopers caught up with [[Daniel Morgan]] and his 1,000 militia riflemen. Morgan put General Pickens' raw soldiers in the front lines, told them to fire twice then retreat. The redcoats, sensing victory, charged with fixed bayonets, crashing into Morgan's second line, which wavered, then held. The American cavalry counterattacked Tarleton's right flank and the supposedly panicked Pickens' regiment suddenly reappeared on the left. It was a classical double envelopment. (Possibly Morgan knew about the similar action at the battle of Cannae, Italy, where Hannibal encircled and demolished the Romans in 216 B.C.) Tarleton lost 300 casualties and 525 prisoners out of 1,100 men; he barely escaped himself. The American victory resulted primarily from Morgan's ability to compensate for the weaknesses of his situation. His choice of terrain, his detailed preparation for the battle, his organization for combat, and his conduct of the battle all combined to give the British forces one of their most decisive defeats during the Revolutionary War. Moreover, Morgan's choice of Cowpens as the place to give battle resulted in an accidental psychological advantage - the terrain encouraged Tarleton to make a frontal assault without stopping to evaluate the open terrain. Tarleton was overconfident regarding the bravery of his troops, was too impatient of delay, and was too confident of success. The resultant impetuous frontal attack not only contributed to Tarleton's defeat, but affected the remaining course of the war by depriving the British Army of the major portion of its light troops during the remainder of the southern campaign.<ref>Michael D. Mahler, "190th Anniversary - the Battle at Cowpens." ''Military Review'' 1971 51(1): 56-63. Issn: 0026-4148 </ref>

[[Image:Marquis de Lafayette.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Marie Paul Yves Roch Gilbert de Motier, the
Marquis de Lafayette, French volunteer general]]

At [[Guilford, Battle of|Guilford]], North Carolina in March, Greene tried to duplicate Morgan's tactics (every ambitious general for 2000 years has tried for a double envelopment), but Cornwallis drove him off the field. In the process Cornwallis lost a fourth of his men; more victories like that, London sighed, and they would lose their armies. The British were able to break American sieges of their frontier outposts, but realized they could not hold them forever. They therefore pulled back into the ports of Charleston and Savannah, giving the Americans control over the rural South.

===Final victory: Yorktown, 1781===
Cornwallis originally planned to invade Virginia only after pacifying the Carolinas. After Cowpens that was hopeless. "It is not the number of troops Mr. Washington can spare from his army that is to be apprehended," one British general finally realized. "It is the multitude of militia and men in arms ready to turn out at an hour's notice at the shew of a single Regiment of Continental troops." The combination of regulars and militia, supported by a fierce and successful determination to gain political control of the population no matter how much bloodshed, destroyed Cornwallis's plans to rally the Loyalists. He now gave up on the deep south and headed into Virginia with 7,500 men, without guarantees of supplies or reinforcements. His superior, General [[Henry Clinton]] in New York, wanted Cornwallis to retreat southward, which doubtless would have been wiser. The British were slow learners; they finally realized that there was no real help from Tories or Indians. As late as June, 1781, Clinton reassured Cornwallis that he faced only 2000 regular Continentals, plus a small body of ill-armed "spiritless" "peasantry".<ref>.Clinton to Cornwallis 11 June 1781 in Davies 20:157 </ref> In the event Major General Lafayette commanded 5,000 American and French soldiers who parried the redcoats. Cornwallis finally retreated to the Yorktown peninsula in August.

Learning that the main French fleet was moving up from the West Indies, Washington grasped the opportunity. In a brilliant strategic move, he marched 6,000 soldiers from New York to Virginia, while deceiving Clinton as to their destination. Admiral [[Francois de Grasse]] brought the French fleet with 28 ships of the line and 3,000 more troops to Virginia on August 30. Washington had long appreciated that "In any and all circumstances a naval superiority is to be considered as a fundamental principle, and the basis upon which every hope of success must ultimately depend." A British naval squadron, sent to rescue Cornwallis, was challenged by de Grasse at the [[Battle of the Virginia Capes]] on September 5. The British for once were outnumbered and outgunned, and had no choice but to retreat back to New York for reinforcements. By the time the reinforced fleet returned, it was too late.
[[Image:Yorktown Surrender.JPG|right|thumb|500px|''The Surrender at Yorktown'', by John Trumbull, 1820]]

At Yorktown Washington assembled 5,700 Continentals, 3,200 militia and 7,800 French regulars on loan as part of the alliance. French siege experts used their standard techniques, forcing the redcoats back while new trenches zig-zagged forward. By October 10, 46 heavy guns shelled all parts of the British camp, and another 50 were in action a week later. Cornwallis, huddled in a cave along the riverfront, knew it was hopeless. On October 19 his band played a melancholy tune, "The World Turned Upside Down," as his 8,000 men paraded in surrender.<ref> Cornwallis to Sir Henry Clinton, 20 Oct 1781, in Davies 20:244-248</ref> Despite the size of the contending forces, and the importance of the siege, there were only 260 allied and 550 British casualties. The Americans were annoyed when the French officers began fraternizing with British officer-prisoners. The rustic Yankee officers and their upper class French counterparts had always kept at arms' length. The battle of Yorktown was the last action needed for victory, as the King lost control of Pariament and the new government opened peace talks that came to fruition in 1783. The disaster at Yorktown broke the morale of the governing class in London and paralyzed Britain's national will to make war.<ref> Brooke, ''George III'' p 353-4. However a naval war between Britain and France continued in the West Indies, with Admiral Rodney sinking DeGrasse's entire French fleet in April 1782. </ref>
==Medical and casualties==
There were about 200,000 enlistments in militia and Continental forces (including many who enlisted twice). The number of deaths by combat and disease was 4,435, with another 6,188 seriously injured.<ref> The British and Loyalist totals are not included. The data is conjectural. See "Statistical Summary America's Major Wars" at [http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm]</ref>

==Further reading==
For a much more detailed guide, goto [[Bibliography of the American Revolution]]
* Alden, John R. ''A History of the American Revolution'' (1989), general survey; strong on military (ISBN: 0306803666) [http://www.amazon.com/History-American-Revolution-Capo-Paperback/dp/0306803666/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297602&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnes, Ian and Charles Royster. ''The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution'' (2000)
* Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence,'' 1991. British perspective
* Blanco, Richard L., ed. ''The American Revolution, 1775-1783: An Encyclopedia.'' 2 vol. (1993). 1857 pp.; 800 articles by 129 experts
* Boatner III, Mark M. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'' (1966); excellent guide to details [http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-American-Revolution-Mark-Boatner/dp/0811705781/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297754&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Almost-Miracle-American-Victory-Independence/dp/0195181212/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297602&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. ''The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2006) 5 volume paper and online editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
* Greene, Jack P. and J. R. Pole, eds. ''A Companion to the American Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2004) 778pp; 90 very good short essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-American-Revolution-Blackwell-Companions/dp/1405116749/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254575782&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
**''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'' (1st edition under different title, 1994)
* Greene, Jack P., "The American Revolution," ''The American Historical Review'' 105.1 (2000): [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/105.1/ah000093.htm online version]
* Griffith, Samuel B. ''The War for American Independence: From 1760 to the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781'' (1976), 776pp [http://www.amazon.com/War-American-Independence-Surrender-Yorktown/dp/0252070607/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297320&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Higginbotham, Don. ''The war of American independence: military attitudes, policies, and practice, 1763-1789'' best scholarly overview; [http://www.historyebook.org/subscribinginsts.html online through ACLS History E-Book]
* Lancaster, Bruce, ed. ''The American Revolution'' (American Heritage Library) (ISBN: 0828102813) (1985), heavily illustrated [http://www.amazon.com/American-Revolution-Heritage-Library/dp/0828102813/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297936&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Mackesy, Piers. ''War for America,'' 2nd edition, 1993. British perspective [http://www.amazon.com/War-America-1775-1783-Piers-Mackesy/dp/0803281927/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297259&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Marston, Daniel. ''The American Revolution, 1774-1783.'' Routledge. 2003. 95 pp survey [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108324458 online edition]
* Matloff, Maurice. ''American Military History'' (1989) US Army textbook [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH/amh-toc.htm online]
* Middlekauff, Robert. ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789'' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=84633736 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''Origins of the American Revolution'' (1943) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/origins-of-the-american-revolution-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Miller, John C. '' Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14559136 online edition]
* Stokesbury, James L. ''A Short History of the American Revolution'' 304p. [http://www.amazon.com/Short-History-American-Revolution/dp/068812304X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199297460&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Symonds, Craig L. ''A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution'' (1986); good on battles
* Wrong, George M. ''Canada and the American Revolution: The Disruption of the First British Empire.'' 1935. by Canadian scholar [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2704 online edition free from Gutenberg]
* Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard Morris, eds. ''The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants'' (1967); excellent collection of primary sources
* Library of America. ''The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence'' (1995) 850pp [http://www.loa.org/volume.jsp?RequestID=152&section=toc table of contents], primary sources
* Morison, S. E. ''Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8875493 online edition] , primary sources

==External Links==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#F. ''Web Sources for Military History'' ed. by Richard Jensen]]
* [http://www.benjaminclevelandchapter.org/historical.html links to many sources]

====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:American Revolutionary War Battles]]
[[Category: United States History]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Pro-life

2009-12-01T23:19:30Z

Rdkaster:

'''Pro-life''' is the name given to people or organizations who defend the fetal rights of the unborn child, and who oppose [[abortion|fetal homicide]].

While "pro-abortion" seems to be an accurate term for fetal rights opponents who support [[tax]]payer-funded abortion, [[pro-choice]] is the term that describes the feelings of the majority of [[liberal]]s, and by which they would prefer to be called.

Due to rulings by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], the [[United States]] allows abortions at virtually any time in pregnancy. Many state [[government]]s even pay for abortions using taxpayer dollars, usually due to a court order rather than the will of the people.

In [[America]]n politics, the [[Republican Party|Republican]] and [[Constitution Party|Constitution]] Parties are strongly opposed to abortion on a moral basis and believe it should be illegal. The [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Party supports abortion and opposes legal restrictions. Leaders in the Democratic Party, such as its presidential candidates, also support taxpayer-funded abortion. However some Democrats such as the [[Blue Dog]] Democrats often hold pro-life views, and some Republicans such as [[Rudy Giuliani]] hold pro-choice views.

The phrase "pro-life," especially in the [[Catholic Church]], may include other issues relating to human life, such as [[euthanasia]] and the [[death penalty]].

==Criticism by liberals==
In an effort to confront the Pro-life network, liberals are promoting a new lexicon called '[[Forced-birthers]]' so as to deny [[recognized sexual liability|recognized sexual liabilities]] such as the [[parental responsibility]] for fetal children. This alludes to the fact that pro-life people want a women to carry a child to her [[God]] given term of nine-months, thereby in liberals small thought process 'forcing' her to carry a baby to birth. [[Liberals]] use the forced-birthers remark to mock those who don't support a right to heartless slaughter.

==See Also==
*[[Abortion controversy]]
*[[National Right to Life Committee]]

[[Category:Abortion]]

Dinosaur

2009-12-01T23:10:39Z

Rdkaster: Undo revision 725744 by Rdkaster (Talk)

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
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|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' were [[reptile]]s which are now generally believed to be extinct.
They were known for their large size, although some species weighed just a few ounces.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Description==
Dinosaurs are classified into two orders based upon differences in pelvic structure: ''Saurischia'' ("lizard-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed forward and down; and ''Ornithischia'' ("bird-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed towards the rear.

===''Saurischia''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''Ornithischia''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, [[Edward Drinker Cope]] (1847-1897) and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

Osborn was a proponent of ''orthogenesis,'' as were many paleontologists up through the middle of the twentieth century. These paleontologists interpreted the fossil record as showing sustained, continuing, unidirectional trends in [[Theory of evolution|evolution]], which they felt required some kind of driving principle in addition to natural selection. As the author of an encyclopedia article on variation and selection put it in 1911,
:Selection cannot create the materials on which it is supposed to operate... Both sides concur in the position assumed by Darwin, that the word "chance" in such a phrase as "chance variation" does not mean that the occurrences are independent of natural causation and so far undetermined, but covers in the first place our ignorance of the exact causation.... No doubt a large amount of variation is truly indefinite, so that many meaningless or useless variations arise... But there are several directions in which the field of variation appears to be not only limited but defined in a certain direction.... When beetles, or medusae, or cats vary, the range of possible variation is limited and determined by the beetle, medusa or cat constitution, and any possible further differentiation or specialization must be in a sense at least orthogenetic - that is to say, a continuation of the line along which the ancestors of the individual in question have been forced. Darwin himself showed that different species in a genus, or varieties in a species, tended to show parallel variations.<ref>Mitchell, Peter Chalmers (1911), ''Variation and Selection,'' ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition,'' volume 27 (TON-VES), p. 906</ref>

[[Roy Chapman Andrews]] (1884–1960), said to be the prototype for the fictional Indiana Jones, is famous for his discovery of fossil dinosaur eggs in Outer Mongolia.

In the 1970, Robert Bakker catalyzed a new era of dinosaur paleontology with evidence that dinosaurs were fully warm-blooded ([[endotherms]]) and fast-moving.<ref>Benton, Michael J. (2000), ''Vertebrate Paleontology'' [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632056142&id=PQuKO7xqjNQC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22robert+bakker%22&sig=imoHNyurTTCpztNV0Pp2EU7Fj6c p. 217]</ref>

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

== Different Perspectives ==

Ever since the discovery of dinosaur fossils, there has been debate about whether and how dinosaurs fit into the history of life on Earth. Young-Earth creationists reject the [[uniformitarian]] time-scale, and therefore believe that humans and dinosaurs co-existed. Creationists also reject the now-popular idea that dinosaurs evolved into birds.

===Creationary Perspective===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Young earth creationists]] believe, from the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of the [[creation week]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately 6,000 years ago, along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans.
As such, they reject the [[Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

They believe that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

They use [[archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence to argue that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, they are alleged to be mentioned in numerous places throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are sometimes said to be references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref>, although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. Young-Earth creationists point out that the descriptions don't fit these creatures, including that hippopotamuses and elephants don't have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creationists reject the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creationists assert that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creationists cite a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of claimed sightings of dinosaur-like creatures.
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of [[Carlisle Cathedral]] appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, suggesting that dragons were real creatures and were actually dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] [[New Years' Day]] celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the [[Wollemi Pine]] <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creationists contend that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creationists also cite the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref>}}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creationists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creationists also assert that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===

The view of [[Theory of evolution|evolutionists]] and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to most scientists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

The mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref> Cladists place modern birds within the clade dinosauria, meaning that they consider all bird species today as, technically, dinosaurs.<ref>[http://tolweb.org/Dinosauria/14883/1999.01.01 Tree of Life Web Project.] 1999. Dinosauria. Version 01 January 1999 (temporary). Accessed 30 May 2007.</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists point out that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones shows them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Young Earth Creationists believe that these methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.

Creationists note that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus assert that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists assert there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Dinosaur

2009-12-01T23:08:25Z

Rdkaster:

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
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|phylum=Chordata
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|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
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}}
'''Dinosaurs''' were [[reptile]]s which are now extinct.
They were known for their large size, although some species weighed just a few ounces.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Description==
Dinosaurs are classified into two orders based upon differences in pelvic structure: ''Saurischia'' ("lizard-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed forward and down; and ''Ornithischia'' ("bird-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed towards the rear.

===''Saurischia''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''Ornithischia''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, [[Edward Drinker Cope]] (1847-1897) and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

Osborn was a proponent of ''orthogenesis,'' as were many paleontologists up through the middle of the twentieth century. These paleontologists interpreted the fossil record as showing sustained, continuing, unidirectional trends in [[Theory of evolution|evolution]], which they felt required some kind of driving principle in addition to natural selection. As the author of an encyclopedia article on variation and selection put it in 1911,
:Selection cannot create the materials on which it is supposed to operate... Both sides concur in the position assumed by Darwin, that the word "chance" in such a phrase as "chance variation" does not mean that the occurrences are independent of natural causation and so far undetermined, but covers in the first place our ignorance of the exact causation.... No doubt a large amount of variation is truly indefinite, so that many meaningless or useless variations arise... But there are several directions in which the field of variation appears to be not only limited but defined in a certain direction.... When beetles, or medusae, or cats vary, the range of possible variation is limited and determined by the beetle, medusa or cat constitution, and any possible further differentiation or specialization must be in a sense at least orthogenetic - that is to say, a continuation of the line along which the ancestors of the individual in question have been forced. Darwin himself showed that different species in a genus, or varieties in a species, tended to show parallel variations.<ref>Mitchell, Peter Chalmers (1911), ''Variation and Selection,'' ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition,'' volume 27 (TON-VES), p. 906</ref>

[[Roy Chapman Andrews]] (1884–1960), said to be the prototype for the fictional Indiana Jones, is famous for his discovery of fossil dinosaur eggs in Outer Mongolia.

In the 1970, Robert Bakker catalyzed a new era of dinosaur paleontology with evidence that dinosaurs were fully warm-blooded ([[endotherms]]) and fast-moving.<ref>Benton, Michael J. (2000), ''Vertebrate Paleontology'' [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632056142&id=PQuKO7xqjNQC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22robert+bakker%22&sig=imoHNyurTTCpztNV0Pp2EU7Fj6c p. 217]</ref>

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

== Different Perspectives ==

Ever since the discovery of dinosaur fossils, there has been debate about whether and how dinosaurs fit into the history of life on Earth. Young-Earth creationists reject the [[uniformitarian]] time-scale, and therefore believe that humans and dinosaurs co-existed. Creationists also reject the now-popular idea that dinosaurs evolved into birds.

===Creationary Perspective===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Young earth creationists]] believe, from the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of the [[creation week]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately 6,000 years ago, along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans.
As such, they reject the [[Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

They believe that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

They use [[archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence to argue that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, they are alleged to be mentioned in numerous places throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are sometimes said to be references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref>, although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. Young-Earth creationists point out that the descriptions don't fit these creatures, including that hippopotamuses and elephants don't have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creationists reject the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creationists assert that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creationists cite a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of claimed sightings of dinosaur-like creatures.
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of [[Carlisle Cathedral]] appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, suggesting that dragons were real creatures and were actually dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] [[New Years' Day]] celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the [[Wollemi Pine]] <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creationists contend that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creationists also cite the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref>}}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creationists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creationists also assert that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===

The view of [[Theory of evolution|evolutionists]] and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to most scientists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

The mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref> Cladists place modern birds within the clade dinosauria, meaning that they consider all bird species today as, technically, dinosaurs.<ref>[http://tolweb.org/Dinosauria/14883/1999.01.01 Tree of Life Web Project.] 1999. Dinosauria. Version 01 January 1999 (temporary). Accessed 30 May 2007.</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists point out that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones shows them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Young Earth Creationists believe that these methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.

Creationists note that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus assert that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists assert there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Libertarianism

2009-12-01T21:59:26Z

Rdkaster: /* Notable Libertarians */ This really isnt necessary

'''Libertarianism''' is a [[Political Philosophy|political philosophy]] that believes in minimizing or entirely eliminating government interventionism in all aspects of life; including economic, personal and in foreign policy matters. Libertarians tend to oppose the rules established by traditional marriage and religious values. The [[French]] [[term]] of ''[[Laissez faire|Laissez-Faire]]'', or ''let us do'', is a term that describes some aspects of the libertarian belief. <ref>"Libertarians are neither. Unlike Liberals or Conservatives, Libertarians advocate a high degree of both personal and economic liberty. For example, Libertarians advocate freedom in economic matters, so we're in favor of lowering taxes, slashing bureaucratic regulation of business, and charitable -- rather than government -- welfare. But Libertarians are also socially tolerant. We won't demand laws or restrictions on other people who we may not agree because of personal actions or lifestyles.

Think of us as a group of people with a "live and let live" mentality and a balanced checkbook." [http://www.lp.org/article_85.shtml]</ref> Libertarianism tends to emphasize an amoral form of individual ''liberty'', and tends to support rights of private property.

The first systematic libertarian was [[Herbert Spencer]] (1820-1903), an English political philosopher whose books such as ''The Man Versus the State'' (1884) had a major impact in Europe and America in the late 19th century.<ref>Chris Matthew Sciabarra, "The First Libertarian," ''Liberty'' (Aug 1999) [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/spencer.htm online] </ref> The chief American representative was [[Yale]] professor [[William Graham Sumner]].

[[Ronald Reagan]] stated in 1975, "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism....The basis of conservatism is a desire for less government interference or less centralized authority or more individual freedom and this is a pretty general description also of what libertarianism is....'''Now, I can’t say that I will agree with all the things that the present group who call themselves Libertarians in the sense of a party say, because I think that like in any political movement there are shades, and there are libertarians who are almost over at the point of wanting no government at all or anarchy. ''I believe there are legitimate government functions. There is a legitimate need in an orderly society for some government to maintain freedom or we will have tyranny by individuals."'''''<ref> see [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29318.html "Inside Ronald Reagan: A Reason Interview" (July 1975)]</ref>

== Libertarian Philosophy ==

Libertarianism is best summed up in the Non-Aggression Principle, which states that government (or "private police agencies" in the anarcho-capitalist variant) should only exist to protect life, liberty, and property from force and fraud.

Libertarianism is closely related to liberalism, if this word is interpreted according to its original meaning of [[classical liberal|classical liberalism]]. Libertarians in America tend to be [[liberal]] on social issues but [[conservative]] on economic issues. Libertarians generally oppose government regulation of drugs, prostitution, and marriage (including bans of [[same-sex marriage]]. The Libertarian Party officially supports legalized [[abortion]], however, libertarians themselves are divided on the issue, since government protection from force depends on the person hood of the unborn baby (or fetus). They oppose restrictions on [[pornography]]. However, they also oppose [[universal health care]], [[taxes]] and the [[welfare state]]. They are strong supporters of [[school choice]], and oppose continuing the [[public school]] system. Some libertarians support [[school vouchers]], while others are skeptical due to the issue of government influence over [[private education]].

Libertarians support an expansive view of liberty as the proper basis for organizing civil society. They tend to define liberty as the freedom to do whatever one wishes up to the point that one's behavior begins to interfere with another's person or property through coercive means. At the point of interference, each party would become subject to certain principled rules for adjudicating disputes, generally accepting that one who has demonstrated a proven lack of respect for the rights of others should be subject to sanctions, including possible constraints on their freedom. They believe that liberty is the right of every individual.

Libertarians generally defend the ideal of freedom from the perspective of how little one is constrained by authority, i.e., how much one is allowed to do (also referred to as negative liberty). This ideal is distinguished from a view of freedom focused on how much one is able to do (also called positive liberty).

== Libertarian Factions ==

Libertarians tend to use the word "libertarian" (small "l") to refer to the philosophy, and "Libertarian" (capital "L") to refer to the party. Thus, more libertarians exist than members of the [[Libertarian Party]]. Two general factions exist in the libertarian movement. The first are those libertarians who apply the principles of right to person and property to an absolute. They believe that no person, group, or government is above the right to violate these two things. They thus believe that government itself is illegitimate because it violates person and property. These libertarians subscribe to [[anarcho-capitalism]], as first named by [[Murray N. Rothbard]]. They believe that law and security can be handled by private means in the free market. The other faction believes in a very limited government. They are often referred to as [[Minarchism|minarchists]]. Libertarian minarchists want the state to only enforce law and order but generally nothing else. [[Ayn Rand]] was a minarchist.

Libertarians tend to view liberalism as a philosophy advocating less government interference in private morality and more government control of business, and view conservatism as a philosophy advocating more government interference in private morality and less government control of business, while they view libertarianism as advocating less government control in all areas. However, there have been fusionist attempts to mix libertarianism and with social conservatism. This is noted in particular by [[paleolibertarianism|paleolibertarians]]. They believe that social conservatism is a natural entity in a free society, but do not believe that it can be enforced by state interventionism.

== Libertarian Thought in America ==

While there are libertarian factions within the [[Democratic]] and [[Republican]] [[parties]], neither party is particularly well aligned with libertarian thought. While the Republican Party sometimes adopts libertarian-sounding rhetoric of small government in economic affairs, many libertarians see it as being a force that has increased government interventionism in these affairs. Libertarians generally, for example, are opposed to the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], which they believe increases government power and removes protections on the liberty and privacy of the public. Most conservatives, on the other hand, view it as a necessary government program and believe security to be more important than personal liberty and privacy. Libertarians point out that such a view contradicts those of the founding fathers, such as Benjamin Franklin, who summarized it most eloquently, "Those who would give up Essential Liberty to purchase a little Temporary Safety, deserve neither Liberty nor Safety." Libertarians are also generally opposed to the [[Iraq War]], unlike the majority of conservatives.

While all libertarians agree in general on the principles of the desirability of maximizing individual liberty and avoiding excessive government interference with the operation of the free market, individual libertarians have opinions that differ wildly within these general principles.

The libertarian movement generally praises the [[United States Constitution]], regarding it as the proper scope of the national government. They believe that the Democratic and Republican parties have overstepped constitutional limits. Anarcho-capitalist libertarians, on the other hand, view the implementation of the constitution as the very reason the national government is the size it is today.

== Notable Libertarians ==
Libertarian-oriented writers include [[Frédéric Bastiat]], [[William Leggett]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[William Graham Sumner]], [[Carl Menger]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], Rose Wilder Lane, [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Henry Hazlett]], and [[Isabel Paterson]].

The most influential libertarian of the 20th century was [[Milton Friedman]] (1912-2006), a leader of the [[Chicago School of Economics]].

*[[Ron Paul]], 1988 Libertarian Party and 2008 Republican Party presidential candidate. Ron Paul is considered to be of the Constitutionalist and [[paleolibertarianism|paleolibertarian]] schools of libertarian thought.
*The psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, opponent of the therapeutic state and compulsory mental institutionalization.
*Nobel Laureate economists [[Milton Friedman]], [[F.A. Hayek]], [[Ronald Coase]], Gary Becker, James Buchanan, [[George Stigler]], and Vernon Smith.
*The novelist [[Ayn Rand]] advocated a philosophy of ''Objectivism'', embodying some libertarian thought, although differing from libertarianism in many ways. Some of her novels, such as ''Atlas Shrugged'', have become icons of some people in the libertarian movement, while others find her materialism and atheism incompatible with moral ethics and natural rights and law.
*[[Robert LeFevre]], significant in promoting libertarian philosophy in the 1950s and 1960s before it was a well-defined movement, with his "Freedom School" seminars on political and economic philosophy.
*[[Karl Hess]], speechwriter for [[Barry Goldwater]] credited with penning Goldwater's famous 1964 statement "Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice". Hess later became a major figure in the Libertarian Party.
*[[Murray N. Rothbard]] was nicknamed "Mr. Libertarian." He brought to life the anarcho-capitalist movement. Rothbard was an economist of the [[Austrian School of Economics|Austrian School]].
*[[Samuel Edward Konkin III]], a significant figure in 1970s libertarianism, whose influence waned considerably after the rise of the Libertarian Party as he opposed political parties and voting as being against libertarian principles. He proposed instead a purely marketplace-based route to a free society, such as [[tax resistance]] and doing business "off the books".
*[[Robert A. Heinlein]], science fiction author, whose 1966 novel ''The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress'' was an influence on the movement.
*[[L. Neil Smith]], [[J. Neil Schulman]], and [[Brad Linaweaver]], science fiction writers.
*Several popular financial writers including [[Harry Browne]] and [[Howard J. Ruff]]. Browne would later run for President, twice, on the Libertarian Party ticket. Ruff declared his political philosophy as libertarian but as a socially conservative [[Mormon]] made an exception on issues like abortion and prostitution, where he disagreed with the libertarian view.
*[[Penn and Teller]], stage magicians turned libertarian evangelicals preaching [[atheism]] and promoting libertarian philosophies, including controversial positions such as legalization of prostitution and drugs in their Showtime series, which sports a name that cannot for reasons of good taste be expressed here.
*The Canadian rock band [[Rush]], which has been together since 1968, often explores libertarian themes in their lyrics, like in "Free Will", "Tom Sawyer" and "Something for Nothing". Drummer and Lyricist [[Neil Peart]] claims to be a "left leaning libertarian." <ref>[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/neil-peart.html]</ref>,
*Humorist Dave Barry, actor/comedian Drew Carey, actor Denis Leary, former MTV VJ Lisa "Kennedy" Montgomery, actor Kurt Russell, investigative reporter [[John Stossel]], and the late rocker Frank Zappa have all referred to themselves as being aligned with or openly supporting the Libertarian Party.
*Trey Parker and Matt Stone, the creators of [[South Park]], proclaimed that they are libertarians. While South Park often offend conservative positions like religion, are vulgar, and support evolution they also make fun of liberals positions such as political correctness and environmentalism. <ref>[http://www.reason.com/news/show/116787.html] Parker and Stone, Reason Magazine</ref>. The phrases "South Park Conservative" (the name of a book) and "South Park Republican" are used to describe the followers of these beliefs.
*[[Ed Clark]], the Libertarian Party's 1980 nominee for President. Clark obtained the highest popular vote percentage to date for a Libertarian candidate.

== External links ==
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/libertarian/faq/ Libertarian FAQ]
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Politics/Liberalism/Libertarianism/ Open Directory libertarian links ]
* [http://chelm.freeyellow.com/black_index.html Black Libertarians]
* [http://libertarianwiki.org/Main_Page Libertarian Wiki]
* [http://www.l4l.org/ Libertarians for Life]
* [http://www.independent.org/ The Independent Institute]
* [http://www.mises.org/ Ludwig von Mises Institute]
* [http://www.fee.org/ Foundation for Economic Education]

== See also ==
* [[Herbert Spencer]]
* [[Democratic Freedom Caucus]]
* [[Republican Liberty Caucus]]
==Further reading==
* Boaz, David. '' The Libertarian Reader: Classic and Contemporary Writings from Lao Tzu to Milton Friedman'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Libertarian-Reader-Contemporary-Writings-Friedman/dp/0684847671/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223323253&sr=8-18 excerpt and text search]
* Doherty, Brian. ''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Radicals-Capitalism-Freewheeling-American-Libertarian/dp/1586485725/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259466101&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hamowy, Ronald, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism'' (Sage, 2008), 644pp, sponsored by the Cato Institute; [http://www.sage-ereference.com/PublicBrowse.html Online at some academic libraries] also [http://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&dq=intitle:Encyclopedia+intitle:of+intitle:Libertarianism&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]
* Murray, Charles. ''What It Means to Be a Libertarian'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/What-Means-Libertarian-Charles-Murray/dp/0767900391/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223322878&sr=8-16 excerpt and text search]
* Tilman, Rick. ''Ideology and Utopia in the Social Philosophy of the Libertarian Economists'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Libertarian-Economists-Contributions-Economics/dp/0313315582/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223322878&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

== References ==
<references/>
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[category:Tax Revolts]]

Abortion

2009-11-30T21:15:14Z

Rdkaster: /* Premature Birth and Abortion */

[[Image:Baby.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A human fetus in the womb]]
'''Abortion''' is the induced termination of a [[pregnancy]].<ref>American Heritage Dictionary definition, [http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/A0020700.html abortion]</ref> Abortion is a billion-dollar industry<ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2000/HEALTH/03/09/fetal.tissue/index.html</ref><ref>http://www.healthy.net/scr/news.asp?Id=8247</ref><ref>For example, Dr. George Tiller "estimated that he performed 250 to 300 late-term abortions in 2003, each costing an average of $6,000."[http://apnews.myway.com/article/20090327/D976JVSG4.html]</ref> in the United States and Western Europe except for [[Ireland]], [[Malta]] and [[Poland]], where it is generally illegal.<ref>On April 10, 2007, Portugal legalized abortion up until the 10th week of pregnancy, with some conditions placed on the obtaining of consent for the abortion. Abortion remains illegal in Ireland, Malta and Poland. See http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=50451</ref> God warns in His word that a nation that sheds innocent blood will not prosper. (Deuteronomy 19:11-13)

'''About 80% of women who see an ultrasound of their unborn child decide not to abort'''.<ref>http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/145703/abortion_foes_use_ultrasound__focus_on_the_family_budgets/</ref> Millions of women who had an abortion later suffer psychologically or physically from it, and support groups exist to help.<ref>http://www.post-gazette.com/regionstate/20020120abortion0120p3.asp</ref> Many victims of abortion find healing by speaking out against, and discouraging, similar harm to other mothers and their children.
{{cquote|'''<big>I've noticed that everyone who is for abortion has already been born.</big>''' -- Ronald Reagan}}

==Health risks from abortion==

Abortion always stops the beating heart of the unborn child. Abortion increases the risk of breast cancer, future premature birth, and other long-term health problems for the mother, as detailed below. In very rare cases women still die from abortion; see "Documented Incidents of 365 Women Who Have Been Killed by "Safe" and Legal Abortion." <ref>[http://abortionviolence.com/DEATHS.HTM 365 women who have been killed by 'Legal' abortion] Abortionviolence.com</ref>

[[Image:Abortion Hurts Women.jpg|thumb|right|Walk for Life rally]]
=== Abortion and Breast Cancer ===
The vast majority of scientific studies have shown that abortion causes an increase in breast cancer, including 16 out of 17 statistically significant studies.<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref> Studies showing that abortion increases breast cancer predate the political controversy.<ref>http://www.bcpinstitute.org/brochure.htm</ref> It is undisputed that childbirth protects against breast cancer, and thus early termination of pregnancy must increase the risk of cancer for the mother compared to carrying that same pregnancy to birth. Yet the abortion industry conceals this increased risk, just as the tobacco industry concealed its cancer risk for decades.<ref>http://www.mindfully.org/Industry/Tobacco-ChronologyJul98.htm</ref>

A new study on breast cancer in Turkey published in April 2009 in the peer-reviewed World Journal of Surgical Oncology found, through a surveying process, that induced abortion was a statistically significant cause of breast cancer risk. The study concludes, “Our findings suggest that age and induced abortion were found to be significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk….”<ref>http://wjso.com/content/7/1/37</ref>

Specifically, the study found that Turkish women who received one or more induced abortions had a 66% higher risk of breast cancer than women who never had an abortion.<ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2009/jul/09072903.html</ref> <ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/press_releases/090728/index.htm</ref>

Dr. Janet Daling, who considers herself supportive of a right to perform abortions, brought the abortion-breast cancer link into the mainstream with her federally funded research on the topic. Her report, released in 1994, found a 50% increase in breast cancer risk due to induced abortion.<ref>Janet R. Daling et al., "Risk of Breast Cancer Among Young Women: Relationship to Induced Abortion," 86 Journal of the National Cancer Institute; (1994);1584</ref><ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/032801.htm</ref> She said, "I have three sisters with breast cancer and I resent people messing with the scientific data to further their own agenda, be they pro-choice or pro-life. I would have loved to have found no association between breast cancer and abortion, but our research is rock solid and our data is accurate."<ref>L.A. Daily News, Sept. 1997.</ref> Similarly, an early study published in Japan in 1957 showed that women who have abortions have a much higher risk of breast cancer than those who decide to keep their baby.<ref>Segi M, et al. An epidemiological study on cancer in Japan. GANN. 1957; 48:1-63.</ref>

In a peer-reviewed medical journal, Karen Malec observed that:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref>

:Thirty-eight epidemiological studies exploring an independent link [between abortion and] breast cancer have been published. Twenty-nine report risk elevations. Thirteen out of 15 American studies found risk elevations. Seventeen studies are statistically significant, 16 of which report increased risk.

Dr. Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S., a specialist in breast cancer an a clinical assistant professor of surgery at the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, has explained the physiology and epidemiology of the abortion-breast cancer link. She made the following observation:<ref>Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S, "The breast physiology and the epidemiology of the abortion breast cancer link," 12 Imago Hominis, No. 3, 228 (2005) (emphasis added).</ref>

:This past August in Minneapolis, Patrick Carroll, director of the Pension and Population Research Institute of London, presented a paper to the largest gathering of statisticians in North America. '''He showed that abortion was the best predictor of breast cancer in Britain.''' Breast cancer is the only cancer in Britain which has its highest incidence and mortality rate among the upper rather than lower social classes. Abortion before a full term pregnancy and late pregnancy were the best explanations for this incidence. He also found that there had been a 70% increase risk of breast cancer between 1971 and 2002 and that for women between 50 and 54 years of age incidence was highly correlated with abortion.

Demographic evidence of abortion causing breast cancer includes the following. Breast cancer rates are far lower in Western countries that prohibited abortion than in those that promoted it. Ireland, which virtually bans abortion, reportedly has a lifetime rate of breast cancer of only 1 in 13, nearly half the rate of 1 in 7.5 in the United States.<ref>"Probability of breast cancer in American Women," National Cancer Institute (Apr. 15, 2005); K. O'Flaherty, R. Oakley, "Self-checks 'useless' in breast cancer fight," Sunday Tribune (Ireland), at 8 (Oct. 6, 2002).</ref> The rate of breast cancer increases steadily as one travels from Ireland, where abortion is illegal, to Northern Ireland, where abortion is legal but rare, to England, where abortion is common. <ref> R. O'Reilly, "New weapon in war against breast cancer," The Press Association Limited (Dec. 17, 1998); "Portugal-abortion referendum," Associated Press Worldstream (June 27, 1998).</ref>

In Romania, abortion was illegal under two decades of rule by the dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, and the country enjoyed one of the lowest breast cancer rates in the entire world during that time, far lower than comparable Western countries. Romania's breast cancer rate was an astounding one-sixth the rate of the United States.<ref>A. Khan, "The role of fat in breast cancer," The Independent (May 18, 1998).</ref> But after the execution of Ceausescu on Christmas Day, 1989, Romania has taken the opposite approach, embracing abortion to the point that Romania now has one of the highest abortion rates in the world.<ref>N. Abdullaev, "Russians are quickest to marry and divorce," Moscow Times (Dec 8, 2004).</ref> One Romanian observer decried, "The liberalization of abortions in Romania in 1990, the significant increase of the number of abortions at relatively short intervals, determined a rise in the incidence of breast and uterine cervix cancer in my country."<ref>Information packet, Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) World Conference on Breast Cancer (July 1997).</ref>

Studies on rats, which are an accepted method for identifying causes of cancer in humans, further confirm that abortion does indeed increase the risk of breast cancer. As Dr. [[Joel Brind]] observed, "Researchers also widely admit to the biological plausibility of abortion as an independent cause of breast cancer, through the estrogen-mediated stimulation of breast growth in the absence of differentiation. This was demonstrated experimentally in rats in the landmark experiments of Russo and Russo."<ref>[[Joel Brind]], "Induced Abortion as an Independent Risk Factor for Breast Cancer: A Critical Review of Recent Studies Based on Prospective Data," J. of Am. Physicians & Surgeons 105 (Winter 2005) [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no4/brind.pdf] (citing Russo J, Russo IH. Susceptibility of the mammary gland to
carcinogenesis. 1980;100:497-512).</ref> Additional scientific information on the abortion-breast cancer link is available [http://www.bcpinstitute.org here].

An expert (Dr. Lynn Rosenberg) hired to defend abortion felt compelled to admit, under cross-examination, that a woman increases her risk for breast cancer by having an abortion compared to carrying her pregnancy to childbirth:<ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/rosenbergs_testimony.htm</ref>

:Question by the attorney: 'So in other words, a woman who finds herself pregnant at age 15 will have a higher breast cancer risk if she chooses to abort that pregnancy, than if she carries the pregnancy to term, [is that] correct?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'Probably, yes.'

:Question: 'Looking at that another way, let's compare two women. Let's say both got pregnant at age 15-- one terminates the pregnancy, but the other carries the pregnancy to term. And both women go on to get married and have two kids, say, at age 30 and age 35. Is the risk of breast cancer higher for the woman who had an abortion at age 15 or the woman who had a baby at age 15, all other things being equal?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'It's probably higher for the one who had an abortion at age 15.'

Despite the overwhelming evidence -- and inescapable logic -- for abortion increasing breast cancer, promoters of abortion cite flawed articles in an attempt to deny the link.<ref>The flaws in these articles are exposed in [[Harvard abortion study]] and [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no1/aschlafly.pdf].</ref>

As Dr. Lanfranchi has explained:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol13no1/lanfranchi.pdf</ref>

:Well-documented breast physiology accounts for the fact that oral contraceptives and abortion are risk factors for breast cancer. There is an effort to suppress this information by federal agencies and those in academic medicine. Without this information, women cannot make a fully informed choice about their method of fertility control or about whether to maintain an unplanned pregnancy. Medical ethics demands that they be informed.

Pro-choice should include ''informed'' choice.<ref>The Archdiocese of St. Louis, for example, remarked about abortions and increased risk for breast cancer: "To dismiss that link is irresponsible." [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/tx/5620863.html]</ref> Yet efforts continue to suppress awareness that abortion increases breast cancer. Pro-life scientists were almost entirely barred from the National Cancer Institute's "study" of the link, and its resulting statements were fatally flawed as explained in [[National Cancer Institute on Abortion]].

[[File:Smelliesdoublecrochet.jpg|right|thumb|250px| The Smellie's double crochet abortion tool was used to grab and rip the baby out.]]

=== Premature Birth and Abortion ===

"At least 49 studies have demonstrated a statistically significant increase in premature births (PB) or low birth weight (LBW) risk in women with prior induced abortions (IAs)."<ref>Brent Rooney and Byron C. Calhoun, "Induced Abortion and Risk of Later Premature Births," 8 J. Am. Physicians & Surgeons 46 (Summer 2003). [http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/rooney.pdf]</ref> Premature birth tragically causes brain damage, and an array of other severe, lifelong injuries ranging from Cerebral Palsy to blindness, or even death, and few mothers would knowingly increase the risk of that happening. "There are at least seventeen (17) studies that have found that previous induced abortions increase preterm birth risk” and thereby increase debilitating Cerebral Palsy in children."<ref>Brent Rooney, Letter, 96 European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 239 (2001) (citations omitted).</ref>

In 2008, the generally pro-abortion British medical journal, ''The Lancet'', admitted that a procedure often used in abortion increase the risk of premature birth:<ref>Dr, Jay D. Iams, Dr. Robert Romero, Jennifer F. Culhane (PhD), Dr. Robert L. Goldenberg. Primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions to reduce the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth. Lancet 2008;371:164-175. While the text of this article conceals the connection with abortion, it cites as support for its claims two studies showing how abortion increases risk of premature birth: the 2004 'Ancel' study of ten (10) European countries and the 2005 'Moreau' study that used French subjects. Ancel P-Y, Lelong N, Papiernik E, Saurel-Cubizoilles M-J, Kaminski M. History of induced abortion as a risk factor for preterm birth in European countries: results of the EUROPOP survey. Human Reproduction. 2004;112:734-740. Moreau C, Kaminski M, Ancel PY et al. Previous I induced abortions and the risk of very preterm delivery; Results of the EPIPAGE study. British J Obstetrics Gynaecology 2005; 112:430-437.</ref>

:"For example, greater public and professional awareness of evidence that repeated uterine instrumentation--eg, uterine curettage or endometrial biopsy--is associated with increased risk of subsequent preterm birth might over time influence decision-making about the procedure."

Researchers Rooney and Calhoun observed:<ref>''Id.''</ref>

:Large studies have reported a doubling of [early premature birth] EPB risk from two prior IAs. Women who had four or more IAs experienced, on average, nine times the risk of [extremely early premature births] XPB, an increase of 800 percent. These results suggest that women contemplating IA should be informed of this potential risk to subsequent pregnancies, and that physicians should be aware of the potential liability and possible need for intensified prenatal care.

Demographic evidence of how abortion increases premature birth includes the following:

:The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): "[T]he abortion rate for black women has been approximately '''three times''' as high as that for white women (range: 2.6--3.1) since 1991"<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

:''Science Daily'''s report on a study by the Washington University School of Medicine: "African-American women are '''three times''' more likely to deliver babies three to 17 weeks prematurely than Caucasian women"<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070209074144.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

The rate of premature birth is elevated by the same amount as the abortion rate, as expected if abortion increases the risk of premature birth.

=== Other Health Risks from Abortion ===

The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in 2007 that:<ref>''Gonzales v. Carhart'', 127 S. Ct. 1610, 1634 (2007).</ref>

:While we find no reliable data to measure the phenomenon, it seems unexceptionable to conclude some women come to regret their choice to abort the infant life they once created and sustained. See Brief for Sandra Cano ''et al.'' as Amici Curiae in No. 05-380, pp 22-24. Severe depression and loss of esteem can follow. See ''ibid.''

A study published in the Southern Medical Journal observed that there are higher death rates association with women who have abortion, and that these higher death rates persist over time and across socioeconomic boundaries.<ref>D.C. Reardon, P.G. Ney, F.J. Scheuren, J.R. Cougle, P.K. Coleman, T. Strahan, "Deaths associated with pregnancy outcome: a record linkage study of low income women," 95 Southern Medical Journal 8, at 834-41 (August 2002).</ref>

In [[England]], the "Royal College of Psychiatrists says women should not be allowed to have an abortion until they are counselled on the possible risk to their mental health." The medical royal college warned that women who have abortions may be at risk of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article3559486.ece</ref> A New Zealand study found that abortion in young women may be associated with increased risks of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16405636</ref> The researcher in this study, who was not pro-life, was shaken by the study and had to go to four journals before he could find one who would publish it. <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>

The study concludes with the following statement:
{{cquote|These findings are inconsistent with the current consensus on the psychological effects of abortion. In particular, in its 2005 statement on abortion, the [[American Psychological Association]] concluded that “well-designed studies of psychological responses following abortion have consistently shown that risk of psychological harm is low...the percentage of women who experience clinically relevant distress is small and appears to be no greater than in general samples of women of reproductive age” (American Psychological Association, 2005). This relatively strong conclusion about the absence of harm from abortion was based on a relatively small number of studies which had one or more of the following limitations: a) absence of comprehensive assessment of mental disorders; b) lack of comparison groups; and c) limited statistical controls. Furthermore, the statement appears to disregard the findings of a number of studies that had claimed to show negative effects for abortion (Cougle et al., 2003; Gissler et al., 1996; Reardon & Cougle, 2002). <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>}}

Professor David Fergusson, lead author of the New Zealand study stated:
{{cquote|It borders on scandalous that one of the most common surgical procedures performed on young women is so poorly researched and evaluated. If this were Prozac or Vioxx, reports of associated harm would be taken much more seriously with more careful research and monitoring procedures." <ref>http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20060120-091648-6456r.htm</ref>}}

Another study published in the OB/GYN Survey detailed long-term physical and psychological health consequences of induced abortions.<ref>J.M. Thorp, Jr., K.E. Hartmann, and E.M. Shadigian, "Long-Term Physical & Psychological Health Consequences of Induced Abortion: Review of the Evidence," 58 OB/GYN Survey 1, at 67-79 (2003)</ref>

Suicide rates among women who had abortions are six times higher than women who gave birth in the prior year.<ref>http://www.abortionrecoverycounseling.com/Page8.html</ref> Overall, deaths from suicide, homicide and accidents were 248% higher after an abortion, as found by a 13-year study in Finland of its entire population.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

In the United States, only one state (Missouri) requires that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles of the abortion.<ref>Mo. Rev. Stat. § 188.080 prohibits an abortion by a physician "who does not have clinical privileges at a hospital which offers obstetrical or gynecological care located within thirty miles of the location at which the abortion is performed or induced."</ref> In the other 49 states, an abortion patient can and often is left without prompt medical care by the treating physician.

One of the largest abortion providers in the United States, the Metropolitan Medical Associates of New Jersey, was shut down in 2007 by state health officials after one of its botched abortions left a 20-year-old woman in a coma for more than four weeks. She "became severely ill following the abortion and was transferred to Newark Beth Israel Medical Center where she needed blood transfusions and had her uterus removed. She also suffered a stroke due to the serious blood loss and had one of her lungs collapse."<ref>http://www.lifenews.com/state2137.html</ref> The State of New Jersey had shut down the same facility in 1993 also.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

==Abortion Alternatives==
[[Optionline]] provides consultants that connects individuals to nearby pregnancy centers that offer the following services: free pregnancy tests and pregnancy information; abortion and morning after pill information, including procedures and risks; medical services, including [[STD]] tests; early ultrasounds and pregnancy confirmation; and confidential pregnancy options. <ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref> In addition, some of these centers provide information regarding free housing to women who are facing housing concerns.<ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref>

The [[Liberty Godparent Foundation]] is a [[Christian]] organization focused on improving the lives of unwed pregnant teens, babies and adoptive families by providing two alternatives, The Liberty Godparent Maternity Home and Family Life Services Adoption Agency.<ref>http://www.godparent.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=59</ref>

== Political Action Committees ==
The most powerful political action committee (PAC) is EMILY’s List.<ref>http://www.emilyslist.org/newsroom/releases/20070201.html</ref>. EMILY's List contributes money to Democratic candidates who support abortion-on-demand, including forced taxpayer funding of abortion. EMILY's List candidates also oppose regulations such as:

:providing health information to abortion patients;

:requiring that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a nearby hospital in case there is a complication; and

:providing parental notification if the patient is a teenager.

Due to the influence of the abortion industry and EMILY's List, nearly every Democratic presidential candidate and senatorial candidate supports abortion-on-demand. "EMILY's List, the nation's largest political action committee, continues to be the dominant financial resource for Democratic candidates," its above-referenced website declares.

There is no comparably funded organization opposing abortion, because there are no monetary rewards to defending human life. Instead, candidates and supporters who oppose abortion are motivated by religious and ethical principles.

== History of Abortion ==

The father of [[medicine]], [[Hippocrates]], expressly prohibited abortion in his ethical [[Oath]] long before [[Christianity]].

Prior to 1973 abortion was illegal in most of the United States, though a few states (such as Hawaii and New York) allowed it with restrictions.<ref>''A Timeline of Reproductive Rights'' [http://ecampus.bentley.edu/org/wc/reproductiverights.html The Women's Center]</ref> The U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 [[Roe v. Wade]]<ref>Online text of [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)]</ref> decision ruled that abortions are lawful under the [[U.S. Constitution]] up to the point at which the fetus becomes able to survive outside the womb, and an accompanying decision issued the same day captioned [[Doe v. Bolton]] essentially legalized abortion in the unlimited discretion of the abortionist at any time during pregnancy, up to and including birth. Conservatives immediately criticized these decisions as examples of [[Judicial Activism]].

== Abortion Industry and How It Targets Minority Communities ==

"Each day '''1,786''' African American children are aborted." According to the [[U.S.]] Census of 2006, African Americans are at 1.96 birth rate which is beneath the replacement level of 2.1. <ref>[http://www.christiannewswire.com/news/1685410938.html African American Pro-Life Group Holds Protest at NAACP] Christian News Network, July 13, 2009</ref> At the continued rate, [[racism]] by abortion will kill decimate the black populace of the U.S.

According to writer George Grant, the author of ''Killing Angel'':

"During the 1980s when [[Planned Parenthood]] shifted its focus from community-based clinics to school-based clinics, it again targeted inner-city minority neighborhoods...Of the more than 100 school-based clinics that have opened nationwide in the last decade [1980s], none has been at substantially all-white schools....None has been at suburban middle-class schools. All have been at black, minority or ethnic schools.” <ref>http://www.citizenreviewonline.org/special_issues/population/the_negro_project.htm</ref>

Planned Parenthood itself reported that its abortions on minorities in 1991 was 42.7% of its total abortions. <ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>. However, during that time period, minorities comprised only 19.7% of the U.S. population.<ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>

According to [[Cybercast News Service]]: "An analysis by the Cybercast News Service compared the location of Planned Parenthood abortion clinics with population data from the U.S. Census in 2000. The results appear to bolster the charge that the organization targets black communities."<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewSpecialReports.asp?Page=%5CSpecialReports%5Carchive%5C200502%5CSPE20050207a.html</ref>

==American Liberals and Abortion==
According to the Pew Research Center, American [[liberal]]s are more likely to support pro-abortion views. <ref>http://people-press.org/report/283/pragmatic-americans-liberal-and-conservative-on-social-issues</ref>

==Evolutionary Thought and Abortion==
[[Theory of evolution and liberalism|Liberals are more likely to advocate the evolutionary paradigm than conservatives]]. [[Creation Ministries International]] has written that [[evolution|evolutionary]] thinking has contributed to the [[eugenics|eugenic]] idea of aborting babies with defects and has also contributed to erroneous and immoral justifications for abortion.<ref>http://creation.com/abortion-an-indispensable-right-or-violence-against-women-sex-selection-aborting-girls</ref><ref>http://creation.com/human-life-questions-and-answers-abortion-and-euthanasia</ref>

==Ultrasound images==

*http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/frames.htm
*http://www.flickr.com/photos/drakelelane/388759116/
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/13_weeks.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/ultrasound_3d.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/triple_jump.htm

[[File:2 61 ultrasound.jpg|right|thumb|350px| When an Ohio woman looked at an ultrasound she expected to see a developing baby.

Instead, she saw what she believes to be an image of Jesus Christ]]

== See also ==
*[http://www.investigatemagazine.com/mar3abrt.htm Abortion and breast cancer in New Zealand]
*[[Abortion and the Bible]]
*[[Abortion Facts]]
*[[Abortion funding]]
*[[Abortion procedures]]
*[[Abortion rates by US state]]
*[[Abortionist]]
*[[More News/Abortion|Articles about '''Abortion''' from "More News"]]
*[[Culture of life]]
*[[Separate Life|Essay on abortion]]
*[[Fetus]]
*[[Harvard abortion study]]
*[[Abortion breast cancer studies]]
*[[Homosexual activists and abortion]]
*[[Margaret Sanger]]
*[http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/abrpt/2006abrpt.pdf Minnesota official abortion statistics]
*[[National Right to Life Committee]]
*[[Partial birth abortion]]
*[[Planned Parenthood]]
*[[Right to life]]
*[[Right to life movement]]
*[[Sanctity of life]]
*[[Silent scream]]
*[[Taxpayer-funded abortion]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.abortionfacts.com/ Abortion Facts]
*[http://www.carm.org/abortion.htm Abortion] by [[Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]]
*[http://www.lifesitenews.com/ LifeSiteNews.com]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/abortion/ What Liberals Say - Category: Abortion], [[Accuracy In Media]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Abortion]]
[[Category:Sexuality]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

Abortion

2009-11-30T21:13:35Z

Rdkaster: /* Health risks from abortion */

[[Image:Baby.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A human fetus in the womb]]
'''Abortion''' is the induced termination of a [[pregnancy]].<ref>American Heritage Dictionary definition, [http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/A0020700.html abortion]</ref> Abortion is a billion-dollar industry<ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2000/HEALTH/03/09/fetal.tissue/index.html</ref><ref>http://www.healthy.net/scr/news.asp?Id=8247</ref><ref>For example, Dr. George Tiller "estimated that he performed 250 to 300 late-term abortions in 2003, each costing an average of $6,000."[http://apnews.myway.com/article/20090327/D976JVSG4.html]</ref> in the United States and Western Europe except for [[Ireland]], [[Malta]] and [[Poland]], where it is generally illegal.<ref>On April 10, 2007, Portugal legalized abortion up until the 10th week of pregnancy, with some conditions placed on the obtaining of consent for the abortion. Abortion remains illegal in Ireland, Malta and Poland. See http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=50451</ref> God warns in His word that a nation that sheds innocent blood will not prosper. (Deuteronomy 19:11-13)

'''About 80% of women who see an ultrasound of their unborn child decide not to abort'''.<ref>http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/145703/abortion_foes_use_ultrasound__focus_on_the_family_budgets/</ref> Millions of women who had an abortion later suffer psychologically or physically from it, and support groups exist to help.<ref>http://www.post-gazette.com/regionstate/20020120abortion0120p3.asp</ref> Many victims of abortion find healing by speaking out against, and discouraging, similar harm to other mothers and their children.
{{cquote|'''<big>I've noticed that everyone who is for abortion has already been born.</big>''' -- Ronald Reagan}}

==Health risks from abortion==

Abortion always murders the unborn child. Abortion increases the risk of breast cancer, future premature birth, and other long-term health problems for the mother, as detailed below. In very rare cases women still die from abortion; see "Documented Incidents of 365 Women Who Have Been Killed by "Safe" and Legal Abortion." <ref>[http://abortionviolence.com/DEATHS.HTM 365 women who have been killed by 'Legal' abortion] Abortionviolence.com</ref>

[[Image:Abortion Hurts Women.jpg|thumb|right|Walk for Life rally]]
=== Abortion and Breast Cancer ===
The vast majority of scientific studies have shown that abortion causes an increase in breast cancer, including 16 out of 17 statistically significant studies.<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref> Studies showing that abortion increases breast cancer predate the political controversy.<ref>http://www.bcpinstitute.org/brochure.htm</ref> It is undisputed that childbirth protects against breast cancer, and thus early termination of pregnancy must increase the risk of cancer for the mother compared to carrying that same pregnancy to birth. Yet the abortion industry conceals this increased risk, just as the tobacco industry concealed its cancer risk for decades.<ref>http://www.mindfully.org/Industry/Tobacco-ChronologyJul98.htm</ref>

A new study on breast cancer in Turkey published in April 2009 in the peer-reviewed World Journal of Surgical Oncology found, through a surveying process, that induced abortion was a statistically significant cause of breast cancer risk. The study concludes, “Our findings suggest that age and induced abortion were found to be significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk….”<ref>http://wjso.com/content/7/1/37</ref>

Specifically, the study found that Turkish women who received one or more induced abortions had a 66% higher risk of breast cancer than women who never had an abortion.<ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2009/jul/09072903.html</ref> <ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/press_releases/090728/index.htm</ref>

Dr. Janet Daling, who considers herself supportive of a right to perform abortions, brought the abortion-breast cancer link into the mainstream with her federally funded research on the topic. Her report, released in 1994, found a 50% increase in breast cancer risk due to induced abortion.<ref>Janet R. Daling et al., "Risk of Breast Cancer Among Young Women: Relationship to Induced Abortion," 86 Journal of the National Cancer Institute; (1994);1584</ref><ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/032801.htm</ref> She said, "I have three sisters with breast cancer and I resent people messing with the scientific data to further their own agenda, be they pro-choice or pro-life. I would have loved to have found no association between breast cancer and abortion, but our research is rock solid and our data is accurate."<ref>L.A. Daily News, Sept. 1997.</ref> Similarly, an early study published in Japan in 1957 showed that women who have abortions have a much higher risk of breast cancer than those who decide to keep their baby.<ref>Segi M, et al. An epidemiological study on cancer in Japan. GANN. 1957; 48:1-63.</ref>

In a peer-reviewed medical journal, Karen Malec observed that:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref>

:Thirty-eight epidemiological studies exploring an independent link [between abortion and] breast cancer have been published. Twenty-nine report risk elevations. Thirteen out of 15 American studies found risk elevations. Seventeen studies are statistically significant, 16 of which report increased risk.

Dr. Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S., a specialist in breast cancer an a clinical assistant professor of surgery at the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, has explained the physiology and epidemiology of the abortion-breast cancer link. She made the following observation:<ref>Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S, "The breast physiology and the epidemiology of the abortion breast cancer link," 12 Imago Hominis, No. 3, 228 (2005) (emphasis added).</ref>

:This past August in Minneapolis, Patrick Carroll, director of the Pension and Population Research Institute of London, presented a paper to the largest gathering of statisticians in North America. '''He showed that abortion was the best predictor of breast cancer in Britain.''' Breast cancer is the only cancer in Britain which has its highest incidence and mortality rate among the upper rather than lower social classes. Abortion before a full term pregnancy and late pregnancy were the best explanations for this incidence. He also found that there had been a 70% increase risk of breast cancer between 1971 and 2002 and that for women between 50 and 54 years of age incidence was highly correlated with abortion.

Demographic evidence of abortion causing breast cancer includes the following. Breast cancer rates are far lower in Western countries that prohibited abortion than in those that promoted it. Ireland, which virtually bans abortion, reportedly has a lifetime rate of breast cancer of only 1 in 13, nearly half the rate of 1 in 7.5 in the United States.<ref>"Probability of breast cancer in American Women," National Cancer Institute (Apr. 15, 2005); K. O'Flaherty, R. Oakley, "Self-checks 'useless' in breast cancer fight," Sunday Tribune (Ireland), at 8 (Oct. 6, 2002).</ref> The rate of breast cancer increases steadily as one travels from Ireland, where abortion is illegal, to Northern Ireland, where abortion is legal but rare, to England, where abortion is common. <ref> R. O'Reilly, "New weapon in war against breast cancer," The Press Association Limited (Dec. 17, 1998); "Portugal-abortion referendum," Associated Press Worldstream (June 27, 1998).</ref>

In Romania, abortion was illegal under two decades of rule by the dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, and the country enjoyed one of the lowest breast cancer rates in the entire world during that time, far lower than comparable Western countries. Romania's breast cancer rate was an astounding one-sixth the rate of the United States.<ref>A. Khan, "The role of fat in breast cancer," The Independent (May 18, 1998).</ref> But after the execution of Ceausescu on Christmas Day, 1989, Romania has taken the opposite approach, embracing abortion to the point that Romania now has one of the highest abortion rates in the world.<ref>N. Abdullaev, "Russians are quickest to marry and divorce," Moscow Times (Dec 8, 2004).</ref> One Romanian observer decried, "The liberalization of abortions in Romania in 1990, the significant increase of the number of abortions at relatively short intervals, determined a rise in the incidence of breast and uterine cervix cancer in my country."<ref>Information packet, Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) World Conference on Breast Cancer (July 1997).</ref>

Studies on rats, which are an accepted method for identifying causes of cancer in humans, further confirm that abortion does indeed increase the risk of breast cancer. As Dr. [[Joel Brind]] observed, "Researchers also widely admit to the biological plausibility of abortion as an independent cause of breast cancer, through the estrogen-mediated stimulation of breast growth in the absence of differentiation. This was demonstrated experimentally in rats in the landmark experiments of Russo and Russo."<ref>[[Joel Brind]], "Induced Abortion as an Independent Risk Factor for Breast Cancer: A Critical Review of Recent Studies Based on Prospective Data," J. of Am. Physicians & Surgeons 105 (Winter 2005) [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no4/brind.pdf] (citing Russo J, Russo IH. Susceptibility of the mammary gland to
carcinogenesis. 1980;100:497-512).</ref> Additional scientific information on the abortion-breast cancer link is available [http://www.bcpinstitute.org here].

An expert (Dr. Lynn Rosenberg) hired to defend abortion felt compelled to admit, under cross-examination, that a woman increases her risk for breast cancer by having an abortion compared to carrying her pregnancy to childbirth:<ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/rosenbergs_testimony.htm</ref>

:Question by the attorney: 'So in other words, a woman who finds herself pregnant at age 15 will have a higher breast cancer risk if she chooses to abort that pregnancy, than if she carries the pregnancy to term, [is that] correct?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'Probably, yes.'

:Question: 'Looking at that another way, let's compare two women. Let's say both got pregnant at age 15-- one terminates the pregnancy, but the other carries the pregnancy to term. And both women go on to get married and have two kids, say, at age 30 and age 35. Is the risk of breast cancer higher for the woman who had an abortion at age 15 or the woman who had a baby at age 15, all other things being equal?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'It's probably higher for the one who had an abortion at age 15.'

Despite the overwhelming evidence -- and inescapable logic -- for abortion increasing breast cancer, promoters of abortion cite flawed articles in an attempt to deny the link.<ref>The flaws in these articles are exposed in [[Harvard abortion study]] and [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no1/aschlafly.pdf].</ref>

As Dr. Lanfranchi has explained:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol13no1/lanfranchi.pdf</ref>

:Well-documented breast physiology accounts for the fact that oral contraceptives and abortion are risk factors for breast cancer. There is an effort to suppress this information by federal agencies and those in academic medicine. Without this information, women cannot make a fully informed choice about their method of fertility control or about whether to maintain an unplanned pregnancy. Medical ethics demands that they be informed.

Pro-choice should include ''informed'' choice.<ref>The Archdiocese of St. Louis, for example, remarked about abortions and increased risk for breast cancer: "To dismiss that link is irresponsible." [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/tx/5620863.html]</ref> Yet efforts continue to suppress awareness that abortion increases breast cancer. Pro-life scientists were almost entirely barred from the National Cancer Institute's "study" of the link, and its resulting statements were fatally flawed as explained in [[National Cancer Institute on Abortion]].

[[File:Smelliesdoublecrochet.jpg|right|thumb|250px| The Smellie's double crochet abortion tool was used to grab and rip the baby out.]]

=== Premature Birth and Abortion ===

"At least 49 studies have demonstrated a statistically significant increase in premature births (PB) or low birth weight (LBW) risk in women with prior induced abortions (IAs)."<ref>Brent Rooney and Byron C. Calhoun, "Induced Abortion and Risk of Later Premature Births," 8 J. Am. Physicians & Surgeons 46 (Summer 2003). [http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/rooney.pdf]</ref> Premature birth tragically causes brain damage, and an array of other severe, lifelong injuries ranging from Cerebral Palsy to blindness, and few mothers would knowingly increase the risk of that happening. "There are at least seventeen (17) studies that have found that previous induced abortions increase preterm birth risk” and thereby increase debilitating Cerebral Palsy in children."<ref>Brent Rooney, Letter, 96 European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 239 (2001) (citations omitted).</ref>

In 2008, the generally pro-abortion British medical journal, ''The Lancet'', admitted that a procedure often used in abortion increase the risk of premature birth:<ref>Dr, Jay D. Iams, Dr. Robert Romero, Jennifer F. Culhane (PhD), Dr. Robert L. Goldenberg. Primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions to reduce the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth. Lancet 2008;371:164-175. While the text of this article conceals the connection with abortion, it cites as support for its claims two studies showing how abortion increases risk of premature birth: the 2004 'Ancel' study of ten (10) European countries and the 2005 'Moreau' study that used French subjects. Ancel P-Y, Lelong N, Papiernik E, Saurel-Cubizoilles M-J, Kaminski M. History of induced abortion as a risk factor for preterm birth in European countries: results of the EUROPOP survey. Human Reproduction. 2004;112:734-740. Moreau C, Kaminski M, Ancel PY et al. Previous I induced abortions and the risk of very preterm delivery; Results of the EPIPAGE study. British J Obstetrics Gynaecology 2005; 112:430-437.</ref>

:"For example, greater public and professional awareness of evidence that repeated uterine instrumentation--eg, uterine curettage or endometrial biopsy--is associated with increased risk of subsequent preterm birth might over time influence decision-making about the procedure."

Researchers Rooney and Calhoun observed:<ref>''Id.''</ref>

:Large studies have reported a doubling of [early premature birth] EPB risk from two prior IAs. Women who had four or more IAs experienced, on average, nine times the risk of [extremely early premature births] XPB, an increase of 800 percent. These results suggest that women contemplating IA should be informed of this potential risk to subsequent pregnancies, and that physicians should be aware of the potential liability and possible need for intensified prenatal care.

Demographic evidence of how abortion increases premature birth includes the following:

:The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): "[T]he abortion rate for black women has been approximately '''three times''' as high as that for white women (range: 2.6--3.1) since 1991"<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

:''Science Daily'''s report on a study by the Washington University School of Medicine: "African-American women are '''three times''' more likely to deliver babies three to 17 weeks prematurely than Caucasian women"<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070209074144.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

The rate of premature birth is elevated by the same amount as the abortion rate, as expected if abortion increases the risk of premature birth.

=== Other Health Risks from Abortion ===

The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in 2007 that:<ref>''Gonzales v. Carhart'', 127 S. Ct. 1610, 1634 (2007).</ref>

:While we find no reliable data to measure the phenomenon, it seems unexceptionable to conclude some women come to regret their choice to abort the infant life they once created and sustained. See Brief for Sandra Cano ''et al.'' as Amici Curiae in No. 05-380, pp 22-24. Severe depression and loss of esteem can follow. See ''ibid.''

A study published in the Southern Medical Journal observed that there are higher death rates association with women who have abortion, and that these higher death rates persist over time and across socioeconomic boundaries.<ref>D.C. Reardon, P.G. Ney, F.J. Scheuren, J.R. Cougle, P.K. Coleman, T. Strahan, "Deaths associated with pregnancy outcome: a record linkage study of low income women," 95 Southern Medical Journal 8, at 834-41 (August 2002).</ref>

In [[England]], the "Royal College of Psychiatrists says women should not be allowed to have an abortion until they are counselled on the possible risk to their mental health." The medical royal college warned that women who have abortions may be at risk of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article3559486.ece</ref> A New Zealand study found that abortion in young women may be associated with increased risks of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16405636</ref> The researcher in this study, who was not pro-life, was shaken by the study and had to go to four journals before he could find one who would publish it. <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>

The study concludes with the following statement:
{{cquote|These findings are inconsistent with the current consensus on the psychological effects of abortion. In particular, in its 2005 statement on abortion, the [[American Psychological Association]] concluded that “well-designed studies of psychological responses following abortion have consistently shown that risk of psychological harm is low...the percentage of women who experience clinically relevant distress is small and appears to be no greater than in general samples of women of reproductive age” (American Psychological Association, 2005). This relatively strong conclusion about the absence of harm from abortion was based on a relatively small number of studies which had one or more of the following limitations: a) absence of comprehensive assessment of mental disorders; b) lack of comparison groups; and c) limited statistical controls. Furthermore, the statement appears to disregard the findings of a number of studies that had claimed to show negative effects for abortion (Cougle et al., 2003; Gissler et al., 1996; Reardon & Cougle, 2002). <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>}}

Professor David Fergusson, lead author of the New Zealand study stated:
{{cquote|It borders on scandalous that one of the most common surgical procedures performed on young women is so poorly researched and evaluated. If this were Prozac or Vioxx, reports of associated harm would be taken much more seriously with more careful research and monitoring procedures." <ref>http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20060120-091648-6456r.htm</ref>}}

Another study published in the OB/GYN Survey detailed long-term physical and psychological health consequences of induced abortions.<ref>J.M. Thorp, Jr., K.E. Hartmann, and E.M. Shadigian, "Long-Term Physical & Psychological Health Consequences of Induced Abortion: Review of the Evidence," 58 OB/GYN Survey 1, at 67-79 (2003)</ref>

Suicide rates among women who had abortions are six times higher than women who gave birth in the prior year.<ref>http://www.abortionrecoverycounseling.com/Page8.html</ref> Overall, deaths from suicide, homicide and accidents were 248% higher after an abortion, as found by a 13-year study in Finland of its entire population.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

In the United States, only one state (Missouri) requires that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles of the abortion.<ref>Mo. Rev. Stat. § 188.080 prohibits an abortion by a physician "who does not have clinical privileges at a hospital which offers obstetrical or gynecological care located within thirty miles of the location at which the abortion is performed or induced."</ref> In the other 49 states, an abortion patient can and often is left without prompt medical care by the treating physician.

One of the largest abortion providers in the United States, the Metropolitan Medical Associates of New Jersey, was shut down in 2007 by state health officials after one of its botched abortions left a 20-year-old woman in a coma for more than four weeks. She "became severely ill following the abortion and was transferred to Newark Beth Israel Medical Center where she needed blood transfusions and had her uterus removed. She also suffered a stroke due to the serious blood loss and had one of her lungs collapse."<ref>http://www.lifenews.com/state2137.html</ref> The State of New Jersey had shut down the same facility in 1993 also.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

==Abortion Alternatives==
[[Optionline]] provides consultants that connects individuals to nearby pregnancy centers that offer the following services: free pregnancy tests and pregnancy information; abortion and morning after pill information, including procedures and risks; medical services, including [[STD]] tests; early ultrasounds and pregnancy confirmation; and confidential pregnancy options. <ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref> In addition, some of these centers provide information regarding free housing to women who are facing housing concerns.<ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref>

The [[Liberty Godparent Foundation]] is a [[Christian]] organization focused on improving the lives of unwed pregnant teens, babies and adoptive families by providing two alternatives, The Liberty Godparent Maternity Home and Family Life Services Adoption Agency.<ref>http://www.godparent.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=59</ref>

== Political Action Committees ==
The most powerful political action committee (PAC) is EMILY’s List.<ref>http://www.emilyslist.org/newsroom/releases/20070201.html</ref>. EMILY's List contributes money to Democratic candidates who support abortion-on-demand, including forced taxpayer funding of abortion. EMILY's List candidates also oppose regulations such as:

:providing health information to abortion patients;

:requiring that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a nearby hospital in case there is a complication; and

:providing parental notification if the patient is a teenager.

Due to the influence of the abortion industry and EMILY's List, nearly every Democratic presidential candidate and senatorial candidate supports abortion-on-demand. "EMILY's List, the nation's largest political action committee, continues to be the dominant financial resource for Democratic candidates," its above-referenced website declares.

There is no comparably funded organization opposing abortion, because there are no monetary rewards to defending human life. Instead, candidates and supporters who oppose abortion are motivated by religious and ethical principles.

== History of Abortion ==

The father of [[medicine]], [[Hippocrates]], expressly prohibited abortion in his ethical [[Oath]] long before [[Christianity]].

Prior to 1973 abortion was illegal in most of the United States, though a few states (such as Hawaii and New York) allowed it with restrictions.<ref>''A Timeline of Reproductive Rights'' [http://ecampus.bentley.edu/org/wc/reproductiverights.html The Women's Center]</ref> The U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 [[Roe v. Wade]]<ref>Online text of [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)]</ref> decision ruled that abortions are lawful under the [[U.S. Constitution]] up to the point at which the fetus becomes able to survive outside the womb, and an accompanying decision issued the same day captioned [[Doe v. Bolton]] essentially legalized abortion in the unlimited discretion of the abortionist at any time during pregnancy, up to and including birth. Conservatives immediately criticized these decisions as examples of [[Judicial Activism]].

== Abortion Industry and How It Targets Minority Communities ==

"Each day '''1,786''' African American children are aborted." According to the [[U.S.]] Census of 2006, African Americans are at 1.96 birth rate which is beneath the replacement level of 2.1. <ref>[http://www.christiannewswire.com/news/1685410938.html African American Pro-Life Group Holds Protest at NAACP] Christian News Network, July 13, 2009</ref> At the continued rate, [[racism]] by abortion will kill decimate the black populace of the U.S.

According to writer George Grant, the author of ''Killing Angel'':

"During the 1980s when [[Planned Parenthood]] shifted its focus from community-based clinics to school-based clinics, it again targeted inner-city minority neighborhoods...Of the more than 100 school-based clinics that have opened nationwide in the last decade [1980s], none has been at substantially all-white schools....None has been at suburban middle-class schools. All have been at black, minority or ethnic schools.” <ref>http://www.citizenreviewonline.org/special_issues/population/the_negro_project.htm</ref>

Planned Parenthood itself reported that its abortions on minorities in 1991 was 42.7% of its total abortions. <ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>. However, during that time period, minorities comprised only 19.7% of the U.S. population.<ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>

According to [[Cybercast News Service]]: "An analysis by the Cybercast News Service compared the location of Planned Parenthood abortion clinics with population data from the U.S. Census in 2000. The results appear to bolster the charge that the organization targets black communities."<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewSpecialReports.asp?Page=%5CSpecialReports%5Carchive%5C200502%5CSPE20050207a.html</ref>

==American Liberals and Abortion==
According to the Pew Research Center, American [[liberal]]s are more likely to support pro-abortion views. <ref>http://people-press.org/report/283/pragmatic-americans-liberal-and-conservative-on-social-issues</ref>

==Evolutionary Thought and Abortion==
[[Theory of evolution and liberalism|Liberals are more likely to advocate the evolutionary paradigm than conservatives]]. [[Creation Ministries International]] has written that [[evolution|evolutionary]] thinking has contributed to the [[eugenics|eugenic]] idea of aborting babies with defects and has also contributed to erroneous and immoral justifications for abortion.<ref>http://creation.com/abortion-an-indispensable-right-or-violence-against-women-sex-selection-aborting-girls</ref><ref>http://creation.com/human-life-questions-and-answers-abortion-and-euthanasia</ref>

==Ultrasound images==

*http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/frames.htm
*http://www.flickr.com/photos/drakelelane/388759116/
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/13_weeks.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/ultrasound_3d.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/triple_jump.htm

[[File:2 61 ultrasound.jpg|right|thumb|350px| When an Ohio woman looked at an ultrasound she expected to see a developing baby.

Instead, she saw what she believes to be an image of Jesus Christ]]

== See also ==
*[http://www.investigatemagazine.com/mar3abrt.htm Abortion and breast cancer in New Zealand]
*[[Abortion and the Bible]]
*[[Abortion Facts]]
*[[Abortion funding]]
*[[Abortion procedures]]
*[[Abortion rates by US state]]
*[[Abortionist]]
*[[More News/Abortion|Articles about '''Abortion''' from "More News"]]
*[[Culture of life]]
*[[Separate Life|Essay on abortion]]
*[[Fetus]]
*[[Harvard abortion study]]
*[[Abortion breast cancer studies]]
*[[Homosexual activists and abortion]]
*[[Margaret Sanger]]
*[http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/abrpt/2006abrpt.pdf Minnesota official abortion statistics]
*[[National Right to Life Committee]]
*[[Partial birth abortion]]
*[[Planned Parenthood]]
*[[Right to life]]
*[[Right to life movement]]
*[[Sanctity of life]]
*[[Silent scream]]
*[[Taxpayer-funded abortion]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.abortionfacts.com/ Abortion Facts]
*[http://www.carm.org/abortion.htm Abortion] by [[Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]]
*[http://www.lifesitenews.com/ LifeSiteNews.com]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/abortion/ What Liberals Say - Category: Abortion], [[Accuracy In Media]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Abortion]]
[[Category:Sexuality]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

Christianity

2009-11-30T21:10:13Z

Rdkaster: /* Main Christian groups */

{{Christianity}}
'''Christianity''' is the world's largest religion, having 2.1 billion followers. It is a [[monotheistic]] religion that professes belief in [[Jesus]] as the Son of [[God]]. Christianity takes its name from [[Jesus Christ]] meaning "Jesus the Savior" and "Jesus the Anointed One". Followers of Jesus are called Christians, meaning "of Christ" or "belonging to Christ".<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=2661&dict=CALD Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]</ref>

== Main Christian groups ==
[[Image:Anglican Christ Church.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Anglican Christ Church in Western Australia]]
'''The three largest self-governing bodies of Christians are:'''

* The [[Roman Catholic Church]] (approx. 1.1 billion baptized members) traces its roots back to [[Saint Peter]] who Catholics believed established the Church and the succession of the [[Pope]]s as the spiritual authority over the Christian body of believers.

* The [[Orthodox Church]]es (approx. 300 million baptized members) also trace their roots back to the beginnings of Christianity, but do not believe in the Primacy of the Pope. Different theological perspectives led to the [[Great Schism]] between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in A.D. 1054.

* [[Protestantism]], the largest Communions are the [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]] (approx. 77 million baptized members) and the Lutheran World Federation (approx. 68 million baptized members). Protestantism has its origins in the European [[Reformation]]. It first broke away from the Roman Catholic Church under [[Martin Luther]] when differences over the nature of faith and works in the role of [[Christianity#salvation|salvation]] could not be adequately reconciled with Papal prescriptions as well as other practices that Luther saw in the Catholic Church at that time that he did not agree with. Other preachers and movements then followed Luther's example and also left the Catholic fold.

== Christian Beliefs ==
Theologians, over two millennia, have debated a definitive summary of the Christian faith. While its interpretations vary drastically, probably the most commonly accepted statement of faith is the [[Nicene Creed| Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed]] below:

<blockquote>I believe in one God, [[God the Father|the Father Almighty]], Maker of [[heaven]] and [[earth]], and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light; true God of true God; begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the [[Holy Spirit]] and the [[Virgin Mary]], and became man. And He was crucified for us under [[Pontius Pilate]], and suffered, and was buried. And the third day He rose again, according to the [[Bible|Scriptures]]; and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; whose Kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father; who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. In one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. I look for the [[Resurrection]] of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.</blockquote>

Christians and Christian denominations agree on many points of doctrine and disagree on others. According to an online Harris poll from 2003 99% of all American Christians believe in God, 96% in the [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]], 93% in Heaven, 93% in the virgin birth, 92% in the survival of the soul after death, 82% in Hell, 50% in ghosts, 27% in astrology and 21% in reincarnation. <ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref> Note that the latter two beliefs are in opposition to the religious dogma of most Christian denominations.

Nonetheless, the Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed offers a general overall picture of what Christian theology looks like, and serves as a useful outline.

Other creeds may prove helpful in research. See also: the [[Apostle's Creed]], [[Athanasian Creed]].

===God===
{{main|God}}
God is a triune being. Though there is only one Divine nature there are three Divine Persons: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The three Persons are collectively called the [[Trinity]] or the Holy Trinity. Christians are not polytheists because of the oneness of the divine nature (or essence). The doctrine of the Trinity is central to most (but not all) Christian theology.

A major theme of the Bible is love. In the Hebrew [[Old Testament]] the idea is expressed in the Hebrew word ''hessed'', which is variously translated as loyal love, tender mercy, steadfast love, mercy, goodness, etc. in the [[New Testament]] the same idea is expressed in the Greek word ''agape'', which is variously translated as love, compassion, charity, etc.

The God of the Christians is the creator of all things, is everywhere present, exists in all times, is transcendent, all-knowing (omniscient), just, all-powerful (omnipotent).

===Jesus===
[[Image:Jesus' Baptism.jpg|180px|left|]]
During the reign of [[Caeser Augustus]] the Son (e.g. the second Person of the Trinity) took flesh from a virgin woman and was incarnate as a man. He was born in the town of [[Bethlehem]] and was given the name [[Jesus]]. At the age of thirty he was baptized by his cousin, the [[John the Baptist|Prophet John]], and began to preach in the area [[Palestine]]. About three years after his baptism, he raised his friend Lazarus from the dead, prompting the Jewish power establishment to plot Jesus death. Jesus was [[crucified]]. He came back from the dead and was seen by over 500 people. He ascended to heaven. The four [[Gospels]] contain the records of some of what Jesus did and said, but he did much more than those four books relate, as the Apostle John said in his Gospel.
{{Clear}}

===Morality===
The fundamental principle in Christian moral teaching is love and forgiveness, as expressed by the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the New Testament. Jesus summarized his teachings in two commandments from the Old Testament:

"'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:37-39; [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] 6:5; Leviticus 19:18)

Constant debate has resulted as to how a person should express love for God in their moral behavior. This moral dialogue found expression in the New Testament, where the [[Apostle Paul]] addressed such controversies as [[circumcision]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 2:25-29), eating meat that was sacrificed to [[pagan]] deities (1 Corinthians 8), speculating about myths and genealogies (1 Timothy 1:3-5), and observing ceremonial dates and seasons (Galatians 4:9-11).

Regardless of a person's ethical interpretations, adherents commonly point to New Testament passages John 3:16 and 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 as scriptural depictions of love. The former states that <blockquote>"God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life."</blockquote> The latter characterizes love, saying <blockquote>"Love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not arrogant, does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take into account a wrong suffered, does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth; bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things."</blockquote>

Jesus Christ affirmed, "By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another." (John 13:35)

In trying to understand the reason for the growth of Christianity in a pagan culture, it has been noted that while love of one's neighbor is not an exclusively Christian virtue, it appears that the primitive Christian church practiced it much more effectively than any other group.<ref>E.R. Dodds, 1970:136-137</ref>

In addition to sacrificially showing care for those within the community as well as to those without, (cf. Gal. 6:10) the Christians elevated the sanctity of life, opposing abortion, infanticide, child abandonment, suicide, and gladiatorial contests.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of Christianity'' p. 244</ref><ref> Ted Cabal, Chad Owen Brand, Paul Copan, The Apologetics Study Bible, 274 </ref> While the primitive church tolerated the existing and pervasive cultural economic institution of slavery in the [[Roman Empire]], the mandate of equal pay and just treatment (Col. 4:1; Eph. 6:9) greatly ameliorated the treatment of slaves, while advising them to seek freedom if possible, (1Cor. 7:21) and requiring that the escape slave Onesimus be received back not "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved". (Philemon 1:6) The Christian ethos of love also motivated a great expansion in the building of hospitals.<ref>Albert John Ochsner, Meyer Joseph Sturm, ''The organization, construction and management of hospitals'', p. 17</ref><ref>Roderick E. McGrew, ''Encyclopaedia of Medical Care'', p. 135</ref> By 500 A.D., most large towns in in the Roman Empire had erected them.<ref>George D. Pozgar, ''Legal aspects of health care administration', p. 2</ref>

===The Atonement of Jesus on the Cross===
[[Image:Dalí The Christ of St. John of the Cross.jpg|thumb|The Christ of St. John of the Cross by [[Salvador Dalí]], 1951.]]
All Christians believe with the New Testament that the death of Jesus, along with His resurrection, is an indispensable proclamation of a crucial event for the reconciliation of lost sinners with God. There are three elements they see to understanding His death on the cross.

# Jesus having the knowledge that His path would lead to his own death, desired and willed that that take place, and persevered in that path though there was opportunity for Him to avoid it. Though there is ample recognition in the New Testament that others desired Him to die, and that the circumstances in which His path took him would bring Him to His end on earth, the mover of all these things was Himself and the will of the Father. "I have power to take my life and I have power to lay down my life. I lay down my life for the sheep."
# Jesus saw that in His death there would be a way for people to be brought back to the God from whom they were alienated and lost because of their sins. This would involve a substitution of Himself to effect that way. "For the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve and give His life as a ransom for many." How this would take place was not new to the Jews of His day from their understanding of contemporary everyday practice of substitute payment - as in redemption of the first-born (Pidyon Ha Ben), or in the understanding of what aggadic stories such as the Binding of [[Isaac]] implied (see [[Midrash]]), but it was not the prevalent view that the Messiah was to be that payment. Though while alive on earth, he had hinted at it in sayings such as "unless a seed falls and dies, it remains alone, but when it dies, it brings forth..", it was only after He had risen from the dead that He explained Scripture (the Old Testament) clearly about the necessity of His death to have taken place. The disciples would henceforth preach, and Peter among them, that the death of Jesus the Messiah and His resurrection was for-planned and for-ordained by God the Father, and foretold in the Scripture (Isaiah 53). And so, "The Just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God".
# It was the belief in Scripture, that in His death a way back to God was made possible for those that were near to God—the Jews. And a way back to God for those that were far away—the Gentiles. That is why the New Testament saw in the requirements of God for Israel a fulfillment in Jesus the Messiah. He was the perfect Israel, taken out of Egypt, to redeem Israel. And that is why the New Testament saw in Jesus, a deepness to the incarnation of the Son of God, deeper than just a Jew of His time of a certain tribe. He was the "Second Adam" to redeem the sons of Adam. This encompassing perspective had further implications.

Christians of all generations have looked to the perfect Atonement, and the hope for reconciliation, accomplished by Jesus on the cross, to provide the means of understanding the solution to the vexing problems of the mind and of life itself - How can I make reconciliation with my enemies, with even the members of my own family, of race with race and people with people?; Does His death for the sins of the world include those who only partially understand, for the baby aborted, the feeble minded, and severely retarded?; For those who have never heard of Jesus, never been "enlightened", distant and remote in place and time?; Does His death for the sins of the world also include a remedy for the ills that have come as a result of those sins—certain sicknesses, ills of the mind, body and the soul? Do they "hold" for today?; Does His death make good, turn to the better, show the way, effect the way, of the illnesses that have befallen the world, not only by sin, but simply by the circumstances of life, of degeneration, of compounded dysfunction? How does the fruit of His death bring in somehow the Kingdom "among us"?

The death of the Son of God on the cross has provided the solution for sin, and it still holds its sway over the imagination and aspirations for the people of our generation.

===Salvation===
The Bible teaches that "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23). This is often interpreted to mean that everyone has displeased God and is now separated from him in a kind of alienation and enmity that results from the fundamental conflict between selfish human interests and God's interests (Romans 8:5-8; James 4:4).

However, Jesus offered a solution to this Biblical dilemma in that by repentance of sins and faith in him (Jesus), their sins would be forgiven. He said that "...the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 2:10) Jesus also said, "I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance." (Mark 2:17, and "Verily I say unto you, All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men" (Mark 2:28)

Jesus Christ taught that "unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God" ([[Gospel of John|John]] 3:3). Protestant Evangelical Christianity often use the terms "saved" and "born again" interchangeably. Other Christians, notably the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church use the phrase ''born again'' as a synonym for [[baptism|baptized]]. "Jesus answered, Amen, amen, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and [of] the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." (John 3:5)

Christians are expected to continue living by Christ's teachings (John 8:31), as is appropriate for "children of Light" (Ephesians 5:8-10). Some believe that this is necessary in order to stay saved. However, this is a common misconception of the text. It is rather referring to proving that one is a child of God by their "fruit" (things that they do and how they behave). Christians in the Reformed tradition (following the teaching of the 16th century French lawyer [[John Calvin]], as well as the faith outlined in the Belgic and Heidleberg Confessions) say that salvation is irrevocable and that it cannot be lost, if it were genuinely part of one's life to begin with. Reformed Christians (often called [[Calvinists]]) often point to Romans 8:38-39 as validation of their belief: "For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 8:38-39; [[NASB]]). According to Calvinists, the reason it cannot be lost by natural things is because salvation was obtained through a supernatural being, namely Jesus Christ. This does not negate Jesus' human side, only that he was both one-hundred percent God and one-hundred percent man, according to the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (A. D. 451). The Bible also makes it clear that mankind cannot earn their salvation, and that it is a free gift.

== Resurrection of Jesus Christ ==
[[Image:Jesus resurrected.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"The Resurrection" by Carl Heinrich Bloch]]
The [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]] is critical to the Christian faith. The Apostle Paul wrote, "if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain" (I Cor:15:14). Traditionally, Christianity has believed in a physical resurrection of Jesus Christ.<ref>http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt</ref>

In recent history Gary Habermas is considered the foremost [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] for defending the resurrection of Jesus.<ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/dialog_rexperience/dialog_rexperiences.htm Experiences of the Risen Jesus: The Foundational Historical Issue in the Early Proclamation of the Resurrection], ''Dialog: A Journal of Theology'', Vol. 45; No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 288-297.</ref><ref>"Wildcat" and Holding, J.P., [http://www.tektonics.org/books/lichabrvw.html Book review of "The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus"], 22nd June, 2004 (Tektonics)</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/NTeSources/NTArticles/CTR-NT/Habermas-Resurrection1-CTR.pdf Jesus' Resurrection and Contemporary Criticism: An Apologetic] ''Criswell Theological Review'' 4.1 (1989) 159-74.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_explainingaway/crj_explainingaway.htm Explaining Away Jesus' Resurrection:
The Recent Revival of Hallucination Theories], Christian Research Journal / vol. 23, no. 4, 2001.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable] (Apologetics.com)</ref>
Other notable defenders of the resurrection include: [[William Lane Craig]],<ref>Craig, William Lane, [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/historical.html Articles: Historical Jesus]</ref> [[Lee Strobel]], [[Josh McDowell]],<ref>McDowell, Josh, [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html Evidence for the Resurrection], 1992.</ref> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]],<ref>Jamauchi, Edwin M., [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/yama.html Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?]</ref> [[N.T. Wright]]<ref>Wright, N.T., [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Early_Traditions.htm Early Traditions and the Origins of Christianity], ''Sewanee Theological Review'' 41.2, 1998.</ref> and [[Michael Horner]].<ref>Horner, Michael, [http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/index.html Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?]</ref>

===The Meaning of the Resurrection for Christians===

The Fact of the Resurrection of Christ is a key element of the preaching of the message about Jesus and an essential of Christian belief. But there are also certain effects that this belief has on the lives of believers.

1. It is because Jesus rose from the dead, that believers now can resort to a living Savior to help and deliver them from sin and from situations overwhelming for them by their own powers.

2. The New Testament sees in the resurrection of Christ a certain vindication of what apparently to the world and to all beings was a failure and an overcoming of Him by His crucifixion. He was "declared to be the Son of God" by His resurrection. This brings believers in Him to a strong confidence in the determined power of God to both vindicate in their own lives and to bring His reign upon earth.

3. The coming of Jesus back to life means to the believer that, indeed, their sins are totally forgiven. This is because believers know that His death was as a payment for sins - a "wage of death" for our sins that He received in our stead. If He remained dead, believers would know that the wage had not been fully paid. His resurrection, carries with it our knowledge that our sin with its attendant death has been totally and finally paid for.

4. It is a now living Savior that Christians know can go before them, can closely lead them through life - as He did when He was on earth. This makes following Him practical and real.

5. The New Testament reveals that it is the Risen Christ who received from the Father the Holy Spirit and He, through Himself ascended to the Father, has given the Holy Spirit to us. This gives the believer in Christ both the knowledge and the power to live a godly life, and live a life that can be an intimately and personally directed one.

6. The resurrected Christ was no mere reassembling of the molecules and particles of the Body that had been crucified. It was, indeed, a physical body, but one that was fully under the Spirit's control, guidance, and empowerment. It was a "spiritual body". Christians know that likewise, they will one day be granted the nature of a spiritual body, and full of health. They therefore are full of hope and consolations, and consider that even now in this life, there is an overcoming through Him, a restoration, and that tears, even now, are wiped away.

== Evangelism ==
In what is called the [[Great Commission]], Jesus sent his disciples out into the world to preach the Gospel (literally "good news") and make disciples.
:'''Great Commission'''
:''But the eleven disciples proceeded to [[Galilee]], to the mountain which Jesus had designated. When they saw Him, they worshiped Him; but some were doubtful. And Jesus came up and spoke to them, saying, "All authority has been given to Me in [[heaven]] and on [[earth]]." Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the [[#God the Father|Father]] and the [[#God the Son|Son]] and the [[#God the Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]], teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."'' --[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:16-20 [[New American Standard Bible|NASB]]

[[Image:Gleyre The Departure of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|240px|The Departure of the Apostles by [[Charles Gleyre]].]]
 

==History of the name "Christian"==
The early Christian faith was sometimes called ''That Way'', (Acts 19:1,9,23; 24:22) and the church its adherents were also called ''Nazarenes'', (Acts 24:5) evidently after the city of [[Nazareth]] where Jesus lived. Probably close to A.D 50 the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts:11:26) records that "the disciples were called Christians first in [[Antioch]]." The title ''Christian'' is also used in Acts 26:28 and 1 Peter 4:16, and likely is referred to in James 2:7, "Do not they blaspheme that worthy name by the which ye are called?"

==Early Church Community and Commitment: The Biblical Period==

The Bible records that that at least initially, the church was a single organic community, in which

:they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. {43} And fear came upon every soul: and many wonders and signs were done by the apostles. {44} And all that believed were together, and had all things common; {45} And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. {46} And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, Praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common."(Acts 2:42-47; 4:32)

This community was soon "scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judaea and Samaria, except the apostles" due to determined persecution, which resulted in the dispersed disciples going "every where preaching the word." (Acts 8:1,4)

Other evidence indicates believers had their own houses and goods. (Acts 10:6; 16:14,15,40; 21:8; 1Cor. 11:22; 1Tim. 6:17; Philemon)

==Early Church Community and Commitment: the Post Biblical Period==

'''Justin martyr 100 A.D. - 165 A.D. From the "First Apology" (Defense)
'''

<blockquote>
But we, after we have thus washed him who has been convinced and has assented to our teaching, bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized [illuminated] person, and for all others in every place, that we may be counted worthy, now that we have learned the truth, by our works also to be found good citizens and keepers of the commandments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. This word Amen answers in the Hebrew language to genoito [so be it]. And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. (Chapt. LXV - administration of the sacraments)</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist = the Thanksgiving], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone... (Chapt. LXVl - of the Eucharist)
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And we afterwards continually remind each other of these things. And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always keep together; and for all things wherewith we are supplied, we bless the Maker of all through His Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Ghost. And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour on the same day rose from the dead...(Chapt.LXVll - weekly worship of the Christians)
</blockquote>

'''Tertullian (A.D. 160 -220), Early ecclesiatical leader and writer, in his ''Apology'' (response to pagan charges) in describing the early church community (197 A.D.): '''

:We are a body knit together by one faith, one discipline and one hope. We meet together as a congregation, uniting together to offer prayer to God. We pray for the emperors and all in authority, for the welfare of the world, for peace and for the delay of the final end. We read our holy scriptures to nourish our faith, hope, steadfastness and good habits. We hear exhortations and rebukes. We take such judging very seriously – as befits those who believe they are in the sight of God – especially seriously when anyone sins so grievously we have to cut them off from our prayer, our congregation and all sacred things. Our elders preside over us, obtaining that honor not by money, but by their established character. There is no buying and selling in the things of God. Though we have a fund, but not because people can buy religion. Once a month, anyone who wants to makes a small donation – but only he who is able and willing; there is no compulsion. It is not spent on feasts, but to support and bury poor people, to provide for orphans, the elderly old persons, victims of shipwreck and those in prison for their faith.<ref>Defense by Tertullian (39), Trans. Rev. S. Thelwall. Modernized, abridged and introduced by Stephen Tomkins. Edited and prepared for the web by Dan Graves.</ref>

'''Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor of Pontus & Bithynia (northern Turkey) from A.D. 111-113, reporting to emperor Trajan of Christians, whom such pagan rulers found intolerable:'''

:...in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

:... Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

:They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food.<ref>Pliny the Younger Letters, 10.96 </ref>

==Also See==
[[Image:Orthodox churches icon artwork.jpg|thumb|Orthodox Church's icon artwork.]]
'''Denominations or branches of Christianity'''
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Orthodox Church]]
*[[Protestantism|Protestant]]
**[[Amish]]
**[[Baptist]]
**[[Church of England]] or ''Anglican Church''
**[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (or ''Episcopal Church'' or ''Episcopalians'') (Non-UK branch of the Anglican Church)
**[[Evangelical Christianity]]
**[[Fundamentalism]]
**[[Liberal Christianity]]
**[[Lutheran]]
**[[Mennonite]]
**[[Methodist]]
**[[Pentecostal]]
**[[Plymouth Brethren]]
**[[Presbyterian]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist]]

'''Disputed'''
*[[Christian Science]]

'''Other articles'''
*[[Aramaic Church]]
*[[Cathedral]]
*[[Catholicism]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (Defense of Christianity)
*[[Christianity and Science]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America (Syro-Chaldean)]]
*[[Inspiration of Holy Scripture: An Eastern Christian and Jewish Perspective]]
*[[Jesus Christ]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[New Testament understanding through the Jewish perspective]]
*[[Passover Seder]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Red-letter Christian]]
*[[Sign of the Cross]]
*[[Essay: The Way of Salvation]]

==Further reading==
===Encyclopedias===
* Bodensieck, Julius, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church,'' (3 vol 1965), ECLS perspective
* Brauer, Jerald C. ''The Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' (1971), 880pp
* [http://newadvent.org/cathen/index.html ''The Catholic Encyyclopedia'' (1907-1913)], old but highly detailed and online
** '' New Catholic Encyclopedia'', edited by the Catholic University of America, 17 vol. 1967-1979.
*Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (3rd ed. 1997), 1840pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Dictionary-Christian-Church/dp/0192802909/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
* Elwell, Walter A., ed. ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology‎'' (2001) 1312 pages; articles by over 200 Evangelical or Fundamentalist scholars
*Hastings, Adrian et al. eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought'' (2000) 808pp; 600 articles by 260 Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198600240/ref=sib_dp_pt/105-4292297-2766841#reader-link excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
*''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' (1911), ), major sources of older scholarly articles; mainline Protestant perspective
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.toc.html Vol. 1: Aachen - Basilians]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.toc.html Vol. 2: Basilica - Chambers]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03.toc.html Vol. 3: Chamier - Draendorf]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04.toc.html Vol. 4: Draeseke - Goa]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.toc.html Vol. 5: Goar - Innocent]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc06.toc.html Vol. 6: Innocents - Liudger]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc07.toc.html Vol. 7: Liutprand - Moralities]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc08.toc.html Vol. 8: Morality - Petersen]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc09.toc.html Vol. 9: Petri - Reuchlin]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc10.toc.html Vol. 10: Reutsch - Son]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc11.toc.html Vol. 11: Son of Man - Tremellius]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc12.toc.html Vol. 12: Trench - Zwingli]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc13.toc.html Vol. 13: Index]

===Histories===
*Briggs, J. H. Y., Robert D. Linder, and David F. Wright. ''Introduction to the History of Christianity: First Century to the Present Day'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-History-Christianity-Century-Present/dp/0800638123/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Gonzalez, Justo L. '' A History of Christian Thought: Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon'' (2nd ed. 1987); [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Beginnings-Chalcedon/dp/0687171822/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2: From Augustine to the Eve of the Reformation'' (2nd ed. 1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Augustine-Reformation/dp/0687171830/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 3: From the Protestant Reformation to the Twentieth Century'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Protestant-Reformation/dp/0687171849/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search vol 3]
*Horsley, Richard A. ''Christian Origins: A People's History Of Christianity, Vol. 1'' (2006), 318pp [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Origins-Peoples-History-Christianity/dp/080063411X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200886474&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A History of Christianity'' (2 vol 1975) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christianity-Beginnings-1500-Revised/dp/0060649526/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1, to 1500], by leading Baptist scholar
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A history of the expansion of Christianity'' (7 vol 1939-1970), monumental history of missionary work worldwide
*MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation'' (2005), influential recent survey [http://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Diarmaid-MacCulloch/dp/014303538X/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
*McGonigle, Thomas D., and James F. Quigley. ''A history of the Christian Tradition: From Its Jewish Orgins to the Reformation'' (1988); ''A History of the Christian Tradition, Vol. II: From the Reformation to the Present'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Tradition-Vol-Reformation/dp/0809136481/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-15 excerpt and text search vol 2]
*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine'' (5 vol 1975-91) [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Doctrine-Medieval/dp/0226653757/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search v. 3, 600 AD -1300]]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Reformation-1300-1700/dp/0226653773/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search vol 4, 1300-1700]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-History-Development-Doctrine/dp/0226653803/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 5, 1700-present] This is the standard history of Christian doctrine.
*Ward, Keith. ''Christianity: A Beginner's Guide'' (2008), 195pp

===United States===
* Ahlstrom, Sydney E. ''A religious history of the American people‎'' (1979) 1192 pages; classic history from broad perspective [http://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&dq=inauthor:ahlstrom&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Balmer, Randall. ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' (2nd ed. 2004), 655pp [http://www.questia.com/library/book/encyclopedia-of-evangelicalism-by-randall-balmer.jsp ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' online edition]
* Lippy, Charles H. and Peter W. Williams, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the American religious experience: studies of traditions and movements'' (3 vol 1988) 1872 pages; standard reference work; long essays by scholars
* Noll, Mark A. '' A history of Christianity in the United States and Canada‎'' (1992), by leading Evangelical historian [http://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&dq=intitle:christianity+inauthor:noll&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Queen, Edward L. et al, eds. Encyclopedia of American Religious History'' (3rd ed. 2 vol. 2009) 1200pp
* Reid, Daniel G. et al. eds., ''Dictionary of Christianity in America'' (199)
* Wooley, Davis C. ed. '' Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists‎'' (5 vol 1958-19820; 2565 pages

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/christians/ What Liberals Say - Category: Christians], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[Category:Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Chess

2009-11-30T21:08:52Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Staunton chess set.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A typical chess set and tournament clock.]]

'''Chess''' is a turn-based [[board game]] for two players, and is one of the most popular games in the world. The goal of the game is to place the opposing king into ''checkmate'', that is, a position in which the king is under attack but cannot escape. The game used to be treated as a status symbol of education and aristocracy.

Modern international chess has a powerful, sweeping [[queen]] who was not a piece provided in the original game. The long reach of bishops today was also lacking at first. Maneuvers such as castling or capturing ''en passant'' have been developed within the past few hundred years.

Today, chess is one of the most popular board games in the world. International competitions, including world [[champion]]ship events, are organized by an organization called FIDE and American competition organized by the USCF (United States Chess Federation). The only American world champion was [[Bobby Fischer]], although [[Paul Morphy]] of [[Louisiana]] was likely the strongest player in the world in the 1850s, before a formal world champion was determined. The current world champion is [[India | Indian]] Viswanathan "Vishy" Anand.

==Origins==
Chess has its roots in [[India]], where a game called Shaturanga was played. The earliest extant description of the game is contained in the [[Bhavishya Purana]], which dates from A.D. 300 to A.D. 600. Shaturanga used [[dice]], but [[Hinduism]] bans gambling. As a result, the game of chess developed free from any dice or chance. The exact rules of Shaturanga are not known, but the game developed further in Persia into something very like its modern form. The Persian game Shatranj - which remains popular in the middle east today - is nearly identical to modern chess. By A.D. 1200 the game reached southern Europe, and in the late fifteenth century the Europeans adopted a number of changes: the queen, which had formerly been a very weak piece, became the strongest piece on the board, and allowing pawns to move two squares on the first move became standard. These changes had the effect of speeding up play, and they brought the game into the form we know today.

There has been some speculation that chess has roots in [[China]]. It's clear that chess is in some way related to [[XiangQi]] (Chinese Chess) and [[Shogi]] (Japanese Chess), but scholars disagree about whether either of these variants predates Shaturanga.

==The Board==
The chess board is a square, divided into 64 smaller squares arranged in eight rows of eight. The squares are alternating light and dark, with a light square in the bottom right hand corner.

The horizontal rows of squares are referred to as "ranks" and the vertical rows are referred to as "files".

==Pieces==
[[Image:StauntonPieces.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Staunton Style chess pieces. From left to right: King, Queen, Bishop, Knight, Rook, and Pawn.]]
Each player has a total of 16 pieces; 8 pawns, 2 knights, 2 bishops, 2 rooks, 1 queen, and 1 king. 

===Relative Value of Pieces===
There are several different ideas about the relative value of the pieces. It is important to note that the "points" used to assign a value to each piece are hypothetical and do not constitute a score; they are merely an attempt to quantify the relative power that each piece can hypothetically exert upon the board.

The method most often used is:
*[[Image:chesspawn.jpg|20px]] Pawn--1
*[[Image:chessknight.jpg|20px]] Knight--3 (some say 2.5, as Knights are generally regarded as slightly inferior to Bishops in many middlegame and endgame situations)
*[[Image:chessbishop.jpg|20px]] Bishop--3
*[[Image:chessrook.jpg|20px]] Rook--5
*[[Image:chessqueen.jpg|20px]] Queen--9
*[[Image:chessking.jpg|20px]] King--Priceless, since its loss means the loss of the game. However, as an active piece in the endgame it is usually considered to have a value of 3.
 (The value to the player of some pieces will actually vary during the course of the game, for instance, in an endgame, the King has an attacking power of about 3)

===Style===
The most popular style of pieces are known as Staunton style pieces, the tournament standard for chess pieces, although other types exist. Often, popular themed chess sets will appear with characters from [[popular culture]] or [[fiction]] taking the places of the more common Staunton style pieces. These novelty pieces are not tournament sanctioned however, and can sometimes cause confusion during game play as to which piece is which.

Although chess pieces can come in a variety of materials, [[marble]] and [[glass]] tend to be very popular, but for most chess tournaments, simple [[plastic]] pieces are usually favored. Also, while many home chess sets use heavy boards made out of [[wood]] or [[stone]] or some [[polymer]] material, tournament boards are actually roll-able mats with the board printed on it.

==Gameplay ==

The object of the game is to checkmate the other player's '''King''' before he checkmates your king. When a pawn reaches the far side of the board, it may be promoted to any other piece (except a King).

*The players alternate moving until the game has ended.
*The player with the White pieces always moves first.

===Initial Conditions===
The pieces are put on the board in each player's side as follows:
*In the first row from left to right (with the leftmost square being black): '''rook''', '''knight''', '''bishop''', '''queen''', '''king''', '''bishop''', '''knight''' and '''rook'''.
*The second row is filled with '''pawns'''.

===Movement===
The pieces move as follows.
*The '''pawn''' moves one square forward, except when moving from its opening position, when it can optionally move two. The pawn is the only piece that captures in a way different from the way it moves. It captures opposing pieces by capturing one square diagonally forward. When another piece is on the square directly in front of a pawn it cannot move unless it is making a capture. 
*The '''knight''', which is the only piece that can jump over other pieces, moves one square in one straight direction and two in the other. 
*The '''bishop''' can move as many squares as desired diagonally. 
*The '''rook''' can move as many squares as desired in a straight direction. 
*The '''queen''' is the most powerful piece in the board. It can move as many squares as desired (without jumping over another piece), either straight or diagonally. 
*The '''king''', which is the most important piece on the board, moves one square, either straight or diagonally.

====Capturing====

All pieces except for the pawn capture along their lines of motion. A capture is made by moving a piece to a square occupied by one of the opponent's pieces, and removing the opponent's piece from the board. If a piece can move to occupy the location of an opponent's piece, it can capture that piece. The '''pawn''', can only capture by moving diagonally forward one square. A piece is said to be undefended if it has no piece "supporting" its position - i.e., preventing an opponent from capturing it by threat of losing his attacking piece.

====Special Moves====
*'''Castling'''- When a player has no pieces between a rook and his king, and he has not moved either piece, he can move the king two squares in the direction of the rook, and then place the rook on the square that the king passed over. A player cannot castle if the King is currently in check, would be in check after castling, or would move through a square which is under attack.
*'''en passant'''- French for "In passing." In chess, if a player pushes his pawn far down to the end of the board, and his opponent pushes a starting pawn 2 spaces ahead, to put the pawn on the same row to avoid confrontation, the player may choose to invoke the "en passant" move, which treats the enemy pawn as though it had only moved one space. The player may capture diagonally on the square '''behind''' the enemy pawn, and remove the enemy pawn. The principle is that the two space rule for a pawn's first move cannot be used to avoid confrontation between two pawns. However, the player may only invoke "en passant" on the first turn after the opponent pushes his pawn. He cannot make it after that turn.

===The end of the game===
A chess game may end in a number of ways.
*'''Checkmate''': The winning player checkmates his opponent's King (see below).
*'''Resignation''': The losing player, facing an inevitable future checkmate, ''resigns'' rather than play out an extended series of hopeless moves. A player may indicate resignation by toppling his king on its side.
*'''Loss on Time''': In games with a time limit, a player may lose by failing to make a time control, causing his clock to run out.
*'''Draw''': The game may end in a draw, in which case neither player wins.

====Checkmate====
Checkmate is achieved when the following conditions are met.
* The King is ''in check''; that is, it is directly attacked by an opponent's piece.
* Every square that the King can move to is also attacked by an opponent's piece.
* The Piece that is attacking the King cannot be captured.
* Another Piece cannot be interposed between the attacking piece and the King to block the check.
When a King is checkmated, the game is over, and the player initiating the checkmate is the winner.

====Draw====
There are several ways that the game can end in a draw.
*'''Stalemate''': A player is said to be ''stalemated'' when he cannot make a legal move, and is not in check.
*'''Draw by agreement''': The players mutually agree to a draw. In competitive chess, a player may make a draw offer after he has made his move, but before he has started his opponent's clock.
*'''Draw by repetition''': Either player may claim a draw if the same position has appeared on the board three times. The three occasions need not be consecutive.
*'''50 move rule''': Either player may claim a draw if fifty moves have transpired without a capture or a pawn move.

==Notation==
Chess notation is used to record the moves of a chess game. This has several uses. Notation can be used to record games for review at a later time. There are two major methods of chess notation, Algebraic and Descriptive.

====For all forms of Notation====
The notation for a chess game is taken like this. At the top of the page are the players — white listed first — with their names under their colors. Numbers go down the left side of the page to indicate the move number. (see below) 
White, Black 
Name Name
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Moves are recorded in columns, separated by commas.

Space is usually allotted on the top of tournament scoresheets to record the date and location of the game, and sometimes to record the time limit and opening name.

=====Pieces=====
Each piece is designated by its corresponding letter as follows: 
K = King 
Q = Queen 
R = Rook 
B = Bishop 
N = Knight (notice 'K' is reserved for the King) 
P = Pawn

(In strict chess parlance, the pawns are not considered pieces; officially, a standard chess set consists of sixteen pieces and sixteen pawns.)

=====Moves=====
- Moves to
x Captures
+ Check
++ Checkmate
0-0 Castles king-side
0-0-0 Castles queen-side
e.p. en passant
/ to indicate which square a piece moved from (only when needed to clarify)
/Q Pawn promotion. (use /Q for queen, /R for rook, etc.)
! A good move
!! A very good move
!? An interesting move
?! A dubious move
? A questionable move
?? A blunder

===Algebraic===
Algebraic is the most commonly used method of notation. [[Image:Chessboardanote1.jpg|right]]

====The Board====
In algebraic notation, each file is assigned a letter, and each rank is assigned a number. Each square is designated by the letter and number from it's rank and file. a1 is the square in the bottom left corner for the white player.

====Movement====
Moves are recorded by indicating the piece to be moved and the square it is to be moved to, sometimes using a hyphen (-). For example, if white wants to move his Kingside Knight towards the center of the board to start the game, the notation would be:
White Black
1. Nf3, ....

or

White Black
1. N-f3, ....

In algebraic notation, a P is not used to indicate the pawn. A pawn move is implied when no piece is indicated. So if white wants to advance his king pawn 2 squares, and black responds by advancing his king pawn 2 squares, the notation would be:
White Black
1. e4, e5,
2. ....

Occasionally, two pieces of the same type can move to the same square. To eliminate ambiguity, the unique rank or file of the moving piece is identified after the piece symbol. For example, suppose both of Black's Rooks are on the 8th rank (on the squares f8 and a8), and there are no pieces in between them. Black moves the f8 Rook to d8. In other circumstances, the move would be annotated
17. .... Rd8
but because either Rook could have moved to d8, the identifying file for the f8 Rook must be included, as in
17. .... Rfd8

====Captures====
Captures by a piece or pawn are indicated by first transcribing the symbol for the piece performing the capture, followed by an 'x', followed by the square the capturing piece or pawn moved to. For example, if White uses his Queen to capture a piece on the square h7 on move 23, the correct notation is
23. Qxh7, ....

Because pawns are not designated with a symbol, the system is slightly different for pawn captures. The file originally occupied by the pawn is used to identify the pawn performing the capture. If a black pawn on e5 captures a white piece or pawn on d4 on move 5, the notation is
5. ...., exd4

===Descriptive===
In the more archaic descriptive notation, squares are described according to the starting piece positions. The square originally occupied by the Rook on the Queenside is referred to as "Queen's Rook One" (QR1), while "Queen's Rook Four" is the square directly in front of the Queen's Rook on the fourth rank. Thus, a typical opening move is described as "Pawn to King Four", and is written as
1. P-K4, ....

Note that in descriptive notation, pawns have the designation 'P'. The notation's disadvantages become apparent over the course of a complex game, especially because the same square has different names depending on the perspective of the White and Black pieces. King's Bishop Three (KB3) for White is King's Bishop Six (KB6) for Black.

Captures in descriptive notation operate similar to algebraic notation; for example,

45. .... R-xQN7

means that on his 45th move, Black captured a piece or pawn on his Queen's Knight Seven square (the b2 square in algebraic notation).

==Tactics and strategy==
Chess players often refer to shorter, forcing sequences of moves that lead to clear advantages as ''tactics'', while moves designed to create or nurture long-term advantages are called ''strategic.''

For more information on specific tactics, see [[chess tactics]]. For more information on specific strategic themes, see [[chess strategies]].

==Chess Variants==
There are a number of games based on chess with rule variations, and these are referred to as ''chess variants''. One of the most popular of these is ''Bughouse'', a partner-based game in which a player who captures his opponent's piece can give it to a partner on another board to drop on a square of his choosing. Another is ''Kriegspiel'', a game in which a player can see his pieces but not that of his opponent. [http://www.chessvariants.com/incinf.dir/kriegspiel.html] A simpler variant is ''Antichess'', which is also called ''Suicide chess'', in which a player must make a capturing move if any legal captures exist on the board, and in which the goal is to run out of pieces first.

In 1996, [[Bobby Fischer]] introduced a variant called FischerRandom Chess, which involves scrambling the positions of the pieces on the first and eighth ranks before starting play. A number of rules govern the precise manner in which the pieces can be arranged; for example, the king must be somewhere between the two rooks, so that castling to either side is still possible, and the black and white positions must mirror one another. The rules provide for 960 possible starting positions, and for this reason the game is sometimes called Chess960. Fischer hoped his variant would encourage creative thinking and avoid the memorization associated with opening play in modern chess.

==Computer Chess==
Deep Blue, a computer developed by IBM, was the first computer engine to beat a human world champion in 1997, when it defeated Garry Kasparov in a six game series. This series was a rematch of 1996 series which Kasparov won, although Deep Blue had been upgraded since the first series. It should be noted that during this second match, Deep Blue was also upgraded between games to avoid falling into the same type of trap more than once.

Chess engines have increased in strength in recent years to the point where humans are falling behind. In 2005, Michael Adams, one of the top fifteen players in the world, played a six game match against the engine Hydra, and lost five games with only one draw. Chess writer Eric Schiller, who uses computer assistance in writing his books, admits that "computers have taken some of the fun out of (chess)." Despite this, chess remains far from being a [[solved game]].

==External links==
:[http://www.fide.com/ FIDE] - World Chess Federation
:[http://www.uschess.org USCF] - United States Chess Federation
:[http://www.iccf.com/ ICCF] - International Correspondence Chess Federation
:[http://www.chess-players.org/eng/index.html ACP] - Association of Chess Professionals
:[http://www.freechess.org FICS] - Free Internet Chess Server

[[Category:Chess]]

Chicago Bears

2009-11-30T21:07:03Z

Rdkaster: /* Quarterbacks */

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]] based in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division.
==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*6 - Jay Cutler
*8 - Rex Grossman
*12 - Caleb Hanie

===Running Backs===
*43 - Jason Davis
*22 - [[Matt Forte]]
*27 - Kevin Jones
*29 - Adrian Peterson
*25 - Garrett Wolfe

===Fullbacks===
*37 - Jason McKie

===Wide Receivers===
*19 - Devin Aromashodu
*85 - Earl Bennett
*86 - Marty Booker
*81 - Rashied Davis
*23 - [[Devin Hester]]
*80 - Brandon Lloyd
*84 - Brandon Rideau

===Tight Ends===
*88 - Desmond Clark
*87 - Kellen Davis
*82 - Greg Olsen

===Offensive Tackles===
*78 - John St. Clair
* - Frank Omiyale
* - Kevin Shaffer
*74 - Chris Williams
*69 - Fred Miller

===Guards===
*67 - Josh Beekman
*72 - Dan Buenning
*63 - Roberto Garza

===Centers===
*65 - Patrick Mannelly

===Defensive Ends===
*97 - Mark Anderson
*99 - Ervin Baldwin
*96 - Alex Brown
*93 - Adewale Ogunleye

===Defensive Tackles===
*95 - Anthony Adams
*91 - Tommie Harris
*94 - Marcus Harrison
*71 - Israel Idonije
*75 - Matt Toeaina
*98 - Dusty Dvoracek

===Linebackers===
*55 - [[Lance Briggs]]
*59 - Gilbert Gardner
*92 - Hunter Hillenmeyer
*90 - Joey LaRocque
*53 - Nick Roach
*54 - [[Brian Urlacher]]
*52 - Jamar Williams
*58 - Darrell McClover

===Cornerbacks===
*21 - Corey Graham
*24 - Marcus Hamilton
*26 - Trumaine McBride
*33 - Charles Tillman
*35 - Zackary Bowman
*31 - Nathan Vasher

===Safeties===
*36 - Brandon McGowan
*30 - Mike Brown
* - Josh Bullocks
*38 - Danieal Manning
*44 - Kevin Payne
*20 - Craig Steltz

===Kickers===
*9 - Robbie Gould

===Punters===
*4 - Brad Maynard

==See also==
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[Green Bay Packers]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/bears/index.html Team site]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/clubhouse?teamId=3 Chicago Bears]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Illinois]]

Green Bay Packers

2009-11-30T21:05:07Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Bilde.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The annual meeting of the Green Bay Packers shareholders held in Lambeau Field Wednesday, July 25, 2007. Photo by H. Marc Larson/Press-Gazette. [http://www.packersnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/frontpage]]]
The '''Green Bay Packers''' are a [[National Football League]] [[NFL]] [[franchise]] based in [[Green Bay]], [[Wisconsin]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division. They are the first team to win the [[Super Bowl]]. They played in Super Bowl I and defeated the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. They also won [[Super Bowl]] II. The Green Bay Packers have more World Championships than any other franchise in the League's history, but not the most Super Bowl victories.

The team plays its home games at Lambeau Field, named after team founder Curly Lambeau. They are the only professional sports team owned by a city. The team was bought by Green Bay after it suffered from great financial woes in the 1950s.
==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*12 - [[Aaron Rodgers]]
*11 - Brian Brohm
*10 - Matt Flynn

===Running Backs===
*25 - [[Ryan Grant]]
*32 - Brandon Jackson
*42 - DeShawn Wynn
*28 - Kregg Lumpkin

===Fullbacks===
*35 - Korey Hall
*30 - John Kuhn

===Wide Receivers===
*85 - [[Greg Jennings]]
*80 - [[Donald Driver]]
*89 - James Jones
*82 - Ruvell Martin
*87 - Jordy Nelson
*19 - Shaun Bodiford

===Tight Ends===
*86 - Donald Lee
*88 - Jermichael Finley

===Offensive Tackles===
*76 - Chad Clifton
*68 - Breno Giacomini
*67 - Nevin McCaskill
*71 - Josh Sitton
*65 - Mark Tauscher

===Guards===
*78 - Allen Barbre
*73 - Daryn Colledge
*75 - Tony Moll
*72 - Jason Spitz

===Centers===
*63 - Scott Wells
* - Duke Preston

===Defensive Ends===
*57 - Jason Hunter
*74 - Aaron Kampman
*96 - Mike Montgomery
*99 - Jeremy Thompson
*77 - Cullen Jenkins

===Defensive Tackles===
*91 - Justin Harrell
*97 - Johnny Jolly
*98 - Alfred Malone
*79 - Ryan Pickett
*62 - Anthony Toribio

===Linebackers===
*55 - Desmond Bishop
*54 - Brandon Chillar
*53 - Spencer Havner
*50 - [[A. J. Hawk]]
*58 - Danny Lansanah
*51 - Brady Poppinga
*56 - Nick Barnett
*93 - Kenny Pettway

===Cornerbacks===
*27 - Will Blackmon
*24 - Jarrett Bush
*31 - [[Al Harris]]
*40 - Joe Porter
*38 - Tramon Williams
*21 - [[Charles Woodson]]
*22 - Pat Lee

===Safeties===
*36 - Nick Collins
*26 - Charlie Peprah
*37 - Aaron Rouse
* - Anthony Smith
*20 - Atari Bigby

===Kickers===
*2 - [[Mason Crosby]]

===Punters===
*7 - Jeremy Kapinos

==See also==
*[[Vince Lombardi]]
*[[Chicago Bears]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/packers/index.html Team site]
*[http://www.packers.com/community/packers_foundation/ Green Bay Packers]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Wisconsin]]

Green Bay Packers

2009-11-30T21:03:20Z

Rdkaster:

[[Image:Bilde.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The annual meeting of the Green Bay Packers shareholders held in Lambeau Field Wednesday, July 25, 2007. Photo by H. Marc Larson/Press-Gazette. [http://www.packersnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/frontpage]]]
The '''Green Bay Packers''' are a [[National Football League]] [[NFL]] [[franchise]] based in [[Green Bay]], [[Wisconsin]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division. They are the first team to win the [[Super Bowl]]. They played in Super Bowl I and defeated the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. They also won [[Super Bowl]] II. The Green Bay Packers have won more World Championships than any other franchise in the League's history, but not the most Super Bowl victories.

The team plays its home games at Lambeau Field.
==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*12 - [[Aaron Rodgers]]
*11 - Brian Brohm
*10 - Matt Flynn

===Running Backs===
*25 - [[Ryan Grant]]
*32 - Brandon Jackson
*42 - DeShawn Wynn
*28 - Kregg Lumpkin

===Fullbacks===
*35 - Korey Hall
*30 - John Kuhn

===Wide Receivers===
*85 - [[Greg Jennings]]
*80 - [[Donald Driver]]
*89 - James Jones
*82 - Ruvell Martin
*87 - Jordy Nelson
*19 - Shaun Bodiford

===Tight Ends===
*86 - Donald Lee
*88 - Jermichael Finley

===Offensive Tackles===
*76 - Chad Clifton
*68 - Breno Giacomini
*67 - Nevin McCaskill
*71 - Josh Sitton
*65 - Mark Tauscher

===Guards===
*78 - Allen Barbre
*73 - Daryn Colledge
*75 - Tony Moll
*72 - Jason Spitz

===Centers===
*63 - Scott Wells
* - Duke Preston

===Defensive Ends===
*57 - Jason Hunter
*74 - Aaron Kampman
*96 - Mike Montgomery
*99 - Jeremy Thompson
*77 - Cullen Jenkins

===Defensive Tackles===
*91 - Justin Harrell
*97 - Johnny Jolly
*98 - Alfred Malone
*79 - Ryan Pickett
*62 - Anthony Toribio

===Linebackers===
*55 - Desmond Bishop
*54 - Brandon Chillar
*53 - Spencer Havner
*50 - [[A. J. Hawk]]
*58 - Danny Lansanah
*51 - Brady Poppinga
*56 - Nick Barnett
*93 - Kenny Pettway

===Cornerbacks===
*27 - Will Blackmon
*24 - Jarrett Bush
*31 - [[Al Harris]]
*40 - Joe Porter
*38 - Tramon Williams
*21 - [[Charles Woodson]]
*22 - Pat Lee

===Safeties===
*36 - Nick Collins
*26 - Charlie Peprah
*37 - Aaron Rouse
* - Anthony Smith
*20 - Atari Bigby

===Kickers===
*2 - [[Mason Crosby]]

===Punters===
*7 - Jeremy Kapinos

==See also==
*[[Vince Lombardi]]
*[[Chicago Bears]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/packers/index.html Team site]
*[http://www.packers.com/community/packers_foundation/ Green Bay Packers]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Wisconsin]]