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Franklin D. Roosevelt

2010-04-17T22:56:11Z

RJJensen: typo

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|birth_date=January 30, 1882
|birth_place=Hyde Park, New York
|death_date=April 12, 1945
|death_place=Warm Springs, Georgia
|spouse=[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
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'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt''' was the 32nd [[President of the United States of America]] from 1933-45. He presided over the majority of the [[Great Depression]], which did not end until the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]]<ref>[http://www.fasttrackteaching.com/Unemployment_300g15.gif Unemployment Graph during the Great Depression]</ref>, and led the United States in [[World War II]] against the [[Axis Powers]]; he built the '''[[New Deal Coalition]]''' of voters and interest groups which dominated American politics into the 1960s.

He is still the great hero to liberals but castigated by conservatives for shifting the nation to the left, growing the federal government, imposing regulations on business, following a no-growth economic policy, catering to labor unions, and building a permanent [[New Deal Coalition]]. On the other hand, conservatives admire his strong military leadership that led the Allies to victory in record time in World War II.

His [[New Deal]] was a very large, complex interlocking set of programs designed to produce '''relief''' (especially government jobs for the unemployed)<ref>[http://www.northcarolinahistory.org/commentary/130/entry/ Works Progress Administration (WPA): One Failure to End the Great Depression]</ref>, '''recovery''' (of the economy), and '''reform''' (by which he meant regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation), as well as Reelection (in 1936, 1940 and 1944) and Realignment of the [[Fifth Party System]]. Conservatives strongly opposed many, but not all, of the New Deal programs. Conservatives abolished most of the relief programs when unemployment practically ended during World War II. Most of the regulations on business were ended about 1975-85, except for the regulation of Wall Street by the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]], which still exists. The major surviving program is [[Social Security]], which Congress passed in 1935.

Conservatives at the time denounced his bids for presidential power, including building a national political machine through the [[WPA]] (it lasted from 1935 to 1943), attempting to take control of the Supreme Court by adding new liberal judges (an attempt which failed, 1937), and trying to purge the Democratic party of conservative congressman (an attempt which failed in 1938). The failures of those attempts can be attributed to the [[Conservative Coalition]] which emerged in Congress in 1937 as a coalition of most Northern republicans and most Southern Democrats.<ref>There were very few Southern Republicans in office.</ref>.

After 1938 FDR turned his attention to [[World War II]]. He was a strong supporter of [[China|Nationalist China]] under General [[Chiang Kai-shek]] against Japan; most conservatives agreed on that point. FDR also was a strong supporter of military aid to Britain. Conservatives split on that, with the "isolationists" (like [[Robert Taft]]) opposed, and "interventionists" (like [[Henry Stimson]]) in favor. Pearl Harbor brought the U.S. into the war in December, 1941; all conservatives then strongly supported the war effort. They generally approved FDR's military leadership, although they were highly critical of his close cooperation with [[Stalin]] and the Soviet Union.

FDR was the first and only President to be elected four times, breaking the traditional two-term-limit precedent established by [[George Washington]].<ref> Tradition was restored by the 22nd Amendment in 1947.</ref>

Roosevelt's health failed rapidly in 1944-45, even as he ran for reelection. He died On April 12, 1945. Despite polio which permanently crippled him starting in the early 1920s, he exuded a sense of confidence and hope for the future that made for a charismatic personality.

Conservative scholars have argued that some relief efforts actually helped to prolong the [[Great Depression]]. However, World War II brought a return to near full employment for every sector of the economy. The amount spent on the New Deal before the war was less than the $21 billion borrowed by the government over two years during World War I.<ref>David M. Kennedy, ''Freedom From Fear,'' page 178</ref>
==Early Life==
Franklin was born to two old families, both based in upstate New York: the Dutch Roosevelts, and the Yankee Delanos. His father James Roosevelt (1828-1900), a wealthy railroad executive, was never close to Franklin and died when he was in college. Franklin was the only son of Sara Roosevelt (1854-1941), who exerted tight control over the family money, and tight psychological control over Franklin, until the day she died in 1941. The Delanos made their money in trading with China (originally, in selling opium); Sara was a world traveler who raised her son with the aid of tutors until he went to [[Groton]] at age 14; by that time Franklin had been to Europe many times and spoke fluent French and German. He was a gentleman at Harvard College, where he edited the student newspaper. He graduated from Columbia Law School, and was a successful lawyer before entering politics in 1910, and again while out of politics in the mid-1920s.

==Eleanor Roosevelt==
see [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]

Eleanor Roosevelt, a fifth cousin, became engaged to FDR in 1903; they were married on March 17, 1905 in New York; her uncle President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] gave the bride away. She and Franklin lived with his mother Sara, who controlled financed and controlled the raising of her grandchildren. By the 1920s Eleanor was living apart in a separate cabin on the Roosevelt estate at Hyde Park.

Six children followed in rapid succession, with all but one surviving infancy: Anna Eleanor, James, Franklin (died 1909), Elliott, a second Franklin Delano, and John Aspinwall.

FDR was elected as a Democrat to the New York State Senate in 1910, but the family remained in New York City. In 1913 the family moved to Washington where Franklin was the powerful and popular Assistant Secretary of the Navy during World War I.

Very shy at first, Eleanor kept a low profile during World War I. She became more accustomed to the limelight when Franklin was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920, and when he was elected governor of New York in 1928 and 1930. After he contracted polio she became much more active, serving as his spokesperson at many meetings around the state and advocated for womens issues inside the Democratic party.

The Roosevelt marriage collapsed in 1918 when Eleanor discovered Franklin had a lover.<ref> Lucy Mercer (later Lucy Rutherfurd) was only the first of several known FDR lovers; Lucy was with FDR when he died. Joseph Persico, ''Franklin and Lucy: President Roosevelt, Mrs. Rutherfurd, and the Other Remarkable Women in His Life'' (2008) </ref> Divorce was politically impossible, love was absent. The solution was independence. Since the public knew nothing about the affairs (and historians did not learn until after Eleanor's death), the couple kept up appearances. Eleanor increasingly built her own career, all the while supporting the more liberal and leftist personalities and ideas that were in the air.

==1920s==
In 1920 Roosevelt was the Democratic nominee for Vice President. He lost in the Harding landslide, but the fact that he won the nomination demonstrates that Democrats looked upon him as their new hero. In 1921 FDR became ill with [[poliomyelitis]], Eleanor became his helpmate through his serious health problems. The polio left FDR without the use of his legs, confined to a wheelchair for the most part. However, he did not allow this disability to end his political career; indeed it made him psychologically stronger and more determined to bring hope to people faced with poor odds in life.

In 1928 Franklin Roosevelt was elected governor of [[New York]], despite a narrow victory in the state by Republican presidential candidate [[Herbert Hoover]]. FDR was reelected governor in a landslide in 1930. As governor of the leading financial state he did nothing to prevent the Wall Street Crash of 1929 or solve the emerging financial depression, but he did begin a relief program that followed the Hoover Administration guidelines.

== Election of 1932 ==
:''Main article : [[United States presidential election, 1932]]''
With the economy continuing a downward spiral despite Hoover's efforts, a Democratic victory seemed certain. Roosevelt needed two-thirds of the delegates too get the nomination. He easily beat out [[Al Smith]], his former close ally. FDR won the nomination with the aid of powerful publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]] (still a liberal at the time), and the Texas delegation led by House Speaker [[John Nance Garner]]. Garner was given the vice presidency. Smith in 1932, Hearst in 1934, and Garner in 1937 all broke with FDR, becoming bitter enemies.

The election was a rout, with Democrats winning sweeping majorities in Congress and control of state governments in all parts of the country. Hoover tried to coordinate national policy with FDR during the long interregnum between the November election and the March 4 inauguration, but Roosevelt refused to cooperate.

== First Term ==
[[File:Newdealstamp.png|thumb|280px|1998 US stamp celebrates alphabet agencies of New Deal]]

===New Deal===
:''For Main Article see '''[[New Deal]].'''''

FDR is most famous for his [[New Deal]], a set of programs designed to produce recovery from the Depression, reform so it would never happen again, and relief for the tens of millions suffering severe hardships.

FDR's favorite program--and the nation's favorite as well, was the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], begun in springc 1933. The CCC sent several hundred thousand young men at a time -- 2.5 million in all by 1943 -- to newly formed work camps for 6-month stints. There were no uniforms or military drills. It was strongly approved at the time by conservatives and liberals alike, including most religious and business leaders as a way to save the boys who were perpectually unemployed and drifting into gangs. The CCC was ended in 1943 when the need had vanished.

In 1934-35 the '''Second new Deal''' showed Roosevelt moving left. Key innovations included the Wagner Act (1935) that created the [[National Labor Relations Board and allowed [[Labor unions]] to rapidly expand. The [[WPA]] was a federalized relief progarm, in which 2+ million unemployed workers were hired by the federal government to work on projects sponsored by local government. Most important of all was the Social Security program, passed over intense Republican opposition.

==Second Term==
Roosevelt successfully built up the "[[New Deal Coalition]]", a powerful coalition of voters and interest groups. Key components included big city machines and labor unions. Key voter groups included traditional Democrats, white Southerners, Catholics, Jews, and liberals, as well as many blacks. This united voter base allowed Democrats to be elected to Congress and the presidency for much of the next 30 years.

After a sweeping landslide reelection in 1936--losing only Maine and Vermont--Roosevelt stunned the nation, and his party, by calling for legislation to enlarge the Supreme Court by five new members. A firestorm of opposition erupted, led by his own vice president [[John Nance Garner]]. Roosevelt was defeated by an alliance of Republicans and conservative Democrats, who formed a [[Conservative Coalition]] that managed to block nearly all liberal legislation. (Only a minimum wage law got through.) Angry with the conservative wing of his own party, Roosevelt tried to destroy it. In 1938, he actively campaigned against five incumbent conservative Democratic senators; all five senators won re-election.

Under FDR, the Democratic Party became identified closely with modern liberalism, which included the promotion of social welfare, unions and regulation of the economy. Civil rights were not on the party agenda at this time.

The Second Term was a failure, for FDR had overreached and his efforts to fight the conservatives in the business community, the GOP and his own party (in the South) produced a backlash against excessive presidential control. With war braking out in Europe in 1939, it was time to turn to foreign affairs.

== Third Term ==
Early in 1939 FDR made up his mind to seek a third election in the [[United States presidential election, 1940|presidential election of 1940]]. FDR realized the political difficulties involved in a third nomination so he concocted a "draft Roosevelt" movement. He kept other candidates dangling in hope, including Democratic National Committee Chairman [[James Farley]], whom FDR rejected because he was [[Roman Catholic]], and Secretary of State Cordell Hull.

Administrative Assistants to Roosevelt included [[James Forrestal]], [[Lauchlin Currie]] and [[David K. Niles]]. Their function was to get information and to condense and summarize it for Roosevelt's use. FDR soon moved Forrestal to the Navy department, where he took over the responsibilities of the incompetent secretary.

Public opinion on entering the war became polarized in very complicated ways. Conservatives divided into pro-war ("interventionist") and anti-war ("isolationist") blocs, as did liberals. Republicans split and Democrats split. FDR was the leader of the interventionist liberal Democrats, but he was opposed by old allies like [[John L. Lewis]] and [[Joe Kennedy]], and supported by old foes like [[Henry Stimson]].

In general the dispute was entirely focused on Europe. Virtually every group was hostile to Japan and supported a strong pro-[[Nationalist China]] policy, which FDR pushed vigorously. Tokyo was threatened: end its invasion of China or FDR would--and did at the urging of [[KGB]] agent [[Harry Dexter White]] working as an Undersecretary of the Treasury--cut off Japan's oil supplies. Japan responded to an ultimatum--written by Harry White--with a decision for war. Once Pearl Harbor was attacked (Dec. 7, 1941), all the prior divisions vanished overnight, and all groups supported the war effort. Later stories to the effect that FDR knew about the Pearl Harbor attack in advance were all false fabrications.

see [[American Homefront, World War II]]

=== Commander in Chief ===
====Stalin====
[[Image:Josephstalin.jpg‎|thumb|325px|right|Roosevelt in 1941 formed an alliance of convenience with Stalin to defeat Hitler.]]

In August 1939 Stalin made an alliance with Hitler under which both jointly waged aggressive war against Poland; the two divided Poland between them, as Germany turned toward France and Britain and the Soviet Union invaded Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland. With Roosevelt strongly supporting France and Britain, the Communist Party USA at Moscow's direction began attacking Roosevelt in the wildest terms and did so for the next twenty-two months. In the 1940 election, pro-Moscow elements in the CIO forced [[John L. Lewis]] to turn against Roosevelt and support the liberal Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. Roosevelt meanwhile moved right, and brought into top jobs the GOP vice presidential nominee from 1936, Frank Knox (a conservative who became Secretary of the Navy) and conservative Republican lawyer [[Henry Stimson]], who took over the War Department. Rejecting advice from its communist organizers, 90% of CIO members voted for Roosevelt, who was easily elected to a third term.

Roosevelt was determined to help Britain and at one point after Pearl Harbor [[Winston Churchill]] even moved into the White House to coordinate war strategy. Isolationists, led by the [[America First]] Committee and Senator [[Burton K. Wheeler]] tried to block the moves toward war.

Roosevelt in February 1940 sharply attacked the Soviet Union:
{{Cquote|In the early days of Communism, I recognized that many leaders in Russia were bringing education and better health and, above all, better opportunity to millions ... I disliked the regimentation ...I abhorred the indiscriminate killings of thousands of innocent victims ....
I heartily deprecated the banishment of religion - though I knew that some day Russia would return to religion for the simple reason that four or five thousand years of recorded history have proven that mankind has always believed in God in spite of many abortive attempts to exile God.

The Soviet Union, as everybody who has the courage to face the fact knows, is run by a dictatorship as absolute as any other dictatorship in the world. It has allied itself with another dictatorship [Germany], and it has invaded a neighbor [Finland] so infinitesimally small that it could do no conceivable possible harm to the Soviet Union, a neighbor which seeks only to live at peace as a democracy, and a liberal, forward-looking democracy at that.<ref>Quoted in Robert E. Sherwood, ''Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History'', (1948), [http://americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&photo=/PDFsml_AD/Roosevelt_and_Hopkins-An_Intimate_History-Robert_E_Sherwood-1948-1034pgs-GOV-POL.sml.pdf&id=252&PHPSESSID=03d3557b41f249f71349e6d730cc8498 p. 138] pdf.</ref>}}
===Germany invades Russia===
In June 1941 Germany invaded Russia, and Communists on Moscow's instructions immediately switched from anti-FDR isolationism to support for FDR and demands the US enter the war. The conservative isolationists were convinced that FDR was conniving to somehow trick the American people and enter the war. Public opinion steadily moved to support FDR's aggressive policies against Japan and Germany.
[[File:Warplan.jpg|thumb|400px|Wheeler leaks top secret US war plan three days before Pearl Harbor]]

In early December 1941 a military officer gave Senator Burton Wheeler, an isolationist liberal Democrat, a copy of the top secret American war plan for fighting Germany. Wheeler gave it to the ''Chicago Tribune'', which published the secrets in a desperate effort to weaken the American military so much that Roosevelt would avoid war. Pearl Harbor came a few days later and Wheeler and the isolationists went quiet.

The policy makers in Washington--including those at the newly constructed Pentagon--wanted to focus on defeating Germany. Public opinion (and the Navy) insisted on defeating Japan first. Given the military situation, there was little in 1942-43 the U.S. could do to open a ground front in Europe except send military supplies to Britain and Russia, which was done. The war in 1942-43 of necessity focused on Japan, and it was a very hard-fought war primarily with naval aviation. The great American victory at the [[Battle of Midway]] ended the Japanese blitzkrieg and evened out the forces. Japan was unprepared for a long war, and already by early 1942 the U.S. had far more warships and warplanes under construction than Japan did. Before the material edge became decisive, American forces defeated the Japanese at the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]. By 1943 the "island hopping" campaign under Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]] in the central Pacific, and under General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in the Southwest Pacific was inexorably pushing American forces toward the Japanese home islands, with the goal of invading them and capturing Tokyo.

American and British troops invaded North Africa in 1942, and Sicily and Italy in 1943. In retrospect these were not major strategic goals, but they did provide the Army with the combat experience needed to prepare for the real invasion of France in June 1944. By then the German Luftwaffe had been destroyed by the U.S. Air Force, and the vast advantage in war material made the German military position hopeless. With the huge Russian armies pressing in from the east, and the smaller but more powerful Allied armies coming in from the west, the Nazi war machine was crushed in 1944-45.

FDR worked very closely with his military advisors, and followed their strategic advice. His stated policy was fostering diplomatic relations with Britain, the Soviet Union, and the Chinese Nationalists. Stalin publicly disbanded the [[Comintern]] in 1943 in return for [[lend-lease]] aid of food and munitions.<ref>
[http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/fi/vol08/no08/stalin.htm ''Has Stalin Revived the Comintern?,''] from ''Fourth International'', September-October 1947, Vol.8 No.8, pp.231-233. Transcribed, edited & formatted by Ted Crawford & David Walters in 2008 for Encyclopedia of Trotskyism Online. Retrieved from marxist.org April 3 2010.</ref> A message from Moscow to all [[KGB]] stations relating to this event is one of the most important messages<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/venon00008.cfm Venona 142(a) Moscow to Canberra 12 September 1943]. Text reads: "change in circumstances - and in particular the dissolution of the [[Comintern]] - necessitates a change in the method used by the workers of our residencies to keep in touch with the leaders of the local [[Communist_Party_of_the_United_States_of_America#Secret_apparatus|Communist]] organizations on intelligence matters. 
2. Our workers, by continuing to meet the leader of the Communists, are exposing themselves to danger and are giving cause [''orgs of''] local authorities to suspect that the Comintern is still in existence. 
3. We propose: 
a. That personal contact with leaders of the local Communist organizations should cease and that Communist material should not be accepted for forwarding to the Comintern. 
b. That meetings of our workers may take place only with special reliable undercover [ZAKONSPIRIROVANNYJ] contacts of the Communist [D% organizations], who are not suspected by the [''orgs of''] local authorities, exclusively about specific aspects of our intelligence work (acquiring [1 group unidentified] contacts, leads [NAVODKI], rechecking of those who are being cultivated, etc.). For each meeting it is necessary to obtain our consent. 

Representative of the Soviet Union. 

No. 4084 
Lt. Gen. [[P.M. Fitin]]. 

Notes: [a] This message is known to have been sent also to NEW YORK, SAN FRANCISCO, and OTTAWA.</ref> in the entire corpus of [[VENONA]] translations. This message clearly discloses the KGB's connection to the Comintern and to the national Communist parties. <ref>''Counterintelligence Reader'', National Counterintelligence Center, United States, [http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/ci/docs/ci2/2ch4_a.htm Vol. 2, Ch. 4], n.d.</ref>

In February 1944 Congress rejected Roosevelt's demand for a $10,500,000,000 tax increase and cut it to $2,300,000,000. Roosevelt vetoed it saying this was a "bill not for relief of the needy but of the greedy." Senator [[Alben Barkley]], Democratic leader, rose on the floor of the Senate to say the veto was "a calculated and deliberate assault upon the legislative integrity of every member of Congress." The entire Senate united in a roar of applause. Barkley declared that after seven years of carrying the [[New Deal]] banner for Roosevelt, he would resign his post as Democratic majority leader and he called on the Congress to preserve its self respect and override the veto. The Senate overrode it 72 to 14 and the House 299 to 95.

Roosevelt had his closest election in 1944, with a subdued contest that was decided by turnout of FDR allies in the cities and labor unions, and increasingy among soldiers.

== Fourth Term ==
At the [[Yalta conference]] in February 1945, victory was in sight in Europe. A [[reparations]] commission was set up to help repay Russia from German assets. Everyone realized that the conquest of eastern Europe by the Red Army guaranteed Soviet dominance, but efforts were made to get promises of fair elections; the promises were made, but the elections were never held. Roosevelt, despite his failing health, seemed to think that he and Stalin would personally iron out any difficulties after the war ended. FDR persuaded Stalin to promise to enter the war against Japan 90 days after Germany surrendered; Stalin did so.
==Failure of "competitive administration" ==
Roosevelt used a "competitive administration" strategy to maximize presidential power at the cost of confusion, delay and inefficiency. He made sure in each policy area that several top officials had overlapping jurisdictions. They would feud and have to bring the problem to FDR, who wanted to make every final decision. For example, in the case of the [[PWA]] relief program, the competition over the size of expenditure, the selection of the administrator, and the appointment of staff at the state level, led to delays and to the ultimate weakness of PWA as a recovery instrument. [[Harold L. Ickes]] headed the PWA (as well as the Interior Department), and FDR set it up so that Ickes had to continuously fight other top adminsitrators like [[Lewis Douglas]] (the budgest director), [[Henry A. Wallace]] (Secretary of Agriculture) and [[Harry Hopkins]] (head of rival relief efforts). The rivalries were just as fierce for other top adminstrators, many of whom resigned in frustration and (like [[Hugh Johnson]] and [[Raymond Moley]]) even became enemies of Roosevelt.<ref> [[Dean Acheson]] and [[Lewis Douglas]] also resigned in anger but kept quiet, allowing FDR to bring them back during the war. The vocal ones were entered on an enemy's list and permanently barred from serving the nation.</ref>

Roosevelt kept up his divisive strategy during the war, causing enormous confusion and contradictions in economic mobilization. It got so bad that FDR had to publicly humiliate Vice President Wallace and relieve him of all responsiblities. The Navy found a solution, as Admiral [[Ernest King]] deliberately kept FDR in the dark. Even when his fleet was threatened by the Japanese at Midway in May 1942, and King urgently needed the help of the British Navy, he decided not to ask because the request for help would have to go through Roosevelt and King refused to allow the White House to learn what dire peril the nation faced. Lucky for King--very lucky--he won a terrific victory at Midway.

== Reflections on Christianity ==

FDR said this about the Bible in an address on October 6, 1935:

:"We cannot read the history of our rise and development as a nation, without reckoning with the place the [[Bible]] has occupied in shaping the advances of the Republic."

:"Where we have been the truest and most consistent in obeying its precepts, we have attained the greatest measure of contentment and prosperity."<ref>Quoted in DeMar, ''The Untold Story'', p. 60 and Gabrial Sivan, ''The Bible and Civilization'' (New York: Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., 1973), p. 178.</ref>

FDR became famous for delivering "fireside chats" over the new medium of [[radio]], and on March 9, 1937 he declared:

:"I hope that you have re-read the [[United States Constitution| Constitution]] of the United States in these past few weeks. Like the Bible, it ought to be read again and again."

While running for his third time in a Brooklyn speech, Roosevelt said,

:"I am certain that the rank and file of patriotic Republicans do not realize the nature of this threat. They should remember, and we must remember, what the collaborative understanding between Communism and Nazism has done to the processes of democracy abroad...

:"Those forces hate democracy and Christianity as two phases of the same civilization. They oppose democracy because it is Christian. They oppose Christianity because it preaches democracy. Their objective is to prevent democracy from becoming strong. <ref>''Roosevelt and Hopkins'', Sherwood, 1948, pgs. 193-194 (pgs. 211 - 212 pdf).</ref>

As [[World War II]] broke out in Europe, FDR warned:

:"Those forces hate Democracy and Christianity as two phases of the same civilization."

The following year, on May 27, 1941, FDR stated in one of his radio addresses:

:The Nazis are as ruthless as the Communists in the denial of God.

"In his second inaugural address, FDR pledged to do his utmost by 'seeking Divine guidance.' He took that mission further on January 25, 1941, when he wrote a personal prologue to a special edition of the [[New Testament]], which was distributed to millions of U.S. soldiers. 'As Commander-in-Chief,' Roosevelt wrote, 'I take pleasure in commending the reading of the Bible to all who serve in the armed forces of the United States.' He believed that all American soldiers should have the opportunity to read the words of [[Christ]] in preparing for battle. Once, when joining those soldiers aboard a warship with Winston Churchill, FDR asked the crew and prime minister to join him in singing the hymn 'Onward Christian Soldiers.' In his final inaugural address, FDR affirmed, "So we pray to Him for the vision to see our way clearly ... to achievement of His will.' "<ref>God and George W. Bush (New York: Regan Books, 2004), p. 176</ref>

When American soldiers were landing on the beaches of Normandy, Roosevelt led the nation in prayer during a radio broadcast. <ref>Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/odddayp.html Franklin Roosevelt's D-Day Prayer], June 6, 1944.</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:Dcrosmor.jpg|right|thumb|330px|Statue of the president at [[The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]] in Washington D.C.]]

Roosevelt is an admired but still hotly debated president. Many credit Roosevelt with helping the United States survive the Great Depression and with providing solid leadership during World War II. Others, especially conservatives, assert that he uselessly expanded the welfare state, abused executive powers, and badly botched diplomacy before and during World War II.

Roosevelt's image appears on the dime.

==See Also==
*[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
*[[New Ordeal]]

==Further reading==
see also [[New Deal Bibliography]] for a much more detailed guide

*Alter, Jonathan. ''The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope'' (2006), popular [http://www.amazon.com/Defining-Moment-FDRs-Hundred-Triumph/dp/B000Q6GY1W/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881373&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Beschloss, Michael R. ''The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945'' (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/Conquerors-Roosevelt-Destruction-Hitlers-1941-1945/dp/0743244540/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881516&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Black, Conrad. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom'' (2003). [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Delano-Roosevelt-Champion-Freedom/dp/1586482823/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881865&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search], excellent detailed biography by a conservative writer
*Brands, H.W. ''Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt'' (2008)
* Brinkley, Alan. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt'' (2009) 128pp
* Burns, James MacGregor. vol 1: ''Roosevelt" The Lion and the Fox'' (1956); [http://www.amazon.com/Roosevelt-1882-1940-James-MacGregor-Burns/dp/0156027623/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881949&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search vol 1]; vol. 2: ''Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom 1940-1945'' (1970), [http://www.amazon.com/Roosevelt-1940-1945-James-MacGregor-Burns/dp/0156027577/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881949&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]; major interpretive scholarly biography, emphasis on politics; vol 2 is on war years and is [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Dallek, Robert. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945'' (2nd ed. 1995) scholarly survey of foreign policy [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Roosevelt-American-Foreign-1932-1945/dp/0195097327/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881549&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny'' (1990), One-volume scholarly biography; covers entire life [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-D-Roosevelt-Rendezvous-Destiny/dp/094570738X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881894&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search 2006 reprint edition]
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'' (1995), joint biography by scholar [http://www.amazon.com/No-Ordinary-Time-Franklin-Roosevelt/dp/B000B86FI2/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193883493&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times.'' (1985). encyclopedia by scholars
* Hamby, Alonzo L. ''For the Survival of Democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the World Crisis of the 1930s'' (2004) major interpetation by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Survival-Democracy-Franklin-Roosevelt-Crisis/dp/0684843404/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240397848&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jenkins, Roy. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt'' (2003) short popular bio from British perspective
* Kennedy, David M. ''Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945.'' (1999), wide-ranging survey of national affairs by scholar [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52284041 online edition]
* Larrabee, Eric. '' Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War''. History of how FDR handled the war [http://www.amazon.com/Commander-Chief-Roosevelt-Lieutenants-Bluejacket/dp/1591144558/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193883793&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leuchtenberg, William E. Franklin D. ''Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940.'' (1963). Remains the standard scholarly interpretive history of era. [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-D-Roosevelt-New-Deal/dp/0061330256/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193883672&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Moley, Raymond. ''After Seven Years'' (1939), very important conservative memoir by ex-Brain Truster [http://www.questia.com/library/book/after-seven-years-by-raymond-moley.jsp online edition]
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., ''The Age of Roosevelt'', 3 vols, (1957-1960), the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR.
*Smith, Jean Edward. ''FDR'' (2007) 885pp; good recent biography[http://www.amazon.com/FDR-Jean-Edward-Smith/dp/1400061210/ref=pd_ts_b_3?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]

====notes====
<references/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{DEFAULTSORT: Roosevelt, Franklin D.}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/ FDR cartoon archive], an especially useful source for understanding public opinion
*[http://www.nps.gov/hofr/ Hyde Park NY Home of FDR]
*[http://www.nps.gov/roca/ Campobello Island Summer Home of FDR]
*[http://www.fdr-littlewhitehouse.org/ Warm Springs GA FDR Retreat]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frde/ FDR Memorial Washington DC]
* [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ The Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
** [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/audio.html Audio Archive]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Roosevelt Administration]

===Speeches and quotations: audio and transcripts===
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt famous quotes]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project] at [[University of California at Santa Barbara]]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: Franklin D. Roosevelt]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14683 1934], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14890 1935], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15095 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15336 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15517 1938], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15684 1939], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15856 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16092 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16253 1942], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16386 1943], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16518 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Written Messages]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16595 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/inaugurals.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14473 1933], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15349 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16022 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16607 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/fireside.php Fireside Chats]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1932 1932], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1936 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1940 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1944 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=32 32 Audio/Video Clips of FDR]
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_fdr.htm Roosevelt's Secret White House Recordings] via [[University of Virginia]]
* [http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-220 FDR - Day of Infamy video clip] (2 min.)
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=RooseveltFD Audio clips of speeches]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos3.htm Third Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos4.htm Fourth Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.hpol.org/fdr/chat/ Court "Packing" Speech March 9, 1937]
* [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/text/us/fdr1940.html University of Virginia graduating class speech ("Stab in the Back" speech) June 10, 1940]

===Other===
* [http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/fdroosevelt Short essays by scholars]
* [http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/index.html An archive of political cartoons from the FDR years; highly revealing and out of copyright]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-767&pid=s-53 Warm Springs and FDR's Polio Treatment]
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/FDR-links.html Franklin D. Roosevelt Links]

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Great Depression]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Broke with FDR]]
[[Category:People who were Educated at Home]]

New York City

2010-04-08T05:55:50Z

RJJensen: /* Further reading */ add bibl

[[File:Nyc1.jpg|thumb|450px|the center of the metropolitan area, which stretches into Connecticut (to the northeast) and New Jersey (to the west)]]
'''New York City''', officially '''City of New York''', is a city and metropolitan area in the state of [[New York]], located on the easter coast of the [[United States of America]]. With a population of 19 million in the three-state metropolitan area (and 8,140,000 in the city as in 2005), it is the most populous urban area in the [[United States]]. The city is divided into five different counties, called boroughs. Manhattan is the financial, commercial, and tourist center. Brooklyn is the most populous of the boroughs, and suburban Queens (Queen's County) is the largest in area. The other two boroughs are The Bronx, a downscale residential area, and suburban Staten Island. The modern city was formed in 1898 through a merger of the original New York City with Brooklyn.

New York is the cultural capital of the world; it has global importance in fashion, finance, news, diplomacy, education, medicine and arts. The city is a world-class tourist destination. It contains many landmarks, including the [[Statue of Liberty]], [[Wall Street]], in [[Lower Manhattan]], and many others. The city (along with its #2 rival Chicago) invented the skyscraper, and still has some of the tallest buildings in the world, like [[Empire State Building]]; the [[World Trade Center]] towers were destroyed by terrorists in the September 11, 2001 attacks. [[File:Gotham1.jpg|thumb|220px]]
==Transportation==
New York owes its success to its status as the major hub of world transportation by air and water. It grew because it has one of the world's finest natural harbors. It is ice-free year-round and deep enough to enable large ships to reach its piers regardless of the tide. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was established in 1921 by the two states in order to administer jointly the shared waterfront. Most traffic is now handled through containers. Three major airports serve the city: John F. Kennedy International Airport (for international travel) and La Guardia Airport (for domestic travel), as well as nearby Newark International Airport. All are operated by the Port Authority, which also runs the bridges and subways.

== History ==
The first Dutch settlers arrived on Manhattan in 1624, naming the town New Amsterdam. Indian claims were bought out for the equivalent of $24. The Dutch sent settlers up the Hudson River (which is easily navigable by sailing vessels) to Albany. The Dutch colony, named New Amsterdam, was run in autocratic fashion by Governor Peter Stuyvesant. It soon had a cosmopolitan flavor, with freedom of religion and numerous ethnic and religious groups; the Dutch brought slaves as house servants.<ref>Slavery was finally abolished in 1799.</ref> The city was captured in war by the British in 1664; they renamed both the city and the colony for the duke of York (who later became King [[James II]]).
[[File:Nyc2.jpg|thumb|450px|Manhattan neighborhoods]]
The use of [[Ellis Island]] as the checkpoint for millions of European immigrants in the late 1800s caused New York City's population to swell, as many settled in nearby areas.

[[Image:800px-Times Square Panorama1.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Times Square.]]

== Politics ==

New York City is historically considered a liberal city, with the majority of the population voting Democratic. However, the mayor has recently been [[Republican]] (Rudy Giuliani) or independent (Michael Bloomberg). [[Fox News Channel]] is based in NYC.

== Culture ==
[[Image:Duke Ellington Statue.jpg|thumb|[[Duke Ellington]] Statue.]]
New York City is home to top-notch museums in [[art]], [[architecture]], photography, natural history, television, radio and technology, like: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, The Frick Collection, the National Design Museum, the Museum of Natural History,
and the National Academy Museum and School of Fine Arts. <ref>[http://www.ny.com/museums/mile.html Museums in New York City] </ref>

Featured cultural sites are:

•Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts

•Carnegie Hall

•Radio City Music Hall

•Hayden Planetarium

•New York Aquarium

•The Morgan Library

•New York Public Library

•Rose Center for Earth and Space

•International Center of Photography

•Empire State Building Lobby Gallery

•SculptureCenter

•Museum of Biblical Art

•Staten Island Institute of Arts & Sciences

•Center for Architecture

•Studio Museum in Harlem

==Boroughs==

Each of New York City's boroughs is coterminous a county in the State of New York. The five boroughs are:
* [[Manhattan]] (New York County)
* [[Brooklyn]] (Kings County)
* [[Queens]] (Queens County)
* [[The Bronx]] (Bronx County)
* [[Staten Island]] (Richmond County)

All of the non-Manhattan boroughs are sometimes referred to collectively as "the outer boroughs" as they are arranged in a sort of semicircle around Manhattan.

Many places have been proposed as "Sixth Boroughs," which can carry a different meaning depending on who is asked. Some areas often cited as "Sixth Boroughs" include:
* [[Hudson County]], [[New Jersey]]
* [[Nassau County]], [[Long Island]], [[New York]]
* [[Westchester County]], [[New York]]
* [[Newark]], [[New Jersey]]
* [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]

== See also ==

[[Image:NYC.jpg|thumb|400px|Historic Manhattan]]
* [[The Bronx]]
*[[Fiorello La Guardia]]
*[[Art cities]]
*[[Washington, D.C.]]
*[[New York Yankees]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ny.com/museums/museum.of.american.financial.history.html Museum of American Financial History.]
*[http://www.metmuseum.org/ The Met.]
*[http://www.nyc-arts.org/ NYC ARTS.]
*[http://www.nycwalk.com/rock.html A Walking Tour of Rockefeller Center's Public Art.]
==Further reading==
[[Image:Prometheus Fountain at the Rockefeller Center.jpg|thumb|240px|Prometheus Fountain at the Rockefeller Center.]]
* Burrows, Edwin G., and Mike Wallace. ''Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Gotham-History-York-City-1898/dp/0195140494/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1262334804&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search], the best history; Pulitzer prize
* Caro, Robert. ''The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York.'' (1973) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394720245/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Kenneth, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of New York City'' (1995), the best reference book; 1350pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-New-York-City/dp/0300055366/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240594479&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Kenneth and Sam Roberts, eds. ''The Almanac of New York City'' (2008)
* Kessner, Thomas. ''Fiorello H. LaGuardia and the Making of Modern New York'' (1989) the most detailed standard scholarly biography
* Slayton, Robert A. ''Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith,'' (2001), 480pp, the standard scholarly biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Empire-Statesman-Rise-Redemption-Smith/dp/1416567771/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196822024&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]

==References==
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0763098.html Information Please - Top 50 Cities in the U.S.]
<references/>

[[Category:New York Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:New York City]]
[[category:Urban History]]

History

2010-04-06T07:51:34Z

RJJensen: /* Social */ H-LABOR

History has two meanings. On the one hand it is the sum of events in the human past. On the other it is academic discipline of researching written, oral, or archaeological sources, as well as of communicating the results of such research and reconstructing the findings into a coherent narrative or meaningful analysis. This article deals with academic history, or "'''historiography'''".

History is conventionally divided chronologically into ancient, medieval and modern periods, and into specific geographical areas (especially those controlled by a nation state or empire). Academic studies of history attempt to document past events, as well as interpret or explain them according to various methodologies. '''Prehistory''' deals with mankind before written records, and is part of [[Archaeology]], with little overlap with history. Popular history (or "heritage") is related to folklore, antiques, and old monuments; more generally it concerns memories of the past constructed by a group. Scholarly historians in recent years have been studying how popular history and heritage are constructed and how they affect people. Sacred history concerns divinely inspired events and is handled by religion scholars.

This article discusses '''historiography''', the writing of history by scholars and specialists. For lists of historians, see [[Historians]] .

British historian E. H. Carr (1892-1982) has advised that history is not a single, well-defined narrative or bundle of facts that can be memorized, but a terrain of contestation between competing and evolving interpretations whose influence is as much shaped by time and place as by any given set of facts.<ref> E.H. Carr, ''What is History?'' (1961) </ref>

Historians face seven methodological problems: how to address a past holistically, given the inevitable process of excluding certain peoples from our accounts and the issue of absent social categories; generalizing from fragmentary evidence; understanding causality; establishing differences and similarities; social constructionism; presentism and appropriate concepts; and evaluating competing explanatory accounts.<ref>Miles Fairburn. ''Social History: Problems, Strategies and Methods'' (1999). </ref>

The main source of information is written text, mainly from political, ceremonial or bureaucratic sources. Other kinds of sources include memoirs, oral interviews, newspaper accounts, and works of art. Historians distinguish "primary sources" (written sources created by participants), and "secondary sources", which is the interpretation of history by scholars.

==Etymology==

The Greek word '''ἱστορία''', ''istoría'', means "knowledge acquired by investigation, inquiry". In this sense it is used in antique expression "natural history".

In English the word went into two different directions: "story", or chronologically-structured narrative, and "history", or discourse on human events.
==Teaching==
[[File:Historiog.jpg|thumb|300px|Trends in history departments]]

History is a required subject in the schools of many countries, designed to provide a common intellectual heritage and pride in nationalism.

At the university level, history if very widely taught. In most of the world, history departments teach their own national history and a limited selection of other topics, such as Ancient History.

In the United States, history is a high prestige field, and is usually the most popular major, by far, at elite universities. History faculties, furthermore, teach a much wider range of topics and methodologies than counterparts in Europe or Asia. In terms of majors, men outnumber women by about 2:1.

In the last 35 years, trends in teaching have emerged. Intellectual and diplomatic history has lost ground, while women's history has grown explosively, as has social and cultural history. Economic history has in many cases migrated to economics departments, while political history and diplomatic history has migrated to political science departments. Ancient history long ago migrated to classics departments, and medieval history is a much smaller field than a century ago.<ref>Patricia Cohen, "Great Caesar’s Ghost! Are Traditional History Courses Vanishing?," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/books/11hist.html?_r=1&hpw '' New York Times'' June 10, 2009]</ref>

==Approaches==

Historians of note who have advanced the historical methods of study include [[Leopold von Ranke]], [[Lewis Bernstein Namier]], [[Frederick Jackson Turner]], [[Charles Beard]] and E.P. Thompson.

In the 20th century, academic historians avoided epic nationalistic narratives, favoring more specialized studies looking as social, economic, political or intellectual forces. Demographic historians introduced quantitative history, using census data to track the lives of average people. French historians were prominent in the establishment of [[cultural history]] (such as the "histoire des mentalités"). In the U.S. "Progressive" historians following [[Frederick Jackson Turner]] emphasized the frontier and sectionalism, while those following [[Charles Beard]] and [[C. Vann Woodward]] looked for conflicts of economic interest. After 1950 intellectual history replaced the older Progressive models. After 1960 [[neoabolitionist]] historians inspired by the American civil rights movement emphasized moralistic stories, with racism as the evil that triumphed or was defeated. The "new social history" in the 1970s took a comprehensive approach to include every man, woman and child, often using census, court and tax records. After the 1970s some postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. This approach came under blistering attack by historians such as Granatstein (1998) in Canada, and Windschuttle (2000) in Australia, leading to lively debates.

==Comparative historiography==
Herodotus (5th century BC) was a world historian as well as founder of Greek historiography.<ref> K.H. Waters, ''Herodotus the Historian'' (1985)</ref> <ref>'''Note:''' 'Historiography' refers to the writing of history, and, in a second sense, to the study of written history.</ref> His ''History'' presents insightful and lively discussions of the customs, geography, and history of Mediterranean peoples, particularly the Egyptians. However, Thucydides promptly discarded Herodotus's all-embracing approach to history, offering instead a more precise, sharply focused monograph, dealing not with vast empires over the centuries but with 27 years of war between Athens and Sparta. In Rome, the vast, patriotic history of Rome by Livy (59 BC-17 AD) approximated Herodotean inclusiveness<ref> Patrick G. Walsh, ''Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods'' (1961)</ref>; Polybius (c.200-c.118 BC) aspired to combine the logical rigor of Thucydides with the scope of Herodotus.<ref> Frank W. Walbank, ''A Historical Commentary on Polybius,'' (3 vols. 1957-82)</ref>

==Divine intervention==
Chinese, Muslim, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles.

Thus in China Ssu-ma Cheng-chen c. 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven choses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt. Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not hold the Taoist belief that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support.<ref> S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," ''The Far Eastern Quarterly,'' Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0363-6917(194902)8%3A2%3C131%3ACHITLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

While the Chinese, Muslim, and Indian traditions continued their theocentric historiography, there was a radical challenge to it in Christian Europe during the [[Renaissance]]. Historians such as [[Machiavelli]] downplayed divine intervention and stressed that men made their own history, and that rulers should study history in order to shape the future. European scholars began a more systematic study of history. One Arab scholar, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in ''Muqaddimah,'' a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world. Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500.

===Christian history===
In his 1949 presidential address to the American Historical Association, Yale Professor [[Kenneth Scott Latourette]] promoted the value of taking a Christian approach to the last two millennia.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, "The Christian Understanding of History," ''American Historical Review'' 54: 2 (January 1949): 259-76. [http://www.historians.org/info/aha_history/kslatourette.htm full text online] </ref>
He argued:
:As the influence of Jesus has spread geographically, various results have followed which are evidence that the transforming power which Christians claim for it is at work….Through the expansion of Western peoples and their culture, mankind has for the first time been brought together. To the degree that this is the result of the influence of Jesus it is a partial implementation of the dream of the unity of mankind which is a feature of the Christian understanding of history. The struggle to regulate and eventually to eliminate the wars which make our shrinking globe so perilous a neighborhood owes much to Jesus….Such attempts at world-wide co-operation as the League of Nations and the United Nations are demonstrably to some extent from him.

:Much clearer is the decisive part which Jesus has had in the efforts to combat slavery and other forms of the exploitation of men by their fellows….The list is long of the Spanish and Portuguese laymen and clergy who, inspired and sustained by their Christian faith, labored to guard the non-Europeans in the colonies in both hemispheres from the callous selfishness of their fellow countrymen. The place of his Christian faith in impelling Wilberforce in his campaign against the Negro slave trade is well known. So, too, is the role of the Quakers, Samuel Hopkins, and those touched by the Finney revival, consciences made sensitive by commitment to the Christian faith, in the movement for the emancipation of Negro slaves in the United States. We are all aware of the efforts of the Christian missionary, David Livingstone, to curb the slave trade in Africa itself. Less familiar is the share of such Christian missionary leaders as John Philip and Cardinal Lavigerie in the campaign against African slavery. Christianity has been one of the most potent forces making for the liberation and advance of the depressed classes of India. Jesus was a major inspiration of Gandhi. In land after land he has contributed to the emancipation of women. In the impact of Occidental upon non-Occidental peoples Christian missions and other agencies inspired by him have made for improved medical care, for public health, for better methods of agriculture, and for schools and universities better adapted to the new day than were their predecessors. Increasingly these features of the influence of Jesus have been spreading and now in varying measure embrace mankind.
==Leading historians==
see [[Historians]]

==Field of History by period and place==
===China===
[[China, history|Chinese historiography]] was developed by Ssu-ma Cheng-chen, whose model of regime virtue and divine intervention led to thousands of historical studies along exactly the same lines.
===Ancient===
*[[Ancient History]] studies the Middle East and Europe before 450, with emphasis on Greece and [[Ancient Rome]]. The The Association of Ancient Historians was formed as recently as 1974, and has 800 members in the U.S. and Canada; it does not publish a journal.<ref> See [http://associationofancienthistorians.org/ Association of Ancient Historians]</ref> See also [[Classics]].
===Medieval===
*[[Middle Ages|Medieval History]]: Deals with the Middle Ages (between ~500-1453) especially in Europe and the Middle East. Major themes include the Church, the Holy Roman Empire, agricultural change, the [[Crusades]], and intellectual and cultural trends.
===Modern===
*[[Modern History]]. "Early modern history" covers Europe about 1450 to 1648, with special attention to the [[Renaissance]], the [[Reformation]], warfare, science and technology, the rise of the nation state (especially England, France, Spain, Prussia and Russia), and explorations of the [[Atlantic World]]. "Modern History" (since 1648) covers a vast array of topics, including the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the [[Enlightenment]].
====Atlantic====
[[Atlantic history]]: a recent trend; studies the interaction of Europe, Africa and North America and South America, especially before 1800

====Contemporary====
[[Contemporary History]], since 1945

==Schools and fields of History==
===Cultural===
*[[Cultural history]] is the dominant style since the 1980s. It uses linguistic and cultural evidence to explore the inner psychology of societies. This became a dominant theme in the 1980s, especially influenced by careful analysis of exactly how key words were used. For example, the study of [[Republicanism]]. There is no separate society or journal.

Sometimes called the "linguistic turn," cultural history was heavily influenced by postmodernism, cultural anthropology and literary criticism. It turned away from the social science approach of [[Social history]]. Important influences came from French cultural critic [[Michel Foucault]], American anthropologist [[Clifford Geertz]], British labor historian [[E. P. Thompson]] and American intellectual historians [[Hayden White]] and [[Dominick LaCapra]].

Critics complain its narrows historians to an exaggerated emphasis on race, class and gender, while slighting empirical archival research and losing sight of larger issues. Cultural history made huge inroads against social history in the 1980s and 1990s, but now has receded into a general background in historical studies, less controversial and less cutting edge than it was twenty years ago.<ref> On the linguistic turn see Gabrielle M. Spiegel, ed. ''Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Practicing-History-Directions-Historical-Rewriting/dp/0415341086/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; Lynn Hunt, ed. ''The New Cultural History'' (1989)
</ref>

===Social===
*[[Social history]] includes history of ordinary people and their strategies of coping with life, history of social organization, and history of social movements and deliberate attempts to induce social change, whether from the top down or from the bottom up. It exploded on the scene in the 1960s, quickly becoming one of the dominant styles of historiography. The French version, promulgated by the [[Annales School]] influenced much of Europe and Latin America. It is the study of the lives of ordinary people. It was revolutionized in the 1960s by the introduction of sophisticated quantitative and demographic methods, often using individual data from the census and from local registers of births, marriages, deaths and taxes, as well as theoretical models from sociology such as social mobility. The '''New Social History''' emerged in the 1960s to dominate professional scholarship in the U.S.<ref> See Olivier Zunz, ed. ''Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History,'' (1985) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=958580 online edition]</ref> and and Canada.<ref> See Michael S. Cross, "Social History," [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0007523 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008) online]</ref> see also [[Social History, U.S.]]. There is no society for social history, but the field is covered in the ''Journal of Social History'', edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns.<ref>See [http://chnm.gmu.edu/jsh/] </ref> It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history;
the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses
**[[Demographic history]] is the study of population history and demographic processes, usually using census or similar statistical data. It became an important specialty inside social history, with strong connections with the larger field of demography. See [[Demography]], [[Life expectancy]], [[Demographic transition]], [[Fertility]], [[Mortality]]

[[Image:DEMOCRATIC.JPG|thumb|320px|Turner's frontier made for democracy]]

** See [[Frontier Thesis]], for Turner's theory of how the frontier shaped American values
**[[Ethnic history]] covers the history of American ethnic groups (usually not including blacks). The Immigration and Ethnic History Society was formed in 1976 and publishes a journal for libraries and its 829 members.<ref> See [http://www.historians.org/affiliates/immigration_ethnic_his_soc.htm Immigration and Ethnic History Society ]</ref>
***The American Conference for Irish Studies, founded in 1960, has 1,700 members and has occasional publications but no journal.<ref> See [http://www.acisweb.com/index.php American Conference for Irish Studies]</ref>
*** The American Italian Historical Association was founded in 1966 and has 400 members; it does not publish a journal <ref> See [http://www.aihaweb.org/ American Italian Historical Association ]</ref>
***The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest ethnic society, founded in 1892; it has 3,300 members and publishes ''American Jewish History''<ref> See [http://www.ajhs.org American Jewish Historical Society] and [http://www.ajhs.org/academic/history.cfm journal]</ref>
*[[Labor history]], deals with labor unions and the social history of workers. See for example [[Labor Unions]]. The Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History was established: 1971 and has a membership of 1000. It publishes ''International Labor and Working-Class History''.<ref> See [http://www.newschool.edu/gf/history/ilwch/ Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History ]</ref>
** see Bryan D. Palmer and Todd McCallum, "Working-Class History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0008710 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]
**H-LABOR is a daily email-based discussion group formed in 1993 that reaches over a thousand scholars and advanced students.<ref> See [http://www.h-net.org/~labor/ H-LABOR website]</ref>
====Women, gender, family====
*[[Women's history]] exploded into prominence in the 1970s,<ref> See [http://www.mtsu.edu/~kmiddlet/history/women.html American Women's History: A Research Guide]</ref> and is now well represented in every geographical topic; increasingly it includes gender history.<ref>see [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-Gender-History-Blackwell-Companions/dp/1405149604/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203919125&sr=8-1 Teresa A. Meade and Merry Wiesner-Hanks, eds. ''A Companion to Gender History'' (2006)]</ref>
**[[Family history]] emerged as a separate field in the 1970s.<ref> see [http://jfh.sagepub.com/ ''Journal of Family History'', quarterly since 1976]</ref>
***see Neil Sutherland, "Childhood, History of," [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001579 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]
====Annales School of social history====
[[Annales School]], the French approach to [[Social history]], emphasizing geography, long durations, quantitative data and "mentalités"; focus is pre-1789; highly influential in Europe and Latin America

===Black history===
[[Black history]] or "African American history" studies blacks in the United States. The Association for the Study of African American Life and History was founded by Carter G, Woodson in 1915 and has 2500 members and publishes the ''Journal of African American History;'' since 1926 it has sponsored Black History Month every February.<ref> See [http://www.asalh.org/ ASALH]</ref>

The history of [[slavery]] has always been a major research topic for white scholars, but they generally focused on the political and constitutional themes until the 1950s, generally ignoring the black slaves themselves. During [[Reconstruction]] and the late 19th century, blacks became major actors in the South. The [[Dunning School]] of white scholars generally cast the blacks as pawns of white Carpetbaggers but [[W.E.B. Dubois]], a black historian, and [[Ulrich B. Phillips]], a white historian, studied the African-American experience in depth. Indeed, Phillips set the main topics of inquiry that still guide the analysis of slave economics.

In the black community, in the first half of the 20th century Carter G. Woodson was the major scholar studying and promoting the black historical experience. Woodson insisted that the study of African descendants be scholarly sound, creative, restorative, and, most important, directly relevant to the black community. He popularized black history with a variety of innovative strategies and vehicles, including Association for the Study of Negro Life outreach activities, Negro History Month (now [[Black History Month]], in February), and a popular black history magazine. Woodson democratized, legitimized, and popularized black history.<ref> Pero Gaglo Dagbovie, "Making Black History Practical and Popular: Carter G. Woodson, the Proto Black Studies Movement, and the Struggle for Black Liberation." ''Western Journal of Black Studies'' 2004 28(2): 372-383. Issn: 0197-4327 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Benjamin Quarles (1904-96) and John Hope Franklin (1915-2009) provided a bridge between the work of historians in black schools such as Woodson, and the black history that is now well established in mainline universities. Quarles grew up in Boston, attended Shaw University as an undergraduate, and received a graduate degree at the University of Wisconsin. He began in 1953 teaching at a black college in Baltimore, followed by Brooklyn College and finally professorships at the elite University of Chicago and Duke University. Franklin was less a scholar than a symbol of the acceptance of black history in the academy.

Black history always sought out black agency--even slaves had a certain amount of control over their lives. The assumptions was that slaves were passive and did not rebel was debated in the 1950s and rejected. Many of the white scholars were former Communists or members of the far left, and they looked for violent rebellion. They found few such rebellions, but much unrest. Herbert Gutman and Leon Litwack showed that in reconstruction how former slaves fought to keep their families together and struggled against tremendous odds to define themselves as free people. [[Robert Fogel]], a former Communist who moved to the right, enraged the left when he used quantitative methods to show that the housing, food, clothing and living conditions of the slaves were reasonably favorable. He was awarded the Nobel prize in Economics for his work.

Today proponents of black history argue that it promotes diversity, develops self-esteem, and corrects myths and stereotypes. Opponents, including [[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.]] and [[Oscar Handlin]], complain that such curricula are dishonest, divisive, and lack academic credibility and rigor.<ref> Abul Pitre and Ruth Ray, "The Controversy Around Black History." ''Western Journal of Black Studies'' 2002 26(3): 149-154. Issn: 0197-4327 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Comparative===
[[Comparative history]] looks for similarities and differences between societies or civilizations; [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] made it fashionable in 1940s, but has been in decline ever since as historians prefer specialized research topics
===Political===
[[Political History]]: It is the study of political institutions, voter behavior, legislative behavior, leadership and practical politics. Since the 1980s much of political history in the U.S. has migrated to [[Political Science]].
**In 1929 English historian Lewis Namier, in ''The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III'' (1929), revolutionized the field. He rejected the "Whig interpretation" that said a two-party rivalry of Whig and Tory, underpinned a constitutional monarchy in Britain, which had a modern cabinet system based on a party majority in the House of Commons. Namier, by looking at all the individual MP's, argues the king conducted his role within the limitations of authority permitted by the constitution, while the Whig historians claim that the king fomented turmoil against the constitution.<ref> Peter Thomas, "Reappraisals in History," ''Institute of Historical Research'' (2002) [http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/reapp/lewis.html online edition]</ref>
===Diplomatic and military===
[[Diplomatic history]]: deals with international relations. Both historians and political scientists are involved.

[[Military History]]: The study of military practice and theory; wars and battles; technology; organization of armies, leadership and soldiers; also [[Naval History]]. Much of the field is handled by non-academics and amateurs, as military history has a marginal status in most research-oriented history departments. see [[Society for Military History]]
===Economic and business===
[[Economic History]]: Covers topics from agriculture, technology and business organization, and includes population studies and the reconstruction of economic indicators (like GDP). One important new branch is [[Business history]]. Since the 1970s much of economic history, as well as [[History of economic thought]], has migrated from history departments and journals to economics - while [[Marxism|Marxist]] interpretations of history are most often found in literature departments, not history departments.
** See Ian M. Drummond, "Economic History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0002512 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]
** See Duncan McDowall. "Business History," [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0001133 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]
====Rural and Agricultural history====
The "Agricultural History Society" was established in 1919 and has 1200 members who focus on the history of rural life, especially in the U.S.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/ Agricultural History Society'']</ref> Since 1926 its journal ''Agricultural History'' has been the journal of record which publishes articles on all aspects of the history of agriculture and rural life with no geographical or temporal limits.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/index.html ''Agricultural History'']</ref>
===Science and technology===
[History of Ideas]] is a field founded in U.S. by [[Arthur Lovejoy]], dealing with the inner ("internalist") history of ideas. It contrasts with the [[intellectual history]] promoted by [[Merle Curti]] that stresses the links between ideas and external social and economic forces.<ref> Donald R. Kelley, "Intellectual History in a Global Age," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 66#2 (2005) 155-167 in [[Project Muse]]; Donald R. Kelley, ed.,''The History of Ideas: Canon and Variations'' (1990); Donald R. Kelley, ''The Descent of Ideas: A History of Intellectual History'' (2002). </ref>
*[[History of Science]] - History of scientific thought and technique.
**[[History of Medicine]] The American Association for the History of Medicine, founded in 1925 has 1,300 members, split between amateurs and professional scholars. It covers a worldwide range of topics and publishes ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine''. <ref>See [http://www.histmed.org American Association for the History of Medicine] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/ ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'']</ref>
*[[History of Technology]]
**[http://echo.gmu.edu ECHO (Exploring and Collecting History Online), a portal to over 5,000 websites on history of science]
===Urban===
[[Urban history]], deals with cities, and became of importance in the 1970s
===Environment===
[[Environmental history]], began in the 1970s, like the modern environmental movement itself. It includes many long-term studies of climate and, especially, changes in the land caused by society.<ref> J. Donald Hughes, ''What is Environmental History'' (2006), [http://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204302678&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; J. Donald Hughes, '' An Environmental History of the World: Humankind's Changing Role in the Community of Life '' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Environmental-History-World-Humankinds-Environment/dp/0415136199/ref=pd_sim_b_img_4 excerpt and text search]</ref> The journal ''Environmental History''<ref> See [http://www.foresthistory.org/Publications/EH/]</ref>, begun in 1996<ref> see [http://www.foresthistory.org/Publications/EH/ehback.html]</ref>, is co-published by the Forest History Society, founded in 1946,<ref>See [http://www.foresthistory.org/index.html] </ref> and the American Society for Environmental History, founded in 1977.<ref> See [http://www.aseh.net/]</ref> The latest online bibliography includes 40,000 titles.<ref>See </ref>
===Religion===
'''Religious history''' covers the world's religions, and is split between academic history departments and theology schools. The American Society of Church History, founded in 1888, has 1600 members and publishes the journal ''Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture.''<ref> Issues since 1932 are in [[JSTOR]]. See [http://www.churchhistory.org/whoweare.html] and [http://www.churchhistory.org/churchhistory.html]</ref>
The American Catholic Historical Association, established in 1919 at a time when most Catholic historians were affiliated with Catholic colleges, has a membership of 1,015 and publishes the ''The Catholic Historical Review.''<ref> See [http://research.cua.edu/acha/]</ref> Most of the scholars belong to the church they study.

The [[American Academy of Religion]] formed in 1964.

Religious history, which had before appeared as just one feature of a wider cultural and social landscape, after 1990 became an autonomous subject with its own rules and transformations. This has brought great advances to its study: historians are less and less willing simply to convert religion into a epiphenomenon of other forces, social, political, economic, or cultural.<ref> see "Religion and the historical profession," in [http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2009/12/30/religion-and-the-historical-profession/ ''The Imminane Framce'' (Dec. 2009) online symposium]</ref>

===World===
[[World history]], a teaching field (rather than a research field), developed by historians of Asia and Latin America to provide a counterpoint to the "Western Civilization" emphasis that dominated history teaching after 1920. In interpretations of world history, the most influential scholars were [[Oswald Spengler]] in the 1920s, [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] in the 1950s, and William H. McNeill in the 1970s.<ref> See William H. McNeill, "The Changing Shape of World History" (1994) [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/10/041.html online version]</ref>
===Local===
[[Local history]]. The American Association for State and Local History, established in 1940 has 5,997 members, and is based in state and local historical societies in the U.S.<ref>See [http://www.aaslh.org/] </ref>

*[[Antiquarianism]] uses historical data without the theoretical structure of historiography, to look at topics that happen to interest the amateur because of proximity, age and accumulated myth. It is not well regarded by academic historians, but finds a place in local historical societies and draws attention from the media.

==National debates==
Historians inside a nation often engage in extended debates about the nation's history, and how to teach it. In the case of teaching Japanese history in the schools of Japan, other countries (especially China and South Korea), have officially complained.
===Germany===

The Historikerstreit
<ref> see Jane Caplan, et al. "The Historikerstreit Twenty Years On." ''German History'' 2006 24(4): 587-607. Issn: 0266-3554 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>
===Netherlands===
The pioneering cultural historian [[Johan Huizinga]] (1872-1945), wrote ''The Waning of the Middle Ages'' (1919) and ''Homo Ludens" A Study of the Play Element in Culture'' (1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and foreshadowed the historical anthropology of younger historians of the [[Annales School]]. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments."<ref> Peter Burke, Peter, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" ''History Today'' 1986 36(Nov): 23-28. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]; William U. Bouwsma, "The ''Waning of the Middle Ages'' by Johan Huizinga." ''Daedalus'' 1974 103(1): 35-43. Issn: 0011-5266; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History." ''American Historical Review'' 1964 69(3): 607-630 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1845780 in JSTOR]; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics," ''History and Theory, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Feb., 1978), pp. 63-93 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2504901 in JSTOR] </ref>

[[Jan Romein]] (1893-1962) created a "theoretical history" in an attempt to reestablish the relevance of history to public life in the 1930s at a time of immense political uncertainty and cultural crisis, when, in Romein's view, history had become too inward-looking and isolated from other disciplines. Romein, a Marxist, felt that history must contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], F. J. Teggart, and others, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the university level after the war.<ref> A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [Theory and Practice in the "Theoretical History" of Jan Romein]. ''Theoretische Geschiedenis'' 1994 21(3): 257-270. Issn: 0167-8310 </ref>

==Revisionism==
Revisionism is a reversal of opinion, and generally is used for historians who reverse the old "orthodox" or standard interpretation. The first "revisionist" debate came in the 1920s when a new group of historians rejected the thesis that Germany was "guilty" (primarily responsible) for causing the Great War, a proposition that was included in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].<ref> See Samuel R. Williamson Jr. and Ernest R. May, "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," ''Journal of Modern History'' (2007) Volume 79, Number 2, 335-87 </ref>
===Whig Interpretation===
The [[Whig Interpretation of History]] refers to histories that are too present-oriented when dealing with the past. Whig historians saw British history as the inevitable unfolding of progress, especially liberty and parliamentary rule, with the inexorable defeat of Toryism and absolute monarchy. 20th century downplay the Whig approach and drop the notion of inevitable progress. They now warn against looking at the past as a simple pathway to the present, insisting there were always multiple contingencies along the way.<ref>Herbert Butterfield, ''The Whig interpretation of history'' (1931)[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ia6IpQKrx58C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false excerpts]</ref>

Histories of science often take the Whiggish approach, ignoring the dead ends and focusing on the steps that led to the present.

==Meta questions? ==
Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns? Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned. Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure.

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible. However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World history]] is in fashion.
==Postmodernism==
Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has appeared in historiography, especially in pulling most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.
===Popular aphorisms===
Spanish philosopher [[George Santayana]] commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it." Hegel was paraphrased by [[Winston Churchill]], who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher said, "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." The aphorisms are entertaining and are often given out to popular audiences, but scholars pay no attention to them.

==Further reading==
For a detailed guide see [[History/Bibliography]]

* Arnold, John H. ''History: A Very Short Introduction'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/019285352X/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208378482&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Bass, Herbert J. ''The State of American History'' (1970), essays by scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/28078091?title=The%20State%20of%20American%20History excerpt and text search]
* Bentley, Michael. ''Modern Historiography: An Introduction.'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108204588 online edition]
* Burrow, John. ''A History of Histories: Epics, Chronicles, Romances and Inquiries from Herodotus and Thucydides to the Twentieth Century'' (2008), 544 pp; covers Herodotus, Thucydides and Polybius, through Gibbon, Macaulay, Michelet, Prescott and Parkman to Butterfield, Trevelyan and Toynbee. ISBN 978-0-375-41311-7 [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0375413111/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Cantor, Norman F. ''Inventing the Middle Ages.'' (1993)
* Carr, E. H. ''What Is History'' (1961), a famous interpretation of historiography.
* Fischer, David H. ''Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought'' (1970) 368pp; influential and entertaining guide by a leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Historians-Fallacies-Toward-Historical-Thought/dp/0061315451/ref=pd_sim_b_img_1 excerpt and text search]
* Foner, Eric. ed. ''New American History'' (1997)
* Gilderhus, Mark. ''History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction'' (6th ed. 2006), 160 pp, textbook
* Howell, Martha C., and Walter Prevenier. ''From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods'' (2001), 207pp [http://www.amazon.com/Reliable-Sources-Introduction-Historical-Methods/dp/0801485606/ref=pd_sim_b_title_3 excerpt and text search]
* Iggers, Georg G. ''Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Historiography-Twentieth-Century-Scientific-Objectivity/dp/0819567663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198041017&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kelley, Donald R. ''Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Frontiers-History-Historical-Inquiry-Twentieth/dp/0300120621/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209904366&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ritter, Harry. ''Dictionary of Concepts in History'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Concepts-Reference-Sciences-Humanities/dp/0313227004/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197753622&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ''The Past as Text: The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography'' 1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Past-Text-Practice-Historiography-Re-visions/dp/0801862590/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ed. ''Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Practicing-History-Directions-Historical-Rewriting/dp/0415341086/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Stokes, Melvyn. ''The State of U.S. History'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102287734 online edition]
* Storey, William Kelleher. ''History: A Guide for Students'' (2nd ed 2003), 128pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195166094/ref=pd_cp_b_1?pf_rd_p=317711001&pf_rd_s=center-41&pf_rd_t=201&pf_rd_i=0801485606&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_r=14YNGGE7TKBNHRS45T67 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, James Westfall, and Bernard J. Holm; ''A History of Historical Writing'' (1942) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9276002 vol 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century online edition] [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58613485 vol 2: 18th and 19th centuries online edition]; detailed discussion of the work of major historians
* Wish, Harvey. ''The American Historian: A Social-intellectual History of the Writing of the American Past,'' (1960) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98866105 online edition]

====references====
<references/>
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[category:Asian History]]

Tokyo

2010-03-18T09:36:09Z

RJJensen: trim

'''Tokyo''' (東京, “eastern capital”) is the capital of [[Japan]] since 1868, and its economic, political, educational and cultural center. It is in the center of the island of [[Honshu]]
[[archipelago]]).
[[Image:Tokyo.jpg|thumb|430px]]

[[Image:Tokyo 2.jpg|thumb|300px|Tokyo by night]]
==Parks==
Urban parks became an increasingly common feature of European and American cities in the 19th century and elicited the interest of visiting Japanese leaders. The concept of the urban public park was introduced to Japan by the country's new Meiji oligarchs within the context of the radical reshaping of Tokyo. Representative are two sites. The first is a hill in the north of the city with long-standing associations with the Tokugawa shogunate; the second is a parade ground next to the site of the castle-palace. The hill became a park in name but in practice remained a site for public celebration, while the parade ground was transformed with considerable difficulty and over many years into a consciously fashioned recreational space. The two show the contrasts and hesitations that surrounded changing understandings of the role of the capital city and its shifting symbolic landscapes, as well as the gradual process of domestication of the concept of a public park.<ref> Paul Waley, "Parks and Landmarks: Planning the Eastern Capital along Western Lines." ''Journal of Historical Geography'' 2005 31(1): 1-16. Issn: 0305-7488 </ref>

==Culture==
===Museums===
The Horyuji Homotsukan [Hall of Horyuji Treasures] of the Tokyo National Museum displays items from the Horyuji temple in Nara Prefecture. Meiji officials sought to implement cultural policies modeled on those they had seen in action in Europe in the 1860's. Machida Hisanari (1839-97), "father" of the National Museum, served both these interests and used the collection to promote the restored monarchy.<ref> Hiroko T. McDermott, "The Horyuji Treasures and Early Meiji Cultural Policy." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 2006 61(3): 339-374. Issn: 0027-0741 </ref>
===Education===
Under Tokugawa rule, a limited number of elite schools taught values of literary civilization to encourage discipline within the class of hereditarily-qualified office holders. Schools were storehouses of texts and patronized scholars, serving as waystations for bureaucratic candidates lacking office and for domainal students.

In the Meiji Era, consolidation of the government schools as Tokyo University in 1877 brought a strong emphasis upon introducing new forms of expertise, especially in science and technology. Advanced schools were transformed into centers for academic activities such as research and publication by experts often possessing national reputation. Control over education was delegated to the Ministry of Education, leaving the schools free to concentrate upon developing new forms of expertise. The university was gradually forced onto the stage of national politics. New nationalist epistemologies in the social sciences were introduced, and university scholars began to enter public debate as experts in many areas. The study of law developed rapidly at Tokyo University, making the university the foremost supplier of candidates for bureaucratic office. Thus by the 1880s the university had become an invaluable political instrument to the government bureaucracy.<ref> M. Pierce Griggs, "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." (PhD U. of Chicago 1997.)</ref>

==History==
The Kanto plain was settled by the 3rd millennium BC; modern Tokyo still carries some local names of former villages. Hirakawa-mura, a farming and fishing village on the shores of the Hira river, had a strategic location, commanding land, sea, and river routes along the Kanto plain, In the Yamahura period (c. 12th century), Edo Shigenaga, the military governor of a large Kanto province, erected his castle there, calling it Edojuku. The castle was rebuilt in 1456 by Ota Dokan, shrines and temples were established around it, and merchants developed nearby ferry and shipping routes. By 1590, when the shogun leader [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] selected Edo as his military headquarters, the settlement surrounding Edojuku boasted a mere hundred thatch-roofed cottages. Ieyasu assembled warriors and craftsmen, fortified the Edojuku castle with moats and bridges, and built up the town. After 1603, he became the effective ruler of Japan, Edo became a powerful and flourishing city as the effective national capital, though Japan's imperial seat and official capital remained in [[Kyoto]].
===Edo in the Tokugawa era (1603-1867) ===
The [[Tokugawa]] political system rested on both feudal and bureaucratic controls, so that Tokyo lacked a unitary administration. The typical urban social order was composed of warriors, peasants, artisans, and businessmen, the latter two classes organized in officially sanctioned guilds whose number increased with trade and population growth. Because businessmen were excluded from government office, they nurtured a culture of entertainment, making Edo a cultural as well as a political and economic center. Edo was the world's largest city in the 18th century, with a population of over one million in 1800. Edo was a significant force in generating social change and economic growth in Japan during the final two centuries of Tokugawa rule. The city's demand for human and material resources resulted in an appreciable migration of people within Japan, the creation of new markets and marketing patterns, and generated improved standards of performance and new tastes for living better.<ref> Gilbert Rozman, "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112. </ref>

The city had two type of land ownership bukechi and chochi. Bukechi was used exclusively by members of the samurai class for residential purposes. There was no system of private landownership, no sales or purchases, and therefore no recognized land value. Chochi, on the other hand, was used by ordinary townspeople, both merchants and craftsmen, for both residential and commercial purposes. Private landownership was recognized and chochi land had agreed values. In the 1870s the Meiji reformers put bukechi land under the same rules as chochi land, thereby sweeping all remnants of feudal class divisions.

Local government in each Edo district was organized under the two highest officials were the machi bugyó, who drew up and issued administrative orders. Next came three full-time administrators, called toshiyori, who were hereditary office-holders. The nanushi, or headmen, were responsible for up to a dozen machi. After 1720, the nanushi were organized into 20 guilds. The had the difficult challenge of protecting the overcrowded city, built of flimsy wood houses; in 1657 a huge fire razed two thirds of the city, causing 100,000 deaths.

Severe sanctions in Edo against those usually known as kawata (derogatorily labeled eta by others) and those labeled hinin (literally "nonhuman") were codified in law and backed by state force. In the city of Edo deliberate political and social processes led to the creation of the Burakumin outcast order in Japan. Even though ideologies of "pollution" and "impurity" may have played a role in determining who was targeted for discrimination, the production of a system of prejudice and intolerance was chiefly the result of deliberate political and economic policies of the ruling class.<ref> Gerald Groemer, "The Creation of the Edo Outcaste Order." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 2001 27(2): 263-293. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/3591967 in Jstor] </ref>

The Machikaisho of Tokyo was a warehouse for rice storage that was set up during the Kansei reform period, 1787-33, as a way of ruling Tokyo. This granary provided relief for famished city dwellers and low-interest loans to landowners. Important schools were established, such as Shoheiko (1790) for the study of Confucian classics, Kaiseigo (1885) for western learning, and Igakusho (1863) for the study of occidental medicine. In 1877 they merged to form [[Tokyo University]].
===Meiji Era: 1868 to 1941===
An attack by imperial troops on Edo followed hard on the defeat of the Tokugawa forces at Toba-Fushimi in January 1868. Edo Castle surrendered in the early spring and the Tokugawa family and retainers were forced by the new regime to depart for Suruga. Edo was renamed Tokyo ["the eastern capital"] and the new Meiji boy emperor arrived in the fall. Bystanders to this political turmoil, the urban poor, caught between rising prices of rice and fish and the downfall of the old bakufu leadership, commented cynically and often humorously on their predicament through newspapers, broadsheets, handbills, and woodblock prints.<ref> M. William Steele, "Edo in 1868: The View from Below." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 1990 45(2): 127-155. Issn: 0027-0741 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2384846 in Jstor]</ref>

====Urban planning====
In the first two decades of the Meiji period (1868-1912) the country's leaders engaged in intense discussions about the future of the capital of Tokyo. The Fifty-Ward System, was part of the effort by the new government to strengthen control over the people. It preserved the Town Official System and the deliberative organ of representatives of Edo, but dissolved the ruling system of the headmen. It soon gave way to the Large and Small Ward System. Some planners argued for the importance of urban beautification, while others regarded changes in urban infrastructure and services as essential to maintenance and growth of the city. Many of the proposed changes were cloaked in the language of progress. Phillips (1996) examines the course taken by urban leaders of the first decades of the Meiji period in establishing planning policy, using planning documents, transcripts of planning committees, and on architectural and urban design data from completed urban improvement projects in Meiji Tokyo. Phillips (1996) focuses on two issues, (1) the extent to which the efforts of Japanese leaders focused the country on the goal of modernization, and (2) the extent to which efforts to achieve bunmei kaika, or cultural enlightenment, were superficial. He demonstrates how the concepts of modernity and the struggle to develop a modern urban structure altered previous notions of cities and city planning practices. Poor articulation of planning policy in the first decades of the Meiji period reflected a lack of consensus among Meiji leaders about the definition and course of modernization. Rather than reject traditional approaches to planning, urban leaders eventually incorporated these approaches into their new planning methodologies. Modernity in the Japanese context, consequently, did not require dismantling preexisting urban structures. Instead, it represented a marriage of the political motivations of the country's leaders with the modern urban needs for improved transportation networks and zoning mechanisms. Exposure of the political system to popular opinion entailed the shifting of planning discourse from the theoretical to the practical realm, as well as from the private to the public realm.<ref> David Peter Phillips, "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." (PhD U. of Pennsylvania 1996) </ref>

====1923 Kanto earthquake====
Ar noon on Saturday 1 September 1923, the eathquake hit, registering 8.3 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was in Sagami Bay, about 80 km south of Tokyo. The earthquake was followed five minutes later by a huge tsunami, with a height of about 12 meters. As fires swept across the city, 75% of all buildings suffered severe structural damage. The quake cut most of the water mains. About 100,000 people were killed from an urban population of about 4.5 million.<ref> Estimates of deaths vary widely, from 70,000 to 140,000.</ref> Some 40,000 refugees died in one location at the Honjo Military Clothing Depot on the banks of the Sumida River. They were huddling together in the building as the cyclone of superheated air passed overhead and sucked out their air so that they died instantly of suffocation. Property damage came to two per cent of Japan's total national wealth. Two million people were homeless.

Angry Tokyoans took revenge on resident Koreans, killing hundreds, perhaps thousands. Animosity toward Koreans was fueled by rumors of Korean wrongdoing after the quake. Some non-Koreans were murdered as well, but Koreans became the specific targets because of their distinct Korean identity, rather than simply because they were not Japanese. The Japanese colonial occupation of Korea provided the backdrop to this extreme example of the explosion of racial prejudice into violence, based on a history of antagonism. To be a Korean in 1923 Japan was to be not only despised, but also threatened and potentially killed.

In contrast to London, where typhoid fever had been steadily declining since the 1870s, the decline in Tokyo did not begin until the late 1920s in Japan. Within the city of Tokyo, the rate of typhoid morbidity was higher in the upper-class residential northern and western districts than in the densely populated working-class eastern district. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. The great Kanto earthquake (1923) had a major long-term impact on the city's rate of typhoid morbidity. Although the level of morbidity rose to a record high due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure.<ref> Takeshi Nagashima, "Sewage Disposal and Typhoid Fever: the Case of Tokyo 1912-1940." ''Annales De Démographie Historique'' 2004 (2): 105-117. Issn: 0066-2062 </ref>

In the rebuilding process, the one- and two-story wood structures were replaced by modern five- and six-story buildings of concrete and steel in the European style. Motorways were built. The first underground subway system opened in 1927 and a new airport in 1931. At 6.36 million, the city's population in 1935 was larger than before the earthquake; it was nearly as large as London or New York. The "secondary centers" or "satellite cities" of Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro grew rapidly. They and the entire surrounding Tokyo prefecture was incorporated into the city in 1943.
===World War II===
As a major wartime metropolis. The experience of everyday life in Tokyo dramatically changed with munitions-based heavy industrialization and the loss of liberties and urban culture as the state mobilized for total war. The sensitive issue of how to defend the capital from air attack then became a pressing concern for urban planners, government officials, and even fiction writers. While the government assigned Tokyoites the responsibility of protecting the Imperial capital, devastating American fire bombing raids revealed in an instant the impossibility of carrying out such a task.

Tokyo was bombed repeatedly. LeMay sent 325 [[B-29]]s over Tokyo on March 9-10 to drop 1665 tons of incendiaries. An unstoppable fire storm burned out 16 square miles and killed over 80,000, most of whom suffocated in bomb shelters when the firestorm consumed the oxygen. One fourth of the buildings in the entire city were destroyed. Half the 7.4 million residents fled to the countryside (which was not bombed). The raid marked a turning point in the American strategic air war against Japan. Previously, most raids were "precision" raids that used high explosives against industrial targets; thereafter, most raids were "area" raids that used incendiary bombs to burn Japanese cities and kill civilians. The strategic shift did not depart radically from the air war in Europe or from prewar planning. Headquarters had always intended for [[Curtis LeMay]] to lead the air campaign against Japan and had always viewed incendiary raids against cities and American policy since the 1930s had focused on the burning of Tokyon--and the killing of civilian war workers--as a way to destroy an enemy's industrial capability.<ref> Thomas R. Searle, "'It Made a Lot of Sense to Kill Skilled Workers': the Firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945." ''Journal of Military History'' 2002 66(1): 103-133. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2677346 in JSTOR]</ref>

After a long interval of silence, private memories of the catastrophic fire bombings became public when air raid survivors and others joined together to write a history of the raids and then attempt to build a museum from which to transmit the experience of war.<ref> Cary Lee Karacas, "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." (2006)</ref>
===1945-1970===
The destroyed metropolis became the base from which the United States under [[Douglas MacArthur]] administered Japan for several years. During this period there emerged two Tokyos. In one, the occupiers appropriated and transformed key sections of the city in ways that allowed them to partake in the spoils of war and live in luxury. In the other, Tokyoites struggled to stave off starvation and to secure housing and employment.

The population reached ten million in 1964 as the Summer Olympic Games that year left a deep impact on the national identity of Japan. The nation's wounded psyche and reputation from World War II was significantly healed. Rapid social changes, thematically staged in the Olympic ceremonies, enabled Japan to display an inclusive and comprehensive national pride, and underscored Japan's re-entry into the circle of developed industrial countries. The 1964 ancient arts exhibition put on by the Tokyo National Museum to coincide with the Tokyo Olympics provided an opportunity to promote Japan's traditional culture to foreign visitors and to the Japanese people themselves, as part of an effort to regain normalized status in the international community. Architect Tange Kenzo is most famous for the National Indoor Stadium, built in 1964 for the Olympics. <ref> Noriko Aso, "Sumptuous Re-past: the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Arts Festival." ''Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique'' 2002 10(1): 7-38. Issn: 1067-9847 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]</ref>

===1970 to present===
The vast majority of large companies, financial institutions, and government agencies continue to maintain their headquarters in the old center of the city, mainly in the Marunouchi area in the Chiyoda Ward.

====Land bubble of 1980s====
During the second half of the 1980s, Tokyo experienced a huge increase of urban land prices. This "land bubble" phenomenon led to new strategies in the urban development process. In order to preserve the profitability of real estate schemes, developers used several means of action to increase building density, namely the jiage system and urban renewal procedure. They also experimented with new methods to avoid land purchase, such as land deposit and short-term lease contracts. These new methods of development had a great impact on Tokyo's morphology. Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings were built in business zones instead of narrow "pencil buildings"; huge department stores surrounded by public squares flourished in the vicinity of middle-range railway stations; and modern concrete buildings progressively replaced old wooden houses within residential zones. However, this modernization process was not closely controlled by the public authorities, and it produced an anarchic collection of high-rise buildings throughout the capital city that increased road traffic and worsened parking problems.<ref>A. Sorensen, ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000) </ref>

In early-21st-century Tokyo, the construction of luxury residential and commercial towers in neighborhoods along the Sumida River has accelerated dramatically, altering the social composition and cultural images associated with downtown Tokyo. The new buildings stand in contrast to the sinking economy and are markers of the growing gap between rich and poor. They also reflect the pattern of urban construction and destruction as well as the unobtainable desires promised by commodity capitalism.

The Japanese media have featured articles on the escalation of youth crime and discontent, as well as the many forms of corruption that teenagers are exposed to in transformed downtown Tokyo. The 2002 Naoki literary prize was awarded to a book that reacts to both urban development and the problems facing Tokyo adolescents - Ishida Ira's 4-Teen (2002). Ishida shows the effects of Tokyo's transformations on teenage social norms and uses descriptions of urban places to reveal contradictions embedded in these roles. This article examines the context of 4-Teen's publication and the awarding of the Naoki Prize and explores how stories that mix fiction and historical experience provide new ways of viewing the changes in Tokyo.<ref> Alisa Freedman, "Stories of Boys and Buildings: Ishida Ira's 4-teen in 2002 Toyko." ''Japan Forum'' 2006 18(3): 381-398. Issn: 0955-5803 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Tokyo'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Tokyo-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/0756632285/ref=pd_bbs_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Tokyo''(2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Tokyo-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0470181559/ref=pd_bbs_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. ''Tokyo Now and Then: An Explorer's Guide.'' (1984). 592 pp
* Yanagihara, Wendy. ''Lonely Planet Tokyo Encounter'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Tokyo-Encounter-Yanagihara/dp/1740595580/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
===Contemporary ===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Suburban Tokyo: A Comparative Study in Politics and Social Change.'' (1979). 258 pp.
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Neighborhood Tokyo'' (1989). [http://www.questia.com/read/91986553?title=Neighborhood%20Tokyo online edition]
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Tsukiji: The Fish Market at the Center of the World,'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/105652913?title=Tsukiji%3a%20%20The%20Fish%20Market%20at%20the%20Center%20of%20the%20World online edition]
* Fowler, Edward. ''San’ya Blues: Laboring Life in Contemporary Tokyo.'' ( 1996) ISBN: 0801485703.
* Friedman, Mildred, ed. ''Tokyo, Form and Spirit.'' (1986). 256 pp.
* Jinnai, Hidenobu. ''Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology.'' (1995). 236 pp.
* Reynolds, Jonathan M. "Japan's Imperial Diet Building: Debate over Construction of a National Identity." ''Art Journal.'' 55#3 (1996) pp 38+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5000419130?title=Japan's%20Imperial%20Diet%20Building%3a%20Debate%20over%20Construction%20of%20a%20National%20Identity online edition]
* Sassen, Saskia. ''The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.''(1991). 397 pp.
* Sorensen, A. ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Land-Readjustment-Metropolitan-Growth-Examination/dp/0080437958/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207476468&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. "Tokyo-as-world-city: Reassessing the Role of Capital and the State in Urban Restructuring." ''Urban Studies'' 2007 44(8): 1465-1490. Issn: 0042-0980 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

===History===
* Beard, Charles A. ''The Administration and Politics of Tokyo'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/read/556249?title=The%20Administration%20and%20Politics%20of%20Tokyo online edition]
* Brown, Arlo Ayres, III. "The Great Tokyo Riot: The History and Historiography of the Hibiya Incendiary Incident of 1905." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 1986. 425 pp. DAI 1986 47(3): 1025-A. DA8610746 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Cybriwsky, Roman. ''Tokyo: The Shogun's City at the Twenty-first Century.'' (1998). 260 pp.
* Edoin, Hoito. ''The Night Tokyo Burned.'' (1987). 272 pp. On March 1945
* Fiévé, Nicolas and Paul Waley, eds. ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo'' (2003)
* Freedman, Alisa D. "Tracking Japanese Modernity: Commuter Trains, Streetcars, and Passengers in Tokyo Literature, 1905-1935." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 2002. 300 pp. DAI 2002 63(4): 1347-A. DA3048377 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Griggs, M. Pierce. "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 1997. 303 pp. DAI 1998 58(10): 4031-A. DA9811860 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Hastings, Sally Ann. ''Neighborhood and Nation in Tokyo, 1905-1937'' (1995),
* Karacas, Cary Lee. "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." PhD dissertation U. of California, Berkeley 2006. 333 pp. DAI 2007 67(8): 3111-A. DA3228373 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* McClain, James L., John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru, eds. ''Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modern Era'' (1994)
* Masai, Y. "Tokyo: From a feudal million city to a global supercity," ''Geographical Review of Japan'' (1990) 63(B-1): 1–16
* Miller, Ian Jared. "The Nature of the Beast: The Ueno Zoological Gardens and Imperial Modernity in Japan, 1882-1945." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 2004. 273 pp. DAI 2007 68(1): 304-A. DA3249167 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Phillips, David Peter. "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." PhD dissertation U. of Pennsylvania 1996. 241 pp. DAI 1996 57(4): 1879-A. DA9627986 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Raz, Aviad E. ''Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland.'' (1999). 240 pp.
* Rozman, Gilbert. "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/133438 in Jstor]]
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Low City, High City: Tokyo from Edo to the Earthquake'' (1983)
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Tokyo Rising: The City since the Great Earthquake.'' (1990). 384 pp. [http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/papers/jhist4.htm online book review]
* Siebert, Loren. "Using GIS to Document, Visualize, and Interpret Tokyo's Spatial History." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(3): 536-574. Issn: 0145-5532 [http://writingwiki.org//html/24.3siebert.html online]
* Smith, Henry D., II. "Tokyo as an Idea: an Exploration of Japanese Urban Thought until 1945." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1978 4(1): 45-80. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/132072 in Jstor]
* Tajima, Kayo. "The Marketing of Urban Human Waste in the Edo/Tokyo Metropolitan Area: 1600-1935." PhD dissertation Tufts U. 2005. 189 pp. DAI 2005 66(3): 1123-A. DA3167536 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Takenaka-O'Brien, Akiko. "The Aesthetics of Mass-Persuasion: War and Architectural Sites in Tokyo, 1868-1945." PhD dissertation Yale U. 2004. 549 pp. DAI 2004 65(3): 730-A. DA3125312 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

===Primary sources===
* Plutschow, Herbert E., ed. ''Reader in Edo period travel.'' (Global Oriental: 2006)
* Shirane, Haruo, ed. ''Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600– 1900.'' (2002). 1050 pp
* Smith II, Henry D. ed. ''Hiroshige: One Hundred Famous Views of Edo'' (1986),
==External links==
* [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/ ''The Japan Times''] daily newspaper in English
* [http://www.asahi.com/english/ ''Asahi Shimbun''] daily newspaper, English edition
====notes====
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
*[[Kanto]], the region
*[[Honshu]], the island
*[[Japan]]
*[[History of Japan]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/tokyo/tokyo.htm Tokyo]

[[Category:Japanese Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]

Talk:Health scare

2010-02-23T15:22:55Z

RJJensen: waigt a while

This needs a lot more work, because it is one of the few non-political instances of a [[scientific controversy]] which affects the general public. I'd like to expand it so that students can understand the proper way to collect statistics and identify [[cause and effect]] relationships.

What follow-up studies were done with rats? How do these apply to humans? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 07:56, 17 December 2008 (EST)
::Good point. I cleaned out some of the left wing junk and added reports from better sources. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 08:23, 17 December 2008 (EST)

:::If results are only of "borderline" significance, then we should not report them in so much detail. Anyone reading this article would see (A) the idea that there is no risk, along with (B) two studies saying there IS a risk. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 08:52, 23 February 2010 (EST)
::::well yes, but that is what is known right now. In another 20 years there will be better answers. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 10:22, 23 February 2010 (EST)

Old Regime

2010-02-18T22:52:26Z

RJJensen: /* Society and Population */ add cites

In the [[History of France]] the '''Old Regime''' or '''Ancien Régime''' refers to the aristocratic social and political order between the 14th and 18th centuries under the [[Valois]] and [[Bourbon]] dynasties of kings. It is the prevailing political and social system in place prior to the [[French Revolution]], and it was deliberately and systematically destroyed by the Revolution.

The Old Regime was characterized by a rigid class system that reflected a hierarchical [[feudal]] order, with a strong monarch, strong Catholic Church, and strong local nobility. The Church and the nobility owned nearly all the land and the peasant farmers had no say whatever. The upper middle class (called the [[bourgeoisie]]) compsising intellectuals, lawyers and wealthy businessmen had little political power.

The term "old regime" is often applied to other countries for the traditionalism before modernization.
==Society and Population==

France in the Ancien Régime covered a territory of around 200,000 square miles, and supported 20 million people in 1700. At least 80% of the population were peasants.<ref>Pierre Goubert, ''The Ancien Regime'' (1973) pp. 2-9. There was no nationwide census before 1789 and therefore these figures are estimates. France lagged behind most of Europe in this regard; Spain and Sweden held censuses in 1717 and 1720 respectively.</ref>

France had the second largest population in Europe around 1700. Britain had five or six million, Spain had eight million, and the Austrian Habsburgs had around eight million. Russia was the most populated European country at the time. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other counbtries grew faster.

===Women===
Very few women held an power--some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the [[Enlightenment]] the writings of philosopher [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] gave political program for reform of the ancien régime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a "modern" society.<ref>Jennifer J. Popiel, "Making Mothers: The Advice Genre And The Domestic Ideal, 1760-1830," ''Journal of Family History'' 2004 29(4): 339-350</ref>
====Queens====
Salic law prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could assure the passage of power from one king to another--from her late husband to her young son--while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.
====Education for girls====
Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalized in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators. Girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were generally considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many small local schools where working-class children - both boys and girls - learned to read, the better "to know, love, and serve God." The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: boys were sent to upper school, perhaps a university, while their sisters - if they were lucky enough to leave the house - would be sent to board at a convent with a vague curriculum. The [[Enlightenment]] challenged this model, but no real alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons.<ref> Carolyn C. Lougee, "'Noblesse,' Domesticity, and Social Reform: The Education of Girls by Fenelon and Saint-Cyr," ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1974 14(1): 87-113</ref>

===Stepfamilies===
A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "Coresidence of Siblings, Half-siblings, and Step-siblings in 'Ancien Regime' France." 'History of the Family'' 2000 5(3): 299-314 online at [[EBSCO]]</ref>

The experience of stepmotherhood was surrounded by negative stereotypes; the [[Cinderella]] story and many other jokes and stories made the second wife an object of ridicule. Language, theater, popular sayings, the position of the Church, and the writings of jurists all made stepmother a difficult identity to take up. However, the importance of male remarriage suggests that reconstitution of family units was a necessity and that individuals resisted negative perceptions circulating through their communities. Widowers did not hesitate to take a second wife, and they usually found quite soon a partner willing to become a stepmother. For these women, being a stepmother was not necessarily the experience of a lifetime or what defined their identity. Their experience depended greatly on factors such as the length of the union, changing family configuration, and financial dispositions taken by their husbands.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "La Maratre Dans La France D'ancien Regime: Integration Ou Marginalite?" ["The Stepmother in Ancien Régime France: Integration or Marginality?] ''Annales De Demographie Historique'' 2006 (2): 171-188 in French</ref>

By a policy adopted at the beginning of the 16th century, adulterous women during the ancien régime were sentenced to a lifetime in a convent unless pardoned by their husbands and were rarely allowed to remarry even if widowed.

==Religion==
The religious violence in 16th-century France erupted within the context of instability in municipal authority. There was normally room for tolerance of Protestantism in the community; in the early 17th century, a culture of religious coexistence existed based on the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1598), which gave the Huguenots (Protestants) considerable legal rights. There also seems to have a sort of routine tolerance in the everyday life of mixed communities, which remained almost normal as long as both churches were unable to shift back toward orthodox intransigence. Against this background, the agitation of the 1620s revealed how unmotivated the Protestants really had become, since their political fate had in fact been sealed around 1575, after the [[Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]].
===Reformation and the Protestant Minority===
French Protestantism, which was largely [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] derived its support from the lesser nobles and trading classes. Its two main strongholds were south west France and Normandy, but even in these districts the Catholics were a majority. Protestantism in France was considered a grave threat to national unity, as the [[Huguenot]] minority felt a closer affinity with German and Dutch Calvinists than with their fellow Frenchmen. In an effort to cement their position they often allied with French enemies. The aminosity between the two sides led to the [[French Wars of Religion]] and the tragic [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]. The religious wars ended in 1593, when the Huguenot Henry of Navarre (1553-1610), who was already effectively king of France became a Catholic and was recognised by both Catholics and Protestants as King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] (reigned 1589-1610).

The main provisions of the '''[[Edict of Nantes]]''' (1598), which Henry IV had issued as a charter of religious freedoms for the Huguenots, were as follows; first) Huguenots were allowed to hold religious services in certain towns in each province; second) They were allowed to control and fortify eight cities; third) Special courts were established to try Huguenot offenders; d)Huguenots were to have equal civil rights with the Catholics.

The military privileges were incorporated in the Edict in order to allay the fears of the minority. Over time it became clear these privileges would be open to abuse and when in 1620 the Huguenots proclaimed a constitution for the 'Republic of the Reformed Churches of France', the Prime Minister [[Cardinal Richelieu]] (1585–1642) invoked the entire powers of the state; He captured La Rochelle after a long siege in 1628. The subsequent [[Treaty of Alais]] left the Huguenots their religious freedom but revoked their military freedoms.

===Huguenots===
Montpelier was among the most important of the 66 "villes de sûreté" that the Edict of 1598 granted to the Huguenots. The city's political institutions and the university were all handed over to the Huguenots. Tension with Paris led to a siege by the royal army in 1622. Peace terms called for the dismantling of the city's fortifications. A royal citadel was built and the university and consulate were taken over by the Catholic party. Even before the Edict of Alès (1629), Protestant rule was dead and the ville de sûreté was no more.

By 1620 the Huguenots were on the defensive, and the government increasingly applied pressure. A series of small civil wars that broke out in southern France between 1610 and 1635 were long considered by historians to be regional squabbles between rival noble families. New analysis shows that these civil wars were in fact religious in nature, remnants of the French Wars of Religion that largely ended with the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Small wars in the provinces of Languedoc and Guyenne show Catholic and Calvinist groups using destruction of churches, iconoclasm, forced conversions, and the execution of heretics as weapons of choice.

Louis XIV acted more and more aggressively to force the Huguenots to convert. At first he sent missionaries to convert them, backed by a a fund to financially reward converts to Catholicism. Then he imposed penalties and closed their schools and excluded them from favorite professions. Escalating the attack, he tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by the employment of armed [[dragonnades]] (soldiers) to occupy and loot their houses, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of about 180,000 Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, doctors and business leaders in Britain as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa. 4000 went to the American colonies. The English welcomed the French refugees, providing money from both government and private agencies to aid their relocation. Those Huguenots who stayed in France became Catholics and were called "new converts." Only a few Protestant villages remained in isolated areas.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'', ch 24; Bertrand Van Ruymbeke, "Escape from Babylon." ''Christian History'' 2001 20(3): 38-42. Issn: 0891-9666 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

===Gallicanism===
Louis XIV supported the [[Gallican]] cause that gave the government a greater role than the pope in choosing bishops, and gave the government the revenues when a bishopric was vacant. There would be no inquisition in France, and papal decrees could operate only after the government approved them. Louis avoided schism--he wanted more royal power over the French Church but did not want to break free of Rome. The pope likewise recognized the the "most Christian king" was a powerful ally who could not be alienated.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'', 388-92</ref>

===Monasteries===
From the end of the Wars of Religion to the French Revolution, Menat, a Cluniac abbey dating back to 1107, ruled over the Sioule Valley in the northwest region of the Clermont diocese. The monks were large landholders and developed a diversified and complex set of links with their neighbors; they received seigniorial rights, provided work to the rural poor, and were in daily contact with notaries public, merchants, and surgeons. While they did not directly manage the religious life of the faithful (parish priests did that), monks did constitute a motivating force in it through their setting up of a parish clergy, providing alms and social services, and playing the role of intercessors. Until the French Revolution, the monastic community constituted a key element of the economic, social, and religious life of a local French territory under the Old Regime.
===Convents===
Communities of nuns in France on the eve of Revolution had, on average, 25 members and a median age of 48 years. Nuns were both entering the profession later and living longer than before. In general, they had little wealth. Recruitment varied from region to region and by convent lifestyle (active or contemplative, austere or opulent, lower class or middle class). The nature of male and female monasticism differed greatly in France both before and during the revolution. Convents tended to be more isolated and less centrally controlled. This made for greater diversity among them than among male monasteries.<ref>Elizabeth Rapley and Robert Rapley, "An Image of Religious Women in the 'Ancien Regime:' the 'Etats Des Religieuses' of 1790-1791." ''French History'' 1997 11(4): 387-410 </ref>
==Rural society==
In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the [[Annales School]] paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.<ref>James B. Collins, "Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-Modern France." ''Journal of Social History'' 1991 24(3): 563-577. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]. For the ''Annales'' interpretation see Pierre Goubert, ''The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/French-Peasantry-Seventeenth-Century/dp/0521312698/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197851902&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search] </ref>

==Economy==
Two massive famines struck France between 1693 and 1710, killing over two million people. In both cases the impact of harvest failure was exacerbated by wartime demands on the food supply.<ref> Cormac Ó Gráda and Jean-Michel Chevet, "Famine and Market in 'Ancien Regime' France." ''Journal of Economic History'' 2002 62(3): 706-733 online</ref>

==Military==
The proud French army was controlled by the aristocracy, and most soldiers were peasant volunteers. There was no draft until the Revolution in 1798.

==See also==
* [[Louis XIV]]
* [[Louis XV]]
* [[Louis XVI]]
* [[French Revolution]]
==Bibliography==
* Baker, Keith, ed. ''The Political Culture of the Old Regime'' (1987), articles by leading scholars
* de Tocqueville, Alexis. ''Old Regime and the French Revolution'' (1856), classic study by leading conservative
* Doyle, William. ''Old Regime France: 1648-1788'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Old-Regime-France-1648-1788-History/dp/0198731299/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]
* Jones, Colin. ''The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Nation-Napoleon-Penguin-History/dp/0140130934/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705067&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the [[Annales School]] [http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Parker, David. ''Class and State in Ancien Régime France: The Road to Modernity?'' (1997), by a Marxist
* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]
===Religion===
* McManners, John. ''Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France.'' Vol. 1: ''The Clerical Establishment and Its Social Ramifications''; Vol. 2: ''The Religion of the People and the Politics of Religion''(1999)
* Van Kley, Dale. ''The Religious Origins of the French Revolution: From Calvin to the Civil Constitution, 1560-1791'' (1996)
* Ward, W. R. ''Christianity under the Ancien Régime, 1648-1789'' (1999).

===Notes===

<references/>

[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[category:French History]]

User talk:RJJensen

2010-02-17T16:24:56Z

RJJensen: /* Nice work */ thanks

[[File:Usa new year 2010.jpg|240px]]

--[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 00:14, 31 December 2009 (EST)
----

[[/Archive 1]]
==Trinity==
You reverted my edits to the Trinity page, with the comment "The Trinity is Christian". I was a bit baffled by this, but then realized that I had used the Torah as a source. The Torah is just the Old Testament, and is part of the Christian Bible. I did not realize that my language would be so confusing (I am used to it, my parents converted from Judaism to Baptist Christians). You will find that much of the Hebrew Bible (The old Testament) supports Christian concepts. This is because Christian concepts are universal truths!

Haha, yeah the rain has been murderous all week long! I had the misfortune of planning to drive into Athens today, only to find all the roads underwater! I didn't realize until you messaged me that my talk page has the info intended for my user page, so thank you for your inadvertant help (also, yes, it appears my grammar died while I was writing it!) Are you from the area as well? Always good to meet a fellow southerner who understands the Obama Crisis. There are so many hayseed liberals down here it makes me sick! Don't worry tho, you won't hear me crying out for a confederate south:) Long live a STRONG CONSERVATIVE UNION, with a surplus export of integrity! [[User:RoyP|RoyP]] 20:33, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
::thanks for the update. I'm actually a Yankee now living in Montana, but I have had a strong interest in the South since I studiesd with C. Vann Woodward some years back.[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 20:36, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
:::I can forgive a Yank, I used to be one (Mt. Vernon, Washington)! Unfortunately, that town's Conservative fervor lives solely in the words of one Glenn Beck (that man's done for intelligent conservatism what Sean Penn did for photographers dentistry.) [[User:RoyP|RoyP]] 20:45, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
::::Now, what kind of a snide insult is that? Beck is a thoughtful, honest fighter for the conservative cause, and if people are angered at the government by his exposés, all the better for the nation. Both he, and those of us who respect him, are intelligent people. [[User:DouglasA|DouglasA]] 20:59, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
:::::Forgive any intrusion or stamping upon your own loyalties. But surely you must admit that the movement suffers from a lack of Irving Kristol or William Buckley type figures. I long for the days when conservatism nakedly confessed that the intellectuals were the brains of the movement while the power of the people were its fists. OF COURSE a weapon must be weighted properly, with the correct balances, but it is only in retrospect that people might discuss its craftsmanship and the components which constituted it. I would venture to say that anyone slain by Excalibur would comment on anything but the sharpness of its blade, which in this most basic analogy, would comprise the incisive wit of conservatives who have lived and then gone to meet God in heaven. The fires of anger burn with intense heat in the belly of American conservatism, but to stoke these fires, as Beck often does, produces little but flash and smoke. It will be some current or future leader, a Reagan-type, I pray, who shall light his torch with such a flame and bring it to the halls of Congress or to the Obama home and say, "See, this same flame has burned for ages now let it singe you!". God, conservatism, the side of moral right; all are the same, and united they are all consuming. But it must take SOMEONE...a prophet, a politician who does God's work, a priest with God's word in him...someone, SOMEONE must carry that torch. [[User:RoyP|RoyP]] 21:15, 21 September 2009 (EDT)

== Quakerism category ==
Thanks for setting it up! I'll try to contribute a few more new articles to insert. --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)

== "Revert vandalism" on the Chavez article ==

Does [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Hugo_Chavez&curid=5224&diff=703420&oldid=703401 this edit] really count as "vandalism"? Or would it be more fair of you to qualify it as a different point of view? A point of view that may be criticized, perhaps, one that may or may not be backed up by whatever evidence is cited--but where is the "vandalism"? [[User:Wayne|Wayne]] 08:44, 25 September 2009 (EDT)
::it's vandalism--it was designed to attack and denigrate and damage a CP article. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 10:10, 25 September 2009 (EDT)
:::Introducing a different point of view--with a citation, no less--is denigrating and damaging to the article? Is the article that fragile? [[User:Wayne|Wayne]] 10:25, 25 September 2009 (EDT)
:::that was his goal. to sabotage the article by making it contradictory. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 10:38, 25 September 2009 (EDT)
::::Would it not add to the credibility of the article and the site as a whole to engage with the ideas that the editor brought to the table on their own merits--or lack thereof-- as opposed to dismissing them as vandalism? [[User:Wayne|Wayne]] 12:16, 25 September 2009 (EDT)
:::::vandals seeking to weaken or ruin articles are not welcome here. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 12:20, 25 September 2009 (EDT)

== speedy delete? ==

[[Nonlineardog]]

== Dear Dr. Jensen, ==

i think your edits are far above the average quality here. I am quite liberal (and not American), so i don't always agree with your opinions, however i enjoy to read your articles, since they are written in a quite concise and interesting manner from the right distance of view and i usually learn something about topics i don't know much about.

Regards, --[[User:Stitch75|Stitch75]] 12:45, 5 October 2009 (EDT)
::thanks! :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:22, 5 October 2009 (EDT)

Why did you revert my edit calling for a citation? [[User:AZF|AZF]] 17:11, 7 October 2009 (EDT)
::you're making work for other people; if you want to add a citation please do so. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 17:14, 7 October 2009 (EDT)
:::The person who made the initial assertion was making work for other people. [[User:AZF|AZF]] 17:19, 7 October 2009 (EDT)

==Columbia==
In the 1872 painting; are you sure she holds a school book? Might it be the Bible?--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 00:03, 13 October 2009 (EDT)
::my students always ask that--it says "School Book" on it. you can read it at [http://cprr.org/CPRR_Discussion_Group/2005/11/question-american-progress-by-john_11.html larger image] [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 00:07, 13 October 2009 (EDT)
:::Thank you, a beautiful picture btw.--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 00:13, 13 October 2009 (EDT)

== Milton/Paradise Lost ==
1st of all, thanks for the encouragement on my talk page. We now seem to be sort of collaborating on the Milton and PL pages. I came across some public-domain images of Blake's watercolors for PL that would be great to add to that page. How do we go about making that happen? [[User:ChrisFV|ChrisFV]] 17:58, 29 October 2009 (EDT)
:yes--it's fun! I can upload files if you gove me URL's or email to me at rjensen@uic.edu [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 18:04, 29 October 2009 (EDT)
::Here is the site: http://www.pitt.edu/~ulin/Paradise/Blake1808.htm [[User:ChrisFV|ChrisFV]] 20:09, 29 October 2009 (EDT)
:::OK which ones do you want to use? 04:45, 30 October 2009 (EDT)
::::So hard to choose! I think "The Expulsion from Eden" (Book XII) is essential for the PL article. If there is room, my next choice would be "The Downfall of the Rebel Angels" (Book VI), and then "The Temptation of Eve" (Book IX). [[User:ChrisFV|ChrisFV]] 11:24, 30 October 2009 (EDT)
::::: done: see File:Blake-xii.jpg File:Blake-vi.jpg and File:Blake-ix.jpg [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 05:19, 31 October 2009 (EDT)

== William, Mary, etc. ==

Hello Richard;

Just noticed you doing some 17th century history - could I ask for a bit of a hand getting William of Orange's article up? He doesn't have one, at the moment, I think, and 'William and Mary' redirects [[College of William and Mary|here]]. Thanks, and nice articles. [[User:AungSein|AungSein]] 14:45, 1 November 2009 (EST)
::look at [[William III]]. :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 15:16, 1 November 2009 (EST)
::::Pesky Stadtholder ... ;) [[User:AungSein|AungSein]] 15:22, 1 November 2009 (EST)

== DerekE ==

Just because someone is a "nasty vandal" is no need to erase every sign of his presence from the website. That's a tactic that might have been appropriate for the great Soviet Encyclopedia. I fail to see how it's suitable for an America conservative project. [[User:PeterF|PeterF]] 19:49, 3 November 2009 (EST)
::DerekE -- or someone using his account-- has tried to seriously damage CP (look at the edits a few minutes ago on Obama Administration). That destroys his entire credibility from A to Z, in my opinion. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 19:58, 3 November 2009 (EST)
:::That doesn't answer my question. removing a talk page post--in effect trying to make him a "non-person"--has nothing to do with the situation you describe. We've always been at war with East Asia. [[User:PeterF|PeterF]] 20:02, 3 November 2009 (EST)
::::we don't want saboteurs at CP and we remove their work. It's like a team changing the record book when an illegal player is involved. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 20:17, 3 November 2009 (EST)

==Scotland Revert==

Hello, i noticed you reverted an edit by DWiggins on the scotland article, saying in the edit description that "civilized world seems to cover the reaction pretty well". I've undone your edit as it was biased and misleading, if the "civilized world"(could you specify what the civilized world is?) universally thought it was disgusting, why was there so much controversy? perhaps from an american perspective but outside of the states "disgust" doesnt cover it at all, unless you meant to imply that the civilized world is solely the USA, in which case all credibility of claims about conservapedia being fair or trustworthy are lost. also, please dont ban me, i'm just trying to bring some balance and i dont mean to troll, but as im scottish it annoys me when people try and spin the lockerbie story, thanks. [[User:Euaaan|Euaaan]] 09:13, 4 November 2009 (EST)
::there was very high controversy regarding 1) wisdom of releasing a convicted terrorist and 2) role of the London government in trading convict for diplomatic and trade goals. And yes, worldwide disgust was pretty intense. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 09:23, 4 November 2009 (EST)

== John F. Kennedy ==

I responded to your argument on the John F. Kennedy talk page. You should go check it out. [[User:ChuckR|ChuckR]] 13:31, 5 November 2009 (EST)

== John F. Kennedy (again) ==

I added a new section re: Medicare to our Kennedy discussion on the JFK talk page.

I would really like for you to respond to the slew of points I raised re: Kennedy's liberal positions and traits. I believe they extend far wider and deeper than the article or your arguments suggest they do. In reading what I wrote and responding to it, I would like for us to work together to re-consider and re-write the parts of the article that discuss John F. Kennedy's ideological bend. Certainly, we can together reshape this article to reflect that he both advocated dramatic liberal measures and made conservative stands on certain issues that no modern-day liberal would ever dream of considering. [[User:ChuckR|ChuckR]] 20:02, 8 November 2009 (EST)
::thanks I appreciate the help and i will look at it later tonite. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 20:19, 8 November 2009 (EST)
:::I responded to your arguments. I am still hoping we can re-write this article together, and show that Kennedy was a diverse politician with both liberal and conservative views (and one that is hard to accurately describe as "basically liberal" or "basically conservative"). [[User:ChuckR|ChuckR]] 21:28, 8 November 2009 (EST)
::::the current text says "JFK was middle-of-the-road on domestic issues and conservative on foreign policy" which does seem to sum it up. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 21:37, 8 November 2009 (EST)

==Robeson==
Hi, I'm trying to stay within Conservapedia's guideline but did find the article riddled with povs and language that is unsourced. His own actions speak for themselves and don't need nudging. I tried to emphasis the Communist affiliations and advocacy while referencing to the aspects of his life that were patriotic.
The article is too small for someone of such importance plus there is word that he is going to be given a Presidential medal of freedom posthumously so the facts should be straight.
[[User:AmandaC|AmandaC]] 21:52, 19 November 2009 (EST)
::yes, good work. He's anathema to conservatives and the article needs to explain why. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 01:09, 20 November 2009 (EST)

== large bill ==

No problem, they've always fascinated me. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 04:25, 26 November 2009 (EST)

== large bill ==

No problem, they've always fascinated me. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 04:25, 26 November 2009 (EST)

== Unlock [[Sedition Act]]? ==

You locked the page nine hours after it was created, it's been locked for almost a month now, and it badly needs some work. Right now, there's little more than a dictionary entry. I'd like to add some information about the history of sedition acts, examples (from other countries than America), why they've been passed, examples of how they've been used and abused, and at least some idea of popular objections to them. If you want to add more, I'd love to see it. I won't add my uncited opinion, which I'm guessing is why you locked it in the first place. (If I'm wrong, please let me know.) If you have another idea of what the page should be, I'd love to talk about that - I'm sure we both agree it'd be best with something more than is there now.

And, by the way, [[Talk:Sedition Act]] is currently a redirect to [[Talk:Sedition_Act_of_1918]]; you might want to fix that and move the current debate.

Thanks. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 21:42, 8 December 2009 (EST)
::Ok I unlocked it. :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 23:13, 8 December 2009 (EST)

== Sin ==

What's with the large scale removal from [[Sin]]? Admittedly, it could be made more concise, but dropping sections and removing key redemptive fact like "Only by trusting in Jesus Christ as God's offer of forgiveness, can we be saved from sin" seems a bit odd. [[User:DouglasA|DouglasA]] 14:38, 12 December 2009 (EST)
::there was lots of stuff there unrelated to sin as ordinarily understood. The "trusting in Jesus" statement is a sermon and is hanging loose, not tied to any of the many traditions that are covered in the article. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 16:00, 12 December 2009 (EST)

== William Safire ==
Why did you edit the Safire article to say he was a token conservative? The commandments state all information must be true and verifiable. The reference provided does nothing to substanciate your claim that Safire was a token conservative at the NY Times. For this reason your edit should be removed until a reliable source is provided. I have been unable to find one that is suitable. --[[User:MichaelJB|MichaelJB]] 12:54, 18 December 2009 (EST)
:: 1) I did not make that edit. 2) But what it means is that for many years he was the only conservative voice on op-ed (and the editorial page was very liberal). 3) it's common knowledge of the sort you get by reading the NY Times every day. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 15:20, 18 December 2009 (EST)
:::My apologies. That being said, it shouldn't matter if something is common knowledge or not, the reference provided does not state Safire was the alleged token conservative at the Times. According to the commandments all entries must be true AND verifiable. --[[User:MichaelJB|MichaelJB]] 19:21, 18 December 2009 (EST)

== Islam ==

So is there any reason why you removed sourced material from that article and replaced it with vandalism?
--[[User:JeffD|JeffD]] 10:58, 22 December 2009 (EST)
::it was a bad source and needed fixing. don't be insulting.[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 14:37, 22 December 2009 (EST)

==America the Beautiful==

You mean I was actually [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Talk:Empire_of_Liberty&diff=prev&oldid=736869 right] about something? Ssh! My friends at Wikipedia would faint if they knew! ;-) --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 16:15, 24 December 2009 (EST)
::well Ed I think you're usually right! [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 16:28, 24 December 2009 (EST)

== "The Honorable" ==
I was merely requesting that "the Honorable" be added because I noticed that about half of the Justices pages possessed the title and roughly half of them did not. I thought since it was the proper title for a Judge it might be a good idea to place them on the pages that did not have them.
::none of the articles on justices should start that way. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 21:09, 6 January 2010 (EST)
:::You'll have to fix Clarence Thomas, it's locked. [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 21:13, 6 January 2010 (EST)

== Headline text ==

==
== Headline text ==
==

== thanks for the chart on atheism, it was very helpful ==

Thanks for the chart on atheism, it was very helpful to the article. The only reason why I removed it as it was blurry but you fixed that issue using a larger display size. I put the chart next to the section on atheist population that was already in the article and the chart nicely complements that section. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 23:11, 10 January 2010 (EST)
::at my age all fonts are blurry--but I did an OCR and made a new chart that works well. :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 06:33, 11 January 2010 (EST)

==[[Satan]]==

I don't think your intro to [[Satan]] is correct, but I respect your writing ability too much to revert it. In the previous version, I had moved down your "embodiment" sentence [http://www.conservapedia.com/Satan#Secular_and_liberal_views here]. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 10:50, 13 January 2010 (EST)
::thanks. I just expanded it somewhat. I think that Conservapedia should not try to take sides in theological debates (for example, is the devil a real person or an impersonal force?) I think that just confining the Satan article to Bible verses misses 1900 years of theology and art. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 11:07, 13 January 2010 (EST)

==Formatting==

Thanks for [http://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Redneck&diff=745546&oldid=745493 this]. I had a feeling that ''op cit.'' was incorrect. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 21:21, 16 January 2010 (EST)
::I've always hated "op cit" because it's the devil to pay to find the op cited when there are many footnotes. :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 21:32, 16 January 2010 (EST)

:::That's a good point. Let's find a way to make it easy for the reader to locate the source. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 21:51, 16 January 2010 (EST)

== Post Office ==

I deleted the template because it appeared to be a copyvio. Its been reformatted now into a block quote, which appears to have been the intent of the author. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 22:06, 16 January 2010 (EST)
::ok thanks. Note that short quotes are not copyright violations. We have fair use rights, which are pretty strong unless we somehow ruin the commercial value of a publication.[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 23:27, 16 January 2010 (EST)
:::Short quotes aren't copyright violations, but uncited quotes are another matter [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 23:45, 16 January 2010 (EST)
::::what do you mean--plagiarism? Plagiarism means taking false personal credit for academic gain, which is not at issue here. Nobody is gaining any academic credit for their writing at CP. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 00:11, 17 January 2010 (EST)
:::::Whenever you are writing, it is intellectually dishonest to quote from a source without citing the source. If you are copying something from another website, it is a simple matter to include a citation. This has the added benefit of informing the reader about the existence of the source website, which might be helpful in their research. Generally, school students are not allowed to use a wiki as a source in their work, so a wiki such as this serves mainly to provide some background and to act as a portal to other useful websites on the subject. In addition, it helps the user to see where the information came from, so they may judge the accuracy or point of view of the information accordingly. If we want to be helpful to our readers, we should provide sources wherever possible, whether we are legally required to do so or not. --[[User:Hsmom|Hsmom]] 16:03, 17 January 2010 (EST)
::::::Two points: 1) it is not intellectually dishonest unless you claim personal academic credit. Look at most textbooks, for example and note that footnotes and other credits to sources are rare. 2) We do a good job in providing bibliographies and footnotes. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 17:39, 17 January 2010 (EST)

==Thanks for quick action==
It was late and i saw some information that i thought would be helpful to a very present subject of interest, but i did not read it or the site enough to see its agenda.[[User:Daniel1212|Daniel1212]] 00:59, 18 January 2010 (EST)
::thanks for the note --it's fixed now. [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 01:08, 18 January 2010 (EST)

== Hatemonger article. ==

Thanks. You may want to look [[Abortion genocide|here]] too--I already asked the editor in question to fix his work, but it may be beyond repair. Your call, Professor. [[User:AlexWD|AlexWD]] 22:33, 20 January 2010 (EST)

== Image upload ==

Hi, RJJensen. I'd like to ask you how I may get images upload right. All the images I am going to upload were taken by me. Thank you.[[User:Friscokid7|Friscokid7]] 18:02, 29 January 2010 (EST)
:Only editors who have been here a while and demonstrated that they are not vandals are given image upload rights. Users without any contributions do not get image upload rights. [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 18:14, 29 January 2010 (EST)
::The thing is that my only contributions will be adding images. For example, I have a good image of erosion that I took just last night. The image could be used in Erosion article. English is not my first language, that's why I am not sure I will be of a great help in editing the articles, but I do take good images. I am not a vandal, but the only way to prove it, is to allow me to upload some of my images. Thank you.--[[User:Friscokid7|Friscokid7]] 18:34, 29 January 2010 (EST)
:::You will not be getting upload rights. You can send the images to an admins email, which will then be posted. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 18:54, 29 January 2010 (EST)
::::Where could I get their email address?Thanks.--[[User:Friscokid7|Friscokid7]] 19:34, 29 January 2010 (EST)
:::::First, activate your email on C P. Then I will send you my email.--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 19:37, 29 January 2010 (EST)
::::::I did.[[User:Friscokid7|Friscokid7]] 10:30, 30 January 2010 (EST)

== David Lloyd George article ==

I have been somewhat under the gun as of late in terms of time to do reading on history which has always been one of my favorite subjects. I recently had a chance to look at your David Lloyd George article and I thought it contained some very interesting material. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 18:14, 15 February 2010 (EST)
::Thanks! :) [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 14:14, 16 February 2010 (EST)

==Nice work==
I recently went back to the [[Theodore Roosevelt]] page and saw your additions to an already well written and informative page, (should be a featured article) and wanted to commended you. You could write a guide to new editors (and old) on quality writing, but knowledge of the subject is a key, and yours here is evident. Keep up the good work. To God be the glory. [[User:Daniel1212|Daniel1212]] 09:30, 17 February 2010 (EST)

: I agree! --[[User:JMR10|Joaquín Martínez]] 09:32, 17 February 2010 (EST)
::thanks! [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 11:24, 17 February 2010 (EST)

User talk:RJJensen

2010-02-16T19:14:52Z

RJJensen: /* David Lloyd George article */ thanks

David Lloyd George

2010-02-12T09:01:14Z

RJJensen: /* Specialized studies */ add details and cite

'''David Lloyd George''' , 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor, OM, PC (Jan. 17, 1863-Mar. 26, 1945), was the British statesman who as leader of the [[British Liberal Party]] passed major social-welfare legislation and as Prime Minister (1916-1922) guided the nation through most of [[World War I|First World War]] and its aftermath. He was a major player at the [[Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919 that reordered the world after the Great War. He was one of the most powerful and successful prime ministers, but after 1922 his Liberal party disintegrated and he was ineffective in opposition. He was a devout evangelical and an icon of 20th century liberalism as the founder of the welfare state and winner of the [[World War I|First World War]].
[[Image:Lgeorge2.jpg|thumb|280px]]
==Early career==
Lloyd George was born to a Welsh family living temporarily in Manchester, England. His father William George was a Welsh schoolmaster who died when David was three. His mother and her two sons were supported by an uncle, Richard Lloyd (1834-1917), a Baptist minister and Liberal activist in North Wales who became a dominant influence on David.<ref> He added his uncle's surname to become ''Lloyd George''. His surname is usually given as ''Lloyd George'' and sometimes as ''George''.</ref> David was active in the Campbellite Baptists, a radical offshoot of the main Baptist denomination. Leaving school at 15 because it was too Anglican, he was largely self-taught. Deciding to be a solicitor, in 1884 he passed his bar examinations. He took an active part in local politics, fighting the landlords and the Church of England in Wales (which was an established church that collected tithes from dissenters and was distinct from the main Church of England.) After his party was badly defeated in 1886 he represented a new generation and rose rapidly in the ranks, winning a seat to Parliament in 1890 as Liberal member for Carnarvon Boroughs, by a mere 18 votes. The fiery orator soon became known for his vigorous attacks on the Conservatives and his championship of prohibition, Welsh nationalism, and disestablishment of the Church of England in Wales. During the [[Boer War]], he bitterly opposed England's policy and was called by some "pro-Boer" and by others "little Englander." From 1905 to 1908 he was a member of Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as president of the Board of Trade.

He married Margaret (Maggie) Owen (1866–1941), a local farmer's daughter, in 1888. They had five children and lived property she owned in the village of Cricieth, in Wales; the children grew up speaking Welsh. She refused to live in London. After 1912 his secretary Frances Stevenson in London became his mistress and confidant; he married her in 1943 (two years after his first wife died).

==People's Budget==
In 1908 [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] made him chancellor of the exchequer, the number two position in government. His closest ally was [[Winston Churchill]]; Lloyd George was the only person who ever dominated Churchill psychologically. In 1909 he introduced his famous budget imposing increased taxes on luxuries, liquor, tobacco, incomes, and land, so that money could be made available for the new welfare programs as well as new battleships. The nation's landowners (well represented in the House of Lords) were intensely angry at the new taxes. In the House of Commons Lloyd George gave a brilliant defense of the budget, which was attacked by the Conservatives. On the stump, most famously in his Limehouse speech, he denounced the Conservatives and the wealthy classes with all his very considerable oratorical power. The budget passed the Commons, but was defeated by the Conservative majority in the House of Lords. The elections of 1910 upheld the Liberal government and the budget finally passed the Lords. Subsequently, the Parliament Bill for social reform and Irish Home Rule, which Lloyd George strongly supported, was passed and the veto power of the House of Lords was greatly curtailed. In 1911 Lloyd George succeeded in putting through Parliament his National Insurance Act, making provision for sickness and invalidism, and this was followed by his Unemployment Insurance Act.

==First World War==
For the first year of the war he remained chancellor of the exchequer, but when the shortage of the English supply of munitions was revealed and the cabinet was reconstituted as the first coalition ministry in May 1915, Lloyd George was put in charge of the newly created Ministry of Munitions. In this position he was a brilliant success, but he was not at all satisfied with the progress of the war, and late in 1915 he became a strong supporter of general conscription. He put through the conscription act of 1916, and in June he became secretary for war. The fall of Romania increased discontent with Asquith, who was forced out in December 1916. Lloyd George became prime minister at the head of a coalition government, though many Liberals refused to support it. His small war committee, a sort of inner cabinet, proved a great success in speeding up decision and action, and he went on to press for unity of military control among the Allies; this was not really achieved until 1918. This unity, combined with the arrival of American troops somewhat earlier than had been expected, did much to bring the war to a successful conclusion.
In his ''War Memoirs'' he compared himself to Asquith:<ref> Lloyd George, ''War Memoirs'' v 1 p 602</ref>
<blockquote>
There are certain indispensable qualities essential to the Chief Minister of the Crown in a great war. . . . Such a minister must have courage, composure, and judgment. All this Mr. Asquith possessed in a superlative degree. . . . But a war minister must also have vision, imagination and initiative--he must show untiring assiduity, must exercise constant oversight and supervision of every sphere of war activity, must possess driving force to energize this activity, must be in continuous consultation with experts, official and unofficial, as to the best means of utilising the resources of the country in conjunction with the Allies for the achievement of victory. If to this can be added a flair for conducting a great fight, then you have an ideal War Minister.
</blockquote>

==Versailles Treaty==
[[Image:Lgeorge1.jpg|thumb|290px||A pleased Lloyd George brings an Easter egg to Britain in the form of the Versailles Peace Treaty, April 1919'']]
Before going as peace delegate to the [[Paris Peace Conference]], Lloyd George strengthened his position by winning the Khaki Election held in December 1918 amidst all the bitterness and fervid hero worship of the end of the war. At Versailles, Lloyd George, [[Woodrow Wilson]] of the U.S. and [[Georges Clemenceau]] of France concluded the peace, with Lloyd George, on the whole, on the side of generosity and moderation. the final Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed huge reparations on Germany, created numerous small weak states in eastern Europe, and set up the [[League of Nations]] to head off future wars. It angered the Germans and was one reason for the rise of [[Hitler]].

From 1919 to 1922 his government steadily weakened, as the result of the railway and other strikes, of spending that irked the Conservatives, and economies that alienated the radicals; conditions in Ireland were appalling, yet no one liked the peace treaty of 1921 granting the [[Irish Free State]] Dominion status.

The Conservatives were increasingly restless under Lloyd George's leadership, but it was the failure of his foreign policy that brought about his defeat. His pro-Greek policy was a failure because of the Turkish victory of 1922, and the Chanak declaration nearly involving Britain in war. The Conservatives revolted at this, Lloyd George resigned, and Andrew Bonar Law became prime minister.

==Opposition leader==
In opposition Lloyd George was not at all effective, partly because the Liberal Party had too few seats to be effective, partly because the Asquith Liberals wing of the party did not like Lloyd George, and partly because the Labour Party was taking over his liberal program of relief and reform.

Nevertheless, in the economic depression of the 1930s, Lloyd George was the only political leader to put forward new and constructive ideas for dealing with unemployment. he consulted with major Liberal economists [[John Maynard Keynes]] and [[William Beveridge]], whose proposals became national policy in the 1940s. In foreign affairs he supported the policy of appeasement, and held an unusually favourable opinion of [[Adolf Hitler]].

He twice refused to join Churchill's wartime cabinet. In 1944 he was made the first Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor. His well-regarded memoirs include ''War Memoirs'' (6 vols., 1933-1936) and ''The Truth About the Peace Treaty'' (2 vols., 1938). He left an estate of £141,147 derived mostly from book royalties.
==See also==
* [[British Liberal Party]]
* [[World War I]]
* [[Paris Peace Conference]]

==Further reading==
* Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff. ''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: The Architect of Change 1863-1912'' (1987); ''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912-1916 '' (1992). standard scholarly biography
* Grigg, John. ''Lloyd George'' 4 vols. (1973-2002), Whitbread Award winner; the most detailed biography; ends Nov. 1918
**''The young Lloyd George'' (1973); ''Lloyd George: the people's champion, 1902–1911'' (1978); ''Lloyd George: from peace to war, 1912–1916'' (1985); ''Lloyd George: war leader, 1916–1918'' (2002)
* Jones, Thomas. ''Lloyd George'' 1951. short and well-regarded [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24159597 online edition]
* Morgan, Kenneth O. "George, David Lloyd, first Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (1863–1945)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', 2004; [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34570, online]
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''Lloyd George: rise and fall'' (1961)

==Bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Creiger, Don M. ''Bounder from Wales: Lloyd George's Career Before the First World War''. U of Missouri Press, 1976.
* Fry, Michael G. ''Lloyd George and Foreign Policy. Vol. 1: The Education of a Statesman: 1890-1916''. Montreal, 1977.
* Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff. ''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: The Architect of Change 1863-1912'' (1987); ''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912-1916 '' (1992). standard scholarly biography
* Grigg, John. ''Lloyd George'' 4 vols. (1973-2002), Whitbread Award winner; the most detailed biography; ends Nov. 1918
**''The young Lloyd George'' (1973); ''Lloyd George: the people's champion, 1902–1911'' (1978); ''Lloyd George: from peace to war, 1912–1916'' (1985); ''Lloyd George: war leader, 1916–1918'' (2002)
* Jones, Thomas. ''Lloyd George'' 1951. short and well-regarded [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24159597 online edition]
* Morgan, Kenneth O. "George, David Lloyd, first Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (1863–1945)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', 2004; [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34570, online]
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Lloyd George''. 1974.
* Owen, Frank. ''Tempestuous Journey: Lloyd George, His Life and Times.'' 1955. popular history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3953145&oplinknum=4 online edition]
* Rowland, Peter. ''David Lloyd George: A Biography'' (1976), 872pp, detailed but lacking interpretation or synthesis
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''Lloyd George: rise and fall'' (1961)

===Specialized studies===
* Adams, R.J.Q. ''Arms and the Wizard: Lloyd George and the Ministry of Munitions''. 1978.
* Adams, R. J. Q. "Andrew Bonar Law and the Fall of the Asquith Coalition: the December 1916 Cabinet Crisis." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 1997 32(2): 185-200. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Adams, W.S. "Lloyd George and the Labour Movement," ''Past and Present'' No. 3 (Feb., 1953), pp. 55-64 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28195302%290%3A3%3C55%3ALGATLM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S in JSTOR]
* Lord Beaverbrook. ''The Decline and Fall of Lloyd George'' 1963 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=7689162 online edition]
* Bennett, G.H. "Lloyd George, Curzon and the Control of British Foreign Policy 1919-22," ''The Australian Journal of Politics and History'', Vol. 45, 1999 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001859995 online edition]
* Cregier, Don M. "The Murder of the British Liberal Party," ''The History Teacher'' Vol. 3, No. 4 (May, 1970), pp. 27-36 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745%28197005%293%3A4%3C27%3ATMOTBL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D online edition], blames Asquith, Lloyd George and the voters
* Ehrman, John. "Lloyd George and Churchill as War Ministers," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 5th Ser., Vol. 11 (1961), pp. 101-115 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%281961%295%3A11%3C101%3ALGACAW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Fair, John D. "Politicians, Historians, and the War: A Reassessment of the Political Crisis of December 1916," ''The Journal of Modern History,'' Vol. 49, No. 3, On Demand Supplement. (Sep., 1977), pp. D1329-D1343. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2801%28197709%2949%3A3%3CD1329%3APHATWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 in JSTOR]
* French, David. ''The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916-1918''. Oxford University Press, 1995 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23080961 online edition]
* Fry, Michael. "Political Change in Britain, August 1914 to December 1916: Lloyd George Replaces Asquith: The Issues Underlying the Drama," ''The Historical Journal'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Sep., 1988), pp. 609-627 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28198809%2931%3A3%3C609%3APCIBA1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 in JSTOR]
* Gilbert, Bentley B. "David Lloyd George: The Reform of British Landholding and the Budget of 1914," ''The Historical Journal,'' Vol. 21, No. 1 (Mar., 1978), pp. 117-141 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28197803%2921%3A1%3C117%3ADLGTRO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]
* Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff. "David Lloyd George: Land, The Budget, and Social Reform," ''The American Historical Review'' Vol. 81, No. 5 (Dec., 1976), pp. 1058-1066 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762%28197612%2981%3A5%3C1058%3ADLGLTB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in JSTOR]
* Hankey, Lord. ''The Supreme Command, 1914-1918''. 2 vols. 1961.
* Havighurst, Alfred F. ''Twentieth-Century Britain.'' 1966. standard survey [http://www.questia.com/library/book/twentieth-century-britain-by-alfred-f-havighurst.jsp online edition]
* Hazlehurst, Cameron. "Asquith as Prime Minister, 1908-1916," ''The English Historical Review'' Vol. 85, No. 336 (Jul., 1970), pp. 502-531 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266%28197007%2985%3A336%3C502%3AAAPM1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
*Kernek, Sterling J. "Distractions of Peace during War: The Lloyd George Government's Reactions to Woodrow Wilson, December, 1916-November, 1918," ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 65, No. 2 (1975), pp. 1-117 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1975)2%3A65%3A2%3C1%3ADOPDWT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E online edition]
* Keynes, John Maynard, ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'' (1920) famous criticism by leading economist [http://books.google.com/books?id=0VcKN-RbPnoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Economic+intitle:Consequences+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Peace&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]
* Lentin, Antony. ''Lloyd George and the Lost Peace: From Versailles to Hitler, 1919-1940'' (2001)
** Lentin, Antony. "Maynard Keynes and the ‘Bamboozlement’ of Woodrow Wilson: What Really Happened at Paris?" ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'', Dec 2004, Vol. 15 Issue 4, pp 725-763, explains why veterans pensions were included in reparations
* Macmillan, Margaret. ''Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War'' (2002), 538pp; a standard scholarly history of Versailles treaty
* Macmillan, Margaret, and Richard Holbrooke. ''Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World'' (2003) influential study [http://www.amazon.com/Paris-1919-Months-Changed-World/dp/0375760520/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210532673&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Millman, Brock. "A Counsel of Despair: British Strategy and War Aims, 1917-18." ''Journal of Contemporary History''2001 36(2): 241-270. Issn: 0022-0094 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28200104%2936%3A2%3C241%3AACODBS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in Jstor]
* Millman, Brock. "The Lloyd George War Government, 1917-18" ''Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions'' Winter 2002, Vol. 3 Issue 3, p 99-127; sees proto-fascism
* Morgan, Kenneth O. "Lloyd George's Premiership: A Study in 'Prime Ministerial Government.'" ''The Historical Journal'' 13 (March 1970). [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28197003%2913%3A1%3C130%3ALGPASI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 in JSTOR]
* Morgan, Kenneth O. "Lloyd George and Germany." ''Historical Journal'' 1996 39(3): 755-766. Issn: 0018-246x[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28199609%2939%3A3%3C755%3ALGAG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in Jstor]
* Mowat, Sharles Loch. ''Britain between the Wars, 1918-1940'' (1955) 694 pp; [https://www.questia.com/library/book/britain-between-the-wars-1918-1940-by-charles-loch-mowat.jsp online edition]
* Murray, Bruce K. "The Politics of the 'People's Budget'", ''The Historical Journal'' Vol. 16, No. 3 (Sep., 1973), pp. 555-570 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28197309%2916%3A3%3C555%3ATPOT%27B%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Owen, Frank. ''Tempestuous Journey: Lloyd George, His Life and Times'' 1955.
* Powell, David. ''British Politics, 1910-1935: The Crisis of the Party System'' 2004
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''English History, 1914-1945''. 1965, standard political history of the era
* Taylor, A. J. P., ed., ''Lloyd George: twelve essays'' (1971). essays by scholars
* Turner, John. ''British Politics and the Great War: Coalition and Conflict, 1915-1918'' (1992)
* Wilson, Trevor. ''The Downfall of the Liberal Party 1914-1935''. 1966.
* Wilson, Trevor. "The Coupon and the British General Election of 1918," ''The Journal of Modern History'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 28-42 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2801%28196403%2936%3A1%3C28%3ATCATBG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]
* Woodward, David R. ''Lloyd George and the Generals'' F. Cass, 2004. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108515889 online edition]
* Woodward, Sir Llewellyn. ''Great Britain and the War of 1914-1918.'' 1967.
* Wrigley, Chris. ''David Lloyd George and the British Labour Movement: Peace and War'' (1976)

===Primary sources===
* Cross, Colin, ed. ''Life with Lloyd George: The Diary of A.J. Sylvester'' 1975.
* Lloyd George, David. ''The Truth About the Peace Treaties''. 2 vols. (1938) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82335430 vol 1 online]
* Lloyd George, David, ''War Memoirs of David Lloyd George''. 2 vols. (1933). An unusually long, detailed and candid record.
* Lloyd George, David. ''The Great Crusade: Extracts from Speeches Delivered During the War'' (1918) 307 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=hQ4gAAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:lloyd+inauthor:george&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=UCvnxTp6BIxRI5PEUT7NNxLGyPI online edition]
** George W. Egerton, "The Lloyd George ''War Memoirs'': A Study in the Politics of Memory," ''The Journal of Modern History'' Vol. 60, No. 1 (Mar., 1988), pp. 55-94 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2801%28198803%2960%3A1%3C55%3ATLG%22MA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G in JSTOR]
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ed. ''Lloyd George Family Letters, 1885-1936''. 1973.
* Taylor, A. J. P. ed. ''My Darling Pussy: The Letters of Lloyd George and Frances Stevenson''. 1975.
* Taylor, A. J. P. ed. ''Lloyd George: A Diary by Frances Stevenson.'' 1971.

====Notes====
<references/>

[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers|Lloyd George, David]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lloyd George, David}}

Postmodernism

2010-01-25T23:52:32Z

RJJensen: /* Ideas */ vocabulary

'''Postmodernism''' is a recent movement in the humanities characterized by denial of the possibility of knowing objective truth, and which asserts that assertions of objective knowledge are generally impossible. For example, the postmodern will look at a statement primarily in terms of the motives of the person making it. It emphasizes the role of language, and of power relations involved in being male (versus female), straight (versus gay), white (vesus colored), and imperial (versus colonial).

Postmodernity has influenced many disparate fields of the humanities, such as literary criticism, linguistics, art history, and photography. It promotes the study of gay culture (called Queer Theory) as well as Women's Studies. It is weakly represented in historiography and the social sciences, and practically does not exist in the sciences or engineering.

Postmodernist thought is an intentional departure from modern approaches that had previously been dominant. The term "postmodernism" comes from its rejection of the "modern" scientific mentality created by the [[Enlightenment]]. Both movements coexist today, as does traditionalism.

==History==
Postmodernism emerged from "structuralism" and "poststructuralism" in French philosophy of the 1960s, who were influenced by the German philosopher [[Nietzsche]] (1844-1900); it adopted a good deal of poststructuralism, but it broadened and extended poststructuralism to topics that focused on a wide-ranging critique of the modern world.<ref> Historian [[Arnold Toynbee]] first used the term "postmodern" in 1954, but in a very different sense.</ref> Influential French postmodernists include
Lyotard (who identified and rejected the master narratives of modernism), Derrida (with his notion of deconstruction of a text to see what really motivated it), Foucault (who stressed that power creates or causes accepted knowledge) and Baudrillard (who introduced notions of implosion, hyperreality, and simulacra).

Other favorite terms are: ''spectacle, pastiche, ambiguity, doubt, contradiction, novelty, reflexivity, otherness, difference, identity, heterogeneity, upheaval, carnival, turbulence, instability, discontinuity, limitless choice, and flux.''

==Ideas==
Some postmodernist ideas are:

* Truth is often [[Social Construct|constructed]] and manipulated by a society's leaders, privileged classes, and institutions of power. <ref>Sarbin, Theodore R. "The Social Construction of Truth." in ''Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology.'' Vol 18(2), Fal 1998, 144-150.</ref>
* A society's vocabulary reflects their general perceptions of the rules by which the world operates.<ref>http://www.modern-thinker.co.uk/6%20-%20language%20and%20society.htm</ref> (This perhaps fueled the[[political correctness]] movement of the 1990's).
* There is no one superior culture; it is a fallacy to presume that [[Western culture]] is somehow better than others, a position often taken by people locked inside the culture who have not been able to take a broader viewpoint.
* Postmodernists often use irony and wordplay to shift the meanings of words, so that readers can better realize the unspoken assumptions they have been making.
* [[Gender role]]s, sexuality and race are [[social constructionism|socially constructed]], not inborn traits that are the same forever in all societies.

Critics of postmodernism include traditionalists who believe that truths from authoritative sources should always be believed, and modernists who believe that rational, scientific approaches can lead to the discovery of the truth.

==Postmodern Criticism in the Humanities==
A popular tactic of postmodernism is to attack or ridicule the western canon of literature, music, and art. Implied in such rhetorical flourishes as the "Great Man" theory and the epithet "Dead White Male" is the criticism that the canon, because of its exclusion of works by women and minorities, is undeserving of respect. In the past several decades, this has led to intense debate over curriculum in public schools and universities, especially over which literary works should be taught in classrooms.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/18/opinion/the-crime-of-white-maleness.html</ref>

Criticisms of this stance often make one of two points. First is that the epithet "dead white male" focuses disproportionately on race and gender, obscuring the fact that many artists traditionally have struggled to survive or made brave stances against authority. The second point is that the works of the canon are indeed valuable, and recognizing this value does not prohibit us from studying valuable art of other cultures or from traditionally opressed groups in western culture.<ref>http://media.www.thetriangle.org/media/storage/paper689/news/2006/01/27/EdOp/dead-White.Men.Have.Much.To.Offer.Students-1515340.shtml</ref>

==The Sokal Affair==
Alan Sokal famously exposed postmodern approaches to the hard sciences as deeply flawed in 1996 by successfully publishing nonsense in a [[Social Text|postmodern humanities journal]], making it a laughing stock among scientists.<ref>http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/index.html</ref>

==See Also==
* [[Critical Legal Studies]]
* [[Deconstruction]]
* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Queer theory]]
* [[Nihilism]]

==Further reading==
* Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. ''Postmodern Theory '' (1991) [http://www.amazon.com/Postmodern-Theory-Steven-Best/dp/0898624185/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255660810&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Turn'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Postmodern-Turn-Steven-Best/dp/1572302216/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255660575&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Hutcheon, Linda. ''The Politics of Postmodernism.'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/107450059?title=The%20Politics%20of%20Postmodernism online edition]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Artistic Movements]]
[[Category:culture]]
[[Category:philosophical systems]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

China

2010-01-25T11:18:58Z

RJJensen: /* Science and Technology */ update

{{Country
|name =中华人民共和国 中華人民共和國 Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
|map =China rel01.jpg
|map2 =China location.png
|flag =Flag_of_the_PRC.png‎
|arms =Arms of PR China.png
|capital =Beijing
|capital-raw =
|government =Communist
|government-raw =
|language =Mandarin Chinese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|chairman =Hu Jintao
|premier =Wen Jiabao
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,704,427 sq mi
|pop =1,317,000,000 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$10 trillion (2007)
|gdp-pc =$7,600 (2007)
|currency =Yuan
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'''China''' (formally, '''The People's Republic of China'''), is the world's largest country by population, with a rapidly growing economy. With thousands of years of continuous traditions, in three decades it has dramatically changed itself from a poor backward nation to a world power, and to the top of the world's economies. It has emerged as a major regional power in East Asia, averaging over 9% economic growth per year since 1978 when it introduced a market-based economic system with many elements of capitalism, to replace its old socialism. Foreign businesses have flocked to invest in China, Americans and others rush to buy its cheap factory output, Chinese exports flooded the world. It has vast reserves of dollar holdings. China is modernizing its military, has joined numerous regional and international institutions, and plays an increasingly visible role in international politics.

The nation is under control from the [[Chinese Communist Party]], which encompasses mainland China, albeit with many border disputes. The PRC claims [[Taiwan]], the [[Republic of China]], as its own province, but the ROC maintains its sovereignty.

[[Hong Kong]] was transferred back to Chinese control by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, and [[Macau]] was handed over by [[Portugal]] in 1999. Both territories are now [[Special Administrative Region]]s and have autonomy over local affairs. Since the 1950s China has increasing asserted brutal control over [[Tibet]].

==People==
===Ethnic Groups===
{| align=right border=3 cellspacing=0 style="border-width: 5px; border-color: #c0c0c0; background: #e0e0e0; margin: 2em;"
| style="text-align: center; padding: 10px 40px 10px 40px;" | [[Previous_Breaking_News/China| Previous Breaking News: China]]
|}
The largest ethnic group is the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. The remaining 8.1% are Zhuang (16 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (9 million), Miao (8 million), [[Uighur]] (7 million), Yi (7 million), Mongolian (5 million), Tibetan (5 million), Buyi (3 million), Korean (2 million), and other ethnic minorities.

In July 2009 large scale rioting erupted as the [[Uighur]] minority fought Chinese riot police in major cities in China's western Xinjiang province. Hundreds are dead..<ref> See [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/world/asia/07kadeer.html?ref=world Wrik Eckholm, "China Points to Another Leader in Exile," ''New York Times'' July 6, 2009]</ref> Uighurs are angry at political, cultural and religious persecution as well as the growing presence in the region of Han Chinese - China's main ethnic group. Han now predominate in the cities, and Uighurs in the countryside. This is the first major violent unrest in China in two decades.

===Language===
There are seven major Chinese dialects and many subdialects. Mandarin (or Putonghua), the predominant dialect, is spoken by over 70% of the population. It is taught in all schools and is the medium of government. About two-thirds of the Han ethnic group are native speakers of Mandarin; the rest, concentrated in south and southeast China, speak one of the six other major Chinese dialects. Non-Chinese languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and other Turkic languages (in Xinjiang), and Korean (in the northeast).

====The Pinyin System of Romanization====
On January 1, 1979, the Chinese Government officially adopted the pinyin system for spelling Chinese names and places in Roman letters. A system of Romanization invented by the Chinese, pinyin has long been widely used in China on street and commercial signs as well as in elementary Chinese textbooks as an aid in learning Chinese characters. Variations of pinyin also are used as the written forms of several minority languages.

Pinyin has now replaced other conventional spellings in China's English-language publications. The U.S. Government also has adopted the pinyin system for all names and places in China. For example, the capital of China is now spelled "Beijing" rather than "Peking."

In 2008 the anti-Communist government of Taiwan finally adopted the pinyin system, replaces the old Wade-Giles system which was increasingly ignored by the Chinese diaspora.

==Religion==
A February 2007 survey concluded that 31% of Chinese citizens ages 16 and over, representing 300 million persons, are religious believers.<ref> This is approximately three times the official figure reported by the Government in April 2005.See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108404.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

There are reportedly more than 100,000 officially recognized sites for religious activities, 300,000 officially recognized clergy, and more than 3,000 officially recognized religious organizations.

The Government officially recognizes five main religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. There are five state-sanctioned "Patriotic Religious Associations" (PRAs) that manage the activities of the recognized faiths. The Russian Orthodox Church operates in some regions, particularly those with large populations of Russian expatriates or with close links to Russia. Foreign residents in the country who belonged to religious faiths not officially recognized by the Government were generally permitted to practice their religions.

It is difficult to estimate the number of Buddhists and Taoists, because they do not have congregational memberships and many practice exclusively at home.

The Government estimated that there are 16,000 Buddhist temples and monasteries, 200,000 Buddhist monks and nuns, more than 1,700 reincarnate lamas, and 32 Buddhist schools. Most believers, particularly ethnic Han Buddhists, practice Mahayana Buddhism, while the majority of Tibetans and ethnic Mongolians, as well as a growing number of ethnic Chinese, practice Tibetan Buddhism, a Mahayana adaptation. Some ethnic minorities in southwest Yunnan Province practice Theravada Buddhism, the dominant tradition in parts of neighboring Southeast Asia.

There are more than 25,000 Taoist priests and nuns, more than 1,500 Taoist temples, and 2 Taoist schools. Traditional folk religions (worship of local gods, heroes, and ancestors) are practiced by hundreds of millions of citizens and are often affiliated with Taoism, Buddhism, or ethnic minority cultural practices.

The government says there are twenty million Muslims. Independent estimates range as high as fifty million or more. There are more than 40,000 Islamic places of worship (more than half of which are in the XUAR), more than 45,000 imams nationwide, and 10 Islamic schools. The country has ten predominantly Muslim ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Hui, estimated to number more than ten million. The Hui are centered in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, but there are significant concentrations of Hui throughout the country, including in Gansu, Henan, Qinghai, Yunnan, and Hebei Provinces, as well as in the TAR and the XUAR. Hui Muslims slightly outnumber Uighur Muslims, who live primarily in the XUAR. According to an official 2005 report, the XUAR had 23,900 mosques and 27,000 clerics at the end of 2004, but fewer than half of the mosques were authorized to hold Friday prayer and holiday services. The country also has more than one million Kazakh Muslims and thousands of Dongxiang, Kyrgyz, Salar, Tajik, Uzbek, Baoan, and Tatar Muslims.

Officials from the Three-Self Patriotic Movement/China Christian Council (TSPM/CCC), the state-approved Protestant religious organization, estimated that at least twenty million citizens worship in official churches. Government officials stated that there are more than 50,000 registered TSPM churches and 18 TSPM theological schools. The Pew Research Center estimates that between 50 million and 70 million Christians practice without state sanction. The World Christian Database estimates that there are more than 300 unofficial house church networks.

The Catholic Patriotic Association (CPA) reports that 5.3 million persons worship in its churches and it is estimated that there are an additional 12 million or more persons who worship in unregistered Catholic churches that do not affiliate with the CPA. According to official sources, the government-sanctioned CPA has more than 70 bishops, nearly 3,000 priests and nuns, 6,000 churches and meeting places, and 12 seminaries. There are thought to be approximately 40 bishops operating "underground," some of whom are in prison or under house arrest. During the reporting period, at least three bishops were ordained with papal approval. In September 2007 the official media reported that Liu Bainian, CPA vice president, stated that the young bishops were to be selected to serve dioceses without bishops and to replace older bishops. Of the 97 dioceses in the country, 40 reportedly did not have an acting bishop in 2007, and more than 30 bishops were over 80 years of age.
===Religious discrimination===
The Government restricts legal religious practice to government-sanctioned organizations and registered religious groups and places of worship, and seeks to control the growth and scope of the activity of both registered and unregistered religious groups, including "house churches." Government authorities limit proselytism, particularly by foreigners and unregistered religious groups, but permit proselytism in state-approved religious venues and private settings.

In 2008, the Government's repression of religious freedom intensified in some areas, including in Tibetan areas and in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Unregistered Protestant religious groups in Beijing reported intensified harassment from government authorities in the lead up to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Media and China-based sources reported that municipal authorities in Beijing closed some house churches or asked them to stop meeting during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. During the reporting period, officials detained and interrogated several foreigners about their religious activities and in several cases alleged that the foreigners had engaged in "illegal religious activities" and cancelled their visas. Media reported that the total number of expatriates expelled by the Government due to concerns about their religious activities exceeded one hundred. Officials in the XUAR, the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), and other Tibetan areas tightly controlled religious activity. The Government sought the forcible return of several Uighur Muslims living abroad, some of whom had reportedly protested restrictions on the Hajj and encouraged other Muslims to pray and fast during Ramadan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, including those in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region and most Tibetan autonomous areas, faced more restrictions on their religious practice and ability to organize than Buddhists in other parts of the country. "Patriotic education" campaigns in the TAR and other Tibetan regions, which required monks and nuns to sign statements personally denouncing the Dalai Lama, and other new restrictions on religious freedom were major factors that led monks and nuns to mount peaceful protests at a number of monasteries on March 10, 2008. The protests and subsequent security response gave way to violence in Lhasa by March 14 and 15.

"Underground" Roman Catholic clergy faced repression, in large part due to their avowed loyalty to the Vatican, which the Government accused of interfering in the country's internal affairs. The Government continued to repress groups that it designated as "cults," which included several Christian groups and Falun Gong.

Religious and ethnic minority groups such as Tibetan Buddhists and Uighur Muslims experienced societal discrimination not only because of their religious beliefs but also because of their status as ethnic minorities with distinct languages and cultures. After the March 2008 protests in Lhasa and other Tibetan areas there were reports of increased tensions between Tibetan Buddhists and Hui Muslims.

The '''Falun Gong''' is a self-described spiritual movement that blends aspects of Taoism, Buddhism, and the meditation techniques and physical exercises of qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise discipline), with the teachings of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi. There are estimated to have been at least 2.1 million adherents of Falun Gong before the Government banned the group in 1999. Hundreds of thousands may practice Falun Gong privately.

==Population Policy==
[[Image:China Mex RGarciaOrtiz.jpg|right|Chinese at Mexico]]
With a population officially just over 1.3 billion and an estimated growth rate of about 0.6%, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict birth limitation policy. The government permits one child per family, with allowance for a second child under certain circumstances (such as twins), especially in rural areas, and with guidelines looser for ethnic minorities with small populations. Enforcement varies, and relies largely on "social compensation fees" to discourage extra births. Official government policy opposes forced [[abortion]] or sterilization, but in some localities there are instances of forced [[abortion]]. The government's goal is to stabilize the population in the first half of the 21st century, and current projections are that the population will peak at around 1.6 billion by 2050. Boysare highly prized, and because screening of fetuses is done to determine gender, selective abortion has resulted in 119 boys born for every 100 girls. By 2020, 24 million men of marrying age will find themselves without wives.

==Government==
The People's Republic of China is an authoritarian state in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) constitutionally is the paramount source of power. Party members hold almost all top government, police, and military positions. Ultimate authority rests with the 25-member political bureau (Politburo) of the CCP and its nine-member standing committee. '''[[Hu Jintao]]''' holds the three most powerful positions as CCP general secretary, president, and chairman of the Central Military Commission. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.

===Chinese Communist Party===
The 71 million member CCP, authoritarian in structure and ideology, continues to dominate government. Nevertheless, China's population, geographical vastness, and social diversity frustrate attempts to rule by fiat from Beijing. Central leaders must increasingly build consensus for new policies among party members, local and regional leaders, influential non-party members, and the population at large.

In periods of greater openness, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase, particularly in the economic realm. This phenomenon is most apparent today in the rapidly developing coastal region. Nevertheless, in all important government, economic, and cultural institutions in China, party committees work to see that party and state policy guidance is followed and that non-party members do not create autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule. Party control is tightest in government offices and in urban economic, industrial, and cultural settings; it is considerably looser in the rural areas, where the majority of the people live.

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the Party Congress, which traditionally meets at least once every 5 years. The 17th Party Congress is expected to take place in the fall of 2007. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party include:
*The Politburo Standing Committee, which currently consists of nine members (one seat is vacant following the June 2, 2007 death of Huang Ju);
*The Politburo, consisting of 24 full members, including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee;
*The Secretariat, the principal administrative mechanism of the CCP, headed by the General Secretary;
*The Central Military Commission;
*The Discipline Inspection Commission, which is charged with rooting out corruption and malfeasance among party cadres.
===State Structure===
The Chinese Government has always been subordinate to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP); its role is to implement party policies. The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the President (the head of state), and the State Council. Members of the State Council include Premier Wen Jiabao (the head of government), a variable number of vice premiers (now four), five state councilors (protocol equivalents of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), and 22 ministers and four State Council commission directors.

Under the Chinese constitution, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It meets annually for about 2 weeks to review and approve major new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. These initiatives are presented to the NPC for consideration by the State Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Central Committee. Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel recommendations, various NPC committees hold active debate in closed sessions, and changes may be made to accommodate alternate views.

When the NPC is not in session, its permanent organ, the Standing Committee, exercises state power.
===Principal Government and Party Officials===
*President--Hu Jintao
*Vice President--Zeng Qinghong
*Premier, State Council--Wen Jiabao
*NPC Chair--Wu Bangguo
*Vice Premiers--Wu Yi, Zeng Peiyan, Hui Liangyu
*Politburo Standing Committee--Hu Jintao (General Secretary), Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao, Jia Qinglin, Zeng Qinghong, Wu Guanzheng, Li Changchun, Luo Gan
*Other Politburo Members--Cao Gangchuan, Guo Boxiong, He Guoqiang, Hui Liangyu, Liu Qi, Liu Yunshan, Wang Lequan, Wang Zhaoguo, Wu Yi, Yu Zhengsheng, Zeng Peiyan, Zhang Dejiang, Zhang Lichang, Zhou Yongkang, Wang Gang (alternate)
*Alternate Politburo Members--Wang Gang
*Chairman, Central Military Commission--Hu Jintao
*Foreign Minister--Yang Jiechi
*Minister of Commerce--Bo Xilai
*Minister of Finance--Jin Renqing
*Minister of Agriculture--Sun Zhengcai
*Minister of Information Industry--Wang Xudong
*Governor, People's Bank of China--Zhou Xiaochuan
*Minister, State Development and Reform Commission--Ma Kai
*Ambassador to U.S.--Zhou Wenzhong
*Ambassador to UN--Wang Guangya

===Foreign Relations===
[[Image:Chinese painting.jpg|thumb|Chinese painting.]]
Since its establishment, the People's Republic has worked vigorously to win international support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong, Macau, and [[Taiwan]]. In the early 1970s, Beijing was recognized diplomatically by most world powers. [[Beijing]] (Pekin) assumed the China seat in the [[United Nations]] in 1971 and has since become increasingly active in multilateral organizations. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and the United States did so in 1979. As of July 2007, the number of countries that have diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 167, while 24 maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan.

After the founding of the P.R.C., China's foreign policy initially focused on solidarity with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In 1950, China sent the People's Liberation Army into North Korea to help North Korea halt the UN offensive that was approaching the Yalu River. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.

In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position.

In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a brief border war with Vietnam (February-March 1979) with the stated purpose of "teaching Vietnam a lesson."

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia--the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.

In the 1970s and 1980s China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and to foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.

China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower hegemony," focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to follow closely economic and other positions of the Third World nonaligned movement, although China was not a formal member.

In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen crackdown in June 1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with China as well as their economic assistance programs. In response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal relations with almost all nations. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.

In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations. Closer to home, China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia, hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum. China has also taken steps to improve relations with countries in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005 visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes. The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.

China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with Presidents Putin and Hu exchanging visits to Beijing and Moscow in April 2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint military exercises is scheduled for fall 2007. China has played a prominent role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia and the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Beijing has resolved many of its border and maritime disputes, notably including a November 1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over islands in the South China Sea. Relations with Japan improved following Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's October 2006 visit to Beijing, although longstanding and emotionally charged disputes over history and competing claims to portions of the East China Sea remain sources of tension.

While in many ways Sudan's primary diplomatic patron, China has played a constructive role in support of peacekeeping operations in Southern Sudan and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of UN operations in Darfur. China has stated publicly that it shares the international community's concern over Iran's nuclear program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Venezuela, which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

==Political Conditions==
===Legal System===
The government's efforts to promote rule of law are significant and ongoing. After the Cultural Revolution, China's leaders aimed to develop a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and revolutionary excesses. In 1982, the National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable.

Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees--informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of China's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties--is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000 such committees in both rural and urban areas.

Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. Legislation designed to modernize and professionalize the nation's lawyers, judges, and prisons was enacted. The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the crime of "counter-revolutionary" activity, although many persons are still incarcerated for that crime. Criminal procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process. The Chinese constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but these are often ignored in practice. In addition to other judicial reforms, the Constitution was amended in 2004 to include the protection of individual human rights and legally-obtained private property, but it is unclear how those provisions will be implemented. Although new criminal and civil laws have provided additional safeguards to citizens, previously debated political reforms, including expanding elections to the township level, and other legal reforms, including the reform of the reeducation through labor system, have been put on hold.

==Military==
Establishment of a professional military force equipped with modern weapons and doctrine was the last of the "Four Modernizations" announced by Zhou Enlai and supported by Deng Xiaoping. In keeping with Deng's mandate to reform, the People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the strategic nuclear forces, army, navy, and air force, has demobilized millions of men and women since 1978 and introduced modern methods in such areas as recruitment and manpower, strategy, and education and training.

Following the June 1989 Tiananmen crackdown, ideological correctness was temporarily revived as the dominant theme in Chinese military affairs. Reform and modernization appear to have since resumed their position as the PLA's priority objectives.

The Chinese military is in the process of transforming itself from a land-based power, centered on a vast ground force, to a smaller, mobile, high-tech military eventually capable of mounting limited operations beyond its coastal borders.

China's power-projection capability is limited but has grown over recent years. China has acquired some advanced weapons systems from abroad, including Sovremmeny destroyers, SU-27 and SU-30 aircraft, and Kilo-class diesel submarines from Russia, and continued to develop domestic production capabilities, such as for the domestically-developed J-10 fighter aircraft. However, much of its air and naval forces continues to be based on 1960s-era technology. As the Defense Department's Quadrennial Defense Review, released February 2006, noted, the U.S. shares with other countries a concern about the pace, scope, and direction of China's military modernization. We view military exchanges, visits, and other forms of engagement are useful tools in promoting transparency, provided they have substance and are fully reciprocal. Regularized exchanges and contact also have the significant benefit of building confidence, reducing the possibility of accidents, and providing the lines of communication that are essential in ensuring that episodes such as the April 2001 EP-3 aircraft incident do not escalate into major crises. During their April 2006 meeting, President Bush and President Hu agreed to increase officer exchanges and to begin a strategic nuclear dialogue between STRATCOM and the Chinese military's strategic missile command. U.S. and Chinese militaries are also considering ways in which we might cooperate on disaster assistance relief.

===Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control Policy ===
Nuclear Weapons. In 1955, Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party decided to proceed with a nuclear weapons program; it was developed with Soviet assistance until 1960. After its first nuclear test in October 1964, Beijing deployed a modest but potent ballistic missile force, including land- and sea-based intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles.

China became a major international arms exporter during the 1980s. Beijing joined the Middle East arms control talks, which began in July 1991 to establish global guidelines for conventional arms transfers, but announced in September 1992 that it would no longer participate because of the U.S. decision to sell F-16A/B aircraft to Taiwan.

China was the first state to pledge "no first use" of nuclear weapons. It joined the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1984 and pledged to abstain from further atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in 1986. China acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1992 and supported its indefinite and unconditional extension in 1995. In 1996, it signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and agreed to seek an international ban on the production of fissile nuclear weapons material. To date, China has not ratified the CTBT.

In 1996, China committed not to provide assistance to un-safeguarded nuclear facilities. China became a full member of the NPT Exporters (Zangger) Committee, a group that determines items subject to IAEA inspections if exported by NPT signatories. In September 1997, China issued detailed nuclear export control regulations. China began implementing regulations establishing controls over nuclear-related dual-use items in 1998. China also has committed not to engage in new nuclear cooperation with Iran (even under safeguards), and will complete existing cooperation, which is not of [[proliferation]] concern, within a relatively short period. In May 2004, with the support of the United States, China became a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

Based on significant, tangible progress with China on nuclear nonproliferation, President Clinton in 1998 took steps to bring into force the 1985 U.S.-China Agreement on Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation.

===Missiles===
Although it is not a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the multinational effort to restrict the proliferation of missiles, in March 1992 China undertook to abide by MTCR guidelines and parameters. China reaffirmed this commitment in 1994, and pledged not to transfer MTCR-class ground-to-ground missiles. In November 2000, China committed not to assist in any way the development by other countries of MTCR-class missiles. However, in August 29, 2003, the U.S. Government imposed missile proliferation sanctions lasting two years on the Chinese company China North Industries Corporation (NORINCO) after determining that it was knowingly involved in the transfer of equipment and technology controlled under Category II of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex that contributed to MTCR-class missiles in a non-MTCR country.

In December 2003, the P.R.C. promulgated comprehensive new export control regulations governing exports of all categories of sensitive technologies.

==Economy ==
China's economy, based on rice and wheat farming, was generally prosperous until the 18th century. Population pressures, and failure to adopt new technology led to an impoverished nation by 1900.

After Mao's death the policy of modernization along Western lines has led to a remarkable rate of economic growth in the industrial cities, which have pulled in millions of peasants from the still poor rural areas. Slack environmental standards have led to serious pollution problems.

The modern Chinese economy has benefited from investments from Taiwan and Hong Kong. They jumped far ahead of China by 1970 in terms of technology, and in recent years have invested in mainland industries.

These two factors have changed Chinese economy, from a command economy to a more socialist state, with the Chinese economy increasingly in the hands of privately-owned businesses, not state- or military-run enterprises. The 2001 declaration by Jiang Zemin (former leader of the Communist Party) of the "theory of three represents" -- that the CCP represents not only workers, but also intellectuals and entrepreneurs -- was an explicit affirmation of what had been a trend for the previous years

Since 1980 China has enjoyed the highest economic growth rates in the world. Suddenly in mid-2008, the growth rate slowed sharply from 11% a year to only 5.5%. Much of the economy was geared to exports, and building factories for exports to the United States and Japan. When the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit, exports fell off and prices for industrial products like steel fell in half. Many factories were shut down. The decline has especially hit steel, cement and the construction industry. The government in November 2008 announced a $586 billion stimulus program to build roads, dams, electric grids and other infrastructure projects that are designed to supplement the international market.<ref> David Barboza, "Great Engine of China Slows ," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/worldbusiness/26chinasteel.html?_r=1 ''New York Times'' Nov. 25, 2008] </ref>

Since 1979, China has largely rejected socialism and embraced capitalism, while maintaining Communist party rule. Private ownership of the means of production has dramatically reduced poverty and increased wealth, especially in the cities but also in rural areas. Nationally the GDP (in 2007 prices) has exploded from 2 trillion yuan in 1980 to 25 trillion in 2007.

As late as 1980 60% of the people in rural China lives in poverty; by 2007 fewer than 5% did. Grain production has grown 300 to 500 tons per person, and rural income per person has soared from a few hundred yuan in 1980 to over 4000.<ref>See ''Economist'' Dec. 13, 2008</ref>

The reforms reformed and opened its economy. The Chinese leadership has adopted a more pragmatic perspective on many political and socioeconomic problems, and has reduced the role of ideology in economic policy. China's ongoing economic transformation has had a profound impact not only on China but on the world. The market-oriented reforms China has implemented over the past two decades have unleashed individual initiative and entrepreneurship. The result has been the largest reduction of poverty and one of the fastest increases in income levels ever seen. China today is the fourth-largest economy in the world. It has sustained average economic growth of over 9.5% for the past 26 years. In 2006 its $2.76 trillion economy was about one-fifth the size of the U.S. economy.

In the 1980s, China tried to combine central planning with market-oriented reforms to increase productivity, living standards, and technological quality without exacerbating inflation, unemployment, and budget deficits. China pursued agricultural reforms, dismantling the commune system and introducing a household-based system that provided peasants greater decision-making in agricultural activities. The government also encouraged nonagricultural activities such as village enterprises in rural areas, and promoted more self-management for state-owned enterprises, increased competition in the marketplace, and facilitated direct contact between Chinese and foreign trading enterprises. China also relied more upon foreign financing and imports.

During the 1980s, these reforms led to average annual rates of growth of 10% in agricultural and industrial output. Rural per capita real income doubled. China became self-sufficient in grain production; rural industries accounted for 23% of agricultural output, helping absorb surplus labor in the countryside. The variety of light industrial and consumer goods increased. Reforms began in the fiscal, financial, banking, price-setting, and labor systems.

By the late 1980s, however, the economy had become overheated with increasing rates of inflation. At the end of 1988, in reaction to a surge of inflation caused by accelerated price reforms, the leadership introduced an austerity program.

China's economy regained momentum in the early 1990s. During a visit to southern China in early 1992, China's paramount leader at the time, Deng Xiaoping, made a series of political pronouncements designed to reinvigorate the process of economic reform. The 14th Party Congress later in the year backed Deng's renewed push for market reforms, stating that China's key task in the 1990s was to create a "socialist market economy." The 10-year development plan for the 1990s stressed continuity in the political system with bolder reform of the economic system.

China's economy grew at an average rate of 10% per year during the period 1990-2004, the highest growth rate in the world. China's gross domestic product (GDP) grew 10.0% in 2003, and even faster, 10.1%, in 2004, and 9.9% in 2005 despite attempts by the government to cool the economy. China's total trade in 2006 surpassed $1.76 trillion, making China the world's third-largest trading nation after the U.S. and Germany. Such high growth is necessary if China is to generate the 15 million jobs needed annually--roughly the size of Ecuador or Cambodia--to employ new entrants into the job market.

Nevertheless, serious imbalances exist behind the spectacular trade performance, high investment flows, and high GDP growth. High numbers of non-performing loans weigh down the state-run banking system. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are still a drag on growth, despite announced efforts to sell, merge, or close the vast majority of SOEs.

Social and economic indicators have improved since reforms were launched, but rising inequality is evident between the more highly developed coastal provinces and the less developed, poorer inland regions. According to World Bank estimates, more than 152 million people in China in 2003--mostly in rural areas of the lagging inland provinces--still live in poverty, on consumption of less than U.S. $1 a day.

Following the Chinese Communist Party's Third Plenum, held in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments to the state constitution. One of the most significant was a proposal to provide protection for private property rights. Legislators also indicated there would be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government economic policy, including efforts to reduce unemployment (now in the 8-10% range in urban areas), to rebalance income distribution between urban and rural regions, and to maintain economic growth while protecting the environment and improving social equity. The National People's Congress approved the amendments when it met in March 2004. The Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the 11th Five-Year Economic Program aimed at building a "harmonious society" through more balanced wealth distribution and improved education, medical care, and social security.

===Agriculture===
China is the world's most populous country and one of the largest producers and consumers of agricultural products. Roughly half of China's labor force is engaged in agriculture, even though only 10% of the land is suitable for cultivation and agriculture contributes only 13% of China's GDP. China's cropland area is only 75% of the U.S. total, but China still produces about 30% more crops and livestock than the U.S. because of intensive cultivation, China is among the world's largest producers of rice, corn, wheat, soybeans, vegetables, tea, and pork. Major non-food crops include cotton, other fibers, and oilseeds. China hopes to further increase agricultural production through improved plant stocks, fertilizers, and technology. Incomes for Chinese farmers are stagnating, leading to an increasing wealth gap between the cities and countryside. Government policies that continue to emphasize grain self-sufficiency and the fact that farmers do not own--and cannot buy or sell--the land they work have contributed to this situation. While this was the case in China before Communism, many other countries have since embrace individual ownership while China has not. In addition, inadequate port facilities and lack of warehousing and cold storage facilities impede both domestic and international agricultural trade.

===Industry===
Industry and construction account for about 46% of China's GDP. Major industries are mining and ore processing; iron; steel; aluminum; coal, machinery; textiles and apparel; armaments; petroleum; cement; chemicals; fertilizers; consumer products including footwear, toys, and electronics; automobiles and other transportation equipment including rail cars and locomotives, ships, and aircraft; and telecommunications.

China has become a preferred destination for the relocation of global manufacturing facilities. Its strength as an export platform has contributed to incomes and employment in China. The state-owned sector still accounts for about 40% of GDP. In recent years, authorities have been giving greater attention to the management of state assets--both in the financial market as well as among state-owned-enterprises--and progress has been noteworthy.

===Regulatory Environment===
Though China's economy has expanded rapidly, its regulatory environment has not kept pace. Since Deng Xiaoping's open market reforms, the growth of new businesses has outpaced the government's ability to regulate them. This has created a situation where businesses, faced with mounting competition and poor oversight, will be willing to take drastic measures to increase profit margins, often at the expense of consumer safety. This issue has recently acquired more prominence, with a number of restrictions being placed on problematic Chinese exports by the U.S. The Chinese Government recognizes the severity of the problem, recently concluding that up to 20% of the country's products are substandard or tainted.

===Energy===
Together with strong economic growth, China's demand for energy is surging rapidly. In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the second-largest consumer of primary energy, after the United States. China is the world's second-largest consumer of oil, after the United States, and for 2006, China's increase in oil demand represented 38% of the world total increase in oil demand. China is also the third-largest energy producer in the world, after the United States and Russia. China's electricity consumption is expected to grow by over 4% a year through 2030, which will require more than $2 trillion in electricity infrastructure investment to meet the demand. China expects to add approximately 15,000 megawatts of generating capacity a year, with 20% of that coming from foreign suppliers.

Coal makes up the bulk of China's energy consumption (70% in 2005), and China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. As China's economy continues to grow, China's coal demand is projected to rise significantly. Although coal's share of China's overall energy consumption will decrease, coal consumption will continue to rise in absolute terms. China's continued and increasing reliance on coal as a power source has contributed significantly to putting China on the path to becoming the world's largest emitter of acid rain-causing sulfur dioxide and green house gases, including carbon dioxide.

The 11th Five-Year Program, announced in 2005, calls for greater energy conservation measures, including development of renewable energy sources and increased attention to environmental protection. Moving away from coal towards cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power is an important component of China's development program. China has abundant hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line (projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in 2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come from renewable energy sources by 2020.

Since 1993, China has been a net importer of oil, a large portion of which comes from the Middle East. Net imports are expected to rise to 3.5 million barrels per day by 2010. China is interested in diversifying the sources of its oil imports and has invested in oil fields around the world. Beijing also plans to increase China's natural gas production, which currently accounts for only 3% of China's total energy consumption. Analysts expect China's consumption of natural gas to more than double by 2010.

In May 2004, then-Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with China's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) that launched the U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue. The Dialogue has strengthened energy-related interactions between China and the United States, the world's two largest energy consumers. The U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue builds upon the two countries' existing cooperative ventures in high energy nuclear physics, fossil energy, energy efficiency and renewable energy and energy information exchanges. The NDRC and the Department of Energy also exchange views and expertise on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Technologies, and we convene an annual Oil and Gas Industry Forum with China.

===Environment===
[[Image:Tianmenshan mountain.jpg|left|300px]]
One of the serious negative consequences of China's rapid industrial development has been increased pollution and degradation of natural resources. China is widely expected to surpass the United States as the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases sometime in 2007 or 2008. A World Health Organization report on air quality in 272 cities worldwide concluded that seven of the world's 10 most polluted cities were in China. According to China's own evaluation, two-thirds of the 338 cities for which air-quality data are available are considered polluted--two-thirds of them moderately or severely so. Respiratory and heart diseases related to air pollution are the leading cause of death in China. Almost all of the nation's rivers are considered polluted to some degree, and half of the population lacks access to clean water. By some estimates, every day approximately 300 million residents drink contaminated water. Ninety percent of urban water bodies are severely polluted. Water scarcity also is an issue; for example, severe water scarcity in Northern China is a serious threat to sustained economic growth and the government has begun working on a project for a large-scale diversion of water from the Yangtze River to northern cities, including Beijing and Tianjin. Acid rain falls on 30% of the country. Various studies estimate pollution costs the Chinese economy 7%-10% of GDP each year.

China's leaders are increasingly paying attention to the country's severe environmental problems. In 1998, the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) was officially upgraded to a ministry-level agency, reflecting the growing importance the Chinese Government places on environmental protection. In recent years, China has strengthened its environmental legislation and made some progress in stemming environmental deterioration. In 2005, China joined the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development, which brings industries and governments together to implement strategies that reduce pollution and address climate change. During the 10th Five-Year Plan, China plans to reduce total emissions by 10%. Beijing in particular is investing heavily in pollution control as part of its campaign to host a successful Olympiad in 2008. Some cities have seen improvement in air quality in recent years.

China is an active participant in climate change talks and other multilateral environmental negotiations, taking environmental challenges seriously but pushing for the developed world to help developing countries to a greater extent. It is a signatory to the Basel Convention governing the transport and disposal of hazardous waste and the Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, as well as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and other major environmental agreements.

The question of environmental impacts associated with the Three Gorges Dam project has generated controversy among environmentalists inside and outside China. Critics claim that erosion and silting of the Yangtze River threaten several endangered species, while Chinese officials say the dam will help prevent devastating floods and generate clean hydroelectric power that will enable the region to lower its dependence on coal, thus lessening air pollution.

The United States and China are members of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP). The APP is a public-private partnership of six nations--Australia, China, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United States--committed to explore new mechanisms to meet national pollution reduction, energy security and climate change goals in ways that reduce poverty and promote economic development. APP members have undertaken cooperative activities involving deployment of clean technology in partner countries in eight areas: cleaner fossil energy, renewable energy and distributed generation, power generation and transmission, steel, aluminum, cement, coal mining, and buildings and appliances.

The United States and China have been engaged in an active program of bilateral environmental cooperation since the mid-1990s, with an emphasis on clean energy technology and the design of effective environmental policy. While both governments view this cooperation positively, China has often compared the U.S. program, which lacks a foreign assistance component, with those of Japan and several European Union (EU) countries that include generous levels of aid.

===Science and Technology===
Science and technology have always preoccupied China's leaders; indeed, China's political leadership comes almost exclusively from technical backgrounds and has a high regard for science. Deng called it "the first productive force." Distortions in the economy and society created by party rule have severely hurt Chinese science, according to some Chinese science policy experts. The Chinese Academy of Sciences, modeled on the Soviet system, puts much of China's greatest scientific talent in a large, under-funded apparatus that remains largely isolated from industry, although the reforms of the past decade have begun to address this problem.

Chinese science strategists see China's greatest opportunities in newly emerging fields such as biotechnology and computers, where there is still a chance for China to become a significant player. Most Chinese students who went abroad have not returned, but they have built a dense network of trans-Pacific contacts that will greatly facilitate U.S.-China scientific cooperation in coming years. The U.S. space program is often held up as the standard of scientific modernity in China. China's small but growing space program, which successfully completed their second manned orbit in October 2005, is a focus of national pride.

The U.S.-China Science and Technology Agreement remains the framework for bilateral cooperation in this field. A 5-year agreement to extend the Science and Technology Agreement was signed in April 2006. The Agreement is among the longest-standing U.S.-China accords, and includes over eleven U.S. Federal agencies and numerous branches that participate in cooperative exchanges under the S&T Agreement and its nearly 60 protocols, memoranda of understanding, agreements and annexes. The Agreement covers cooperation in areas such as marine conservation, renewable energy, and health. Biennial Joint Commission Meetings on Science and Technology bring together policymakers from both sides to coordinate joint science and technology cooperation. Executive Secretaries meetings are held biennially to implement specific cooperation programs. Japan and the European Union also have high profile science and technology cooperative relationships with China.
====Internet====
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has criticized Chinese censorship and restrictions on the Intrernet, and China is pushing back since the Communist Party considers Internet control essential if it is to keep power and avoid elections. The government has denied suggestions by Google that a major, sophisticated assault on Goodle in late 2009 was sponsored by the government. The attack targeted email accounts used by dissidents, the weak point in China's political dictatorship. Google is threatening to ignore the censorship policies demanded by the government, and perhaps leave the country. The Communist Party promotes Internet use for commerce, but heavily censors content it deems pornographic, anti-social or politically subversive and blocks many foreign news and social media sites, including Twitter Facebook, and YouTube.

===Poor Medical care===
China, like most Communist countries, gives low priority to medicine and medical care. China only spends 1% of GDP on health care, ranking #156 out of 196 nations surveys by the World Health Organization. Many people rely on traditional practitioners, having more faith in acupuncture than modern science. In any case few have the opportunity to receive modern drugs or treatment with advanced devices. The local clinic has only a thermometer and stethoscope for instrumentation, and very few modern drugs. Only one in six medical personnel have a college degree, and those degrees are not high quality. The ordinary people want more medical care but that hardly matters, for in a dictatorship violence matters, but not public opinion. <Ref> Gordon Fairclaugh, "In China, Rx for Ailing Health System," ''Wall Street Journal,'' Oct. 15, 2009</ref>

===Trade===
China's merchandise exports totaled $969.3 billion and imports totaled $791.8 billion in 2006. Its global trade surplus surged from $32 billion in 2004 to $177.5 billion in 2006. China's primary trading partners include Japan, the EU, the United States, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. According to U.S. statistics, China had a trade surplus with the U.S. of $232.6 billion in 2006.

China has taken important steps to open its foreign trading system and integrate itself into the world trading system. In November 1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group, which promotes free trade and cooperation in the economic, trade, investment, and technology spheres. China served as APEC chair in 2001, and Shanghai hosted the annual APEC leaders meeting in October of that year.

China formally joined the WTO in December 2001. As part of this far-reaching trade liberalization agreement, China agreed to lower tariffs and abolish market impediments. Chinese and foreign businessmen, for example, gained the right to import and export on their own, and to sell their products without going through a government middleman. By 2005, average tariff rates on key U.S. agricultural exports dropped from 31% to 14% and on industrial products from 25% to 9%. The agreement also opens up new opportunities for U.S. providers of services like banking, insurance, and telecommunications. China has made significant progress implementing its WTO commitments, but serious concerns remain, particularly in the realm of intellectual property rights protection.

While accession does not guarantee smaller trade deficits, full implementation of all WTO commitments would further open China's markets to--and help level the playing field for--U.S. exports. China is now one of the most important markets for U.S. exports: in 2006, U.S. exports to China totaled $55.2 billion, almost triple the $19 billion when China joined the WTO in 2001 and up 32% over 2005. U.S. agricultural exports have increased dramatically, making China our fourth-largest agricultural export market (after Canada, Japan, and Mexico). Over the same period (2001-2006), U.S. imports from China have risen from $102 billion to $287.8 billion.

Export growth continues to be a major driver of China's rapid economic growth. To increase exports, China has pursued policies such as fostering the rapid development of foreign-invested factories, which assemble imported components into consumer goods for export, and liberalizing trading rights. In its eleventh Five-Year Program, adopted in 2005, China placed greater emphasis on developing a consumer demand-driven economy to sustain economic growth and address global imbalances.

The United States is one of China's primary suppliers of power generating equipment, aircraft and parts, computers and industrial machinery, raw materials, and chemical and agricultural products. However, U.S. exporters continue to have concerns about fair market access due to strict testing and standards requirements for some imported products. In addition, a lack of transparency in the regulatory process makes it difficult for businesses to plan for changes in the domestic market structure. The April 11, 2006 U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade (JCCT) produced agreements on key U.S. trade concerns ranging from market access to U.S. beef, medical devices, and telecommunications; to the enforcement of intellectual property rights, including, significantly, software. The JCCT also produced an agreement to establish a U.S.-China High Technology and Strategic Trade Working Group to review export control cooperation and facilitate high technology trade.

===Foreign Investment===
China's investment climate has changed dramatically in 24 years of reform. In the early 1980s, China restricted foreign investments to export-oriented operations and required foreign investors to form joint-venture partnerships with Chinese firms. Foreign direct investment (FDI) grew quickly during the 1980s, but stalled in late 1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In response, the government introduced legislation and regulations designed to encourage foreigners to invest in high-priority sectors and regions. Since the early 1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to manufacture and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market, and authorized the establishment of wholly foreign-owned enterprises, now the preferred form of FDI. However, the Chinese Government's emphasis on guiding FDI into manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries, while leaving China's services sectors underdeveloped. China is now one of the leading recipients of FDI in the world, receiving almost $80 billion in 2005 according to World Bank statistics.

As part of its WTO accession, China undertook to eliminate certain trade-related investment measures and to open up specified sectors that had previously been closed to foreign investment. New laws, regulations, and administrative measures to implement these commitments are being issued. Major remaining barriers to foreign investment include opaque and inconsistently enforced laws and regulations and the lack of a rules-based legal infrastructure.

Opening to the outside remains central to China's development. Foreign-invested enterprises produce about half of China's exports, and China continues to attract large investment inflows. Foreign exchange reserves were $1.1 trillion at the end of 2006, and have now surpassed those of Japan, making China's foreign exchange reserves the largest in the world.
===Higher education===
Despite fears that China may be outpacing the United States in turning out engineers, the number of college students in China who study engineering is on the decline, according to ''Global Times'', a Chinese newspaper. Fewer than one in 10 college graduates in 2009 majored in engineering. Instead, students are turning to economics, finance, and management, which pay more and carry more social status. "Engineering usually makes people think of factories, while factories often give people an impression of hard work, low wages, and layoffs," the newspaper quoted one professor as saying.

Meanwhile China is building universities overnight, and sending graduate students to the U.S. for PhD's so they can become professors.

The exodus of Chinese undergraduate and graduate students continues; as 180,000 left in 2008, about 25% percent more than in 2007, as more families were able to pay overseas tuition. For every four students who left in the past decade, only one returned; those with American PhDs in science or engineering the least likely to return. The intellectual vitality, quality of science, pay scales and political climate is much more attractive in the West. Those who return to China risk being shunned as "foreigners".<ref> [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/world/asia/07scholar.html?hp Sharon LaFraniera, "Fighting Trend, China Is Luring Scientists Home," ''New York Times'' Jan. 6. 2010]</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of China}}

Although archaeologists have found settlements in China dating to [[5000 BC]], the earliest nation that can be dated in the area of modern China is the [[Shang Dynasty]], approximately [[2000 BC]].

Dynasty followed dynasty, as old regimes would lose the "mandate of heaven;" it was believed that each emperor ruled only with the approval of heaven, and a ruler who was unfit to rule would curse the nation until replaced. In addition, the Chinese capital would occasionally be overrun by "barbarians," who invariably would start a new dynasty in the Chinese capital, integrating their nations into the former dynasty.

Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums, except in for the popular forms of traditional medicine.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900. In 1911 the revolution deposed the [[Qing Dynasty]] and a republic was proclaimed.

Under the leadership of the [[KMT]] (Kuomintang), headed by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. The KMT tried to destroy the Communists under [[Mao Zedong]], but they escaped in the "Long March" of 1934-35. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.

In 1945-46, the U.S. attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed. In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under [[Mao Zedong]] established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to Taiwan. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949.

Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950-53), and around 1960 broke bitterly with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy. Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.

After 1978, Mao's successor [[Deng Xiaoping]] focused on market-oriented economic development, and by 2000 output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls and Internet censorship remain tight.

China's economy during the last quarter century has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade, to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy.

== Religion ==
In addition to the native folk religions, China is home of two of the world's oldest surviving religions: [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]]. [[Buddhism]], carried over from India and [[Tibet]], has strongly influenced China and today there are several schools of Buddhism in the country.

In addition, China has several religious minorities. [[Islam]] in China is rather moderate, and Chinese Muslims (majority are of [[Hui]] ethnicity) often define their faith in Taoist or Confucian terms, although they do not believe in the supernatural elements of those faiths. [[Christianity]] was suppressed or taken over by the state after 1949. In recent years, the restrictions have eased. However several religious groups that reject governmental control are persecuted, notably the [[Falun Gong]].

===The Next 5 Years===
The next 5 years represent a critical period in China's development. To investors and firms, especially following China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China represents a vast market that has yet to be fully tapped and a low-cost base for export-oriented production. Educationally, China is forging ahead as partnerships and exchanges with foreign universities have helped create new research opportunities for its students. China used the Summer Olympics in 2008 to showcase to the world its amazing gains of the past two decades. The new leadership is committed to generating greater economic development in the interior and providing more services to those who do not live in China's coastal areas, goals that form the core of President Hu's concepts of a "harmonious society" and a "spiritual civilization." However, there is still much that needs to change in China.

For more information on China, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

== Human Rights ==
Under Mao millions of Chinese were killed by famines or government action against the middle classes. The "[[Cultural Revolution]]" in the 1960s was a counterattack against intellectuals endorsed by Mao; it set back China by decades until his death in 1975.

After the mid-1980s the new leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] promoted rapid modernization. While Mao's memory was still revered, most of his brutal policies were ended and much economic freedom--and a dash of political liberalization--was allowed. Intellectuals were encouraged to speak out again and to share in a new spirit of "democratization." However Communist party leaders in 1986 warned that modernization must not be used as an excuse to introduce "bourgeois philosophies and social doctrines." By late 1986 student groups began to demonstrate demanding more student participation in local government, a greater degree of democracy, and better living conditions. As demonstrations escalated Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the party, resigned, confessing that he had made major mistakes and would take responsibility for them. It was a setback to political and economic liberalization, though Hu remained, out of office, a symbol of the potential for democracy. Hu's death in April 1989, sparked widespread public rallies in favor of broad social changes in Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities. Tens of thousands of students defied a government clampdown to demonstrate in May in [[Tiananmen Square]] central Beijing. The Party moved to kill dissent, sending uneducated rural troops into square on June 3-4; hundreds of demonstrators were killed, wounded, or arrested. The world was appalled. Following the savage repression of democrats in all major cities Deng Xiaoping appeared to be even more firmly in control.

The China country reports in the U.S. State Department's 2009 Human Rights Practices and International Religious Freedom Reports<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009] </ref> noted China's well-documented and continuing abuses of human rights in violation of internationally recognized norms, stemming both from the authorities' intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for basic freedoms. Reported abuses have included arbitrary and lengthy incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as severe restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, privacy, worker rights, and coercive birth limitation. In 2006, China continued the monitoring, harassment, intimidation, and arrest of journalists, Internet writers, defense lawyers, religious activists, and political dissidents. The activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), especially those relating to the rule of law and expansion of judicial review, continue to be restricted.

In 2008 China loosened its restrictions somewhat for the Summer Olympics. The government arbitrarily closes down Internet access to prevent the people from learning about the world.

Human rights failures remain a major concern. Abatement of pollution and improvements in systems to ensure food, drug, and product safety are major concerns, especially after notorious episodes of exporting poisoned pet food, toothpaste and infant formula.
===Repression in 2008===
In 2008 China's human rights record remained poor and worsened in some areas. During the year the government increased its severe cultural and religious repression of ethnic minorities in Tibetan areas and the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR), increased detention and harassment of dissidents and petitioners, and maintained tight controls on freedom of speech and the Internet. Abuses peaked around high-profile events, such as the Olympics and the unrest in Tibet. As in previous years, citizens did not have the right to change their government. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), both local and international, continued to face intense scrutiny and restrictions. Other serious human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture and coerced confessions of prisoners, and the use of forced labor, including prison labor. Workers cannot choose an independent union to represent them in the workplace, and the law does not protect workers' right to strike. The government continued to monitor, harass, detain, arrest, and imprison journalists, writers, activists, and defense lawyers and their families, many of whom were seeking to exercise their rights under the law.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009] </ref>
===Execution Controversy===
In December 2009, China executed a man named Akmal Shaikh for drug smuggling. There is evidence that Shaikh was mentally ill, but he was not given a psychological exam of any sort before the trial. He was not given an examination because the Chinese government declared that neither Shaikh or his family could prove he was mentally ill through documentation or family history. The British government made many requests for clemency, including at an eleventh-hour meeting with the Chinese ambassador, but they were consistently ignored.<ref>http://www.latimes.com/news/nation-and-world/la-fg-britain-china30-2009dec30,0,4153003.story</ref>

==Further reading==
* Chow, Gregory C. ''China's Economic Transformation'' (2nd ed. 2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Economic-Transformation-Gregory-Chow/dp/1405156244/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free]
* Entwisle, Barbara, and Gail E. Henderson, eds. ''Re-Drawing Boundaries: Work, Households, and Gender in China,'' U of California Press, 2000; on 1990; [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt938nd0k8/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' (1998). 546 pp.
* Gries, Peter Hays. ''China's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy,'' U of California Press, (2004); recent history [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt9290249r/?&query=&brand=ucpress online edition free]
* Kang, David C. ''China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia'' (2007), argues a strong China stabilizes East Asia
* Naughton, Barry. ''The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth'' (2007), important new survey
*Ogden S. (ed) ''China.'' (2006)
* Oi, Jean C. ''Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform,'' U of California Press, (1999) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8j49p1hv/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.'' (1999). 662 pp.
* Rawski, Thomas G. and Lillian M. Li, eds. ''Chinese History in Economic Perspective,'' University of California Press, 1992 [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6489p0n6/?&query=&brand=ucpress online free]
* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China.'' (1999). 341 pp.
* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' (2000). 356 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition]
* Shambaugh, David. ''China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation'' (2009)
* Shambaugh, David. ''Modernizing China's Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects'' U of California Press, (2003) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt4779q33t/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s [http://www.amazon.com/Search-Modern-China-Jonathan-Spence/dp/0393307808/ref=pd_sim_b_title_2 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online]
* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 442 pp.

==See also==
*[[Chinese History]]
*[[Great Wall of China]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Previous Breaking News/China|Articles about '''China''' from previous "Breaking News"]]

==References==
<references/>

==External link==
*[http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ All About China]
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html People's Daily: China at a Glance]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1287798.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: China'']
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook - ''China'']
*[http://www.monthlyreview.org/1105wu.htm "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China"] by Yiching Wu
*[http://www.gov.cn/ The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.china.org.cn/ China's Official Gateway for News & Information]
*[http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=341 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power] February 11, 2005.
*[http://www.china-profile.com/history/hist_list_1.htm History of The People's Republic of China] Timeline of Key Events since 1949.
*[http://www.danwei.org/ Media, advertising, and urban life in China.]
*[http://www.chinastudygroup.org/index.php?action=front2&type=view&id=152 China's Neoliberal Dynasty] by Peter Kwong, originally published in [[The Nation]] October 2, 2006.

[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:China]]
[[Category:Communist States]]

Ben Bernanke

2010-01-25T10:24:26Z

RJJensen: /* See also */ typo

[[image:Bernanke_ben.jpg‎|200px|right]]
'''Ben Bernanke''' (bur-NAN-kee) (b. 1953) is an American economist who is the current Chairman of the [[Federal Reserve]], one of the most powerful positions in the country. A Republican, he was appointed by President [[George W. Bush]] to succeed [[Alan Greenspan]]. He has been nominated by President Obama for a second four-year term as chairman beginning in 2010. Bernanke took control in early 2006 when the economy seemed to be booming, but it was in the last stages of a housing "bubble"--and the bubble burst in 2007-8. He has been praised widely for his aggressive efforts to combat the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] and the resulting [[Recession of 2008]]. But he has also been blamed for regulatory failures that helped cause the crisis, and he helped engineer the wildly unpopular financial bailouts of giant banks and insurance companies. Wall Street reacted with near panic on rumors that he would not be reconfirmed in Jan. 2010, fearful that Obama might appoint someone much worse.

Bernanke played a major role, along with Treasury Secretary [[Henry Paulson]] in forging a vast, extremely expensive response to the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]]. The Fed and Treasury commitments exceeded $1 trillion in direct aid and over $6 trillion in loan guarantees as stock prices returned to 2003 levels. Bernanke, an expert on the [[Great Depression]] of 1929 and a follower of conservative icon [[Milton Friedman]], was intervening aggressively to prevent a repeat of that disaster.

In October Bernanke endorsed an eventual stimulus program that gave support to the the proposed spending plans of [[Barack Obama]]. <ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122455027730552509.html</ref>
[[File:Bernank2.jpg|thumb|290px|''Time'' Dec. 28, 2009. [http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1946375_1947251,00.html read the cover story]]]
In August 2009, economists--most of them conservatives--on the ''Wall Street Journal'' panel are nearly unanimous that Bernanke should be reappointed to another term as chairman. The majority of these economists said the [[Recession of 2008]] is now over. Battling the downturn defined most of Mr. Bernanke's term, which began in early 2006 and expires in January 2010, and economists say his handling of the crisis has earned him four more years as Fed chief. A slow initial response to the credit squeeze and the decision to let Lehman Brothers fail were cited as the biggest errors.<ref> See [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124993702311020493.html?mod=djemalertNEWS Phil Izzo, "Economists Call for Bernanke to Stay, Say Recession Is Over," ''Wall Street Journal'' Aug. 11, 2009]</ref> Barack Obama has nominated Ben Bernanke to a second term as chairman of the United States Federal Reserve. <ref>[http://www.bworld.com.ph/BW090109/content.php?id=146 One hand clapping for Ben Bernanke, Business World, August 31, 2009]</ref>

On December 1, 2009, the ''Foreign Policy Magazine'' has named Ben Bernanke one of 2009’s “Greatest Thinkers". He was ''Time'' magazine "Person of the Year" for 2009.

==Career==
Bernanke was born in [[Augusta, Georgia]], later moving to Dillon, South Carolina. He excelled academically, becoming class [[valedictorian]] at Dillon High School. His academic record and near perfect SAT scores led to his admission to [[Harvard]] as a member of the Class of 1975. After receiving his undergraduate degree, Bernanke chose to continue studying economics at [[MIT]] under the supervision of Professor Stanley Fischer. His PhD thesis, "Long-term Commitments, Dynamic Optimization, and the Business Cycle"<ref>Bernanke, Benjamin Shalom. [http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/29839/05915220.pdf;jsessionid=C904BA8087C31F4178A55E9428B84297?sequence=1 Long-term Commitments, Dynamic Optimization, and the Business Cycle]. MIT 1979.</ref>, was accepted in May 1979. He has taught at [[Stanford]], New York University (NYU), and [[Princeton University|Princeton]]. Dr. Bernanke joined the Federal Reserve Board of Governors in 2002. Dr. Bernanke and his wife, Anna, have two children.<ref>http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1026/p01s01-usec.html</ref>

Bernanke is a Republican and was appointed to the Federal Reserve Board, and elevated to Chairman, by Republican President, [[George W. Bush]]; he was confirmed by the Senate in 2006.

In January 2009, hearings are underway regarding a second four-year term. Some in Congress--on both the left and right--are taking out on him their anger at the financial crisis.

==External links==
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~bernanke/jstor.htm Bernanke's Main scholarly articles in JSTOR]

==See also==
* [[Financial Crisis of 2008]]
* [[Recession of 2008]]
* [[Obama Administration]]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bernanke, Ben}}

[[Category:Economists]]
[[Category:Obama Presidency]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:Obama Administration]]

Ben Bernanke

2010-01-25T10:23:25Z

RJJensen: update

[[image:Bernanke_ben.jpg‎|200px|right]]
'''Ben Bernanke''' (bur-NAN-kee) (b. 1953) is an American economist who is the current Chairman of the [[Federal Reserve]], one of the most powerful positions in the country. A Republican, he was appointed by President [[George W. Bush]] to succeed [[Alan Greenspan]]. He has been nominated by President Obama for a second four-year term as chairman beginning in 2010. Bernanke took control in early 2006 when the economy seemed to be booming, but it was in the last stages of a housing "bubble"--and the bubble burst in 2007-8. He has been praised widely for his aggressive efforts to combat the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] and the resulting [[Recession of 2008]]. But he has also been blamed for regulatory failures that helped cause the crisis, and he helped engineer the wildly unpopular financial bailouts of giant banks and insurance companies. Wall Street reacted with near panic on rumors that he would not be reconfirmed in Jan. 2010, fearful that Obama might appoint someone much worse.

Bernanke played a major role, along with Treasury Secretary [[Henry Paulson]] in forging a vast, extremely expensive response to the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]]. The Fed and Treasury commitments exceeded $1 trillion in direct aid and over $6 trillion in loan guarantees as stock prices returned to 2003 levels. Bernanke, an expert on the [[Great Depression]] of 1929 and a follower of conservative icon [[Milton Friedman]], was intervening aggressively to prevent a repeat of that disaster.

In October Bernanke endorsed an eventual stimulus program that gave support to the the proposed spending plans of [[Barack Obama]]. <ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122455027730552509.html</ref>
[[File:Bernank2.jpg|thumb|290px|''Time'' Dec. 28, 2009. [http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1946375_1947251,00.html read the cover story]]]
In August 2009, economists--most of them conservatives--on the ''Wall Street Journal'' panel are nearly unanimous that Bernanke should be reappointed to another term as chairman. The majority of these economists said the [[Recession of 2008]] is now over. Battling the downturn defined most of Mr. Bernanke's term, which began in early 2006 and expires in January 2010, and economists say his handling of the crisis has earned him four more years as Fed chief. A slow initial response to the credit squeeze and the decision to let Lehman Brothers fail were cited as the biggest errors.<ref> See [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124993702311020493.html?mod=djemalertNEWS Phil Izzo, "Economists Call for Bernanke to Stay, Say Recession Is Over," ''Wall Street Journal'' Aug. 11, 2009]</ref> Barack Obama has nominated Ben Bernanke to a second term as chairman of the United States Federal Reserve. <ref>[http://www.bworld.com.ph/BW090109/content.php?id=146 One hand clapping for Ben Bernanke, Business World, August 31, 2009]</ref>

On December 1, 2009, the ''Foreign Policy Magazine'' has named Ben Bernanke one of 2009’s “Greatest Thinkers". He was ''Time'' magazine "Person of the Year" for 2009.

==Career==
Bernanke was born in [[Augusta, Georgia]], later moving to Dillon, South Carolina. He excelled academically, becoming class [[valedictorian]] at Dillon High School. His academic record and near perfect SAT scores led to his admission to [[Harvard]] as a member of the Class of 1975. After receiving his undergraduate degree, Bernanke chose to continue studying economics at [[MIT]] under the supervision of Professor Stanley Fischer. His PhD thesis, "Long-term Commitments, Dynamic Optimization, and the Business Cycle"<ref>Bernanke, Benjamin Shalom. [http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/29839/05915220.pdf;jsessionid=C904BA8087C31F4178A55E9428B84297?sequence=1 Long-term Commitments, Dynamic Optimization, and the Business Cycle]. MIT 1979.</ref>, was accepted in May 1979. He has taught at [[Stanford]], New York University (NYU), and [[Princeton University|Princeton]]. Dr. Bernanke joined the Federal Reserve Board of Governors in 2002. Dr. Bernanke and his wife, Anna, have two children.<ref>http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1026/p01s01-usec.html</ref>

Bernanke is a Republican and was appointed to the Federal Reserve Board, and elevated to Chairman, by Republican President, [[George W. Bush]]; he was confirmed by the Senate in 2006.

In January 2009, hearings are underway regarding a second four-year term. Some in Congress--on both the left and right--are taking out on him their anger at the financial crisis.

==External links==
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~bernanke/jstor.htm Bernanke's Main scholarly articles in JSTOR]

==See also==
* [[Financial Crisis of 2008]]
* [[Recession of 2008]]
* [[Obama Presidency]]
==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bernanke, Ben}}

[[Category:Economists]]
[[Category:Obama Presidency]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:Obama Administration]]

File:Bernank2.jpg

2010-01-25T10:17:20Z

RJJensen: Protected "File:Bernank2.jpg" ([edit=sysop] (indefinite) [move=sysop] (indefinite))

Time magazine Dec 28, 2009

fair use for comment or parody

File:Bernank2.jpg

2010-01-25T10:17:08Z

RJJensen: Time magazine Dec 28, 2009 fair use for comment or parody

Time magazine Dec 28, 2009

fair use for comment or parody

Financial Crisis of 2008

2010-01-25T08:38:15Z

RJJensen: /* Selling mortgage packages to big investors */ example

The '''Financial Crisis of 2008''', continuing into 2009, is an ongoing worldwide financial crisis that is the worst the world has seen since 1933 with the [[Great Depression]]. Drastic measures to confront seemingly insurmountable financial calamity resulted in the creation of '''TARP''' (Troubled Assets Relief Program), $700 billion safety net by the U.S. Government. The National Bureau of Economic Research<ref>NBER is a private organization that follows its own standards as set by eminent economists such as [[Milton Friedman]]; its dating of business cycles is widely accepted by conservatives.</ref> has identified the peak of the last expansion in December 2007; the U.S. economy has been in decline ever since.<ref>See "Text of the NBER's statement on the recession and FAQ's" [http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2008-12-01-recession-nber-statement_N.htm ''USA Today'' Dec 1, 2008]. "The U.S. economy entered a recession in December 2007, a committee of economists at the private National Bureau of Economic Research said," at [http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/US-recession-began-December-2007/story.aspx?guid={7DCF90E4-D61A-4014-83CE-45E938CD632C} Rex Nutting] - MarketWatch</ref> [[Image:CRASH08.JPG|thumb|330px|Oct 11, 2008 editorial; cartoon by Horsey stresses the global collapse]] The crisis has caused the [[Recession of 2008]], which reached bottom in summer 2009, causing a worldwide economic decline that is the most severe since the 1930s.

The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) calculates that the global financial crisis will produce $3.4 trillion in losses for financial institutions around the world between 2007 and 2010.<ref> Peter Dattels and Laura Kodres, "Global Financial System Shows Signs of Recovery, IMF Says," [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/RES093009A.htm ''IMF Survey Magazine'' Sept. 30, 2009]</ref>

==Overview==
Negative economic news has spread outward from financial institutions to depress housing, construction, office buildings, automobiles, retail sales, state and local government, and vitually every other sector of the economy. Consumer spending has plunged, and banks have been very reluctant to loan money. Major banks and corporations have gone bankrupt.

The recession is worldwide. In recent months governments across the world have spent huge sums of money to reverse the crisis, but thus far the results have been inconclusive and the declines continue. The U.S. government provided cash bailouts of several hundred billion dollars and long-term loan guarantees of over $7 trillion dollars (compared to a GDP of $15 trillion a year in the U.S.). Conservatives have been as dismayed and baffled by the crisis as everyone else. Rush Limbaugh, for example, blames Obama.

Unlike crises in the mid 1970s and early 1980s, this one began in the financial sector with devastating effects on many very large financial companies worldwide, especially in September 2008. The negative effects by October 2008 began spreading to all other sectors of the economy, and forecasts for the next year show little likely of a quick recovery anywhere. For the effects on the broader economy (outside of finance and autos) see [[Recession of 2008]].
The crisis originated in the United States and Western Europe, and has impacted every country in the world. Banks and financial companies have reported losses of over one trillion dollars; investors have suffered [[paper loss|"paper losses"]] of many trillions. U.S. stocks are down 50% from their peak in 2007.<ref> For most people the loss is a "paper" loss because they still own the stock and it might go up, or down. If they bought stock in 2003 for $1000, watched it go to $1500 in 2008, then drop to $1000 again in 2008, their "paper loss" is $500 but their real loss is zero since they are back where they started. People who bought at $800 still have made a $200 paper profit. People who bought at $1200, say, have a paper loss of $200. The paper loss or gain becomes real when they finally sell the stock. See [[Paper loss]] for more details</ref> Paper losses for owners of stock in major financial institution have been over 70%, and owners of some have lost 99% as major [[bank]]s closed down. The [[stock market]] has declined 50-70% in major countries and [[pension]] funds have large paper losses. Paper losses in real estate have been in the trillions; the average price of American houses fell 20%, with 30% and higher declines in California and Florida. However, thus far ordinary depositors with cash in the bank have suffered no losses. Owners of stocks in the 5000 largest U.S. corporations have paper losses of $10 trillion dollars in 2008, dropping to $10 trillion in October from $20 trillion in late 2007.

In late September the crisis focused on liquidity--financial companies owned hundreds of billions of dollars of "toxic" securities, mostly based on U.S. [[mortgage]]s; they could not sell the toxic securities because no one knew how much they were worth, and large scale loans between major institutions stopped flowing as the system lost liquidity and froze up. A $800 billion rescue plan became law in the U.S. October 3, but its impact will not be clear for a while. Meanwhile Europe's economic crisis continues to deteriorate, as trillions of dollars in losses accumulate there and in Russia, China and India and in many smaller countries. International agencies such as the International Monetary Fund are arranging emergency bailouts for medium-sized countries, like Pakistan and Ukraine. All around the world people are sending their money to the U.S. and Japan because the banks there are safer than their own banks. The price of oil, which reached $145 a barrel in the summer, plunged to under $50. That plunge eased the gasoline crisis, helped commuters, and helped the airline industry.
[[Image:BRIDGE.JPG|thumb|400px|Tom Toles cartoon lampoons Federal bailout efforts as a badly designed [[bridge to nowhere]], Dec. 1, 2008]]
Both parties have expressed anger at the crisis, and have promised extensive new regulations of the financial industry. However the Republicans have blocked additional bailout aid to General Motors, which is on the verge of bankruptcy.<ref> Treasury Secretary Paulson told Congress on Nov. 18 that the Bush administration remains "firmly opposed" to using any of the $700 billion financial bailout fund to help rescue Detroit's Big Three, "no matter how badly they need the help." [http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2008/11/18/paulson-rejects-bailout-money-automakers-senate-considers-legislation/ Fox news report] </ref> Democratic Congressional leaders and President-elect [[Barack Obama]] have pushed for a bailout of the auto industry and are expected to move it forward in January, 2009.

The Bush administration undertook a "bailout" program in which it took control of several of the largest financial institutions (Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and AIG insurance), forced the mergers of others, purchased $125 billion of ownership in the 9 largest banks in the U.S., and bailed out the largest bank, Citigroup.

Until October the crisis had little impact on the non-financial sectors of the world economy, but then negative impacts started appearing. Companies could not borrow money for expansion or in some cases for routine operations, and had to cut back. Consumer spending fell and unemployment started to rise sharply. By November pessimistic reports were coming in daily from practically every sector of the American economy. There were no bright spots, and with tax revenues down, state governments began large-scale cutbacks, especially in New York and California.

By late October it appeared the financial crisis was slowing down the economies of all countries of the world, leading perhaps to a serious recession with widespread unemployment and loss of business. The major countries have been taking aggressive steps to dissolve the liquidity freeze and get money flowing again, and to stimulate economies that are headed downward.

==Causes==
As hundreds of billions of dollars poured into the U.S. from abroad, financiers looked for imaginative ways to make a profit. They turned to [[real estate]], with the philosophy "Buy high--sell higher!" The higher price paid for a house the more profit would be made when it was resold ("flipped") in six or 12 months; prices were certain to keep going up and up. Salesmen made big money by phoning prospective buyers, promising to get them Bog Money Quick. People who owned a house whose value had doubled could and did refinance their mortgage for the higher amount, and keep the difference. In the early 2000s, U.S. interest rates were low and demand for housing was high, as housing prices soared, especially in California, Florida, Nevada and Arizona. Mortgage companies and banks were very eager to lend, especially to people with mediocre [[credit]] who would not previously have been eligible for mortgages and to speculators. Speculators were ordinary people who already had a house and who were hoping to make a large profit on the purchase and quick resale ("flip") of another house or condominium, which no one ever lived in.<ref> The only money the speculators had at risk was a down payment; sometimes the construction company paid for the down payment and closing costs, so the risk to the speculator was zero. Mortgages in the U.S. are "non-recourse" which means that borrowers cannot be sued for stopping payments.</ref> The expectation was that continuously rising house prices would cover the mortgage payments through refinancing. Many of the mortgages involved very low down payments and low monthly payments for the first year or two, after which the payments would start soaring. Sometimes the monthly payment at first was zero.

Both the Bush and Clinton administrations made it a national priority to encourage more people to buy houses, assuming this social engineering would be good for everyone. In 2000 [[Howard Husock]] warned that the [[Community Reinvestment Act]] of 1977 and its expansion in 1995 would prove expensive; but President Bush strongly endorsed the program. Despite widespread misunderstanding they did not cause the great crisis since CRA loans to poor neighborhoods comprised only about 6% of the toxic mortgages. <ref>[http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_1_the_trillion_dollar.html The Trillion-Dollar Bank Shakedown That Bodes Ill for Cities], Howard Husock, ''City Journal'', Winter 2000; Governor Randall S. Kroszner, "The Community Reinvestment Act and the Recent Mortgage Crisis," (December 3, 2008) [http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/kroszner20081203a.htm online]</ref>

"Option adjustable rate mortgages" (nick-named "Pick-A-Pay") allowed borrowers to vary their monthly payments; they could be so so small they did not cover their interest charges. That meant the total principal grows over time, compared to normal mortgages where the debt owed shrinks over 30 years to zero and the borrower owns the house free and clear. By 2008 banks sold these dangerous "option adjustable rate" mortgages to two million customers. They made sense if and only if the price of houses kept going up and the borrower could sell it in a year ot two at a huge profit. But if house prices declined, the borrower could stop paying and the bank was left with the loss.

Timeline video showing Democrats opposing regulating housing market financing. President Bush, Senator McCain and Alan Greenspan all predicting financial collapse and offering regulation. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMnSp4qEXNM&NR=1 See video]

The [[NYTimes]] says Senator [[Charles Schumer]] D-NY, is the most responsible for Wall Street's collapse. <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/14/business/14schumer.html A Champion of Wall Street Reaps Benefits] NYTimes, December 13, 2008</ref> Schumer as a member of the Banking and Finance Committees, led efforts to regulate credit-rating agencies, shield financial institutions from government oversight and tougher regulations, and saved key industry players billions of dollars in taxes and fees.

===Selling mortgage packages to big investors===
Americans owed some $10 trillion on their mortgages, most of which were sound with payments made on time. However financiers bundled the mortgages into very complicated packages called "'''collateralized debt obligations''''<ref> That is, homeowners were obligated to pay the debts and the collateral behind them was the physical house.</ref> or CDOs. Hundreds of billions of dollars worth of CDO's were sold to banks, pension funds and financiers in the U.S. and Europe. Generally they borrowed cash to buy the CDOs. The risk was that if the CDO's declined in value, they would not be able to repay those loans. The CDOs were especially attractive because they were not regulated by the government; experts are not sure how many trillions of dollars are involved.

Many mortgages were held by mortgage companies like [[Countrywide]] and [[Washington Mutual]], as well as investment banks such as [[Bear Stearns]], [[Merrill Lynch]], [[Lehman Brothers]], [[Morgan Stanley]] and [[Goldman Sachs]], as well as commercial banking chains like [[Wachovia]] and [[Bank of America]], which have thousands of local offices.
===Commercial real estate===
The speculative real estate bubble went far beyond individual homes, it infected as well as kinds of commercial real estate, such as office buildings, shopping centers, apartment complexes, hotels, casinos and even and empty lots. People bought high expecting to sell higher, and were stunned when the market collapsed. People who loaned money to real estate firms were confident of a 20% return, but more likely lost 25%. The value of office buildings plunged 43% after the peak in Nov. 2007. Most investors who bought in 2007 probably lost all their investment.

For example, in 2006 at the top of the market Tishman Speyer Properties and BlackRock Realty invested $5.4 billion to buy the largest apartment complex in the country, in downtown New York City. Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village, with 110 buildings and 11,227 apartments housed middle class families. The plan was to spend billions in upgrades and as tenants moved out to raise the rents. The plan was wildly overoptimistic and the monthly rent did not cover the debt payments. In Jan. 2010 Tishman Speyer and BlackRock turned over the property to creditors, taking a 100% loss.<ref>Charles V. Bagli, "Huge Housing Complex in N.Y. Returned to Creditors," [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/25/nyregion/25stuy.html?hp ''New York Tomes'' Jan. 25, 2010] </ref>

===Misuse of Credit Default Swaps===
Another key contributing factor to the credit market meltdown was the misuse of Credit Default Swaps, or CDSs, which are contracts between entities designed to mitigate against risk of a credit default. A CDS is essentially an insurance policy designed to protect the insured party against excessive losses in a separate financial transaction. However, by structuring the contract as a derivative swap instead of a traditional insurance policy, companies other than regulated insurers could offer them. This created two critical risk exposures to the insured companies, and collectively to the overall market. First, traditional insurers are required to maintain a sufficient level of capital to pay on losses, while companies issuing CDSs were not. Since investments in pooled mortgages were viewed as unlikely to devalue or fail, major issuers of CDSs like AIG and Lehman Brothers found themselves over-exposed to losses. The second risk was that CDSs issued by one firm were typically hedged, or backed up financially, by CDSs with other companies. The strategy of minimizing risk by dividing it into collections of smaller exposures with other companies is a sound practice, but when the original risk is overexposed that overexposure is then spread across the companies that participate in the secondary risk markets.

[[AIG]], the world's largest insurance company, was a major player in the financial crisis because it sold $441 billion in unhedged and undercapitalized insurance on securitized debt, much of it tied to mortgage values. Normally an insurance company "lays off" some of the risk by taking out insurance with another company. AIG neglected to do this because it never expected the securities to turn toxic, which they did. Either someone paid the insurance or the nation's financial system would colapse, so the government stepped in, seized AIG, and paid the insurance.

The effect of these risks manifested themselves in two key ways. First, when major players in the CDS market like Bear Sterns and AIG were found to be insolvent, or failed outright like Lehman Brothers, the default conditions that were tied to the risk-spreading CDS's were triggered, and many companies found themselves obligated to pay out on contracts they never expected to. These sudden exposures led to capital and liquidity shortages at scores of firms involved in the secondary credit markets, and the default pattern started repeating on itself in an echo-like manner. Since the complex, interdependent nature of the CDS market made it difficult for firms to assess their true exposure to loss in this unprecedented market, they refrained from both short-term and long-term lending to guard against further losses. This essentially led to a freezing up of credit in the marketplace, as lenders refusing to give credit to other lenders translated into businesses and consumers being unable to get short-term operating loans, or borrow for homes, autos, student loans or credit-card accounts as before.

This freezing of the markets to avoid loss was the primary incentive for the U.S. government's Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), which injected billions of dollars of government-backed funds into the credit markets to restore trust and liquidity.

==Bubble bursts==
[[File:Houses$.jpg|thumb|300px|Left|Crash of U.S. housing prices in 2007-09]]
The housing "bubble" burst in 2006-07, as prices plunged downward in the Sunbelt. Many speculators and homeowners could not meet their payments, especially those who had "[[sub-prime]]" mortgages because their income was too low to support the eventual monthly payments, or who had adjustable rate mortgages where the monthly payments started small then escalated. [[Foreclosure]]s skyrocketed. With housing prices falling few people risked buying a new house (because it would soon be worth less than they paid for it). Construction firms had built millions of new houses that could not be sold but which glutted the market. By late 2008 half the home sales in the U.S. were by banks selling houses they had foreclosed on at low prices.

The problem was that no one could figure out what CDOs were now worth, so very few were willing to buy them. One major investment bank, Merrill Lynch, sold its CDOs for 22 cents on the dollar--a "[[fire sale]]" price that was less than they were worth in the long run, because in the long run the great majority of people will make their scheduled mortgage payments.

==2008 crises==
Multiple crises started pulling down major financial players. Countrywide, which originated 20% of all American mortgages in 2006, collapsed and was bought up by Bank of America. Bear Stearns, a large investment bank, went under; the government arranged a sale to JPMorgan Chase; stock holders lost about 90% of their investment, and the confidence in other banks was undermined.

On September 7, 2008, the government took control of the two largest mortgage holders, "[[Fannie Mae]]"<ref> Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA)</ref> and "[[Freddie Mac]]"<ref>Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC) </ref>. The two had lost $15 billion on the $5.4 trillion in mortgages they owned, and their notes were widely held in [[China]] and many other countries. The fear was that if the Treasury did not act the world's confidence in the US financial system would collapse. However the rest of the world was in trouble too. The stock markets in China and [[Russia]] plunged 50%, and the [[United Kingdom|British]] Treasury had to take over its largest mortgage company, [[Northern Rock]]. Vast sums of money flowed into the US because it was safer there than anywhere else.
[[Image:PANIC08.jpg|thumb|300px|Panic in Wall Street, Sept. 2008; the "bull" is the symbol of optimism on Wall Street and the "bear" is the symbol of pessimism. Here the bull panics.]]
By September the major banks were no longer lending money and most reported huge losses as they wrote down the value of the CDOs and other assets. Short sellers sold large amounts of stock in threatened companies, causing further panic and driving down share prices.<ref>The short sellers did not own the shares; the practice was stopped on Sept. 19, 2008, by the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] because it destabilized markets.</ref> [[Lehman Brothers]], one of the oldest and largest banks in New York, went bankrupt on Sept. 15 with no one to rescue it. The collapse of Lehman with its $639 billion in assets had a multiplier effect worldwide, severely weakening other big banks and sharply increasing the level of fear and distrust inside the system that caused bankers to sharply reduce their lending. Many large firms and hedge funds had borrowed billions of dollars from lenders and had pledged assets they owned as collateral. When the value of their collateral plummeted, the lenders demanded more collateral to make up the difference, so the borrowers had to sell assets to raise emergency cash. The price of the assets they sold was falling, and large additional sales further depressed prices, creating a downward spiral.

Merrill Lynch was sold to Bank of America for $50 billion, about half its value a few months before. Investors realized that AIG could no longer honor the insurance policies it wrote. It lost $13 billion in the first half of 2008 and its shares fell 95% in value. AIG was "too big" to be allowed to fail, so it was given an $85 billion loan from the government; in return the government received 80% of its stock. The government had to add another $38 billion to the AIG rescue in October.<ref> Barry Meier and Mary Williams Walsh, "A.I.G. to get Additional $37.8 Billion," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/09/business/economy/09insure.html?_r=1&ref=business&oref=slogin ''New York Times,'' Oct. 8, 2008] </ref> In effect AIG, along with GSE (government-sponsored enterprises) Fanny Mae and Freddy Mac were nationalized. The Federal Reserve, with $800 billion in assets, was assisted by the Treasury, which gave it more funds.<ref> See [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/02/business/02crisis.html?_r=1&hp=&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&pagewanted=all&adxnnlx=1222952525-cWL0bOgQjxNvxNo+OH1qAw Joe Nocera, "36 Hours of Alarm and Action as Crisis Spiraled," ''New York Times'' (Oct. 1, 2008)]</ref>

===European crises===
Heavy borrowing by European banks meant the crisis immediately affected Britain and other countries as well, as the British housing bubble burst about the same time as the U.S. The British government had to take over major mortgage lenders, including Northern Rock in February, 2008. Northern Rock's loans (£25 billion) and guarantees (£30 billion) extended by the Bank of England, together with the value of the company's mortgages (£55 billion), or £100 billion in all, were added to the British national debt. Bradford & Bingley, half the size of Northern Rock, held £40 billion in toxic mortgages, and was nationalized in late September.
====Fortis====
In late September, the Fortis bank, the world's 20th largest business, was partially nationalized by three governments who injected $16 billion in emergency funds. In 2007 Fortis borrowed heavily for its $100 billion takeover of rival bank ABN Amro; the deal came at the market’s peak, and Fortis now cannot pay its debts. The [[Belgium|Belgian]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Luxembourg]] governments tried to inject capital but as consumer confidence plunged, Netherlands nationalized the Dutch wing of the company and the rest was sold in early October to the French bank BNP Paribas for €14.5 billion euros ($19 billion dollars).
====Germany====
In [[Germany]] Hypo Real Estate was given €50 billion euros ($68 billion dollars) bailout by the government. The government of [[Iceland]] took over its large banks, as the entire island economy verged on bankruptcy because it depended so much on large foreign loans. Most of the European countries hurriedly announced guarantees of personal bank deposits to avert further drop in consumer confidence and runs on the banks. Stock markets around the world continue to decline as pessimism worsens.
====Central banks====
The European Central Bank aggressively lent money to banks trying to ensure that banks would have adequate cash. The moves have not reassured savers or investors, and European stock markets have fallen even further than the American stock markets, as have the stock markets in China and Russia.

On October 13, France, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands and Austria committed €1.3 trillion euros ($1.8 trillion dollars) to guarantee bank loans and take stakes in banks, in an emergency effort to head off the collapse of their financial systems. <ref>Carter Dougherty, Nelson Schwartz and Floyd Norris, "Financial Crises Spread in Europe," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/06/business/06markets.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin ''New York Times,'' Oct 6, 2008]; Gregory Viscusi, [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=azerJ573HcbI&refer=home "EU Nations Commit 1.3 Trillion Euros to Bank Bailouts," ''Bloomberg.com'' Oct. 13. 2008]</ref>
====Britain====
Britain on October 8 announced a gigantic £400 billion ($680 billion) rescue plan for its banks; the government would partially own them. Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]] said banks would still be run by their old managers, but that the government would have to be "satisfied" on matters of salaries, [[dividend]]s and lending activities. The money involved is about a third of Britain's annual [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] (comparable to $5 trillion in the U.S. economy.)

On October 13, Britain announced it would spend £50 billion ($85 billion) to nationalize two of the five largest banks, HBOS (Halifax Bank of Scotland) and RBS (Royal Bank of Scotland), while taking partial ownership of a third, Lloyds TSB. A fourth, Barclays will remain private if it can raise an additional £7 billion. The fifth, HSBC is based in Hong Kong and will remain private.<ref>"Financial crisis: HBOS and RBS 'to be nationalised' in £50 billion state intervention," [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/3185120/Financial-crisis-HBOS-and-RBS-to-be-nationalised-in-50-billion-state-intervention.html?source=EMC-new_12102008 London ''Telegraph'' Oct 13, 2008] The existing stockholders were not bought out. They will continue to hold shares in the banks, but they will be outvoted by the new stock owned by the government.</ref>
====Switzerland====
In October 2008, the Swiss central bank and the big UBS bank reached an agreement to transfer as much as $60 billion of troubled securities and other assets from UBS’s to a separate entity. UBS will put up $6 billion in equity. The Swiss central bank will control the new entity and loan it $54 billion.

===Asia===
The crisis swept across the Middle East and Asia as well, with South Korea especially hard hit. China, which had been the world's major growth machine in recent years, seemed to slow down. In November China's government announced it would spend 4 trillion yuan ($586 billion) through the end of 2010 to stimulate its economy. It specifically targeted people's livelihood in an effort to offset the impact of slowing global demand for its exports and unlock the spending power of its vast population.

==$700 billion bailout ==
"We're in the midst of a serious financial crisis," [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] warned the nation on Sept. 25, 2008.:
{{QuoteBox|Major financial institutions have teetered on the edge of collapse, and some have failed. As uncertainty has grown, many banks have restricted lending. Credit markets have frozen. And families and businesses have found it harder to borrow money....without immediate action by Congress, America could slip into a financial panic, and a distressing scenario would unfold: More banks could fail, including some in your community. The stock market would drop even more, which would reduce the value of your retirement account. The value of your home could plummet. Foreclosures would rise dramatically. And if you own a business or a farm, you would find it harder and more expensive to get credit. More businesses would close their doors, and millions of Americans could lose their jobs. Even if you have good credit history, it would be more difficult for you to get the loans you need to buy a car or send your children to college. And ultimately, our country could experience a long and painful recession.<ref>see [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/09/20080924-10.html Bush speech online]</ref>}}
On September 19, 2008, the Treasury and Federal Reserve proposed a major rescue plan--the largest government intervention in the economy since [[World War II]]. The plan was for the Treasury to purchase $700 billion of the CDOs. The bailout was needed, Bush said, to avert a major disaster for the economy. Most (but not all) Democrats signed on to the bailout plan, adding provisions for Congressional oversight and caps on CEO compensation; but at the last moment on Sept 25, 2008 House Republicans said no, and GOP presidential nominee [[John McCain]] held off endorsement.

Conservatives were split on what to do. Many agreed with Bush that the bailout proposed by Treasury Secretary [[Henry M. Paulson]] was urgently needed. Large banks and corporations strongly endorsed the bailout. The [[American Bankers Association]] and the [[Mortgage Bankers Association]] are fighting against any amendment that would reduce mortgage obligations for people in bankruptcy, while directing all the government funds to the banking industry.The U.S. Chamber of Commerce, normally an outspoken advocate of big corporate interests, instead stressed the crisis's impact on small and midsize businesses. "We're looking at an economy that was slipping toward recession even before this crisis culminated in a market lockup last week," said Chamber economist Martin Regalia. The debate in Congress, he said, "is costing every American taxpayer money, directly."<ref>Elizabeth Williamson, "Big Business Wants Deal, Setbacks and All," [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122238988380577457.html ''Wall Street Journal'' Sept. 26, 2008]</ref> Democratic nominee Senator [[Barack Obama]] endorsed the plan, as amended by Congressional Democrats. On the other hand, ordinary taxpayers and "Main Street", that is businessmen who operated at the local level, were highly suspicious of [[Wall Street]]. McCain, blaming the crisis on "the corruption and manipulation of our home mortgage system", rejected the bailout as a favor for Wall Street and little help to Main Street. Believers in the market economy insisted that the market should run its course, and opposed the bailout.<ref> See comments from a range of economists at [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/business/26assess.html?ref=business Peter S. Goodman, "Credit Enters a Lockdown," ''New York Times'' Sept. 25, 2008]</ref>

A compromise bailout was agreed to by leaders of both parties but the "Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008" (EESA) was voted down in the House on Sept. 29. Democrats favored the Bush bill 60%-40%, but Republicans voted no by 65-35%. The stock market lost a trillion dollars in value in one day as uncertainty reigned. Finally a large majority passed an expanded bailout bill, that added $100 billion in new subsidies to the original $700 billion, plus tax breaks and a rise in FDIC insurance to $250,000 from $100,000, designed to reassure ordinary depositors. Both Obama and McCain voted for this version of the bill.

The Treasury TARP program proved erratic and had to be radically modified several times. The Treasury dropped the original plan to buy toxic securities and instead has used $250 billion to prop up major banks. In October Paulson and Bernanke used their new powers to take an ownership stake in the nine largest U.S. banks, of $7 to $25 billion each. These banks are now partly owned and controlled by the government. However those banks are keeping the money and not lending it out. The price of bank stocks has fallen sharply since the bailout passed. The world's largest bank, Citigroup, was on the verge of collapse in late November and received a second bailout of $20 billion (in addition to $25 billion in October), and a federal guarantee to cover most of its toxic investments.

In mid-December Bush announced that $17.4 billion of TARP funds would be given to the automobile industry in the form of bridge loans<ref name=bushremarksautobailout>http://blogs.wsj.com/autoshow/2008/12/19/bushs-remarks-on-the-auto-rescue-plan/ Wall Street Journal, "Bush’s Remarks on the Auto Rescue Plan", December 19, 2008</ref>, just enough to prevent the companies from going bankrupt for a few weeks<ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122969367595121563.html Wall Street Journal, "U.S. Throws Lifeline to Detroit", December 20, 2008</ref>. Bush defended the move by saying "if we were to allow the [[free market]] to take its course now, it would almost certainly lead to disorderly bankruptcy and liquidation for the automakers."<ref name=bushremarksautobailout />

By mid-November the market had lost confidence in Treasury Secretary Paulson, who indicated he was baffled and would let the incoming Obama administration handle the unspent $450 billion. The stock market jumped 6% on the news that Obama had picked New York banker [[Timothy Geithner]] to replace Paulson.<ref>Theo Francis, "Obama to Nominate New York Fed Chief Timothy Geithner as Treasury Secretary," [http://www.businessweek.com/election/2008/blog/archives/2008/11/obama_to_nomina.html?chan=top+news_top+news+index+-+temp_top+story ''Business Week'' Nov. 21, 2008]</ref> In late November the Federal Reserve announced it will buy up to $600 billion in mortgage-related assets from Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, hoping to restart the housing and credit markets. Under the new "Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility", or '''TALF''', the Federal Reserve will loan up to $200 billion to financial companies that hold securities backed by consumer and small-business loans.

Hedge funds are private investment companies with a combined $1.7 trillion in assets. They have lost $180 billion since July and some are near collapse. Investors are demanding their money back, and Wall Street in late October is bracing for a shake-out in the industry.<ref> Louise Story, "Citadel Chief denies rumors of trouble" [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/25/business/25hedge.html?ref=business ''New York Times,'' Oct 24, 2008]</ref>

In late November the government announced an $800 billion plan to boost consumer credit and the market for mortgage-related securities. Plans call for the Federal Reserve in early 2009 to extend up to $200 billion in non-recourse loans to holders of asset-backed securities backed by highly-rated consumer and small business loans.<ref> "Non-recourse" loans means that if they are not paid back the borrowers cannot be sued for their other assets. Mortgages fall in this category, so that if people default they just walk away from the debt and never have to repay it. However it damages their credit rating.</ref> Treasury will contribute $20 billion in funds through its Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP). The Federal Reserve also announced it will purchase up to $100 billion in GSE (government-sponsored enterprises, especially Fannie Mae and Freddy Mac) debt through a series of competitive auctions starting in December, 2008. The Federal Reserve starting in December will purchase up to $500 billion in mortgage-backed securities backed by GSEs such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke said the Fed is preparing to launch new liquidity programs to support the economy in addition to further slashing interests rates. The total commitments by the government in bailouts and loan guarantees exceeded $7 trillion dollars, but the economy nevertheless continued to slip downward.<ref>Maya Jackson Randall, "Paulson Says Treasury Actively Mulling New Rescue Programs," [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122816189458369851.html?mod=rss_Politics_And_Policy ''Wall Street Journal'' Dec. 1, 2008]</ref>
===Deepening recession===
By early December the entire economy was heading downward with no bright spots. The recession that began in Dec. 2007 intensified, as retail sales plunged. In November 2008 Americans, their confidence shaken, saved their money and sharply reduced their credit card purchases. Auto sales were down 37% in November (compared to Nov. 2007) to the lowest rate in 26 years. GM sales fell 41% Ford fell 31% and the foreign cars were down just as much, with Toyota down 34%, Nissan down 42% and Honda down 32%.<ref> Stephanie Rosenbloom, "In November, Shoppers Cut Spending Even More," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/economy/03shop.html?ref=business ''New York Times'' Dec. 2, 2008]; Nick Bunkley, "Another Month of Miserable Auto Sales," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/03sales.html?ref=business ''New York Times'' Dec. 2, 2008].</ref> Retailers rang up the lowest November sales in more than 30 years, as holiday shopping not only failed to lift the economy but showed that the crisis is further distressing everyday consumers. Thirty major companies -- including Macy's, Sears, Abercrombie & Fitch and Target -- posted sales declines; Wal-Mart, anchoring the bottom of the price chain, sawincreased sales. Retail sales in November fell 2.7 percent compared with the same month last year.<ref> Ylan Q. Mui, "Retailers Report a Crisis in All Aisles: November Sales Slump as Shoppers Stow Credit Cards," [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/04/AR2008120404347.html?hpid=topnews ''Washington Post'' Dec. 5, 2008]</ref>
[[Image:Jobloss.jpg|thumb|300px]]

The Federal Reserve reported on Dec. 3, 2008, that every region reported sales declines, drops in manufacturing activity, weakening real estate markets, tighter lending, and deteriorating labor marketsThose sectors that had been strong until recently -- especially as agriculture and energy -- also softened as commodity prices declined. November saw 533,000 jobs disappear in the worst one-month decline in 34 years.

==Collapse of #6 and #4 largest banks, rescue of #1==
===Washington Mutual collapses===
On Sept. 25, Washington Mutual, the 6th largest bank in the US with $310 billion in assets, went [[bankrupt]] after a run in which depositors withdrew $17 billion in a few days. Its stockholders lost all their money, the US government took it over (through the [[FDIC]], which insures ordinary bank deposits), and resold it the same day to the biggest New York bank, JPMorgan Chase. It was the largest commercial bank failure in American history, by far.<ref>In the [[Great Depression]], only one major bank failed (New York's Bank of United States, in late 1930), although over 6000 small neighborhood and rural banks went under; depositors eventually received on average 85% of their deposits.</ref>
===Wachovia collapses===
Meanwhile the #4 U.S. bank, Wachovia, burdened by $120 billion in toxic securities,<ref> At the height of the bubble in 2006 Wachovia purchased Golden West Financial, a California lender specializing in "pay-option" mortgages that enabled speculators to buy houses and pay very little a month for a year or two (at which time they expected to sell it for a profit). [http://www.brokeroutpost.com/reference/22657.htm explanation of pay-option loans]</ref> was bought out by Citigroup on Sept. 29 in a deal engineered by the FDIC. However Wachovia then broke its deal and merged into Wells Fargo. The result is that four major banks now dominate the American economy (Bank of America, Citibank, JP Morgan Chase, and Wells Fargo), along with dozens of regional chains and thousands of small local banks.
===Bank of America renegotiates mortgages===
In early October, Bank of America, the new owner of Countrywide, reached a settlement with 11 states that sued it over fraudulent practices. The state of Illinois accused Countrywide of relaxing underwriting standards, structuring loans with risky features, and misleading consumers with hidden fees and fake marketing claims, like a false promise of a "no closing costs loan." Countrywide gave special incentives to its brokers for selling impossible loans by paying higher commissions on them. In reviewing one Illinois mortgage broker’s sales, the Illinois complaint said the "vast majority of the loans had inflated income, almost all without the borrower’s knowledge." Bank of America did not deny the charges and instead agreed to pay out $8.4 billion to 400,000 Countrywide customers. Countrywide will reduce principal balances for some people and cut interest rates for others. Rates for some people could decline to as low as 2.5% and remain at that level for five years. Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and IndyMac, now all owned by the federal government, have begun their own programs to modify mortgage terms for some hard-pressed borrowers.
<ref> Gretchen Morgenson, "Countrywide to Set Aside $8.4 Billion in Loan Aid," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/06/business/06countrywide.html?ref=business ''New York Times'' Oct. 6, 2008]</ref>
===Largest bank rescued===
Citigroup, the world's largest bank was tottering in late November despite its receipt of $25 billion in TARP bailout money. Its value on the stock market plunged to $21 billion, down from $244 billion two years ago. Round after round of layoffs have ended 75,000 jobs in 2008 out of 375,000 employees a year ago. Very heavy exposure to toxic mortgages is the main culprit. The government stepped in with the largest bailout yet, including $20 billion in new cash, and guarantees of toxic assets by the Treasury, FDIC and Federal Reserve.

At all times Citigroup used elaborate mathematical risk models that looked at mortgages in particular geographical areas, but never included the possibility of a national housing downturn, or the prospect that millions of mortgage holders would default on their mortgages. The prevailing approach at Citigroup and the other big banks was to make money as fast as possible (generating annual bonuses of $10 to $30 million for senior executives), which assigning zero to the risk of a system-wide downturn. Such a downturn came with disastrous consequences for Citigroup and its rivals on Wall Street. Even after Bear Stearns ran into serious trouble in summer 2007, Citigroup decided the possibility of trouble with its CDO’s was so tiny (less than 1/100 of 1%) that they excluded them from their risk analysis.

Despite two federal bailouts Citigroup is still wobbly. It holds $20 billion of mortgage-linked securities that have been marked down to between 21 cents and 41 cents on the dollar. It has billions of dollars of giant buyout and corporate loans of dubious value. And it also faces a potential massive losses on auto, mortgage and credit card loans as the economy worsens.<ref>Eric Dash and Julie Creswell, "Citigroup Pays for a Rush to Risk," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/business/23citi.html?ref=business&pagewanted=all ''New York'' Times,’’ Nov. 22, 2008]</ref>

By the end of 2009 most big banks were in much better shape and the Treasury expects to recover all but $42 billion of the $370 billion it lent to ailing companies, with the portion lent to banks actually showing a slight profit. Meanwhile over 120 small and medium banks have been shut as insolvent; in most cases the FDIC picks up the losses and another bank takes over the operations and branches.<ref>Jackie Calmes, [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/07/business/07tarp.html?_r=1&hp=&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1260187849-MV96Nnjzom3OwAchzjIqrg "U.S. Forecasts Smaller Loss From Bailout of Banks," ''New York Times'' Dec. 6, 2009] </ref>

==Crisis in Auto industry==
In 2008 a series of damaging blows drove the "Big Three" (GM, Ford and Chrysler) to the verge of bankruptcy. Part of the cause was very high labor costs (much higher than the foreign plants in the U.S.), which prevents lower prices. The Big Three had in recent years stressed expensive, fuel-guzzling SUVs and large pickups. They were much more profitable than smaller, fuel-efficient cars. When gasoline prices shot past $4 in 2008, Americans stopped buying the big cars, and the Big Three saw their sales plummet. The Financial Crisis played a role as no one was willing to loan GM the money to buy Chrysler. Consumer credit has tightened and it became much harder for people with average or poor credit to obtain a bank loan to buy a car, so sales fell further. Stock prices plummeted as shareholders worried about bankruptcy; GM's shares fell to 1946 levels. Intense debate is underway about a massive bailout, that would be in addition to a $25 billion loan Congress passed in September 2008 to assist in increasing fuel efficiency. President Bush has proposed changing the terms of that loan so it could be used to cover daily operating expenses, but Congress rejected that. Republicans in Congress in mid-November blocked Democratic proposals to underwrite a new bailout of the auto industry, as industry leaders made an unconvincing case before Congress. President elect Obama and Democrats in Congress have demanded the Big Three come up with a highly specific plan with some chance of long-term viability, with the expectation that Congress will address the issue again in January 2009.

In addition to the Big Three hundreds of large suppliers of parts are in financial crisis as well; most would go under if the Big Three go bankrupt.

Intense debate in December 2008 focused on allowing bankruptcy or injecting billions more of federal aid in a massive bailout; it would be in addition to a $25 billion loan Congress passed in September 2008 to assist in increasing fuel efficiency. The Democrats in Congress supported president Bush's proposal to use the fuel-efficiency loans to help with the immediate problem. It passed the House but Senate Republicans brioke with Bush and it failed. The opponents called for a bankruptcy that would allow GM to get out of its contracts to pay union members high wages, as well as generous pensions and medical benefits to retired workers. Bush then acted unilaterally and decided to use [[TARP money]] to bail out GM and Chrysler, on December 19. GM and Chrysler will get $13.4 billions in loans they can use to pay their suppliers.<ref> GM and Chrysler will receive $4 billion each when they sign the loan agreements with the Treasury. GM will have access to an addition $5.4 billion on Jan. 16 and another $4 billion on Feb. 17 provided that Congress has released the remaining $350 billion for the Treasury’s TARP rescue program. </ref> GM can receive another $4 billion in February, but by then the Obama administration will be in charge, and it is emphasizing the need for a long-range solution.<ref>David E. Sanger, David M. Herszenhorn and Bill Vlasic, “Bush Aids Detroit, but Hard Choices Wait for Obama,” [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/20/business/20auto.html?hp ''NewYork Times'' Dec. 19, 2008]</ref>

===Bankruptcy scenario===
Bankruptcy of Chrysler and GM took place in the second quarter of 2009. Chrysler's sale to Italian automaker Fiat has been finalized. GM received billions more dollars to prevent bankruptcy but fell none-the-less. In addition, GM will require $30 billion in the first stage of bankruptcy. The Obama Administration is the single largest shareholder with the UAW second at 17% ownership. Also, many auto dealerships have been shuttered, thousands of workers have been [[laidoff]], assembly plants closed, and product lines dissolved or sold.

==Obama Administration==
[[Image:Geithner1.jpg|thumb|330px|Critics feared Geithner's vague plans would crash]]

The [[Obama Administration]], taking office on Jan. 20, 2009, moved to handle the crisis on two fronts. Working with Democrats in Congress (and three moderate Republican Senators), it passed the "[[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]]", calling for $500 billion of new spending and nearly $300 billion in new tax cuts. The new law began operations in mid-February, 2009, and supporters hoped it would slow and turn around the nosediving economy. Conservative critics feared it would be ineffective in the short run and add to the national debt and tax burdens in the long run. As of late March no results are visible.

With major banks on the verge of failure, Treasury Secretary [[Timothy Geithner]] unveiled yet another massive bailout program in mid-February. Trillions would be spent to move toxic assets out of the banks, but few details were provided. The widespread reaction was very negative, and Geithner lost more of his credibility as a problem solver. Geither finally came back with a plan on March 23 that will not need additional funding or approval by Congress. The Treasury will use $100 billion from the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), as well as new capital from private investors, in order to generate $500 billion in purchasing power to buy toxic loans and assets. The program could potentially expand to $1 trillion over time.

===Criticisms===
:The nations banks now lend 25% less than when the financial bailout was announced.

: The USA relies on China to buy our U.S. Treasury bonds to fund the increased spending.

:America is a debtor nation, we spend more than we save. The dollars value has plummeted against world currencies. Gold prices remain at record levels.The money that we don't have, but spend, will be a debt that future generations will have to worry about. This has brought rise to the term 'Generational Theft' in describing Obama policies.

:"It's time to terminate the TARP program," Rep. Jeb Hensarling, R-Texas, told reporters on Monday. "TARP is increasingly not being a vehicle for economic stability and taxpayer protection but is evolving into 700 billion dollar revolving slush fund that the administration can use to advance economic, social and political agenda items far and apart from what Tarp was ever designed to do." <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/06/08/house-republican-moves-terminate-tarp/ House Republican Moves to 'Terminate the TARP'] Fox News, June 08, 2009</ref>

In the view of 51 mostly conservative economists polled by the ''Wall Street Journal'' in July 2009, the Obama administration's performance is problematic. President Obama and Treasury Secretary Geithner both got an average grade of 70 out of 100 for their handling of the financial crisis, but those grades varied widely. Former President Bush and ex-Treasury chief Paulson got average grades of 50 and 60, respectively, when economists were asked how they handled the crisis while in office. By contrast, Fed chairman Bernanke scores much better, with an average grade of 85; in addition 93% of respondents said he should be reappointed by Obama when Bernanke's term expires early next year.<ref>Phil Izzo, "Few Economists Favor More Stimulus," [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124708099206913393.html ''Wall Street Journal'' July 10, 2009] </ref>

==See also==
*[[Recession of 2008]]
*[[Henry M. Paulson]]
*[[Paper loss]]
*[http://ow.ly/3klF The Bailout In Images]
==Further reading==
* Posner, Richard. ''A Failure of Capitalism: The Crisis of '08 and the Descent into Depression'' (2009), by a leading conservative
* Taylor, John B. ''Getting Off Track: How Government Actions and Interventions Caused, Prolonged, and Worsened the Financial Crisis'' (2009), 92pp; by a leading conservative
====References====
<references/>

[[Category:Finance]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:Obama Administration]]
[[Category:Obama Presidency]]

Puritans

2010-01-24T22:36:33Z

RJJensen: add Dunster

"Puritan" describes several [[Protestant]] denominations, especially the Congregationalists, who sought to "purify" the [[Anglican Church|Church of England]] of the influence of [[Catholic|Roman Catholicism]] in the 1600s. Puritan ethics were noted for their strictness, especially regarding sexual behavior and the theatre. Puritan literature is highlighted by poet [[John Milton]] and writer [[John Bunyan]]. Several Puritan groups eventually broke from the Church of England.

Persecuted in England, 100,000 Puritans resettled to the American colonies, particularly the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1630. They dominated New England and had a profound impact in shaping American history. During the [[English Civil War]], Puritan leader [[Oliver Cromwell]] deposed the monarchy under [[Charles I]]. The monarchy was restored in 1660 and Puritanism, although not persecuted, lost influence in Britain.

==Controversies==
When [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] first president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

==Congregationalists==
By 1700 the Puritan churches were called [[Congregational]] churches. The British also call them "dissenters" because they dissented from the official orthodoxy of the [[Church of England]]. Puritans and other Dissenters were restricted in the political rights until 1835 in Britain.

==Further reading==
* Bremer, Francis J. ''The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Puritan-Experiment-England-Society-Bradford/dp/0874517281/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230597875&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Morgan, Edmund S. ''Visible Saints: The History of a Puritan Idea'' (1965) [http://www.amazon.com/Visible-Saints-History-Puritan-Idea/dp/0801490413/ref=pd_bbs_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230597875&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* Vaughan, Alden. ''The Puritan Tradition in America, 1620-1730'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Puritan-Tradition-America-1620-1730-Library/dp/0874518520/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230600896&sr=8-18 excerpt and text search]
* Woolrych, Austin. ''Britain in Revolution: 1625-1660'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Britain-Revolution-1625-1660-Austin-Woolrych/dp/0198200811/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230600766&sr=8-13 excerpt and text search]

===Primary sources===
* Bennett, Arthur G., ed. ''Valley of Vision: A collection of Puritan Prayers & Devotions'' (1975) [http://www.amazon.com/Valley-Vision-collection-Puritan-Devotions/dp/0851512283/ref=pd_bbs_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230597875&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Heimart, Alan, and Andrew Delbanco, eds. ''The Puritans in America: A Narrative Anthology'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Puritans-America-Narrative-Anthology/dp/0674740661/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230600766&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Miller, Perry. ''The American Puritans: Their Prose and Poetry,'' 346 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/1330113?title=The%20American%20Puritans%3a%20Their%20Prose%20and%20Poetry online edition]
* Miller, Perry, and Thomas H. Johnson, eds. ''The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their Writings'' (2001)

==external links==
* [http://www.questia.com/library/religion/christianity/history/16th-and-17th-centuries/puritans.jsp Online books on Puritans]
* [[http://www.questia.com/library/puritan-literature.jsp Online books on Puritan literature]]

====references====
<references/>
[[Category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Colonial America]]
[[Category:Puritans]]
[[category:Religion and Politics]]

Baptist

2010-01-24T22:35:25Z

RJJensen: /* Baptist Music */ add

'''Baptists''' are a [[Christian]] denomination. Their largest organization, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], has 16 million members and is an influential social and political group:<ref>http://www.sbc.net/aboutus/default.asp</ref>
==History==
Historically, '''Baptists''' are descended primarily from the work of [[John Smyth]] (1554-1612) in [[England]]<ref>http://levellers.wordpress.com/2007/08/28/john-smyth-1570-1612-puritan-separatist-baptist-mennonite/</ref> He fled to [[Holland]] due to persecution of the [[Anabaptists]], of which he was part.<ref>http://www.exlibris.org/nonconform/engdis/anabaptists.html</ref> Baptists arrived in the American colonies, and became especially numerous in New England and Virginia. After 1800 the denomination grew rapidly. It split in 1845 over the issue of slavery. Many slaves were Baptists and at the end of the Civil War they withdrew from white churches and set up their own network of Baptists churches.

The Baptist Bible Union was started in 1923 by prominent Fundamentalists including W. B. Riley, pastor of First Baptist Church, Minneapolis, T. T. Shields, Canadian Baptist pastor, and J. Frank Norris, of First Baptist Church, Fort Worth, Texas. Riley said the Union was founded to give "open, determined opposition to menacing modernism" in the
Northern and Southern Baptist Conventions. The union was of "inspirational character" for those who sought to purge liberalism from Baptist denominations.<ref>Leonard (1987) p. 506</ref>
==Beliefs==
The following acrostic backronym, spelling BAPTIST, represents a useful summary of Baptists' distinguishing beliefs:

* Biblical authority (Matthew 24:35; 1 Peter 1:23; 2 Timothy 3:16-17)
* Autonomy of the local church (Matt. 18:15–17; 1 Cor. 6:1-3)
* Priesthood of all believers (1 Peter 2:5-9; 1 Timothy 5)
* Two ordinances (believer's baptism and the Lord's Supper) (Acts 2:41–47; 1 Cor. 11:23-32)
* Individual soul liberty (Romans 14:5–12)
* Separation of Church and State (Matthew 22:15–22)
* Two offices of the church (pastor-elder and deacon) (1 Timothy 3:1-13; Titus 1–2)

== Baptist Denominations ==
Baptists generally lack a religious hierarchy, tradition, or texts other than the [[Bible]], and they stress [[evangelical]] work.

Baptist denominations include the more [[liberal]] [[American Baptist Churches]], based in northern states, and the much larger [[conservative]] [[Southern Baptist Convention]] (SBC). It is the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S., and has churches in every state. Since its founding in 1845, the SBC has grown to over 16 million members in more than 42,000 churches in the United States. The SBC sponsors about 5,000 home missionaries serving the United States, Canada, Guam and the Caribbean, as well as another 5,000 foreign missionaries at work in 153 countries.

Most African Americans belong to the National Baptist Convention, with 7.5 million members, or to the smaller but more liberal Progressive National Baptist Convention, with over 2000 churches and a total membership of 2.5 million.

There are numerous smaller bodies, usually with long histories, such as the Calvinistic Baptists, General Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Old Regulars, Two Seeders, Independents, Landmarkeans-named after landmarks of doctrine-, and Seventh Day Baptists.<ref> Leonard (2005)</ref>

In addition many churches are independent; the independent Fundamentalist Baptists tend to be more conservative than either of these groups. Most independent churches were created in reaction to "worldliness, modernism, apostasy and compromise," often by a charismatic leader. They generally maintain a loose confederation of local congregations, promoting and funding independent missionaries and "church-planters, periodicals and Bible schools."<ref> Leonard (1987) p. 507 </ref>

==Beliefs==
They practice adult [[baptism]] which is done by immersion.<ref> In practice children are baptised at the age of 5 to 10; see Strategic Information and Planning Section, ''2001 Annual Church Profile Statistics:
Number of Baptisms by Age Divisions'' (Nashville: LifeWay Christian Resources, April 22, 2002). </ref> With that baptism, the individual acquires authority to determine matters of religion and [[faith]] for himself, or as part of a local congregation of believers. Many Baptists consider the [[Bible]] to be inerrant and the literal word of God. Baptists are often opposed to [[gambling]] and the use of [[tobacco]] and [[Alcoholic drink|alcoholic beverages]].<ref>http://www.abpnews.com/2885.article</ref>

Though each Baptist is free to define his own beliefs, a revised collection of common principles held by Baptists was set forth by the Southern Baptist Convention in 2000.<ref>http://www.sbc.net/bfm/</ref>

== Protestantism ==
Baptists are generally grouped together with Protestants. This is used to mean that they are "non-Catholic". When used in this sense, it is true. However, Protestant Churches are limited only to Churches which separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the [[Protestant Reformation]], starting in 1517. Some Baptists (called Landmarkeans) believe that Baptist history extends all the way back to the apostolic Church.<ref>[http://www.empirebaptistministries.org/church/articles/protestant.htm Jarrell's Baptist Perpetuity]</ref> [[Charles Haddon Spurgeon|C.H. Spurgeon]] told the story of Baptist minister, Peter of Bruys, who suffered martyrdom in 1124.<ref>[http://www.baptistbanner.net/baptist_history/baptist_history.html ''Baptists are Ancient''] by C.H. Spurgeon appeared in the August 1868 The Sword and the Trowel.</ref>[[The Waldensian Confession of Faith]] of 1120 A.D. is distinctively Baptist.<ref>[http://www.pbministries.org/History/Goodwin_&_Frazier/churches_02.htm ''Baptist Churches In All Ages'' by Paul Goodwin and Bob Frazier]</ref> Few historians agree, and most scholars argue that Baptists originiated in England in the 17th century.

Baptists also differ from most Protestants doctrinally. The most obvious being that Baptists only practice "Believer's Baptism", the belief, that only born-again believers, not infants, can get baptized. The other distinguishing belief is in the area of church government. Baptists believe that Christ and only Christ is the Head of the Church (Ephesians 5:23). There is no man who has the oversight of Baptist churches. Baptists have no denomination in the sense of an organization that controls local congregations. Each local church is autonomous and accountable only to Christ, who is its Head. Finally Baptists have always stood by the belief that the church should not be state controlled.<ref>[http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Believer's%20Corner/why_baptists_are_not_protestants.htm Why Baptists are not Protestants by Dr. Vernon C. Lyons]</ref>
===Europe===
European Baptist Federation (EBF) is a regional arm of the Baptist World Alliance. EBF has more than 800,000 Baptist members in 51 unions or conventions from Portugal to Russia. In 2009 it sponsored "Amsterdam 400," celebratting 400 years of Basptist history in Europe.

== Baptist Distinctives ==
Baptists have traditionally held to a set of beliefs that have developed into the Baptist Distinctives. The eight distinctives form the acrostic ''BAPTISTS''.

*''Biblical Authority'': The Bible is the final authority in all matters of faith and practice. The Bible is inspired by God and bears the absolute authority of God Himself.
*''Autonomy of the Local Church'': The local church is an independent body accountable to the Lord Jesus Christ. The church is autonomous, or self-governing. No religious hierarchy outside the local church may dictate a church's beliefs or practices.
*''Priesthood of the Believer'': Every believer is a priest of God and may enter into His presence in prayer directly through our Great High Priest, Jesus Christ. No other mediator is needed between God and people.
*''Two Ordinances'': The local church should practice the ordinance of baptism and the ordinance of the Lord's supper.
*''Individual Soul Liberty'': Every person has the liberty to choose what he believes is right in the religious realm. Religious persecution has always been opposed by Baptists. This does not, however, exempt exempt one from responsibility to the Word of God or from accountability to God Himself.
*''Saved, Baptized Church Membership'': Every member of a Baptist Church must be saved by believing in the Lord Jesus Christ, and have publicly proclaimed their faith through believer's baptism.
*''Two Offices'': Baptists believe there are two offices in the church, Pastor and Deacon.
*''Separation of Church and State'': God has established both government and the church. They fulfill two separate roles in society. The Church should not control the government, and likewise the government should not control the Church. This does not mean that individual Christians are prohibited from participating and influencing government toward righteousness.

== Baptist Music ==

The music often heard in Baptist churches tends to be uplifting and hopeful, rather than the meritative mood often set in more liberal churches. The lyrics also tend to focus on the afterlife (Heaven), putting one's life in God's hands, or the world after the return of [[Jesus Christ]]. Popular Baptist hymns include:
* "The Old Rugged Cross"
* "Leaning on the Everlasting Arms"
* "Amazing Grace"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
The most common instrumentation is piano and organ, often placed on either side of the church at the front, so that each play may see the other and the choir director at the same time. If the organ console is not facing the place where the choir director stands, then a mirror will be installed so that the organist can see. Occasionally, for special events, other instruments will be brought in. These are usually classical instruments like strings, woodwinds, or brass (especially trumpet). Electric guitars, basses, and drum sets are rare. Larger churches, like First Baptist Dallas, will regularly include a small symphony orchestra with the piano and organ, but smaller churches simply use the two [[Keyboard Instruments|keyboard instruments]].
==Controversies==
When [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] first president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

==Famous Baptists==
*[[Jerry Falwell]]
*[[Pat Robertson]]
*[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
*[[Billy Graham]]
*[[Jimmy Carter]]

==See also==
* [[Southern Baptist Convention]]
* [[First Great Awakening]]
* [[Second Great Awakening]]
* [[Third Great Awakening]]

==Bibliography==
* Harrison, Paul M. ''Authority and Power in the Free Church Tradition: A Social Case Study of the American Baptist Convention'' Princeton University Press, 1959.
* Heyrman, Christine Leigh. ''Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt'' (1997).
* Isaac, Rhy. "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 to 1775," ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 3d ser., XXXI (July 1974), 345–68. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1921628 in JSTOR]
* Johnson, Charles A. ''The Frontier Camp Meeting: Religion's Harvest Time'' (1955) [http://www.questia.com/read/3812202?title=The%20Frontier%20Camp%20Meeting%3a%20Religion's%20Harvest%20Time online edition]
* Leonard, Bill J. ''Baptist Ways: A History'' (2003), comprehensive international history
* Leonard, Bill J. ''Baptists in America.'' (2005), general survey and history by leading Southern Baptist
* Leonard, Bill J. "Independent Baptists: from Sectarian Minority to 'Moral Majority'". ''Church History''. Volume: 56. Issue: 4. 1987. pp 504+. [http://www.questia.com/read/95146834?title=Independent%20Baptists%3a%20from%20Sectarian%20Minority%20to%20%22Moral%20Majority%22 online edition]
* Rawlyk, George. ''Champions of the Truth: Fundamentalism, Modernism, and the Maritime Baptists'' (1990), on Baptists in Canada.
* Spain, Rufus. ''At Ease in Zion: Social History of Southern Baptists, 1865-1900'' (1967)
* Spangler, Jewel L. "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia" ''Journal of Southern History.'' Volume: 67. Issue: 2. 2001. pp 243+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5002399579?title=Becoming%20Baptists%3a%20Conversion%20in%20Colonial%20and%20Early%20National%20Virginia online edition]
* Stringer, Phil. ''The Faithful Baptist Witness,'' Landmark Baptist Press, 1998.
* Torbet, Robert G. ''A History of the Baptists,'' Judson Press, 1950.
* Underwood, A. C. ''A History of the English Baptists.'' London: Kingsgate Press, 1947.
* Wills, Gregory A. ''Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785–1900,'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/55113490?title=Democratic%20Religion%3a%20Freedom%2c%20Authority%2c%20and%20Church%20Discipline%20in%20the%20Baptist%20South%2c%201785-1900 online edition]
===Race===
* Gavins; Raymond. ''The Perils and Prospects of Southern Black Leadership: Gordon Blaine Hancock, 1884–1970'' Duke University Press, 1977.
* Harvey, Paul. ''Redeeming the South: Religious Cultures and Racial Identities among Southern Baptists, 1865–1925'' University of North Carolina Press, 1997. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/redeeming-the-south-religious-cultures-and-racial-identities-among-southern-baptists-1865-1925-by-paul-harvey.jsp online edition]
* Pitts, Walter F. ''Old Ship of Zion: The Afro-Baptist Ritual in the African Diaspora'' Oxford University Press, 1996.

===Primary sources===
* McBeth, H. Leon, (ed.) ''A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage'' (1990), primary sources for Baptist history.
* McGlothlin, W. J. (ed.) ''Baptist Confessions of Faith.'' Philadelphia: The American Baptist Publication Society, 1911.
* Underhill, Edward B. (ed.). ''Confessions of Faith and Other Documents of the Baptist Churches of England in the 17th century.'' London: The Hanserd Knollys Society, 1854.

== References ==
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society]
* [http://www.abpnews.com/ Associated Baptist Press] - An Independent Baptist news agency
* [http://www.bpnews.net/ Baptist Press] - A Southern Baptist news agency

[[Category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Revivals]]
[[Category:Baptists]]

Baptist

2010-01-24T22:34:38Z

RJJensen: /* =Europe */

'''Baptists''' are a [[Christian]] denomination. Their largest organization, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], has 16 million members and is an influential social and political group:<ref>http://www.sbc.net/aboutus/default.asp</ref>
==History==
Historically, '''Baptists''' are descended primarily from the work of [[John Smyth]] (1554-1612) in [[England]]<ref>http://levellers.wordpress.com/2007/08/28/john-smyth-1570-1612-puritan-separatist-baptist-mennonite/</ref> He fled to [[Holland]] due to persecution of the [[Anabaptists]], of which he was part.<ref>http://www.exlibris.org/nonconform/engdis/anabaptists.html</ref> Baptists arrived in the American colonies, and became especially numerous in New England and Virginia. After 1800 the denomination grew rapidly. It split in 1845 over the issue of slavery. Many slaves were Baptists and at the end of the Civil War they withdrew from white churches and set up their own network of Baptists churches.

The Baptist Bible Union was started in 1923 by prominent Fundamentalists including W. B. Riley, pastor of First Baptist Church, Minneapolis, T. T. Shields, Canadian Baptist pastor, and J. Frank Norris, of First Baptist Church, Fort Worth, Texas. Riley said the Union was founded to give "open, determined opposition to menacing modernism" in the
Northern and Southern Baptist Conventions. The union was of "inspirational character" for those who sought to purge liberalism from Baptist denominations.<ref>Leonard (1987) p. 506</ref>
==Beliefs==
The following acrostic backronym, spelling BAPTIST, represents a useful summary of Baptists' distinguishing beliefs:

* Biblical authority (Matthew 24:35; 1 Peter 1:23; 2 Timothy 3:16-17)
* Autonomy of the local church (Matt. 18:15–17; 1 Cor. 6:1-3)
* Priesthood of all believers (1 Peter 2:5-9; 1 Timothy 5)
* Two ordinances (believer's baptism and the Lord's Supper) (Acts 2:41–47; 1 Cor. 11:23-32)
* Individual soul liberty (Romans 14:5–12)
* Separation of Church and State (Matthew 22:15–22)
* Two offices of the church (pastor-elder and deacon) (1 Timothy 3:1-13; Titus 1–2)

== Baptist Denominations ==
Baptists generally lack a religious hierarchy, tradition, or texts other than the [[Bible]], and they stress [[evangelical]] work.

Baptist denominations include the more [[liberal]] [[American Baptist Churches]], based in northern states, and the much larger [[conservative]] [[Southern Baptist Convention]] (SBC). It is the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S., and has churches in every state. Since its founding in 1845, the SBC has grown to over 16 million members in more than 42,000 churches in the United States. The SBC sponsors about 5,000 home missionaries serving the United States, Canada, Guam and the Caribbean, as well as another 5,000 foreign missionaries at work in 153 countries.

Most African Americans belong to the National Baptist Convention, with 7.5 million members, or to the smaller but more liberal Progressive National Baptist Convention, with over 2000 churches and a total membership of 2.5 million.

There are numerous smaller bodies, usually with long histories, such as the Calvinistic Baptists, General Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Old Regulars, Two Seeders, Independents, Landmarkeans-named after landmarks of doctrine-, and Seventh Day Baptists.<ref> Leonard (2005)</ref>

In addition many churches are independent; the independent Fundamentalist Baptists tend to be more conservative than either of these groups. Most independent churches were created in reaction to "worldliness, modernism, apostasy and compromise," often by a charismatic leader. They generally maintain a loose confederation of local congregations, promoting and funding independent missionaries and "church-planters, periodicals and Bible schools."<ref> Leonard (1987) p. 507 </ref>

==Beliefs==
They practice adult [[baptism]] which is done by immersion.<ref> In practice children are baptised at the age of 5 to 10; see Strategic Information and Planning Section, ''2001 Annual Church Profile Statistics:
Number of Baptisms by Age Divisions'' (Nashville: LifeWay Christian Resources, April 22, 2002). </ref> With that baptism, the individual acquires authority to determine matters of religion and [[faith]] for himself, or as part of a local congregation of believers. Many Baptists consider the [[Bible]] to be inerrant and the literal word of God. Baptists are often opposed to [[gambling]] and the use of [[tobacco]] and [[Alcoholic drink|alcoholic beverages]].<ref>http://www.abpnews.com/2885.article</ref>

Though each Baptist is free to define his own beliefs, a revised collection of common principles held by Baptists was set forth by the Southern Baptist Convention in 2000.<ref>http://www.sbc.net/bfm/</ref>

== Protestantism ==
Baptists are generally grouped together with Protestants. This is used to mean that they are "non-Catholic". When used in this sense, it is true. However, Protestant Churches are limited only to Churches which separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the [[Protestant Reformation]], starting in 1517. Some Baptists (called Landmarkeans) believe that Baptist history extends all the way back to the apostolic Church.<ref>[http://www.empirebaptistministries.org/church/articles/protestant.htm Jarrell's Baptist Perpetuity]</ref> [[Charles Haddon Spurgeon|C.H. Spurgeon]] told the story of Baptist minister, Peter of Bruys, who suffered martyrdom in 1124.<ref>[http://www.baptistbanner.net/baptist_history/baptist_history.html ''Baptists are Ancient''] by C.H. Spurgeon appeared in the August 1868 The Sword and the Trowel.</ref>[[The Waldensian Confession of Faith]] of 1120 A.D. is distinctively Baptist.<ref>[http://www.pbministries.org/History/Goodwin_&_Frazier/churches_02.htm ''Baptist Churches In All Ages'' by Paul Goodwin and Bob Frazier]</ref> Few historians agree, and most scholars argue that Baptists originiated in England in the 17th century.

Baptists also differ from most Protestants doctrinally. The most obvious being that Baptists only practice "Believer's Baptism", the belief, that only born-again believers, not infants, can get baptized. The other distinguishing belief is in the area of church government. Baptists believe that Christ and only Christ is the Head of the Church (Ephesians 5:23). There is no man who has the oversight of Baptist churches. Baptists have no denomination in the sense of an organization that controls local congregations. Each local church is autonomous and accountable only to Christ, who is its Head. Finally Baptists have always stood by the belief that the church should not be state controlled.<ref>[http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Believer's%20Corner/why_baptists_are_not_protestants.htm Why Baptists are not Protestants by Dr. Vernon C. Lyons]</ref>
===Europe===
European Baptist Federation (EBF) is a regional arm of the Baptist World Alliance. EBF has more than 800,000 Baptist members in 51 unions or conventions from Portugal to Russia. In 2009 it sponsored "Amsterdam 400," celebratting 400 years of Basptist history in Europe.

== Baptist Distinctives ==
Baptists have traditionally held to a set of beliefs that have developed into the Baptist Distinctives. The eight distinctives form the acrostic ''BAPTISTS''.

*''Biblical Authority'': The Bible is the final authority in all matters of faith and practice. The Bible is inspired by God and bears the absolute authority of God Himself.
*''Autonomy of the Local Church'': The local church is an independent body accountable to the Lord Jesus Christ. The church is autonomous, or self-governing. No religious hierarchy outside the local church may dictate a church's beliefs or practices.
*''Priesthood of the Believer'': Every believer is a priest of God and may enter into His presence in prayer directly through our Great High Priest, Jesus Christ. No other mediator is needed between God and people.
*''Two Ordinances'': The local church should practice the ordinance of baptism and the ordinance of the Lord's supper.
*''Individual Soul Liberty'': Every person has the liberty to choose what he believes is right in the religious realm. Religious persecution has always been opposed by Baptists. This does not, however, exempt exempt one from responsibility to the Word of God or from accountability to God Himself.
*''Saved, Baptized Church Membership'': Every member of a Baptist Church must be saved by believing in the Lord Jesus Christ, and have publicly proclaimed their faith through believer's baptism.
*''Two Offices'': Baptists believe there are two offices in the church, Pastor and Deacon.
*''Separation of Church and State'': God has established both government and the church. They fulfill two separate roles in society. The Church should not control the government, and likewise the government should not control the Church. This does not mean that individual Christians are prohibited from participating and influencing government toward righteousness.

== Baptist Music ==

The music often heard in Baptist churches tends to be uplifting and hopeful, rather than the meritative mood often set in more liberal churches. The lyrics also tend to focus on the afterlife (Heaven), putting one's life in God's hands, or the world after the return of [[Jesus Christ]]. Popular Baptist hymns include:
* "The Old Rugged Cross"
* "Leaning on the Everlasting Arms"
* "Amazing Grace"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
The most common instrumentation is piano and organ, often placed on either side of the church at the front, so that each play may see the other and the choir director at the same time. If the organ console is not facing the place where the choir director stands, then a mirror will be installed so that the organist can see. Occasionally, for special events, other instruments will be brought in. These are usually classical instruments like strings, woodwinds, or brass (especially trumpet). Electric guitars, basses, and drum sets are rare. Larger churches, like First Baptist Dallas, will regularly include a small symphony orchestra with the piano and organ, but smaller churches simply use the two [[Keyboard Instruments|keyboard instruments]].

==Famous Baptists==
*[[Jerry Falwell]]
*[[Pat Robertson]]
*[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
*[[Billy Graham]]
*[[Jimmy Carter]]

==See also==
* [[Southern Baptist Convention]]
* [[First Great Awakening]]
* [[Second Great Awakening]]
* [[Third Great Awakening]]

==Bibliography==
* Harrison, Paul M. ''Authority and Power in the Free Church Tradition: A Social Case Study of the American Baptist Convention'' Princeton University Press, 1959.
* Heyrman, Christine Leigh. ''Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt'' (1997).
* Isaac, Rhy. "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 to 1775," ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 3d ser., XXXI (July 1974), 345–68. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1921628 in JSTOR]
* Johnson, Charles A. ''The Frontier Camp Meeting: Religion's Harvest Time'' (1955) [http://www.questia.com/read/3812202?title=The%20Frontier%20Camp%20Meeting%3a%20Religion's%20Harvest%20Time online edition]
* Leonard, Bill J. ''Baptist Ways: A History'' (2003), comprehensive international history
* Leonard, Bill J. ''Baptists in America.'' (2005), general survey and history by leading Southern Baptist
* Leonard, Bill J. "Independent Baptists: from Sectarian Minority to 'Moral Majority'". ''Church History''. Volume: 56. Issue: 4. 1987. pp 504+. [http://www.questia.com/read/95146834?title=Independent%20Baptists%3a%20from%20Sectarian%20Minority%20to%20%22Moral%20Majority%22 online edition]
* Rawlyk, George. ''Champions of the Truth: Fundamentalism, Modernism, and the Maritime Baptists'' (1990), on Baptists in Canada.
* Spain, Rufus. ''At Ease in Zion: Social History of Southern Baptists, 1865-1900'' (1967)
* Spangler, Jewel L. "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia" ''Journal of Southern History.'' Volume: 67. Issue: 2. 2001. pp 243+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5002399579?title=Becoming%20Baptists%3a%20Conversion%20in%20Colonial%20and%20Early%20National%20Virginia online edition]
* Stringer, Phil. ''The Faithful Baptist Witness,'' Landmark Baptist Press, 1998.
* Torbet, Robert G. ''A History of the Baptists,'' Judson Press, 1950.
* Underwood, A. C. ''A History of the English Baptists.'' London: Kingsgate Press, 1947.
* Wills, Gregory A. ''Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785–1900,'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/55113490?title=Democratic%20Religion%3a%20Freedom%2c%20Authority%2c%20and%20Church%20Discipline%20in%20the%20Baptist%20South%2c%201785-1900 online edition]
===Race===
* Gavins; Raymond. ''The Perils and Prospects of Southern Black Leadership: Gordon Blaine Hancock, 1884–1970'' Duke University Press, 1977.
* Harvey, Paul. ''Redeeming the South: Religious Cultures and Racial Identities among Southern Baptists, 1865–1925'' University of North Carolina Press, 1997. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/redeeming-the-south-religious-cultures-and-racial-identities-among-southern-baptists-1865-1925-by-paul-harvey.jsp online edition]
* Pitts, Walter F. ''Old Ship of Zion: The Afro-Baptist Ritual in the African Diaspora'' Oxford University Press, 1996.

===Primary sources===
* McBeth, H. Leon, (ed.) ''A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage'' (1990), primary sources for Baptist history.
* McGlothlin, W. J. (ed.) ''Baptist Confessions of Faith.'' Philadelphia: The American Baptist Publication Society, 1911.
* Underhill, Edward B. (ed.). ''Confessions of Faith and Other Documents of the Baptist Churches of England in the 17th century.'' London: The Hanserd Knollys Society, 1854.

== References ==
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society]
* [http://www.abpnews.com/ Associated Baptist Press] - An Independent Baptist news agency
* [http://www.bpnews.net/ Baptist Press] - A Southern Baptist news agency

[[Category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Revivals]]
[[Category:Baptists]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T22:34:18Z

RJJensen: /* Colonial */

{{University
|name=Harvard University
|background=Crimson
|type=Private
|city=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|sports=baseball, basketball, heavyweight crew, lightweight crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, sailing, soccer, softball, squash, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, wrestling<ref>http://www.gocrimson.com/</ref>
|colors=Crimson
|mascot=Crimson
|website=http://www.harvard.edu/
}}
[[Image:Harvard u.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Annenberg Hall, the freshman dining facility, (copyright Harvard)]]
'''Harvard University''' is a private university located in [[Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. It ranked #1 in US News's 2009 "National [[University|Universities]]: Top Schools" list,<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2155</ref> and is usually ranked either first or second in most lists of a similar nature.

Founded in 1636 (as '''Harvard College'''), it is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. It was originally founded by [[Congregationalism|Congregationalists]] for the purpose of training ministers.

Harvard is one of the eight schools in the [[Ivy League]]. Harvard accepts applications from [[homeschooling|homeschooled]] children.<ref>Christian Examiner, Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 12</ref>

The Harvard University libraries contain more than 16 million volumes and is the largest and most important academic library in the world. It began in the 1638 bequest of 400 books from John Harvard. The core of the University's collections is found in Widener Library, but there are 70 libraries in all. It is renowned for special collections of incunabula, law, anthropology, East Asian studies, Slavic studies, Hebraica and Judaica, American history and literature, British and European history and literature, literary manuscripts, and fine arts.

The Harvard University Press is a leading academic publisher of scholarly monographs, and has published more than 4,000 titles, including the Loeb Classical Library.

==History==
===Colonial===
With some 17,000 [[Puritans]] migrating to New England by 1620, Harvard was founded by ministers who realized the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness." it was named for John Harvard, its first benefactor. It received its corporate charter in 1650 and became a university in 1780.

In the words of Harvard's founders:
:"After God had carried us safe to New England, and we ... rear'd convenient places for God's worship ... dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust ... it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard, a godly gentleman and a lover of learning ... to give the one half of his estate ... towards the erecting of a college and all his Library."

[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Harvard College was founded in 1636 making Boston the intellectual center of New England]]

When the college's first president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the [[Baptist]] faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

In 1692, the Puritan preacher [[Increase Mather]] became President of Harvard. One of his acts was replacing Roman Classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes, and maintaining a high standard of discipline. Both Harvard College Lawes of 1642 and Harvard College Laws of 1700 testify to its original high level of discipline.<ref>[http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College]</ref> Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the nineteenth century, and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could 'read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically.'<ref>Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest", by Barrett Wendell</ref>

The early motto of Harvard was ''Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae'', meaning "Truth For Christ and the Church." In the early classes half the graduates became muinisters. By the 1760s the proportion was down to 15%. Ten out of the first twelve presidents were also ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721 and by 1827 Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in New England.<ref>http://www.reference.com/browse/Harvard</ref>

The departure of Increase Mather from the presidency in 1701 marked the beginning of a long term struggle between orthodoxy and liberalism. Harvard's first secular president was John Leverett, who began his term in 1708. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact and sought to keep the College independent of the overwhelming influence of any single sect <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php John Leverett - History - Office of the President]</ref>.

Seven alumni were killed in the [[American Revolution]]. [[Loyalists]] were outnumbered seven to one by patriots among the graduates of Harvard and, at the conclusion of the war, found themselves outside of both American and British society, especially lacking business contacts. Patriots, however, were much more mixed in their later careers, with some going on to wealth and others receding into obscurity. [[John Adams]] became the second president of the United States.<ref> Jack P. Greene, "Harvard Men in a Changing World," ''Massachusetts Historical Review'' 2007 9: 166-176, </ref>

===19th century===
The takeover of Harvard by the [[Unitarians]] in 1805 resulted in the secularization of the American college. By 1850 Harvard was the "Unitarian Vatican." The "liberals" (Unitarians) allied themselves with [[Federalist Party|high Federalists]] and began to create a set of private societies and institutions meant to shore up their cultural and political authority, a movement that prefigured the emergence of the Boston Brahmin class. On the other hand, the theological conservatives used print media to argue for the maintenance of open debate and democratic governance through a diverse public sphere, seeing the liberals' movement as an attempt to create a cultural oligarchy in opposition to Congregationalist tradition and republican political principles.<ref>Neil Brody Miller, "'Proper Subjects for Public Inquiry': the First Unitarian Controversy and the Transformation of Federalist Print Culture," ''Early American Literature'' 2008 43(1): 101-135; [http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0100_Christianity_in_U.S..html A Brief History of Christian Influence in U.S. Colleges]</ref>

In 1846, the natural history lectures of [[Louis Agassiz]] were acclaimed both in New York and on his campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' 'participation in the Divine Nature' and the possibility of understanding 'intellectual existences.' Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that one can grasp the 'divine plan' in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of [[Common Sense Realism]] derived from Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to 'soar with Plato' probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris, and, in a Romantic vein, [[Samuel Coleridge]]. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the 'official philosophy' of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.<ref>David K. Nartonis, "Louis Agassiz and the Platonist Story of Creation at Harvard, 1795-1846," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 2005 66(3): 437-449, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654189 in JSTOR]</ref>

Charles W. Eliot, president 1869-1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by Transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from [[William Ellery Channing]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth, and the indwelling God in each person.<ref>Stephen P. Shoemaker, "The Theological Roots of Charles W. Eliot's Educational Reforms," ''Journal of Unitarian Universalist History'' 2006-2007 31: 30-45, </ref>

Football, originally organized by students as an extracurricular activity, was banned twice by the university for being a brutal and dangerous sport. However, by the 1880s, football became a dominant force at the college as the alumni became more involved in the sport. In 1882, the faculty formed a three-member athletic committee to oversee all intercollegiate athletics, but, due to increasing student and alumni pressure, the committee was expanded in 1885 to include three student and three alumni members. The alumni's role in the rise and commercialization of football, the leading moneymaker for athletics by the 1880s, was evident in the fundraising for the first steel-reinforced concrete stadium. The class of 1879 donated $100,000 - nearly one-third of the cost - to the construction of the 35,000-seat stadium, which was completed in 1903, with the remainder to be collected from future ticket sales.<ref>Ronald A. Smith, "Commercialized Intercollegiate Athletics and the 1903 Harvard Stadium," ''New England Quarterly'', Vol. 78, No. 1 (Mar., 2005), pp. 26-48 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1559707 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Expansion==

Over the years, Harvard has grown to include a number of major schools.<ref>[http://www.harvard.edu/academics/]</ref> They include:
* Arts and Sciences
* Engineering and Applied Sciences
* Harvard Medical School
* Harvard School of Dental Medicine
* Harvard Business School
* Graduate School of Design
* Harvard Divinity School
* Graduate School of Education
* John F. Kennedy School of Government
* Harvard Law School
* Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
* Harvard School of Public Health

==High grades==

In 2001, Harvard was focused upon as part of a controversy in which high, but allegedly unwarranted, GPA's (Grade Point Averages) were awarded. While in 1940 C-minus was the most common GPA at Harvard, and in 1955 only 15 percent of undergraduates had a GPA of B-plus or higher, in the year 2000, 50% in of all the grades given were As or A-minuses, with just six percent being C-pluses or lower. More than 90 percent of the class of 2001 had earned grade-point averages of B-minus or higher.

Observers point out that entering freshmen typically have straight-A averages in high school, SAT scores near 800 in all fields, and have demonstrated an unusual ability to engage in serious study. The days when Harvard included many "Gentleman C" students there for social activities are long gone.

In a ''Harvard Crimson'' article, noted conservative Harvard professor [[Harvey Mansfield]] contended that "Grade inflation got started … when professors raised the grades of students protesting the war in Vietnam..." "At that time, too, white professors, imbibing the spirit of the new policies of affirmative action, stopped giving low grades to black students, and to justify or conceal this, also stopped giving low grades to white students." The problem was essentially seen as the predominance of the notion of self-esteem, "in which the purpose of education is to make students feel capable and 'empowered,' and professors should hesitate to pass judgment on what students have learned." Such assertions resulted in no small controversy.

Harvard alumnus and author Ross Douthat attributed this problem partly to socioeconomic differences, and noted that "Harvard students are creatively lazy, gifted at working smarter rather than harder", being brilliant largely in their tactics "to achieve a maximal GPA in return for minimal effort." Few people who have taught at Harvard agree with Douthat's notions.<ref>Ross Douthat, "The Truth About Harvard," ''The Atlantic Monthly'' March 2005 ; adapted from his book, ''Privilege: Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class''</ref>
==Further reading==
* Abelmann, Walter H., ed. ''The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970-1995'' (2004). 346 pp.
* Bethell, John T.; Hunt, Richard M.; and Shenton, Robert. ''Harvard A to Z'' (2004). 396 pp. the best guide [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Z-John-T-Bethell/dp/0674012887/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1264371175&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Harvard U. ''Education, Bricks and Mortar: Harvard Buildings and Their Contribution to the Advancement of Learning'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/read/59261318?title=Education%2c%20Bricks%20and%20Mortar%3a%20Harvard%20Buildings%20and%20Their%20Contribution%20to%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Learning online edition]
* James, Henry. ''Charles W. Eliot: President of Harvard University, 1869-1909'' (1930) [http://www.questia.com/read/1107046?title=Charles%20W.%20Eliot%3a%20President%20of%20Harvard%20University%2c%201869-1909 online edition]
* Keller, Morton. ''Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University'' (2001), major history covers 1933 to 2002 [http://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University online edition]
* Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. ''Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History'' (2004). 337 pp.
* Wright, Conrad Edick. ''Revolutionary Generation: Harvard Men and the Consequences of Independence'' (2005). 298 pp.
==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Yale University]]
*[[University]]
*[[Ohio State University]]
*[[Harvard Law Review]]
{{clear}}

==Notable Alums==
{|background="none" width="100%" border="1"
|-
!A-F
!G-L
!M-R
!S-Z
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[John Adams]]
*[[Stephen Breyer]]
*[[Fred Brooks]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Alberto R. Gonzales]]
*[[Al Gore]]
*[[Theodore Hall]]
*[[John Hancock]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Bill Kristol]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Barack Obama]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Andrew Schlafly]]

|}

{{Nb_US_universities|Massachusetts}}
[[Category:Universities]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T22:19:36Z

RJJensen: /* 19th century */ football

{{University
|name=Harvard University
|background=Crimson
|type=Private
|city=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|sports=baseball, basketball, heavyweight crew, lightweight crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, sailing, soccer, softball, squash, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, wrestling<ref>http://www.gocrimson.com/</ref>
|colors=Crimson
|mascot=Crimson
|website=http://www.harvard.edu/
}}
[[Image:Harvard u.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Annenberg Hall, the freshman dining facility, (copyright Harvard)]]
'''Harvard University''' is a private university located in [[Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. It ranked #1 in US News's 2009 "National [[University|Universities]]: Top Schools" list,<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2155</ref> and is usually ranked either first or second in most lists of a similar nature.

Founded in 1636 (as '''Harvard College'''), it is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. It was originally founded by [[Congregationalism|Congregationalists]] for the purpose of training ministers.

Harvard is one of the eight schools in the [[Ivy League]]. Harvard accepts applications from [[homeschooling|homeschooled]] children.<ref>Christian Examiner, Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 12</ref>

The Harvard University libraries contain more than 16 million volumes and is the largest and most important academic library in the world. It began in the 1638 bequest of 400 books from John Harvard. The core of the University's collections is found in Widener Library, but there are 70 libraries in all. It is renowned for special collections of incunabula, law, anthropology, East Asian studies, Slavic studies, Hebraica and Judaica, American history and literature, British and European history and literature, literary manuscripts, and fine arts.

The Harvard University Press is a leading academic publisher of scholarly monographs, and has published more than 4,000 titles, including the Loeb Classical Library.

==History==
===Colonial===
With some 17,000 [[Puritans]] migrating to New England by 1620, Harvard was founded by ministers who realized the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness." it was named for John Harvard, its first benefactor. It received its corporate charter in 1650 and became a university in 1780.

In the words of Harvard's founders:
:"After God had carried us safe to New England, and we ... rear'd convenient places for God's worship ... dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust ... it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard, a godly gentleman and a lover of learning ... to give the one half of his estate ... towards the erecting of a college and all his Library."

[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Harvard College was founded in 1636 making Boston the intellectual center of New England]]

When president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

In 1692, the Puritan preacher [[Increase Mather]] became President of Harvard. One of his acts was replacing Roman Classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes, and maintaining a high standard of discipline. Both Harvard College Lawes of 1642 and Harvard College Laws of 1700 testify to its original high level of discipline.<ref>[http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College]</ref> Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the nineteenth century, and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could 'read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically.'<ref>Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest", by Barrett Wendell</ref>

The early motto of Harvard was ''Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae'', meaning "Truth For Christ and the Church." In the early classes half the graduates became muinisters. By the 1760s the proportion was down to 15%. Ten out of the first twelve presidents were also ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721 and by 1827 Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in New England.<ref>http://www.reference.com/browse/Harvard</ref>

The departure of Increase Mather from the presidency in 1701 marked the beginning of a long term struggle between orthodoxy and liberalism. Harvard's first secular president was John Leverett, who began his term in 1708. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact and sought to keep the College independent of the overwhelming influence of any single sect <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php John Leverett - History - Office of the President]</ref>.

Seven alumni were killed in the [[American Revolution]]. [[Loyalists]] were outnumbered seven to one by patriots among the graduates of Harvard and, at the conclusion of the war, found themselves outside of both American and British society, especially lacking business contacts. Patriots, however, were much more mixed in their later careers, with some going on to wealth and others receding into obscurity. [[John Adams]] became the second president of the United States.<ref> Jack P. Greene, "Harvard Men in a Changing World," ''Massachusetts Historical Review'' 2007 9: 166-176, </ref>
===19th century===
The takeover of Harvard by the [[Unitarians]] in 1805 resulted in the secularization of the American college. By 1850 Harvard was the "Unitarian Vatican." The "liberals" (Unitarians) allied themselves with [[Federalist Party|high Federalists]] and began to create a set of private societies and institutions meant to shore up their cultural and political authority, a movement that prefigured the emergence of the Boston Brahmin class. On the other hand, the theological conservatives used print media to argue for the maintenance of open debate and democratic governance through a diverse public sphere, seeing the liberals' movement as an attempt to create a cultural oligarchy in opposition to Congregationalist tradition and republican political principles.<ref>Neil Brody Miller, "'Proper Subjects for Public Inquiry': the First Unitarian Controversy and the Transformation of Federalist Print Culture," ''Early American Literature'' 2008 43(1): 101-135; [http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0100_Christianity_in_U.S..html A Brief History of Christian Influence in U.S. Colleges]</ref>

In 1846, the natural history lectures of [[Louis Agassiz]] were acclaimed both in New York and on his campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' 'participation in the Divine Nature' and the possibility of understanding 'intellectual existences.' Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that one can grasp the 'divine plan' in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of [[Common Sense Realism]] derived from Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to 'soar with Plato' probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris, and, in a Romantic vein, [[Samuel Coleridge]]. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the 'official philosophy' of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.<ref>David K. Nartonis, "Louis Agassiz and the Platonist Story of Creation at Harvard, 1795-1846," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 2005 66(3): 437-449, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654189 in JSTOR]</ref>

Charles W. Eliot, president 1869-1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by Transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from [[William Ellery Channing]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth, and the indwelling God in each person.<ref>Stephen P. Shoemaker, "The Theological Roots of Charles W. Eliot's Educational Reforms," ''Journal of Unitarian Universalist History'' 2006-2007 31: 30-45, </ref>

Football, originally organized by students as an extracurricular activity, was banned twice by the university for being a brutal and dangerous sport. However, by the 1880s, football became a dominant force at the college as the alumni became more involved in the sport. In 1882, the faculty formed a three-member athletic committee to oversee all intercollegiate athletics, but, due to increasing student and alumni pressure, the committee was expanded in 1885 to include three student and three alumni members. The alumni's role in the rise and commercialization of football, the leading moneymaker for athletics by the 1880s, was evident in the fundraising for the first steel-reinforced concrete stadium. The class of 1879 donated $100,000 - nearly one-third of the cost - to the construction of the 35,000-seat stadium, which was completed in 1903, with the remainder to be collected from future ticket sales.<ref>Ronald A. Smith, "Commercialized Intercollegiate Athletics and the 1903 Harvard Stadium," ''New England Quarterly'', Vol. 78, No. 1 (Mar., 2005), pp. 26-48 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1559707 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Expansion==

Over the years, Harvard has grown to include a number of major schools.<ref>[http://www.harvard.edu/academics/]</ref> They include:
* Arts and Sciences
* Engineering and Applied Sciences
* Harvard Medical School
* Harvard School of Dental Medicine
* Harvard Business School
* Graduate School of Design
* Harvard Divinity School
* Graduate School of Education
* John F. Kennedy School of Government
* Harvard Law School
* Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
* Harvard School of Public Health

==High grades==

In 2001, Harvard was focused upon as part of a controversy in which high, but allegedly unwarranted, GPA's (Grade Point Averages) were awarded. While in 1940 C-minus was the most common GPA at Harvard, and in 1955 only 15 percent of undergraduates had a GPA of B-plus or higher, in the year 2000, 50% in of all the grades given were As or A-minuses, with just six percent being C-pluses or lower. More than 90 percent of the class of 2001 had earned grade-point averages of B-minus or higher.

Observers point out that entering freshmen typically have straight-A averages in high school, SAT scores near 800 in all fields, and have demonstrated an unusual ability to engage in serious study. The days when Harvard included many "Gentleman C" students there for social activities are long gone.

In a ''Harvard Crimson'' article, noted conservative Harvard professor [[Harvey Mansfield]] contended that "Grade inflation got started … when professors raised the grades of students protesting the war in Vietnam..." "At that time, too, white professors, imbibing the spirit of the new policies of affirmative action, stopped giving low grades to black students, and to justify or conceal this, also stopped giving low grades to white students." The problem was essentially seen as the predominance of the notion of self-esteem, "in which the purpose of education is to make students feel capable and 'empowered,' and professors should hesitate to pass judgment on what students have learned." Such assertions resulted in no small controversy.

Harvard alumnus and author Ross Douthat attributed this problem partly to socioeconomic differences, and noted that "Harvard students are creatively lazy, gifted at working smarter rather than harder", being brilliant largely in their tactics "to achieve a maximal GPA in return for minimal effort." Few people who have taught at Harvard agree with Douthat's notions.<ref>Ross Douthat, "The Truth About Harvard," ''The Atlantic Monthly'' March 2005 ; adapted from his book, ''Privilege: Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class''</ref>
==Further reading==
* Abelmann, Walter H., ed. ''The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970-1995'' (2004). 346 pp.
* Bethell, John T.; Hunt, Richard M.; and Shenton, Robert. ''Harvard A to Z'' (2004). 396 pp. the best guide [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Z-John-T-Bethell/dp/0674012887/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1264371175&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Harvard U. ''Education, Bricks and Mortar: Harvard Buildings and Their Contribution to the Advancement of Learning'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/read/59261318?title=Education%2c%20Bricks%20and%20Mortar%3a%20Harvard%20Buildings%20and%20Their%20Contribution%20to%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Learning online edition]
* James, Henry. ''Charles W. Eliot: President of Harvard University, 1869-1909'' (1930) [http://www.questia.com/read/1107046?title=Charles%20W.%20Eliot%3a%20President%20of%20Harvard%20University%2c%201869-1909 online edition]
* Keller, Morton. ''Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University'' (2001), major history covers 1933 to 2002 [http://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University online edition]
* Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. ''Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History'' (2004). 337 pp.
* Wright, Conrad Edick. ''Revolutionary Generation: Harvard Men and the Consequences of Independence'' (2005). 298 pp.
==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Yale University]]
*[[University]]
*[[Ohio State University]]
*[[Harvard Law Review]]
{{clear}}

==Notable Alums==
{|background="none" width="100%" border="1"
|-
!A-F
!G-L
!M-R
!S-Z
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[John Adams]]
*[[Stephen Breyer]]
*[[Fred Brooks]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Alberto R. Gonzales]]
*[[Al Gore]]
*[[Theodore Hall]]
*[[John Hancock]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Bill Kristol]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Barack Obama]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Andrew Schlafly]]

|}

{{Nb_US_universities|Massachusetts}}
[[Category:Universities]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T22:16:28Z

RJJensen: Agassiz

{{University
|name=Harvard University
|background=Crimson
|type=Private
|city=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|sports=baseball, basketball, heavyweight crew, lightweight crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, sailing, soccer, softball, squash, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, wrestling<ref>http://www.gocrimson.com/</ref>
|colors=Crimson
|mascot=Crimson
|website=http://www.harvard.edu/
}}
[[Image:Harvard u.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Annenberg Hall, the freshman dining facility, (copyright Harvard)]]
'''Harvard University''' is a private university located in [[Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. It ranked #1 in US News's 2009 "National [[University|Universities]]: Top Schools" list,<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2155</ref> and is usually ranked either first or second in most lists of a similar nature.

Founded in 1636 (as '''Harvard College'''), it is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. It was originally founded by [[Congregationalism|Congregationalists]] for the purpose of training ministers.

Harvard is one of the eight schools in the [[Ivy League]]. Harvard accepts applications from [[homeschooling|homeschooled]] children.<ref>Christian Examiner, Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 12</ref>

The Harvard University libraries contain more than 16 million volumes and is the largest and most important academic library in the world. It began in the 1638 bequest of 400 books from John Harvard. The core of the University's collections is found in Widener Library, but there are 70 libraries in all. It is renowned for special collections of incunabula, law, anthropology, East Asian studies, Slavic studies, Hebraica and Judaica, American history and literature, British and European history and literature, literary manuscripts, and fine arts.

The Harvard University Press is a leading academic publisher of scholarly monographs, and has published more than 4,000 titles, including the Loeb Classical Library.

==History==
===Colonial===
With some 17,000 [[Puritans]] migrating to New England by 1620, Harvard was founded by ministers who realized the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness." it was named for John Harvard, its first benefactor. It received its corporate charter in 1650 and became a university in 1780.

In the words of Harvard's founders:
:"After God had carried us safe to New England, and we ... rear'd convenient places for God's worship ... dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust ... it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard, a godly gentleman and a lover of learning ... to give the one half of his estate ... towards the erecting of a college and all his Library."

[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Harvard College was founded in 1636 making Boston the intellectual center of New England]]

When president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

In 1692, the Puritan preacher [[Increase Mather]] became President of Harvard. One of his acts was replacing Roman Classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes, and maintaining a high standard of discipline. Both Harvard College Lawes of 1642 and Harvard College Laws of 1700 testify to its original high level of discipline.<ref>[http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College]</ref> Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the nineteenth century, and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could 'read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically.'<ref>Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest", by Barrett Wendell</ref>

The early motto of Harvard was ''Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae'', meaning "Truth For Christ and the Church." In the early classes half the graduates became muinisters. By the 1760s the proportion was down to 15%. Ten out of the first twelve presidents were also ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721 and by 1827 Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in New England.<ref>http://www.reference.com/browse/Harvard</ref>

The departure of Increase Mather from the presidency in 1701 marked the beginning of a long term struggle between orthodoxy and liberalism. Harvard's first secular president was John Leverett, who began his term in 1708. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact and sought to keep the College independent of the overwhelming influence of any single sect <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php John Leverett - History - Office of the President]</ref>.

Seven alumni were killed in the [[American Revolution]]. [[Loyalists]] were outnumbered seven to one by patriots among the graduates of Harvard and, at the conclusion of the war, found themselves outside of both American and British society, especially lacking business contacts. Patriots, however, were much more mixed in their later careers, with some going on to wealth and others receding into obscurity. [[John Adams]] became the second president of the United States.<ref> Jack P. Greene, "Harvard Men in a Changing World," ''Massachusetts Historical Review'' 2007 9: 166-176, </ref>
===19th century===
The takeover of Harvard by the [[Unitarians]] in 1805 resulted in the secularization of the American college. By 1850 Harvard was the "Unitarian Vatican." The "liberals" (Unitarians) allied themselves with [[Federalist Party|high Federalists]] and began to create a set of private societies and institutions meant to shore up their cultural and political authority, a movement that prefigured the emergence of the Boston Brahmin class. On the other hand, the theological conservatives used print media to argue for the maintenance of open debate and democratic governance through a diverse public sphere, seeing the liberals' movement as an attempt to create a cultural oligarchy in opposition to Congregationalist tradition and republican political principles.<ref>Neil Brody Miller, "'Proper Subjects for Public Inquiry': the First Unitarian Controversy and the Transformation of Federalist Print Culture," ''Early American Literature'' 2008 43(1): 101-135; [http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0100_Christianity_in_U.S..html A Brief History of Christian Influence in U.S. Colleges]</ref>

In 1846, the natural history lectures of [[Louis Agassiz]] were acclaimed both in New York and on his campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' 'participation in the Divine Nature' and the possibility of understanding 'intellectual existences.' Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that one can grasp the 'divine plan' in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of [[Common Sense Realism]] derived from Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to 'soar with Plato' probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris, and, in a Romantic vein, [[Samuel Coleridge]]. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the 'official philosophy' of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.<ref>David K. Nartonis, "Louis Agassiz and the Platonist Story of Creation at Harvard, 1795-1846," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 2005 66(3): 437-449, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654189 in JSTOR]</ref>

Charles W. Eliot, president 1869-1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by Transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from [[William Ellery Channing]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth, and the indwelling God in each person.<ref>Stephen P. Shoemaker, "The Theological Roots of Charles W. Eliot's Educational Reforms," ''Journal of Unitarian Universalist History'' 2006-2007 31: 30-45, </ref>

==Expansion==

Over the years, Harvard has grown to include a number of major schools.<ref>[http://www.harvard.edu/academics/]</ref> They include:
* Arts and Sciences
* Engineering and Applied Sciences
* Harvard Medical School
* Harvard School of Dental Medicine
* Harvard Business School
* Graduate School of Design
* Harvard Divinity School
* Graduate School of Education
* John F. Kennedy School of Government
* Harvard Law School
* Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
* Harvard School of Public Health

==High grades==

In 2001, Harvard was focused upon as part of a controversy in which high, but allegedly unwarranted, GPA's (Grade Point Averages) were awarded. While in 1940 C-minus was the most common GPA at Harvard, and in 1955 only 15 percent of undergraduates had a GPA of B-plus or higher, in the year 2000, 50% in of all the grades given were As or A-minuses, with just six percent being C-pluses or lower. More than 90 percent of the class of 2001 had earned grade-point averages of B-minus or higher.

Observers point out that entering freshmen typically have straight-A averages in high school, SAT scores near 800 in all fields, and have demonstrated an unusual ability to engage in serious study. The days when Harvard included many "Gentleman C" students there for social activities are long gone.

In a ''Harvard Crimson'' article, noted conservative Harvard professor [[Harvey Mansfield]] contended that "Grade inflation got started … when professors raised the grades of students protesting the war in Vietnam..." "At that time, too, white professors, imbibing the spirit of the new policies of affirmative action, stopped giving low grades to black students, and to justify or conceal this, also stopped giving low grades to white students." The problem was essentially seen as the predominance of the notion of self-esteem, "in which the purpose of education is to make students feel capable and 'empowered,' and professors should hesitate to pass judgment on what students have learned." Such assertions resulted in no small controversy.

Harvard alumnus and author Ross Douthat attributed this problem partly to socioeconomic differences, and noted that "Harvard students are creatively lazy, gifted at working smarter rather than harder", being brilliant largely in their tactics "to achieve a maximal GPA in return for minimal effort." Few people who have taught at Harvard agree with Douthat's notions.<ref>Ross Douthat, "The Truth About Harvard," ''The Atlantic Monthly'' March 2005 ; adapted from his book, ''Privilege: Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class''</ref>
==Further reading==
* Abelmann, Walter H., ed. ''The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970-1995'' (2004). 346 pp.
* Bethell, John T.; Hunt, Richard M.; and Shenton, Robert. ''Harvard A to Z'' (2004). 396 pp. the best guide [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Z-John-T-Bethell/dp/0674012887/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1264371175&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Harvard U. ''Education, Bricks and Mortar: Harvard Buildings and Their Contribution to the Advancement of Learning'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/read/59261318?title=Education%2c%20Bricks%20and%20Mortar%3a%20Harvard%20Buildings%20and%20Their%20Contribution%20to%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Learning online edition]
* James, Henry. ''Charles W. Eliot: President of Harvard University, 1869-1909'' (1930) [http://www.questia.com/read/1107046?title=Charles%20W.%20Eliot%3a%20President%20of%20Harvard%20University%2c%201869-1909 online edition]
* Keller, Morton. ''Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University'' (2001), major history covers 1933 to 2002 [http://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University online edition]
* Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. ''Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History'' (2004). 337 pp.
* Wright, Conrad Edick. ''Revolutionary Generation: Harvard Men and the Consequences of Independence'' (2005). 298 pp.
==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Yale University]]
*[[University]]
*[[Ohio State University]]
*[[Harvard Law Review]]
{{clear}}

==Notable Alums==
{|background="none" width="100%" border="1"
|-
!A-F
!G-L
!M-R
!S-Z
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[John Adams]]
*[[Stephen Breyer]]
*[[Fred Brooks]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Alberto R. Gonzales]]
*[[Al Gore]]
*[[Theodore Hall]]
*[[John Hancock]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Bill Kristol]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Barack Obama]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Andrew Schlafly]]

|}

{{Nb_US_universities|Massachusetts}}
[[Category:Universities]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T22:10:51Z

RJJensen: add

{{University
|name=Harvard University
|background=Crimson
|type=Private
|city=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|sports=baseball, basketball, heavyweight crew, lightweight crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, sailing, soccer, softball, squash, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, wrestling<ref>http://www.gocrimson.com/</ref>
|colors=Crimson
|mascot=Crimson
|website=http://www.harvard.edu/
}}
[[Image:Harvard u.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Annenberg Hall, the freshman dining facility, (copyright Harvard)]]
'''Harvard University''' is a private university located in [[Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. It ranked #1 in US News's 2009 "National [[University|Universities]]: Top Schools" list,<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2155</ref> and is usually ranked either first or second in most lists of a similar nature.

Founded in 1636 (as '''Harvard College'''), it is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. It was originally founded by [[Congregationalism|Congregationalists]] for the purpose of training ministers.

Harvard is one of the eight schools in the [[Ivy League]]. Harvard accepts applications from [[homeschooling|homeschooled]] children.<ref>Christian Examiner, Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 12</ref>

The Harvard University libraries contain more than 16 million volumes and is the largest and most important academic library in the world. It began in the 1638 bequest of 400 books from John Harvard. The core of the University's collections is found in Widener Library, but there are 70 libraries in all. It is renowned for special collections of incunabula, law, anthropology, East Asian studies, Slavic studies, Hebraica and Judaica, American history and literature, British and European history and literature, literary manuscripts, and fine arts.

The Harvard University Press is a leading academic publisher of scholarly monographs, and has published more than 4,000 titles, including the Loeb Classical Library.

==History==
===Colonial===
With some 17,000 [[Puritans]] migrating to New England by 1620, Harvard was founded by ministers who realized the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness." it was named for John Harvard, its first benefactor. It received its corporate charter in 1650 and became a university in 1780.

In the words of Harvard's founders:
:"After God had carried us safe to New England, and we ... rear'd convenient places for God's worship ... dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust ... it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard, a godly gentleman and a lover of learning ... to give the one half of his estate ... towards the erecting of a college and all his Library."

[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Harvard College was founded in 1636 making Boston the intellectual center of New England]]

When president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold the colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658.<ref> Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2005 33(1): 1-19, </ref>

In 1692, the Puritan preacher [[Increase Mather]] became President of Harvard. One of his acts was replacing Roman Classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes, and maintaining a high standard of discipline. Both Harvard College Lawes of 1642 and Harvard College Laws of 1700 testify to its original high level of discipline.<ref>[http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College]</ref> Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the nineteenth century, and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could 'read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically.'<ref>Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest", by Barrett Wendell</ref>

The early motto of Harvard was ''Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae'', meaning "Truth For Christ and the Church." In the early classes half the graduates became muinisters. By the 1760s the proportion was down to 15%. Ten out of the first twelve presidents were also ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721 and by 1827 Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in New England.<ref>http://www.reference.com/browse/Harvard</ref>

The departure of Increase Mather from the presidency in 1701 marked the beginning of a long term struggle between orthodoxy and liberalism. Harvard's first secular president was John Leverett, who began his term in 1708. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact and sought to keep the College independent of the overwhelming influence of any single sect <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php John Leverett - History - Office of the President]</ref>.

Seven alumni were killed in the [[American Revolution]]. [[Loyalists]] were outnumbered seven to one by patriots among the graduates of Harvard and, at the conclusion of the war, found themselves outside of both American and British society, especially lacking business contacts. Patriots, however, were much more mixed in their later careers, with some going on to wealth and others receding into obscurity. [[John Adams]] became the second president of the United States.<ref> Jack P. Greene, "Harvard Men in a Changing World," ''Massachusetts Historical Review'' 2007 9: 166-176, </ref>
===19th century===
The takeover of Harvard by the [[Unitarians]] in 1805 resulted in the secularization of the American college. By 1850 Harvard was the "Unitarian Vatican." The "liberals" (Unitarians) allied themselves with [[Federalist Party|high Federalists]] and began to create a set of private societies and institutions meant to shore up their cultural and political authority, a movement that prefigured the emergence of the Boston Brahmin class. On the other hand, the theological conservatives used print media to argue for the maintenance of open debate and democratic governance through a diverse public sphere, seeing the liberals' movement as an attempt to create a cultural oligarchy in opposition to Congregationalist tradition and republican political principles.<ref>Neil Brody Miller, "'Proper Subjects for Public Inquiry': the First Unitarian Controversy and the Transformation of Federalist Print Culture," ''Early American Literature'' 2008 43(1): 101-135; [http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0100_Christianity_in_U.S..html A Brief History of Christian Influence in U.S. Colleges]</ref>

Charles W. Eliot, president 1869-1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by Transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from [[William Ellery Channing]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth, and the indwelling God in each person.<ref>Stephen P. Shoemaker, "The Theological Roots of Charles W. Eliot's Educational Reforms," ''Journal of Unitarian Universalist History'' 2006-2007 31: 30-45, </ref>

==Expansion==

Over the years, Harvard has grown to include a number of major schools.<ref>[http://www.harvard.edu/academics/]</ref> They include:
* Arts and Sciences
* Engineering and Applied Sciences
* Harvard Medical School
* Harvard School of Dental Medicine
* Harvard Business School
* Graduate School of Design
* Harvard Divinity School
* Graduate School of Education
* John F. Kennedy School of Government
* Harvard Law School
* Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
* Harvard School of Public Health

==High grades==

In 2001, Harvard was focused upon as part of a controversy in which high, but allegedly unwarranted, GPA's (Grade Point Averages) were awarded. While in 1940 C-minus was the most common GPA at Harvard, and in 1955 only 15 percent of undergraduates had a GPA of B-plus or higher, in the year 2000, 50% in of all the grades given were As or A-minuses, with just six percent being C-pluses or lower. More than 90 percent of the class of 2001 had earned grade-point averages of B-minus or higher.

Observers point out that entering freshmen typically have straight-A averages in high school, SAT scores near 800 in all fields, and have demonstrated an unusual ability to engage in serious study. The days when Harvard included many "Gentleman C" students there for social activities are long gone.

In a ''Harvard Crimson'' article, noted conservative Harvard professor [[Harvey Mansfield]] contended that "Grade inflation got started … when professors raised the grades of students protesting the war in Vietnam..." "At that time, too, white professors, imbibing the spirit of the new policies of affirmative action, stopped giving low grades to black students, and to justify or conceal this, also stopped giving low grades to white students." The problem was essentially seen as the predominance of the notion of self-esteem, "in which the purpose of education is to make students feel capable and 'empowered,' and professors should hesitate to pass judgment on what students have learned." Such assertions resulted in no small controversy.

Harvard alumnus and author Ross Douthat attributed this problem partly to socioeconomic differences, and noted that "Harvard students are creatively lazy, gifted at working smarter rather than harder", being brilliant largely in their tactics "to achieve a maximal GPA in return for minimal effort." Few people who have taught at Harvard agree with Douthat's notions.<ref>Ross Douthat, "The Truth About Harvard," ''The Atlantic Monthly'' March 2005 ; adapted from his book, ''Privilege: Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class''</ref>
==Further reading==
* Abelmann, Walter H., ed. ''The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970-1995'' (2004). 346 pp.
* Harvard U. ''Education, Bricks and Mortar: Harvard Buildings and Their Contribution to the Advancement of Learning'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/read/59261318?title=Education%2c%20Bricks%20and%20Mortar%3a%20Harvard%20Buildings%20and%20Their%20Contribution%20to%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Learning online edition]
* James, Henry. ''Charles W. Eliot: President of Harvard University, 1869-1909'' (1930) [http://www.questia.com/read/1107046?title=Charles%20W.%20Eliot%3a%20President%20of%20Harvard%20University%2c%201869-1909 online edition]
* Keller, Morton. ''Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University'' (2001), major history covers 1933 to 2002 [http://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University online edition]
* Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. ''Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History'' (2004). 337 pp.
* Wright, Conrad Edick. ''Revolutionary Generation: Harvard Men and the Consequences of Independence'' (2005). 298 pp.
==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Yale University]]
*[[University]]
*[[Ohio State University]]
*[[Harvard Law Review]]
{{clear}}

==Notable Alums==
{|background="none" width="100%" border="1"
|-
!A-F
!G-L
!M-R
!S-Z
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[John Adams]]
*[[Stephen Breyer]]
*[[Fred Brooks]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Alberto R. Gonzales]]
*[[Al Gore]]
*[[Theodore Hall]]
*[[John Hancock]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Bill Kristol]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Barack Obama]]

|valign="top"|
*[[Andrew Schlafly]]

|}

{{Nb_US_universities|Massachusetts}}
[[Category:Universities]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T22:02:59Z

RJJensen: add

Harvard University

2010-01-24T21:57:36Z

RJJensen: expand

Conservapedia:Featured articles

2010-01-24T21:42:36Z

RJJensen: agree

<center>



'''Featured articles'''



</center>

<div style="border:red solid 1px; padding:0.5em; margin:0 0 .5em .5em; float:right">
<center><big>'''Committee members'''</big></center>
* [[user:Geo.plrd|Geo.plrd]]
* [[user:Joaquín Martínez‎|Joaquín Martínez‎]]
* [[user:Jpatt|Jpatt]]
* [[User:TK|TK]]
* [[user:RJJensen|RJJensen]]
* [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]]
</div>
The '''Featured articles''' are posted on the [[Main Page]] each week.

Articles may be submitted to the list of featured articles by listing them on the talk page. Please add them to the end of the list.

Articles will normally be featured in the order listed, but the order may be changed by the committee in some cases.

** '''Articles listed here will be considered for featuring and ''voted on by the committee members''. Editors may offer their own comments (on the talk page) and are welcome to help improve the listed articles!'''
 
{{Clear}}
== Past articles ==

[[Featured articles. Past articles.]] '''2007/08'''

[[Featured articles. Past articles 2009]] '''2009'''

{{fa|World treasures|
: * Agree. --[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 19:48, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 20:54, 21 September 2009 (EDT)}}
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 18:35, 22 September 2009 (EDT)

{{fa|History of India|
: * Agree. --[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 19:48, 21 September 2009 (EDT)}}
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 18:35, 22 September 2009 (EDT)

{{fa|Columbia|
: * Agree. --[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 19:48, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Disagree, too short right now. Good candidate in the future. [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 20:54, 21 September 2009 (EDT)}}
: * Agree. I love it and I will add more content.--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 07:59, 11 October 2009 (EDT)

{{fa|Michael Moore|
: * Agree. [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 20:54, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 18:35, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
}}

{{fa|Essay:Best_New_Conservative_Words|
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 23:32, 12 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree, on condition that it is read through and perhaps beefed up a bit (some of the words may be added by random editors and not conservative) [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 20:53, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
}}

{{fa|2010 Midterm Elections|
: * Agree. For exactly one-year away November.--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:56, 14 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. But let's not wait so long. The campaigns are underway and we want people to use this article to follow them. I suggest using it right after the Nov. 3 2009 elections when elections are in the news.[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 00:14, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. Please make next possible featured article, per Jensen's s reasoning. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:40, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
}}

{{fa|Olympics|
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 19:24, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 20:36, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:56, 14 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:38, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Disagree. The table of contents is bloated and overgrown. For past games, there should be a table with links to separate pages for each Olympics. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 21:12, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
}}

{{fa|Scientology|
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 19:32, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. Locked article pending featuring, guard against inflamatory language. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:38, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. Excellent and informative overview. The list would look a lot cleaner in a table, as an idea for improvement. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 21:05, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:12, 7 November 2009 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Tea Party Movement|
: * Agree! [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 20:53, 21 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. <s>It should be shown in conjunction with the next event.</s> Retract, good boost of morale between events --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:20, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 18:35, 22 September 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:38, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Disagree. Rewrite the lead to begin with an overview of what the movement is. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 21:06, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
}}

{{fa|Joseph McCarthy|
: * Agree:--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 22:38, 14 November 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:--[[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 00:35, 28 November 2009 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Church of England|
: * Agree. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:56, 14 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:38, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Disagree. Needs more information. Establishment and Reformation sections are redundant and should be combined and expanded. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 21:12, 27 October 2009 (EDT)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:20, 15 December 2009 (EST)}}
: * Agree:----[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 17:08, 15 December 2009 (EST)

{{fa|American Painting|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 11:33, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:20, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 16:08, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 07:17, 16 January 2010 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Japan|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 11:33, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:20, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:------[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 16:10, 15 December 2009 (EST)
}}

== Current article ==
{{fa|George Soros|
: * Agree:--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:12, 7 November 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 16:58, 15 December 2009 (EST)
}}

== Future articles ==

== Proposed for featuring ==

The following articles will probably be moved to the list above in the order listed if nobody has any objection or alternative suggestion.

'''New suggestions can be added at the ''end'' of this list.'''

The following articles should be checked for any improvements that can be made before they are posted to the Main Page.

{{fa|American Jews|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 11:33, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:20, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:------[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 16:08, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree------<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 07:17, 16 January 2010 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Gettysburg Campaign|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 00:19, 19 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:------<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 07:17, 16 January 2010 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 19:41, 16 January 2010 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 16:42, 24 January 2010 (EST)
}}

{{fa|ClimateGate|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 00:19, 19 December 2009 (EST)
: * Agree:------<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 07:17, 16 January 2010 (EST)
}}

{{fa|New Ordeal|
:* Agree. --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 07:34, 18 January 2010 (EST)
: * Disagree: this is not up to our standards in economic history. It is unaware of all the work conservative historians have done.[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 11:46, 18 January 2010 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Landscapes from around the world|
: * Agree:----[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]]
: * Agree:----<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 16:38, 24 January 2010 (EST)
: * Agree:----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 16:42, 24 January 2010 (EST)
}}

==Past Nominations==
The following articles were proposed and determined not to be suitable for featuring. If the article has been improved to the point where it is of sufficient quality to be featured, move it back to Proposed for Featuring. Click the ''show'' link after each entry to see why it was rejected.

[[Conservapedia:Featured articles/Past Nominations 08-09]]

{{fa|Nancy Pelosi|
: * Agree:----[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 11:33, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Disagree:----too long winded and out of date; needs to be trimmed and focused on House [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:20, 15 December 2009 (EST)
}}

{{fa|Battle of Gettysburg|
: * Agree:------[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 16:08, 15 December 2009 (EST)
: * Disagree: This is copied from a government document. Compare the companion article that I wrote: [[Gettysburg Campaign]]----[[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 03:27, 16 December 2009 (EST)
: * Disagree: I posted the request but I like the Gettysburg Campaign!--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 00:19, 19 December 2009 (EST)
}}

[[Category: Conservapedia Administration]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T21:40:11Z

RJJensen: add

History of Virginia

2010-01-24T21:24:53Z

RJJensen: art

The '''History of Virginia''' began with the settlement of the geographic region now known as the Commonwealth of Virginia in the U.S. thousands of years ago by Native Americans.
==Colonial==
[[File:Col-va.jpg|thumb|300px|The colony had only a few small towns; the capital was Williamsburg]]
Permanent European settlement began with English settlers at Jamestown in 1607. Tobacco emerged as a profitable export crop, and the Virginia Colony became the richest and largest British colonies in North America. The year 2007 marked the 400th anniversary of the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown.
==Revolution==
As one of the original 13 United States which won their independence from Great Britain during the [[American Revolution]],
==New Nation==
Virginia produced more national leaders than any state, including four of the first five presidents (Washington, Jefferson, Madison and Monroe).

The new state gave up its western lands to form Kentucky and Ohio. During the first half of the 19th century, Virginia grew less rapidly than industrial states to the north, or cotton states to the south. The state exported young people and slaves to form plantations and farms to the west and south.
==Civil War==
Virginia was a slave state but refused to join the cotton states in the new Confederacy until Lincoln called for troops to invade the Confederacy. Then it seceded and Richmond became the new Confederate capital. After many decades of sectional hostility in 1861 West Virginia broke away as a separate state and joined the Union.

With the Yankees intent on capturing Richmond, Virginia became the main battlefield of the war, which it lost in 1865 as its greatest general, Robert E. Lee, surrendered.
==Reconstruction==
Reconstruction brought the liberation of the state's slaves, and proved less contentious than elsewhere in the South. Virginia was poor after 1865, though the new popularity of cigarettes boosted its tobacco industry.
==20th century==
After 1940, prosperity returned. [[World War II]] gave the state a major naval and industrial economic base. Desegregation of schools and the integration of African Americans in many other aspects of the society were major issues from the 1950s to the 1970s and the changes did not come without considerable efforts. However, in 1989 [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first elected black governor anywhere in the country. By the 1980s the suburban fringes of Washington known as "Northern Virginia" saw the greatest growth and prosperity, a trend which was also seen in the [[Hampton Roads]] region. The rest of the state was relatively poor, with little growth.

Politically, the state was a stronghold of conservative Democrats--led by [[Harry Byrd]]-- for most of the 20th century, with a new strength shown by conservative Republicans in the final decade. In the early 21st century, funding for transportation needs emerged as the most controversial single issue.

In partisan terms, the two parties compete furiously for the legislature and the governorship. In presidential elections Virginia was reliably Republican from 1968 until 2004, but in 2008 Obama won, thanks to the growing liberal strength in the Washington suburbs.

for the state today see [[Virginia]]
==Indians==
Before Europeans arrived, there were three main groups of [[American Indians]] living in the area now covered by Virginia. These were the [[Algonquian]], [[Iroquoian]] (including [[Cherokee]], [[Meherrin]] and [[Nottoway]]) and the [[Siouan]] Indians.<ref>http://oncampus.richmond.edu/academics/education/projects/webunits/vahistory/tribes.html accessed 10 March 2007</ref>

The Powhatan were the most powerful and numerous tribe; they lived in settled villages in the eastern shore and tidewater regions. Their food came from hunting, fishing, and garden crops, such as corn, squash, and pumpkins. The Indian population of Virginia was never great, numbering perhaps 17,000 in 1607. The numbers declined sharply because of new diseases especially smallpox. The English adopted many Indian place names, including Appomattox, Nansemond, Rappahannock, and Shenandoah.

Spanish explorers visited parts of what is now Virginia in 1560 and again in 1570 when [[Jesuit]] missionaries attempted to set up a mission, but were all killed by Indians. <ref>''[http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20030830.html Spanish Martyrs for Virginia]'' by Matthew M. Anger (30 August 2003)</ref>

English adventurer Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] led an exploration party in 1584. A group of men from England invested in a Joint Stock Company called "The Virginia Company" to find gold and other treasures. King [[James I]] granted lands to company in 1606 stretching from North Carolina to New York. The name "Virginia" honors [[Queen Elizabeth I]] (known as the "Virgin Queen" as she never married). The company in 1607 sent 105 settlers who established the first permanent settlement.<ref>[http://www.historyisfun.org/jamestown/jamestown.cfm Jamestown Settlement], accessed 10 March 2007</ref>

The stockade village, named "[[Jamestown]]" after King James I, was poorly sited in a grassy swamp filled with malaria-bearing mosquitoes. There was a shortage of fresh water or good soil. Malaria and other diseases, "starving times" of low food supplies, low morale, poor leadership, and repeated Indian attacks left Jamestown on the verge of extinction. In 1624 the company was bankrupt and the king revoked the charter; the colony thus came under the direct administration of the crown until 1775.

The second Tidewater War of 1644-46 was a decisive struggle between a vigorous colonial society and a declining Indian civilization. After the initial Indian attack led by Opechancanough, the Virginians launched a three-pronged campaign that dealt a heavy blow to the Powhatan Indian confederation. As a result of the 1646 treaty, Indians were sent to small reservations. Most white Virginia men were willing enough to serve or support the militia and cooperated with the demands of the military system; success also came from the demographic nature of the colony. Virginia's victory was a major step toward the Anglo-American domination of the continent.

==Colonial Era==
The Virginia General Assembly of 1619 was called to give the anticipated large number of new settlers a voice in the government of the colony. It was the first elected government in the America, and is now one of the oldest in the world. The governor and council acted informally as an upper house of the legislature until 1680 when a formal bicameral body was established.

The royal government brought political and legal stability and largely ended the Indian threat. Prosperity came after 1660 with the realization that tobacco could be grown for a huge profit and that black slaves could do the work. Virginia developed a distinctive culture that spread from there through much of the South. Tobacco and slavery produced an economic, social, and political system dominated by a native oligarchy of rich farmers called the planter aristocracy. Poor whites operated self-sufficient farms, with a little tobacco grown for personal use and cash sales. There were no cities or even towns, as the planters shipped tobacco in barrels from small wharfs close to their plantations directly to London.
===Bacon's rebellion, 1676===
In 1675 the people were ripe for a rebellion. The spark came from fear of Indian attacks and the feeling that the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley (1606-1677), was not doing his job to protect the colonists. In 1676, they rallied around Nathaniel Bacon, a recent arrival from England, as their leader against the Indians who had launched bloody raids against settlements on the northern and western frontiers. Bacon demanded the right to lead volunteers against all Indians, even those living peacefully within the colony, in retaliation. Berkeley, fearing unjust dispossession and slaughter of the friendly Indians, refused. Bacon ignored the governor's restriction and led volunteers to the southern frontier in May 1676, where he slaughtered and plundered the friendly Occaneechee Indians. Berkeley was furious but the colonists hailed him a hero.

When the governor attempted to call him to account, Bacon marched to Jamestown and, at gunpoint, forced the assembly to grant him formal authority to fight the Indian war, which he then prosecuted against another friendly tribe, the Pamunkey. Berkeley now attempted to raise forces to reestablish his own authority, and Bacon turned on the governor with his volunteers. Civil war ensued. Berkeley was driven to the eastern shore of Virginia; Bacon burned Jamestown, the capital. For a few months Bacon's word was law on the mainland; he may have been thinking of independence from the Empire. Suddenly, in October 1676, Bacon died of natural causes and his rebellion disintegrated. Berkeley, having recruited volunteers, defeated the remaining rebels, and, by February 1677, reestablished his authority. Soon thereafter 1,000 troops, sent by King [[Charles II]] to suppress the rebellion, arrived, accompanied by commissioners to investigate its causes. Berkeley had revenged himself by executing defeated rebels after quick courts martial, and for that was severely censured by the commissioners. They sent him to England to justify himself but Berkeley died before seeing the king.<ref> See Wilcomb E. Washburn, ''Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia,'' (1957), by a conservative historian. </ref>
====Slavery and freedom====
A central paradox in American history is the simultaneous rise of liberty and equality and the rise of slavery. With particular attention to Virginia, Morgan (1972) has offered a resolution of the paradox. Virginians feared the presence of large numbers of landless and dependent poor people as antithetical to political liberty and social well-being. Yet, this is what was happening in Virginia, leading to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Large numbers of young, armed, single white men had come to Virginia to seek their fortune. They worked on tobacco plantations for wages and few could expect to become planters. They became a source of peril to the established gentry. Governor Berkeley had lamented that "six parts of seven at least are poor, indebted, discontented, and armed." The gentry solved the problem after Bacon's rebellion by replacing the white men with black slaves. This reduced the need to import white servants, opened opportunities for whites who remained, and enabled Virginia to build its free political institutions upon slavery.<ref> Edmund S. Morgan, "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." ''Journal of American History'' 1972 59(1): 5-29 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1888384 in JSTOR]; Morgan, ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975) </ref>

===Slaves===
Historians have disagreed as to whether slavery in colonial Virginia was made politically and psychologically acceptable by an inherent racism among white Europeans, or if slavery emerged as a result of economic factors and racism developed as a consequence of it. The consensus is that the enslavement of Africans was due to economic requirements for labor, to the inability of Africans to resist slavery, and to European beliefs that Africans were an inferior branch of humanity, suited by their characteristics and circumstances to be lifelong slaves.

===Gentry rule===
Politically the planters controlled local government through their control of the Anglican parishes and county government; neither was elected. The planters also controlled elections to the the colonial legislature, the House of Burgesses. English institutions were changed into a system of democracy--most white men owned property so they could and did vote, and usually voted for their "betters". (In England, by contrast, fewer than 10% of the men could vote.) The gentry tried to emulate the life style of British gentlemen; their favorite pastimes were gambling, billiards, cards, bowling, cockfighting, and especially horse racing. The increasing social solidarity among the gentry depended horse racing. The rules, the patterns of betting, and the relations of the persons involved reflected gentry values and shows their values regarding acquisitiveness, honor, individualism, materialism, personal relationships, and symbols. Gaming among the gentry strengthened class cohesion and cultural dominance by the gentry.<ref> T. H. Breen, "Horses and Gentlemen: The Cultural Significance of Gambling among the Gentry of Virginia." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 1977 34(2): 239-257. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1925315 in JSTOR]</Ref>
===Demography===
Demographic conditions after 1660 were increasingly favorable. Malaria was not fatal to people born in Virginia, and the food supply was ample. Both the white and black population grew rapidly. Wars were uncommon and small-scale. Immigration comprised mostly middle class families, plus poor teenagers who came as "indentured servants" and became fully independent at age 21. Between 1718 and 1775, Britain dumped about 20,000 convicts in Virginia (after the Revolution it sent them to Australia).

===Women===
It was a patriarchal society ruled exclusively by men. However, if a man overstepped the boundaries of local norms, the county court could intervene and punish him. Thus in 1668-70 a rich planter named Henry Smith was charged several times in court--he was accused of concubinage, wife beating, adultery, child abuse, fathering bastards, sexual harassment, rape, and brutality toward servants. The court heard damning testimony from his wife and from his mistress and other local women. Illiterate and isolated but well versed in their legal and customary rights and duties, the women knew how to handle Smith, who was found guilty.<ref> Irmina Wawrzyczek, "The Women of Accomack Versus Henry Smith: Gender, Legal Recourse, and the Social Order in Seventeenth-Century Virginia," ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography,'' 1997 105(1): 5-26; on patriarchy, see by Kathleen M. Brown, ''Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia'' (1996). </ref>

Despite male political control, women had some economic power. Men generally believed their wives were competent to control their estates and to wield economic power, and widows proved self-reliant and able managers of their property and wealth. Running farms without the help of a son, widows often delayed giving children their inheritance, wielding their economic power for personal and familial ends. However, whereas male opportunity for independence and power increased with age, it decreased with age for women. Older men were much less likely than younger men to transfer their economic power to their wives, instead passing it along to adult children.

===Frontier===
Tobacco plantations were in the "tidewater" area close to the ocean. Plenty of good cheap land was available on the frontier. The settlers west of the Blue Ridge mountains from the 1720s to the 1740s were mostly German and Scotch-Irish Protestants, whose society contrasted sharply with tidewater Anglican colonists. Historians explaining the distinctiveness of the backcountry focus on two factors: the availability of good land at low prices and the pioneering efforts of land speculators encouraged by the colonial government.

===Religion===
Most Virginians were not very religious, but most also believed in a spirit world. The supernatural world of the settlers involved belief in benevolent and demonic forces, divine judgment, omens, magic, witchcraft, combat with the devil, and other ideas brought over from England. This complex supernatural world functioned to explain the unknown, sanction colonization, demonize the native population, control the colonists, and provide a defense against internal and external enemies.<ref> Edward L. Bond, "Source of Knowledge, Source of Power: The Supernatural World of English Virginia, 1607-1624." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 105-138. 0042-6636 </ref>

The Anglican religion was established--meaning that taxes were collected to support the church and the parish handled poor relief. Scattered settlements and the lack of trained Anglican ministers --there were only 109 Anglican ministers in 1775--meant that piety was practiced mostly at home. Itinerant ministers encouraged parishioners to use the ''Book of Common Prayer'' for private prayer and devotion. This allowed Anglicans to lead an active and sincere religious life apart from formal church services. Private piety, however, weakened the Anglican Church, and what clergy there were were controlled by the laymen in the vestry. The vestrymen filled vacancies in their own ranks, and was thus self-perpetuating and increasingly isolated from the people. As a result Anglicans were unable to counter the [[First Great Awakening]], which created a large Baptist denomination.

James Blair (1655-1743) arrived in 1685 as an Anglican missionary and representative of the Bishop of London. Blair was a latitudinarian churchman, Whiggish advocate of colonial prerogatives, backstage political operator, and acting governor (1740-41), Most important, he founded and was president of the [[College of William and Mary]], which he designed to spread throughout America some of the Christian humanism that he learned in 17th century Scotland.

===Rise of the Baptists===
Created in 1758, the Sandy Creek Association was the third Baptist association formed in colonial America. It brought together all Separate Baptist churches in Virginia and the Carolinas. Its early meetings were times of singing, preaching, and encouraging and training younger pastors, but it split three ways in 1770 because Shubal Stearns, the legendary Baptist leader, established a strongly centralized organization that many churches felt they had to leave to preserve their autonomy.

From 1755 to 1790 Virginia hosted numerous local religious revivals that led to the rapid growth of the Baptist Church among poor white farmers. Converts were particularly drawn to the faith by its promise to provide social order through heightened self-discipline and its ability to elicit interpersonal contact and intense emotional release. Although the congregations have been described as favorably disposed toward slaves, an overwhelming body of evidence suggests the predominance of proslavery tendencies. Friends, relatives and neighbors brought potential converts to revival meetings, and supported them when they converted. After 1800 black slaves adopted the Baptist religion as well, ignoring the Episcopal and Presbyterian churches of their owners<ref> Jewel L. Spangler, "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia". ''Journal of Southern History'' 2001 67(2): 243-286. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002399579 online edition]</ref>

The Anglican elite depended on automatic deference from ordinary farmers. Increasingly the Baptists and Presbysterians refused to doff their hats or vote the way they were told, and they managed to stick together thanks to their strong social networks. The colonial government faced the issue by creating a standing "Committee for Religion" in the House of Burgesses in 1769. It first made sure London did not impose an Anglican bishop for the colony, and thus kept Anglican church affairs in the hands of the gentry. It was forced to concede to dissenter demands for greater toleration and agreed to allow several parishes the right to elect their vestrymen. As the colonial era ended the interlocking crises of religion in Virginia remained unresolved, but the committee had served as a forum within which the ruling elite worked out solutions that were designed to win public support.<ref> Paul K. Longmore, "'All Matters and Things Relating to Religion and Morality': The Virginia Burgesses' Committee for Religion, 1769 To 1775." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1996 38(4): 775-797. </ref>

==American Revolution==
Virginia's political culture of latre colonial and Revolutionary Virginia involved widespread suffrage--most white men could and did vote. This political culture was concerned with maintaining order, ensuring that justice prevailed, preserving the ideal of
- government by the virtuous and enlightened, and keeping an open society where a man might rise as high as his ability, resources, and opportunities allowed. Virginians were increasingly worried that Britain threatened this political utopia.

The Stamp Act of 1765 outraged Viginians. Their historic rights of Englishmen had been trampled because they were not consulted regarded the new tax. [[Patrick Henry]] persuaded the Virginia House of Burgesses to adopt in May, 1765, the Virginia Resolves against the Stamp Act: not only did Henry deliver the famous Caesar-Brutus speech; he wrote the Resolves, planned with George Johnston the strategies for debate on the house floor, and spoke at several points in the debate which initiated colonial resistance to the Act, resistance which culminated in the Act's repeal in 1766.

Physician, planter, patriot, soldier, legislator, Theodorick Bland (1742-1790) was an active participant in the major events of his time. Born into a prominent family at the zenith of Virginia's golden age, Bland was trained in medicine in Scotland, London and Paris. He gave up his medical practice in 1771, becoming a tobacco planter and politician. His public career was spent in the defense of the gentry's power and position. His principal motivation was his desire to enable the world of his birth to survive and prosper in the wake of the massive political, economic, and social upheavals that occurred during the 1770s-90s. he raised a regiment and fought alongside [[George Washington]]. Most of Washington’s officers became federalists who supported the Constitution in 1788, but not Bland. Bland's antifederalist views were the ultimate manifestation of his devotion to the world of the tobacco aristocracy. Like [[Patrick Henry]] and [[George Mason]], Bland voted against the new constitution, viewing the document as a serious threat to their power and position. When it was adopted, he ran for and was elected to Congress, but died before he made his mark there.
==New Nation==
===Free blacks===
The free black population grew rapidly during 1771-1815. Before the American Revolution the increase in the free black population was due mainly to local emancipations, natural population increase, and migration from rural areas. During and after the Revolution, however, there were additional ways to become free, including petitions and lawsuits, the 1782 manumission act, self-purchase, purchase by already free blacks, and individual emancipation. Fear of free blacks in an age of black revolts, however, prompted whites to impose restrictions on manumission and migration and ultimately to revert to the colonial-era policy of expelling free blacks from Virginia.<ref> Michael L. Nicholls, "Strangers Setting Among Us: The Sources and Challenge of the Urban Free Black Population of Early Virginia". ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 155-179. 0042-6636 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4249829 in JSTOR]</ref>

Formal laws and informal customs created innumerable obstacles to the socioeconomic advance of the free black population. Laws prohibited free blacks from some activities and occupations and restricted their participation in others. Racism and terrorism by whites also made advancement difficult. Despite these disadvantages, Virginia's free black population fared rather well, with much better nutrition than people back in Europe or Africa. They grew nearly as tall as white Americans and towered over contemporary Europeans.<ref> Howard. Bodenhorn, "A Troublesome Caste: Height and Nutrition of Antebellum Virginia's Rural Free Blacks." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1999 59(4): 972-996. 0022-0507 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2566684 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Civil War and Reconstruction==
==New South 1877-1913==

The Readjuster Party was a political faction formed in Virginia in the late 1870s during the turbulent period following [[Reconstruction]]. Their leader was [[William Mahone]], a former Confederate general who was president of several railroads. The main issue was whether or not to pay off the prewar state debt, which was primarily for stock in infrastructure improvements such as canals, roads, and railroads. By `1865 most of the improvements had been destroyed by war or were located in West Virginia, so the "Readjusters" did not want to pay for them. After his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1877, Mahone became the leader of the "Readjusters", forming a coalition of conservative [[Bourbon Democrats]] with some support from black Republicans. Mahone was a controlling force in Virginia politics from around 1870 until 1883, when the Readjusters lost control to the "Conservative Democrats."

The Readjusters elected its governor (1882-1886) and sent Mahone to the U.S. Senate 1881 to 1887, where he aligned with the Republicans. After the Readjusters collapsed the Democratic Party was to rule the state's politics for the next 80 years.

==War, Depression and War, 1913-1950==
The Byrd machine dominated state politics from the 1930s to the 1960s. World War II pulled Virginia out of the depression and launched its economic modernization.
==Massive Resistance and Modernization, 1950-1975==
"Massive resistance" was the Byrd machine response to the Supreme Court's outlawing of segregated schools. Some counties closed their schools and in others legal turmoil lasted for years.

==Postmodern State, 1975-present==
The recent expansion of government programs in the areas near Washington has profoundly affected the economy of [[Northern Virginia]], and the subsequent growth of defense projects has also generated a local information technology industry. The [[Hampton Roads]] region has also experienced much growth.

In 1990, [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first African American to be elected as governor since Reconstruction.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Dabney, Virginius. ''Virginia: The New Dominion'' (1971), outdated popular history
* Heinemann, Ronald L., John G. Kolp, Anthony S. Parent Jr., and William G. Shade, ''Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607-2007'' (2007). reflects modern scholarship
* Salmon, Emily J., and Edward D.C. Campbell, Jr., eds. ''The Hornbook of Virginia history: A Ready-Reference Guide to the Old Dominion's People, Places, and Past'' 4th edition. (1994)
* Tarter, Brent. "Making History in Virginia." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' (2007) 115(1): 2-55. Issn: 0042-6636 Fulltext: in . Ebsco; historiography
* Wallenstein, Peter. ''Cradle of America: Four Centuries of Virginia History'' (2007). reflects modern scholarship
* WPA. ''Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion'' (1940)
* Younger, Edward, and James Tice Moore, eds. ''The Governors of Virginia, 1860– 1978'' (1982)

===To 1860===
* Adams, Sean Patrick. ''Old Dominion, Industrial Commonwealth: Coal, Politics, and Economy in Antebellum America'' (2004)
*Ambler, Charles H. ''Sectionalism in Virginia from 1776 to 1861'' (1910)
*Beeman, Richard R. ''The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788-1801'' (1972)
*Billings, Warren M., John E. Selby, and Thad W, Tate. ''Colonial Virginia: A History'' (1986)
* Bond, Edward L. ''Damned Souls in the Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia'' (2000),
*Breen T. H. ''Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early America'' (1980). 4 chapters on colonial social history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=53316363 online edition]
*Breen, T. H. ''Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution'' (1985)
*Breen, T. H., and Stephen D. Innes. ''"Myne Owne Ground": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640-1676'' (1980)
* Brown, Kathleen M. ''Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Wives-Nasty-Wenches-Anxious-Patriarchs/dp/0807846236/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244861919&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Byrd, William. ''The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709-1712'' (1941) ed by Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14559892 online edition]
*Bruce, Philip Alexander. ''Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Religious, Moral, Educational, Legal, Military, and Political Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records'' (1910) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=51565681 online edition]
*Freeman, Douglas Southall; ''George Washington: A Biography'' Volume: 1-7. (1948). Pulitzer Prize. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=62946671 vol 1 online]
* Gleach; Frederic W. ''Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures'' (1997).
*[http://www.shop-vahistorical.org/landoncarter.html Rhys Isaac, ''Landon Carter's Uneasy Kingdom: Revolution and Rebellion on a Virginia Plantation'' (2004)]
*Isaac, Rhys. ''The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790'' (1982, 1999)] Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality [[http://jsr.fsu.edu/hall.htm online review]
*Lebsock, Suzanne D. ''A Share of Honour: Virginia Women, 1600-1945'' (1984)
* Menard, Russell R. "The Tobacco Industry in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1617-1730: An Interpretation." ''Research In Economic History'' 1980 5: 109-177. 0363-3268 the standard scholarly study
*Morgan, Edmund S. ''Virginians at Home: Family Life in the Eighteenth Century'' (1952). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22950387 online edition]
* Morgan, Edmund S. "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." ''Journal of American History'' 1972 59(1): 5-29 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1888384 in JSTOR]
**Morgan, Edmund S. ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/american-slavery-american-freedom-the-ordeal-of-colonial-virginia-by-edmund-s-morgan.jsp online edition] highly influential study
* Nelson, John ''A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776'' (2001)
*Rasmussen, William M.S. and Robert S. Tilton. ''Old Virginia: The Pursuit of a Pastoral Ideal'' (2003)]
*Risjord, Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781-1800'' (1978). in-depth coverage of Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina[http://www.questia.com/library/book/chesapeake-politics-1781-1800-by-norman-k-risjord.jsp online edition]
*Roeber, A. G. ''Faithful Magistrates and Republican Lawyers: Creators of Virginia Legal Culture, 1680-1810'' (1981)
*Selby, John E. ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775-1783'' (1988)
* Rutman, Darrett B., and Anita H. Rutman. ''A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650-1750'' (1984), new social history
*Shade, William G. ''Democratizing the Old Dominion: Virginia and the Second Party System 1824-1861'' (1996)
*Varon; Elizabeth R. ''We Mean to Be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia'' 1998
* Virginia State Dept. of Education. ''The Road to Independence: Virginia 1763-1783'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30058/30058-h/30058-h.htm online edition]; 80pp; with student projects
*Wertenbaker, Thomas J. ''The Shaping of Colonial Virginia'', comprising ''Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia'' (1910); ''Virginia under the Stuarts'' (1914); and ''The Planters of Colonial Virginia'' (1922), well written but outdated
*Wright, Louis B. ''The First Gentlemen of Virginia: Intellectual Qualities of the Early Colonial Ruling Class'' (1964)

===1850-1870 ===
* Blair, William. ''Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861-1865'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=80332308 online edition]
*Crofts, Daniel W. ''Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis'' (1989)
*Kerr-Ritchie, Jeffrey R. ''Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860-1900'' (1999)
*Lebsock, Suzanne D. ''"A Share of Honor": Virginia Women, 1600-1945'' (1984)
* Majewski, John. ''A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia before the Civil War'' (2000)
* Noe, Kenneth W. ''Southwest Virginia's Railroad: Modernization and the Sectional Crisis'' (1994)
* Robertson, James I. ''Civil War Virginia: Battleground for a Nation‎'' (1993) 197 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=RKDkDZ6GLPcC&dq=intitle:virginia+intitle:civil+intitle:war&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]
*Shanks, Henry T. ''The Secession Movement in Virginia, 1847-1861'' (1934) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-secession-movement-in-virginia-1847-1861-by-henry-t-shanks.jsp online edition]
* Sheehan-Dean, Aaron Charles. ''Why Confederates fought: family and nation in Civil War Virginia‎'' (2007) 291 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=4TF8Npa37wkC&dq=intitle:virginia+intitle:civil+intitle:war&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]
*Simpson, Craig M. ''A Good Southerner: The Life of Henry A. Wise of Virginia'' (1985), wide-ranging political history
* Wills, Brian Steel. ''The war hits home: the Civil War in southeastern Virginia‎'' (2001) 345 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=MYgwz8smNpIC&dq=intitle:virginia+intitle:civil+intitle:war&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2000&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]

===Since 1870===
*Brundage, W. Fitzhugh. ''Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930'' (1993)
*Buni, Andrew. ''The Negro in Virginia Politics, 1902–1965'' (1967)
*Ferrell, Henry C., Jr. ''Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: A Political Biography'' (1985) early 20th century
*Gilliam, George H. "Making Virginia Progressive: Courts and Parties, Railroads and Regulators, 1890–1910." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 107 (Spring 1999): 189–222.
*Heinemann, Ronald L. ''Depression and the New Deal in Virginia: The Enduring Dominion'' (1983)
*Heinemann, Ronald L. ''Harry Byrd of Virginia''(1996)
*Heinemann, Ronald L. "Virginia in the Twentieth Century: Recent Interpretations." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 94 (April 1986): 131–60.
*Key, V. O., Jr. ''Southern Politics in State and Nation'' (1949), important chapter on Virginia in 1940s
*Lassiter, Matthew D., and Andrew B. Lewis, eds. ''The Moderates’ Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia'' (1998)
*Link, William A. ''A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870-1920'' (1986) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94870817 online edition]
*Martin-Perdue, Nancy J., and Charles L. Perdue Jr., eds. ''Talk about Trouble: A New Deal Portrait of Virginians in the Great Depression'' (1996)
*Moger, Allen W. ''Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870-1925'' (1968)
*Muse, Benjamin. ''Virginia's Massive Resistance'' (1961), education policy in 1950s
*Parramore, Thomas C., with Peter C. Stewart and Tommy L. Bogger. ''Norfolk: The First Four Centuries'' (1994)
*Pulley, Raymond H. ''Old Virginia Restored: An Interpretation of the Progressive Impulse, 1870-1930'' (1968) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77947644 online edition]
*Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101423964 online edition]
*Sweeney, James R. "Rum, Romanism, and Virginia Democrats: The Party Leaders and the Campaign of 1928" ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 90 (October 1982): 403–31.
*Wilkinson, J. Harvie, III. ''Harry Byrd and the Changing Face of Virginia Politics, 1945–1966'' (1968)
* Wynes, Charles E. ''Race Relations in Virginia, 1870-1902'' (1961)

==Localities and regions==
*Lankford, Nelson. ''Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital'' (2002)
*Parramore, Thomas C., with Peter C. Stewart and Tommy L. Bogger. ''Norfolk: The First Four Centuries'' (1994)
*Shiftlett, Crandall. ''Patronage and Poverty in the Tobacco South: Louisa County, Virginia, 1860-1900'' (1982), new social history

===Primary sources===
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/JefVirg.html Jefferson, Thomas. ''Notes on the State of Virginia'']
*Duke, Maurice, and Daniel P. Jordan, eds. ''A Richmond Reader, 1733–1983'' (1983)
*Eisenberg, Ralph. ''Virginia Votes, 1924–1968'' (1971), all statistics

==External links==
*[http://www.vahistorical.org/sva2003/guide.htm Virginia Historical Society] short history of state, with teacher guide
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/VAGuide/indians.html WPA project: Indians in Virginia]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/VAGuide/history.html WPA Project: History of Virginia]
*[http://www.virginiaplaces.org/military/civwar.html Virginia and the Civil War]
====references====
<references/>
[[Category:Virginia]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:The South]]
[[Category:Black History]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]

History of Texas

2010-01-24T21:21:59Z

RJJensen: /* Republic of Texas */ art

The American state of '''[[Texas]]''' has a history stretching back centuries. Texas history has embodied the [[Republicanism|republican political ideals]] and values shared by all Americans, that is, a devotion to personal liberty, rampant individualism, economic opportunity, and democratic politics. The state combines both the [[Frontier Thesis|frontier]] heritage of the West, and the cultural tastes of [[The South]]. A strong leavening of Hispanic culture makes the southern half of Texas distinct.
[[File:Tx-1845.jpg|thumb|300px|Texas becomes independent in 1836 and joins the U.S. in 1845]]
==Spanish Texas==

[[Image:Texas-1800.jpg|thumb|425px]]
===Exploration===
Spanish interest in Texas dates from the mapping of the Gulf of Mexico by Alonso Alvárez de Pineda in 1519. Juan Ponce de León's expedition to Florida in 1513 and the completion of the conquest of the Aztecs quickened Spanish concern with the lands to the north. In 1528-36 Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and in 1540-44 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explored much of western Texas, fruitlessly seeking the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. De Vaca and Coronado's reports, stressing Indian hostility and the arid nature of the land, discouraged permanent settlement north of the Rio Grande.

The Spanish title to Texas remained uncontested until 1684, when French soldiers and colonists erected Fort Saint Louis in the vicinity of Matagorda Bay. They were forced out by local Indians. Alarmed by the French intrusion, Alonso de León led an expedition northward from the Rio Grande and established three missions in east Texas. Continuing border struggles with French forces across the Sabine River led to the creation of additional missions and presidios (forts).

Spain founded [[San Antonio]] in 1718 as its principal military garrison. Emanating from San Antonio, campaigns, generally unsuccessful, were mounted against the Apache, Comanche, and Tonkawa of central Texas, although the barrier to significant permanent colonization was not lifted. In 1762 France ceded western Louisiana to Spain. Relieved of the French threat on its borders, Spanish authorities abandoned the missions and presidios between the Trinity and Red rivers and relocated the several hundred colonists at San Antonio. A rancher, Gil Ybarbo, acted as spokesman for a number of settlers who preferred to remain in the area. Sent by force to San Antonio in 1790, they returned of their own will and founded the city of [[Nacogdoches]], which became the major Spanish city in east Texas.

[[Image:Texas1803.jpg|thumb|350px|boundary in 1803; "neutral ground" is shaded]]

In 1800, Spain returned western Louisiana to France. In the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803 the entire Louisiana territory was sold by France to the U.S. Boundary disputes between the U.S. and Spain soon followed along the Texas border, and in 1806 both nations signed the "Neutral Ground Agreement." Entered into by American and Spanish military commanders, the compact stated that neither country would exercise sovereignty over the land between the Sabine River and the Arroyo Hondo, just west of Natchitoches, in what is now Louisiana. Finally, in 1819 the [[Adams-Onis Treaty]], ratified in 1821, fixed the northern boundary of Spanish Texas at the Sabine River.

===American settlers===
American colonization of Texas began in 1821 under the leadership of [[Moses Austin]], who was awarded a permit by Spanish authorities at San Antonio to settle 300 families in Texas. The contract was later honored by the National Congress of Mexico after independence was won. Austin died on his return to the United States to begin the task of colonization, but the provisions of the agreement were subsequently carried out by his son [[Stephen Austin]]. Empresarios were licensed by the Mexican government and continued the recruiting of colonists for permanent settlement in Texas. Attracted by the prospect of free land--the United States had no such policy at the time--the bulk of settlers came from the states of the Old South, as well as from Britain, Ireland, and Germany. Later efforts to balance the American predominance by encouraging Mexicans to colonize proved generally unsuccessful.

[[File:Stephen Austin.jpg|left|200px|Stephen F. Austin, 1793-1836, colonizer; the "Father of Texas"]]

In 1835, on the eve of the revolution, there were approximately 25,000 colonists residing in Texas, plus several thousand Mexicans, called '''"Tejanos,"''' as well as Indian tribes that were not under control of Mexico.
====Slavery====
Slavery of blacks was a major question. After lengthy bargaining with the Mexicans, Stephen Austin had assured his colonists that slavery had obtained legal recognition, but with the stipulation that children born to slaves in Texas would be emancipated at the age of fourteen. But the institution was placed in jeopardy again in 1827, when the state legislature of Texas-Coahuila, comprised entirely of Mexicans, sought to prohibit slavery. Relief was obtained from this decree and from an executive proclamation of emancipation in 1829. The law of April 6, 1830, once again outlawed slavery in the province but recognized a subterfuge known as "work contracts" to evade the terms of the law.

==Revolution==
Although full legal slavery was not allowed, slavery in practice existed because of the lifetime labor contracts. The fight for independence was not waged to protect property in slaves. The colonists' specific grievances were lack of trial by jury, the use of Spanish as the official language in legal and commercial transactions, and burdensome customs regulations. The basic cause of the Texas Revolution lay in the conflicting political and social ideologies of the Mexican government and the American pioneers. Some of the colonists believed that outstanding differences could be resolved if Texas were granted separate statehood, but a more radical faction, led by [[Sam Houston]], looked to complete autonomy and eventual annexation by the United States. Ethnic tension between Anglos and Hispanics was a minor factor, since the 30,000 or so Anglos of East Texas had only limited contact with Mexicans; furthermore, most 4,000 or so Tejanos fought alongside Anglos in the conflict with Mexico City.
[[Image:Texas-1830.jpg|thumb|275px|left]]

When [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] seized dictatorial authority in Mexico City in 1834 and called for additional troops to invade Texas, a military conflict became inevitable. The first clash of the war for independence took place at Gonzales on October 2, 1835. Encouraged by the relative ease of their triumph in that skirmish, the Texan "Army of the People" moved quickly to capture [[Goliad]]; in December, San Antonio was occupied after the Mexican garrison capitulated. Houston negotiated a treaty whereby the Indians in the region, with about 3,000 warriors, remained neutral.

Texas was momentarily free of Mexican troops, but in the interim an invasion force was organizing. In late February 1836 the main contingent of Santa Anna's army reached San Antonio, where the Texas defenders were encamped in the [[Alamo]], a church fortress dating from the Spanish missionary period. Although vastly outnumbered, the garrison of some 180 defenders held out until the last man. William B. Travis, David Crockett, and James Bowie were among those who died here. "Remember the Alamo!" became not only a battle cry at the time, but an iconic memory stereotyping brutal, blood-thirsty Mexicans slaughtering valiant, freedom-loving Anglo-Texans.

[[Image:San-Jacinto.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]

Campaigning along the coast, Gen. José Urrea forced the surrender of Col. James Fannin at [[Goliad]]. Even though Urrea had pledged honorable treatment, Santa Anna personally ordered the deaths of Fannin and about 400 of his followers; and on Palm Sunday the executions were carried out by a firing squad. Since the majority of Fannin's men had recently arrived in Texas as volunteers from the United States, the executions were designed to discourage further aid in the cause of Texas.

News of the fall of the Alamo reached Gen. Houston at Gonzales. Mustering a band of early colonists to Texas and some American volunteers, Houston retreated to the Brazos River, casually pursued by an overconfident Santa Anna. Believing victory to be in his grasp, the Mexican commander turned to pursue the Texas provisional government at Harrisburg; but, spurred by President David G. Burnet, the administrators escaped to Galveston. Now convinced that the strategic position was in his favor, Houston left his encampment along the Brazos and blocked Santa Anna's troops at [[San Jacinto]] as they tried to regain their original position. The decisive battle of the campaign was fought at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Inspired by the rallying shout, "Remember the Alamo, remember Goliad," the Texans vanquished the Mexican army and imprisoned its leader. In return for his life Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco that recognized the independence of Texas, with its boundary at the Rio Grande.<ref> The Mexican Congress repudiated the treaties.</ref>

The Texas navy also contributed to the victory. Failure to control the sea lanes of the Gulf of Mexico impeded the movement of supplies to Mexican troops and compelled Santa Anna to undertake a lengthy and hazardous overland march into Texas. Financed mainly by contributions from the United States, four Texas sloops proved more than a match for Santa Anna's naval squadrons. But in the period of the early republic the navy languished under Houston as Mexico partially blockaded the Texas coast. President Mirabeau B. Lamar determined to change the situation and embarked on a policy of naval construction. A partial alliance was entered into with the state of Yucatán, which was also seeking independence from Mexico. The navy was employed in that campaign.<ref> After annexation the ships became the property of the U.S. Navy.</ref>
===[[Republic of Texas]]===
[[File:Texas1835.jpg|thumb|550px|Texas in 1835]]

During the early stages of the war, Texas had been governed by a "Consultation." When all hope of a negotiated settlement proved unrealistic and Mexican liberals failed to support the goal of separate statehood, a convention was called to debate the question of independence. A declaration of independence was essential to facilitate volunteering and financial aid from the United States, and on Mar. 2, 1836, it was promulgated. A constitution for an independent Texas was also written, with the stipulation that it would not become legally binding until ratified by the people. With independence achieved, the [[Republic of Texas]] was born. Elected president in September 1836, Houston quickly turned his attention to the internal problems of land legislation, defense against Mexico and Indian raids, and a sound financial base for Texas. But Mexico soon repudiated the Treaty of Velasco, whereby Santa Anna had acknowledged Texan independence. The United States became the first nation to commence diplomatic relations with Texas, and Britain soon followed. Annexation talks were tentatively begun but were quickly abandoned in the face of substantial northern antislavery pressure.
[[File:Col-tex.jpg|thumb|300px|San Antonio]]
Lamar was elected president in 1838. Believing that the likelihood of annexation was small, Lamar opened diplomatic relations with Britain and France; they tried and failed to have Mexico face reality and recognize the new republic, which originated in a revolution just as Mexico itself had in 1821. When Mexico refused to meet with peace commissioners, Lamar launched a military expedition to Santa Fe in order to assert the Texan claim to the Rio Grande as its western boundary. Miscalculating the anti--Santa Anna sentiment in New Mexico, the poorly led Texans were captured and marched in irons overland to Mexico City; they were eventually released.

Annexation was highly controversial in the U.S., primarily because anti-slavery forces did not want to see new territory opened for the expansion of slavery, and [[Whig Party|Whigs]] opposed any geographical expansion (because it would delay modernization).<ref> Joel H. Silbey, ''Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to Civil War.''(2005)</ref> Nevertheless Texas grew rapidly, reaching 100,000 population by 1846, with settlements reaching as far to the northwest as Waco and Fort Worth. The capital was moved to Austin, in the west.

Texans waged intermittent warfare against the Indians, particularly the Cherokee and Comanche, who continuously raided frontier settlements. President Houston had a tolerant policy, but President Lamar did not. When the Cherokee were negotiating for Mexican support to attack frontier settlements, Lamar decided to buy them out. They would not sell and Texas drove them out in 1839; they resettled in what is now Oklahoma. The Comanches and Texans fought a series of pitched battles until Houston became president again in 1841 and made peace again.<ref> Gary Clayton Anderson, ''The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820-1875.'' (2005); F. Todd Smith, ''From Dominance to Disappearance: The Indians of Texas and the Near Southwest, 1786-1859'' (2005)</ref> At the same time, the new republic initiated a progressive public school and homestead program. Houston was reelected in 1841. Despite numerous border provocations, he insisted on a posture of peace toward Mexico. Financial conditions made stability imperative as the republic's indebtedness approached $10 million and the value of Texas currency depreciated to less than twenty cents on the dollar. Rivalry between east and west Texas over land titles and the location of the permanent seat of government also troubled the president.

===Annexation 1845===
The capstone of his Republic was the successful conclusion of the annexation negotiations with the U.S. Fear of British designs and the increasing economic importance of Texas spurred President [[John Tyler]] to reopen talks. A treaty of annexation was rejected by the U.S. Senate, mainly by anti-slavery votes, and the question of annexation became the major issue in the election of 1844. Democrat [[James K. Polk]]'s victory for president on a platform calling for the "reannexation" of Texas prompted the passage of a joint congressional resolution. A final Mexican offer of independence, backed by England and France, was overwhelmingly spurned by the people of Texas. All formalities were completed when the Texas constitution was accepted by Congress, and the state officially joined the Union on Dec. 29, 1845. Since Houston had left office in 1844, Anson Jones functioned as the last president of the Republic of Texas.

==Statehood==
===Population===
Intensified migration to Texas after statehood raised the population to about 150,000. Societies such as the Texas Emigration and Land Company now pledged to settle colonists who would agree to constitute a militia for defense against the Indians; in return they would receive a grant of 320 acres of choice land. Most of the newcomers continued to migrate from the states of the lower South; slavery was granted legal protection by the Texas constitution of 1845.
The Texas population by 1860 was quite diverse, with large elements of European whites (from the American South), African Americans (mostly slaves brought from the east), Tejanos (Hispanics with Spanish heritage), and about 20,000 recent German immigrants.<ref> [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/GG/png2.html from ''Handbook of Texas Online'']</ref>

:The Germans who settled Texas were diverse in many ways. They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveholders; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions in Germany sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom.''

:The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had atheist Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.''

===Economy===
Texas was a rural state with a fluid society of immigrant yeoman farmers, planters (and their slaves), herdsmen, and stockmen.

A liberal land grant program encouraged the construction of intrastate railroads, and by 1875 rail connections with many cities outside the state had also been effected. Stagecoach travel was popular, and a number of cities in northern Texas were serviced by the celebrated Butterfield Overland Stage. Some river traffic, particularly freight on the Brazos and Colorado rivers, continued to flourish.
===Texas Rangers ===
The Texas Rangers were formed during the Republic and continued as state police took an active part. Originally intended by Stephen Austin as a striking force against hostile Indians, the rangers were famous for their ability as horsemen and their courage when greatly outnumbered. Hispanics portray them as brutal and intolerant.

===U.S. War with Mexico===
Mexico had never tolerated annexation and swore to invade and reconquer the breakaway province, and to go to war with the U.S. if annexation took place. The immediate cause of the [[Mexican-American War]], 1846-48 was a boundary dispute; Mexico insisted that it owned the area south of the Nueces river. There were no battles in Texas, but it was an important staging point for American army movements that invaded and conquered Texas.

The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] in 1848 made the Rio Grande the boundary.

===Compromise of 1850===
Texas claimed that the [[Rio Grande]] River - now settled as its southern boundary - also formed its western boundary (which supposedly continued north from its source to the 42nd parallel), which would give Texas parts of the present states of New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Wyoming. The dispute had national consequences because it involved lands north of [[Missouri Compromise|36°30']] and was related to the divisive question of slavery in the territories. In early 1850, Texas tried to send an expeditionary force to assert state authority in [[Santa Fe]]; President [[Zachary Taylor]], who claimed it as part of New Mexico territory, threatened war. At the height of the quarrel, Taylor suddenly died.

His successor, [[Millard Filmore]], left the whole matter to Congress. Congressional debate soon revealed that Texas was willing to compromise if some settlement of its outstanding indebtedness could be realized. The [[Compromise of 1850]] resolved the issue: the Texas debt, of approximately $10 million, was assumed by the United States as compensation for Texas' agreement to its present borders. The northern limit was placed at the intersection of the 100th meridian and 36°30', thence west to the 103rd meridian, thence south to the 32nd parallel, then following that line to the Rio Grande, and along the channel of that river to the Gulf of Mexico.
[[Image:Sam-Houston.jpg|thumb|225px]]

===Coming of Civil War===
In the 1850s, loyalty to the Union or secession became the dominant issue in Texas politics. In the U.S. Senate, Houston was the only southerner to vote against the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], which repealed the 1820 [[Missouri Compromise]]. Believing that slavery had reached its natural limit of expansion and that further agitation would only destroy the Union, Houston defied an angered Texas state legislature. With his career in the Senate stymied, Houston returned to Texas and suffered his only political defeat in 1857 in the gubernatorial contest. But in 1859, campaigning on a platform of loyalty to the Union, he successfully defeated the incumbent governor, Hardin Runnels.

===Civil War, 1861-65===
In the 1860 presidential election, John Breckinridge, a southern Democrat and proslavery nominee, carried the state. Commenting on [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s election, Houston urged that Texas remain in the Union until it became the victim of a "federal wrong." The majority of Texans, on the other hand, chose to view Lincoln's victory at the polls as a threat to their slave property and to states' rights. Houston adamantly refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy and was deposed in 1861 in favor of Lt. Gov. Edward L. Clark. A popular convention endorsed secession, the people ratified it, and Texas officially joined the Confederacy on March 2, 1861.

In the war the state supplied the South with about 60,000 soldiers, most of whom remained in Texas to guard against Union invasions and Indian raids. "Terry's Texas Rangers" (a cavalry unit commanded by Benjamin F. Terry) and John Sibley's brigade, which campaigned in New Mexico, were the best known. There was little fighting within Texas, which served principally as a conduit for supplies from Mexico. Matagorda, Brownsville, and Galveston fell to Union forces, but in a combined military and naval assault Galveston was recaptured by the Confederacy.

[[Image:Texas-railroads-1860.jpg|thumb|300px]]

German Texans were highly suspect during the war, and a number were executed without trial.
===Reconstruction===
Slavery ended and [[Reconstruction]] began in Texas on June 19, 1865, celebrated by the Freedmen as "Juneteenth". Andrew J. Hamilton, a staunch Unionist before the war, was named provisional governor by President [[Andrew Johnson]], but distruptions and violence were endemic throughout the state. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 shut down the incumbent government, put the state under control of the U.S. Army, and restructured politics.

<blockquote>The first critical step...was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.… Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin...appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known Unionists and local Freedman's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.... Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly overrepresented at 45 percent of all voters.<ref> Randolph Campbell, ''Gone to Texas'' 2003 p. 276.</ref> </blockquote>

The [[Republican Party]] won the elections of 1869, issued a new state constitution, and elected E. J. Davis as governor. The Republicans were led by native Texans ("[[Scalawags]]"), with few Carpetbaggers (northerners); the Freedmen (newly freed slaves) provided the bulk of the vote. Legislative inexperience was primarily responsible for the passage of many questionable statutes, particularly concerning taxation. Financial irregularities increased; in their spleen at "bottom rail on top" (a reference to the improved status of blacks) some Texans embraced the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and other violent informal groups seeking to impede legitimate political gains of Freedmen. By 1874 the conservative Democrats, or [[Redeemers]], took power as Richard Coke, was elected governor. Shortly thereafter the last federal troops were withdrawn from military occupation duty.

John L. Haynes (1821-88) was a Texas politician and writer who dissented with many of the typical Southern views of the time. From the late 1850's through the 1880's, Haynes won notoriety as a protector of Mexican Americans, an opponent of secession, a Union army officer, a supporter of freedmen's rights, and a Republican "scalawag." The unifying theme in Haynes's life was his consistent opposition to the dominance of Texas politics and society by a minority of conservative, Democratic, and Anglo planters. He was a Southern dissenter by principle, not merely expedience.<ref> James Marten, "John L. Haynes: a Southern Dissenter in Texas." ''Southern Studies'' 1990 1(3): 257-279. Issn: 0735-8342 </ref>

After Reconstruction Texas was a part of the [[Solid South]] that nearly always voted for the Democratic nominees, but the Democrats were split, with domininance of the conservative pro-business [[Bourbon Democrats]] challenged by spokesmen for poor white farmers.

===Gilded Age===
The Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s generated a major economic boom for the 800,00 people recorded in the 1870 census. Internal railroad construction, made possible by state land bonuses, increased appreciably. By the mid-1870s nearly every major city in Texas had passenger and freight service, and attention turned to interstate and transcontinental railroads. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas (Katy) Railroad, chartered in Kansas, was completed across northern Texas in 1872. In that year the Houston and Texas Central became a part of the gigantic [[Southern Pacific]] railway system, the International and Great Northern Railway spanned the state from northeast to southwest, and the Texas and Pacific, building westward, joined the Southern Pacific at a point near El Paso and ran to San Francisco.

[[Image:Tx-longhorn.jpg|thumb|275px|After 1865 cowboys drove herds of longhorn cattle over the Chisholm Trail to the railheads in Kansas; they were replaced with hybrid short-horned breeds after 1900.<ref> Donald E. Worcester, "Longhorn cattle," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/atl2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref>]]

Texas had long had many cattle, but because markets were far and transportation unavailable, they had little value. Many large scale [[Cattle drives]] moved herds north to railheads in Kansas. The construction of railroads from Chicago to Kansas put the great Chicago cattle market within reach. The first major cattle drive north to Kansas took place in 1866. For 20 years thereafter, large herds of cattle were driven north along the Chisholm Trail. As the railroads were built across Texas, they ended the long cattle drives. The open range was quickly closed, and the farmers followed the cattlemen west.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, Texas increased its production and became the leading cotton-growing state in the Union. The cattle industry also made great strides. Range cattle had roamed the Texas Plains since the days of the Spanish explorers, but removal of the Indian barrier in west Texas and improved methods of drilling for subsurface water greatly facilitated the growth of the cattle business. Overland drives brought the cattle to rail points in Kansas, where they were shipped to eastern and mid-western markets. The piney woods area of east Texas continued to sustain the lumber industry. In the Rio Grande Valley citrus fruit production became increasingly important.

Texas was both southern and western, but the south predominated. Most of the original Anglo migrants came from the South; they implanted an agricultural, slave-holding economy and held political control of the state. It started off as frontier, but so too had all of the South. Texas ranching was a mix of south, west and Hispanic. After the close of the frontier around 1890, Texas had more in common with southern cotton farmers than western ranchers and cattlemen.

==Progressive Era==
The [[Progressive Era]] in Texas began earlier than most states, with the election of Governor [[James Stephen Hogg]] (1851-1906, governor 1891-1895) in 1890 and his reelection in 1892. Hogg was the leading reformer of the era, taking credit for establishing the [[Texas Railroad Commission]], ousting Standard Oil, and passing laws to stop outside monopoly control of Texas oil and other resources was enacted.<ref> See Robert C. Cotner, ''James Stephen Hogg: A Biography'' (1959); Cotner, "Hogg, James Stephen, (1851-1906)" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho17.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> Hogg was a reformer and an advocate of a strong state government. Policies that he established have continued and are reflected in the [[Texas Railroad Commission|railroad commission's]] supervision of the oil and transportation industries, the attorney general's prosecutions of antitrust activities, and state support of an advanced public education program. Hogg, the regular Democrat, was reelected after an intense contest in 1892, with 44% percent of the vote (190,500) to 31% (133,400) for conservative [[Bourbon Democrats|Jeffersonians Democrat]] George W. Clark (1841-1918)<ref>Doug Johnson, "Clark, George W." in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/fcl5.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> and 25% (108,500) for Populist Thomas Nugent (1841-95)<ref> Nugent had 36% in a losing race in 1894. See Worth Robert Miller, "Nugent, Thomas Lewis," in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/NN/fnu2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> . Hogg's coalition included white farmers, a few important businessmen who did not object to the Railroad Commission, manual workers in the cities, and a some black voters. Clark had the support of most businessmen, large ranchers in the south and west, and blacks controlled by the Republican Party. Nugent's strength lay white small farmers; he fared poorly among blacks.

Businessman [[Colonel House|Edward House]] (1858-1938), was Hogg's campaign manager; behind the scenes House engineered the election of three more protégés as governor--most of them more conservative than Hogg. In 1913 House became the top adviser to President [[Woodrow Wilson]], and brought several Texans to high office.<ref>Charles E. Neu, "House, Edward Mandell," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho66.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> In 1905, progressives passed a law requiring a direct primary in major elections and passed a series of corporate taxes. In 1906, a progressive Democrat, Thomas Campbell, won the governorship, and the legislature responded with an unprecedented outpouring of reforms, including regulation of the insurance industry, state insurance for bank deposits, additional tax reforms, improvements in public education, abolition of the barbarous convict-leasing system, pure food and drug legislation, and several labor safety laws.

==Population==
Texas reached 4 million population in 1910, making it the fifth largest state, and continued to grow. It remained primarily rural, based on cotton farms<ref> Cotton remained king despite the arrival in 1894 of the boll weevil, an insect that ate the unripe bolls and caused a steady drop in yields per acre over the next thirty years.</ref> and ranches, with 30% living in numerous villages and towns and a few cities.
[[Image:Ft-Worth-Tx-1909.jpg|thumb|275px|Railroad station, Ft Worth, 1909]]
Galveston, with 17,000 was the largest city in 1870; it recovered from the devastating hurricane of 1900, which killed 6,000 people, and reached 37,000 in 1910. Galveston became nationally famous for its modernized "commission form" of government that stressed efficiency and minimized patronage. The largest city in 1910 was San Antonio at 96,000. Houston (79,000 in 1910) was a rail and oil center; it competed with Dallas (92,000), the banking and merchandising center. Thanks to the meat packing plants that opened in Fort Worth in 1903, it reached 73,000 in 1910. El Paso counted 39,000; Austin, the capital, 30,000; and Waco 26,000. The Model T and other autos began arriving, and along with tractors they started to replace mules and horses on the farm. None of the cities had significant suburbs; instead they built street car systems to bring shoppers to the central business district.

Blacks grew in number but declined from 22% of 1890 population in 1890 to 16% in 1920. They were increasingly segregated in public places, and lost the right to vote. Physical intimidation occurred regularly. Of the 468 lynching victims in the state between 1885, the peak, and the last episode in 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Indian. <ref>Charges of murder or attempted murder caused 40% percent of the lynchings; rape or attempted rape accounted for 26%. John R. Ross, "Lynching" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/jgl1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> Much improved law enforcement after 1920 meant the violence rapidly died out, but segregation only ended in 1964.
===Oil===
[[Image:Tx-gusher.jpg|thumb|275px|gusher at Beaumont, c. 1900]]
Joseph S. Cullinan, a Pennsylvania oilman, built the oil industry starting with a well at at Corsicana in 1895 that produced more than 800,000 barrels a year at its peak in 1900. It was the gusher at Spindletop, near Beaumont, in 1901 that produced 75,000–100,000 barrels a day and revolutionized the industry. The Spindletop field, pumped 17,500,000 barrels in 1902. Independents and wildcatters competed with major corporations such as Texaco (founded by Cullinan in 1902), Gulf and Humble Oil (now part of Exxon-Mobil).

[[File:Texas-1905-Mexicans.jpg|left|250px|Mexican American field workers picking carrots in the Rio Grande Valley, about 1905]]

===Plan de San Diego: 1915===
In 1911 an extremely bloody decade-long civil war broke out in Mexico. Hundreds of thousands of refugees fled to Texas, raising the Hispanic population from 72,000 in 1900 to 250,000 in 1920. Revolutionaries and radicals came too; tensions between the U.S. and Mexico escalated to an undeclared war, as American armies invaded parts of Mexico. In 1915 a radical manifesto called the "Plan de San Diego" was issued in San Diego, a village in Duval County in south Texas. It called on Hispanics to reconquer the Southwest and kill all the Anglo men. Rebels assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). LULAC, headed by professionals, businessmen and modernizers, became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.<ref> Benjamin H. Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (2003). </ref>

===Politics===
n 1915 Governor James E. ("Pa") Ferguson took office, but was ousted in 1917 by impeachment for corruption. This began a long controversy over "Fergusonism," during which the ousted governor's wife was twice elected chief executive, in 1924 and 1932.
===Great Depression: 1929-39===
East Texas was the nation's largest cotton producer; two million Texans depended on cotton for their livelihood during the [[Great Depression, U.S.|hard depression decade]].<ref> See Ben H. Procter, "Great Depression," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/npg1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Cotton prices were low, as the world market had collapsed. After 1933 the [[New Deal]] cotton programs ordered less cotton to be produced, in order to cause an even higher increase in prices. The New Deal therefore started by plowing up millions of acres of cotton that had already been planted in 1933. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) followed with its voluntary production controls and price-support loans. Cotton growers pressed Congress for mandatory controls, and these were implemented under the Bankhead Cotton Control Act of 1934. When the Supreme Court invalidated the first Agricultural Adjustment Act in 1936, the New Deal replaced it with the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. This measure was overwhelmed by the 19-million-bale cotton crop of 1937, and after a year of legislative stalemate, Congress passed the second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938), which incorporated major features of the Ever-Normal Granary Plan. By 1940 cotton prices were high and prosperity had returned for the land owners. However, tenants and sharecroppers, were often denied their share of the benefit payments and, especially after 1935, were forced off the land because of the forced reductions in acreage.<ref> Keith J. Volanto, ''Texas, Cotton, and the New Deal'' (2005)</ref>

[[File:Tx-cotton.jpg|left|300px|Cotton bales ready to ship from Temple, Texas, 1915]]

===World War II===
===Civil Rights===
AFter 1874 white men in the Democratic party controlled the state and minorities had few rights or opportunities. For example, the Texas legislature approved a poll tax in 1902 and later barred blacks from the Democratic primary. The state passed [[Jim Crow]] segregation laws and showed little tolerance for any public roles for African Americans; Mexican Americans were not officially segregated and had the vote. However they had second class status and their votes were controlled by local bosses such as Manuel B. Bravo in Zapata County.<ref> See J. Quezada Gilberto, ''Border Boss: Manuel B. Bravo and Zapata County'' (1999) </ref>streaming into the state. Change occurred, however, when the Supreme Court's Smith v. Allwright decision (1944) voided the state's white Democratic primary.<ref> Charles L. Zelden, ''The Battle for the Black Ballot: Smith v. Allwright and the Defeat of the Texas All-White Primary.'' (2004). 156 pp.</ref>

Even so blacks had little power and remained segregated until the President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] convinced Congress to pass the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1965 in memory of [[John F. Kennedy]], who was assassinated in Dallas in 1963. By 1978 the Texas House of Representatives included 14 African Americans and 17 Mexican Americans. In 1980 almost 1,000 Mexican Americans held public office in local government along with 200 blacks. Despite sending prominent liberals to the U.S. Senate after World War II, such as Lyndon B. Johnson and Ralph Yarborough, Texas voters retained their conservative tendencies even during the presidencies of John F. Kennedy and native son Johnson.
===Postwar===
After 1960 industrialization in Texas was more rapid than in the nation as a whole. Chemical concerns invested heavily in the state, and the electronics and aerospace industries developed tremendously, especially in the Dallas-Fort Worth and Houston areas. In 1964 NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center (now the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center) in Houston was named headquarters for all U.S. manned spacecraft flights. Construction of a ship channel linking Houston, the U.S. petrochemical center, to the Gulf of Mexico and the advent of the space age combined to make the city one of the fastest-growing in the nation. Houston also became a medical and research center of international fame. Dallas continued to lead in finance, marketing, and insurance activities, while such west Texas cities as Lubbock, Amarillo, and Wichita Falls showed marked economic growth. In 1994 the state reached 18 million population and passed New York for second place, behind California; but it ranked first in cattle, with 14 million.<ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1538F93AA25756C0A962958260&sec=&spon= Sam Roberts, "A Rank That Rankles: New York Slips to No. 3; Now Texas Is 2d Most Populous State," ''New York Times'' May 19, 1994] </ref>

===Politics: move to the GOP===
By the 1970s Texas was voting Republican in national election, and after 1990 the GOP started dominating state elections. The first major Republican was Senator [[John Tower]], elected in 1961. The election of Republican William P. Clements in 1978 as governor signaled the rise of a two-party system in state offices. The Democrats, however, reclaimed the governor's mansion in 1982 with the election of Mark White. In 1990 Texas voters elected liberal Democrat, Ann Richards. Under her administration women and minorities were appointed to numerous offices. She was the last Democrat to be elected governor, and was defeated for reelection in 1994. Texans supported [[Jimmy Carter]], a Sunbelt Democrat, for president in 1976 but voted Republican in the next three presidential contests. Indeed, in 1992 [[Bill Clinton]] became the first Democrat in the history of the United States to lose Texas and win the presidency. He was opposed by two native sons, incumbent [[George H.W. Bush]] and maverick [[Ross Perot]]. In 1994 Republican [[George W. Bush]], son of the former president, beat Richards for governor. Meanwhile, Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison in 1993 became the first woman to represent Texas in the U.S. Senate. Her election marked the first time Texas had two Republican senators since 1875. In recent years Texas has become a stronghold for Republicans and a national bastion of economic [[American conservatism|conservatism]].
==Basic further reading==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/ The Handbook of Texas Online] ''- Published by the Texas State Historical Association'' thousands of scholarly articles on every aspect of Texas history
** Barkely, Roy R. and Odintz, Mark F., eds. ''The Portable Handbook of Texas'' (2000). 1072 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Portable-Handbook-Texas-Roy-Barkley/dp/0876111800/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213368913&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Acosta, Teresa Palomo and Winegarten, Ruthe. ''Las Tejanas: 300 Years of History.'' (2003). 436 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ENPUSvf4Z3EC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Tejanas+intitle:300+intitle:Years+intitle:of&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=VIxSSNiLIp72iwGx7s2DDA&sig=q5Acn4fA63UBDIhkV36qh1F9Nuc excerpts and text search]
* Barker, Eugene Campbell Charles Shirley Potts, and Charles William Ramsdell. ''A School History of Texas'' (1912) 384 pp. Solid textbook by leading scholars of the day [http://books.google.com/books?id=TOgXAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:ramsdell&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 online edition]
* Calvert, Robert A., Arnoldo De León, and Gregg Cantrell. ''The History of Texas'' (2002), 512pp, textbook [http://www.questia.com/read/111431383?title=The%20History%20of%20Texas online edition]
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State'' (2003), 500 pages. the best scholarly history; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103945805 online edition]
* De Leon, Arnoldo. ''Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History'' 2nd ed. (1999. [http://www.questia.com/read/111572561?title=Mexican%20Americans%20in%20Texas%3a%20%20A%20Brief%20History online edition]
* Fehrenbach, T. R. ''Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans.'' (2nd ed 2000). 767 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Lone-Star-T-R-Fehrenbach/dp/1579125379/ref=pd_bbs_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213248684&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Haley, James L. ''Passionate Nation: The Epic History of Texas.'' (2006). 654 pp. popular [http://www.amazon.com/Passionate-Nation-Epic-History-Texas/dp/0684862913/ref=pd_sim_b_img_4 excerpt and text search]
* Hendrickson Jr., Kenneth E. ''Chief Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr.'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/11(199178?title=Chief%20Executives%20of%20Texas%3a%20From%20Stephen%20F.%20Austin%20to%20John%20B.%20Connally%2c%20Jr online edition]
* McDonald, Archie P. ''Texas: A Compact History.'' (2007). 256 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Texas-Compact-Archie-P-McDonald/dp/193333715X/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Montejano, David. ''Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986'', (1987). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YnUKT4f_fZQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Anglos+intitle:and+intitle:Mexicans+intitle:in+intitle:the+intitle:Making+intitle:of+intitle:Texas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=L4xSSN3eLIjWjgG1l-XABw&sig=qji4xCRzoc3Cbl9Yur0j1dYTwE4 excerpts and text search]
* Richardson Rupert N. et al. ''Texas: The Lone Star State'' (9th ed. 2004), 450pp; textbook
* Willett, David and Curley, Stephen, eds. ''Invisible Texans: Women and Minorities in Texas History.'' (2004). 236 pp.; 18 essays by scholars

==Advanced Bibliography==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/ The Handbook of Texas Online] ''- Published by the Texas State Historical Association'' thousands of scholarly articles on every aspect of texas history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71910759 Alvin R. Bailey Jr. and Light Townsend Cummins, eds. ''A Guide to the History of Texas.'' Greenwood Press. 1988.]
[[file:TX-mclemore.jpg|thumb|300px]]
===Surveys===
* Calvert, Robert A., Arnoldo De Leon, and Gregg Cantrell. ''The History of Texas'' (2002)
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State'' (Oxford University Press, 2003, 500 pages.], standard scholarly survey [http://www.amazon.com/Gone-Texas-History-Lone-State/dp/0195138430/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103945805 complete online edition]
* Fehrenbach, T. R. ''Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans '' (2007), popular survey [http://www.amazon.com/Lone-Star-T-R-Fehrenbach/dp/1579125379/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McLemore, Laura Lyons. ''Inventing Texas: Early Historians of the Lone Star State'' (2004)
* McDonald, Archie P. ''Texas: A Compact History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Texas-Compact-Archie-P-McDonald/dp/193333715X/ref=pd_bbs_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Wooster, Ralph A. and Robert A. Calvert, eds. ''Texas Vistas'' (1987) reprinted scholarly essays

===Localities and regions===
* Hill, Patricia Evridge. '' Dallas: The Making of a Modern City'' (1996).
*Horgan, Paul. ''Great River, The Rio Grande in North American History,'' reprint, 1977, ISBN 0-03-029305-7
* Jordan, Terry G. ''Texas, a Geography'' (1984) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98435058 online edition]
* McComb, David G. ''Houston, a History'' U of Texas Press, 1981.
* Meinig, D. W. ''Imperial Texas: An Interpretive Essay in Cultural Geography,'' (1969), 145 pages.
* Melosi, Martin V., and Joseph A. Pratt, eds. ''Energy Metropolis: An Environmental History of Houston and the Gulf Coast.'' (2007), 350ppISBN 978-0-8229-5963-2. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=170581211566119 online review]

===Ethnicity and race===
* Barr, Alwyn. ''Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Black-Texans-History-Americans-1528-1995/dp/080612878X/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190684323&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* De Leon, Arnoldo. ''Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History'' 2nd ed. Harlan Davidson, 1999.
* Montejano, David. ''Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986'' University of Texas Press, 1987.

===Pre–1865===
* Baum, Dale. ''The Shattering of Texas Unionism: Politics in the Lone Star State during the Civil War Era'' (1998).
* Bell, Walter F. "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature" ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 2005 109(2): 204-232. Issn: 0038-478x
* Binkley, William C. "The Activities of the Texan Revolutionary Army after San Jacinto," ''The Journal of Southern History''> Vol. 6, No. 3 (Aug., 1940), pp. 331-346 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28194008%296%3A3%3C331%3ATAOTTR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]
* Buenger, Walter L. ''Secession and the Union in Texas.'' , 1984.
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''An Empire for Slavery: The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865'' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Empire-Slavery-Peculiar-Institution-1821-1865/dp/0807117234/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202129634&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Sam Houston and the American Southwest'' (1993).
* Campbell, Randolph B., and Richard G. Lowe. ''Wealth and Power in Antebellum Texas'' (1977).
* Cantrell, Gregg. ''Stephen F. Austin: Empresario of Texas.'' (1999). [http://www.amazon.com/Stephen-F-Austin-Empresario-Texas/dp/0300076835/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202129443&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Carroll, Mark M. ''Homesteads Ungovernable: Families, Sex, Race, and the Law in Frontier Texas, 1823–1860'' (2001).
* Chipman, Donald E. ''Spanish Texas, 1519–1821'' (1992).
* Chipman, Donald E., and Harriett Denise Joseph. ''Notable Men and Women of Spanish Texas''. (1999).
* De Leon, Arnoldo. ''The Tejano Community, 1836–1900'' (1982).
* Friend, Llerena B. ''Sam Houston: The Great Designer'' (1954).
* Haley, James L. ''Sam Houston'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Sam-Houston-James-L-Haley/dp/0806136448/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195821671&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* Hardin, Stephen L. ''Texian Iliad: A Military History of the Texas Revolution, 1835–1836'' (1994).
* Jones, C. Allan. ''Texas Roots: Agriculture and Rural Life before the Civil War'' (2005). 264pp
* Jordan, Terry G. ''German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth Century Texas'' (1966).
* Jordan, Terry G. "The Imprint of the Upper and Lower South on Mid-Nineteenth-Century Texas," ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers,'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 667-690 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-5608(196712)57%3A4%3C667%3ATIOTUA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]
* Kerby, Robert L. ''Kirby Smith's Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863–1865'' (1972).
* Lack, Paul D. ''The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and Social History, 1835–1836'' Texas A&M University Press, 1992. [http://www.amazon.com/Texas-Revolutionary-Experience-Southwestern-Studies/dp/0890967210/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202129778&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lowe, Richard G., and Randolph B. Campbell. ''Planters and Plain Folk: Agriculture in Antebellum Texas'' (1987).
* Lowrie, Samuel H. ''Culture Conflict in Texas, 1821–1835'' (1932).
* Pace, Robert F., and Donald S. Frazier. ''Frontier Texas: History of a Borderland to 1880'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Frontier-Texas-History-Borderland-1880/dp/1880510839/ref=pd_bbs_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
* Poyo, Gerald E., ed. ''Tejano Journey, 1770–1850'' , 1996.
* Rives, George Lockhart. ''The United States and Mexico, 1821-1848'' (2 vol 1913) [http://books.google.com/books?id=p1MMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:The+intitle:United+intitle:States+intitle:and+intitle:Mexico+intitle:1821-1848&num=30&as_brr=1#PPR8,M1 vol 1 to end of 1845]
* Siegel, Stanley. ''A Political History of the Texas Republic'' (1956).
* Silverthorne, Elizabeth. ''Plantation Life in Texas'' (1986).
* Weber, David J. ''The Spanish Frontier in North America.'' (1992). [http://www.amazon.com/Spanish-Frontier-America-Western-History/dp/0300059175/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190684267&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

===1865–1920===
* Barr, Alwyn. ''Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876–1906'' University of Texas Press, 1971.
* Buenger, Walter L. ''The Path to a Modern South: Northeast Texas between Reconstruction and the Great Depression'' University of Texas Press, 2001.
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Grass-Roots Reconstruction in Texas, 1865–1880'' Louisiana State University Press, 1997.
* Clampitt, Brad R. "The Breakup: the Collapse of the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Army in Texas, 1865" ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 2005 108(4): 498-534. Issn: 0038-478x
* Cotner, Robert C. ''James Stephen Hogg: A Biography'' . University of Texas Press, 1959.
* Crouch, Barry A. ''The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans.'' University of Texas Press, 1992.
* Gould, Lewis N. ''Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era'' University of Texas Press, 1973.
* Jordan, Terry G. ''Trails to Texas: Southern Roots of Western Cattle Ranching'' University of Nebraska Press, 1981.
* McArthur, Judith N. ''Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918.'' University of Illinois Press, 1998.
* Martin, Roscoe C. ''The People's Party in Texas: A Study in Third Party Politics'' University of Texas Press, 1933.
* Pitre, Merline. ''Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900'' Eakin Press, 1985.
* Ramsdell, Charles William. ''Reconstruction in Texas'' Columbia University Press, 1910.
* Rice, Lawrence D. ''The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900'' Louisiana State University Press, 1971
* Spratt, John Stricklin. ''The Road to Spindletop: Economic Change in Texas, 1875–1901.'' Southern Methodist University Press, 1955.
* Utley, Robert M. ''Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers'' Oxford University Press, 2002.

===1920–2006===
* Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. ''Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929–1939. '' Texas A&M University Press, 1984.
* Brown, Norman D. ''Hood, Bonnet, and Little Brown Jug: Texas Politics, 1921–1928'' Texas A&M University Press, 1984.
* Robert A. Caro. ''The Path to Power (The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Volume 1)'' (1990); ''Means of Ascent (The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Volume 2)'' (1991)
* Cox, Patrick. ''Ralph W. Yarborough, The People's Senator.'' University of Texas Press, 2001.
* Dallek, Robert. ''Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960''. Oxford University Press, 1991.
* Davidson, Chandler.'' Race and Class in Texas Politics.'' Princeton University Press, 1990.
* Foley, Neil. ''The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture'' University of California Press, 1997.
* Green, George Norris. ''The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1938–1957'' Greenwood Press, 1979.
* Knaggs, John R. ''Two-Party Texas: The John Tower Era, 1961–1984'' Eakin Press, 1986.
* Lee, James Ward, et al., eds. ''1941: Texas Goes to War.'' University of North Texas Press, 1991.
* Char Miller. ''Deep in the Heart of San Antonio: Land and Life in South Texas'' Trinity University Press 2004.
* Olien, Diana Davids, and Roger M. Olien. ''Oil in Texas: The Gusher Age, 1895–1945'' University of Texas Press, 2002.
* Patenaude, Lionel V. ''Texans, Politics, and the New Deal'' Garland Publishing, 1983.
* Perryman, M. Ray. ''Survive and Conquer, Texas in the '80s: Power—Money—Tragedy … Hope!'' Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1990.
* James Reston. ''The Lone Star: The Life of John Connally'' (1989)
* San Miguel, Guadalupe, Jr. ''“Let All of Them Take Heed”: Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910–1981'' University of Texas Press, 1987.
* Whisenhunt, Donald W. ''The Depression in Texas: The Hoover Years'' Garland Publishing, 1983.
*''The End of Cheap Oil'' National Geographic Society, 2004.

===Primary source collections===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104481281 Gallaway, B. P., ed. ''Texas, The Dark Corner of the Confederacy: Contemporary Accounts of the Lone Star State in the Civil War'' 3rd. Ed. University of Nebraska Press, 1994.]

====notes====
<references/>

[[category:Western United States]]
[[Category:The South]]
[[Category:Texas]]

South Carolina

2010-01-24T21:19:07Z

RJJensen: /* History */

{{USState
|name=South Carolina
|flag=South_Carolina_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Animis Opibusque Parati" (Prepared in mind and resources)
|nick=The Palmetto State
|capital=Columbia
|language=English
|governor=Mark Sanford
|gparty=Republican
|senator1=Jim DeMint
|s1party=Republican
|s1phone=(202) 224-6121
|s1email=http://demint.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.Home Contact
|senator2=Lindsey Graham
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224-5972
|s2email=http://lgraham.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.EmailSenatorGraham Contact
|population=
|date=May 23, 1788 (8th)
}}
'''South Carolina''' was the eighth state to enter into the [[Union]]. The capital city is [[Columbia (city)|Columbia]].

South Carolina is a key primary state in the [[2008 Presidential Election]] - it will hold its primary on January 19, 2008. The early primary date has been controversial, as a number of states have come under fire for the "leapfrogging" practice of scheduling their primaries earlier and earlier in order to hold the earliest primaries.

South Carolina relies heavily on the textile industry and trade with foreign countries, especially [[trade with Germany]]. In [[December]] 2001, it had 299,100 manufacturing jobs. This fell by over 15% to 253,000 manufacturing jobs in December 2006. The state also has fewer than 38,000 textile manufacturing jobs left, while ten years ago it had 80,000 textile jobs.

While non-farm employment overall has increased, the manufacturing jobs were much higher-paying than the service-related jobs. The average weekly wage for non-supervisory workers in January 2007 were:<ref>Source: U.S. Department of Labor</ref>
May 23, 1788 (8th)
*$518 in textile mills
*$404 in apparel facilities
*$250 in the leisure/hospitality sector.

On December 20, 1860, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union. Several months later, South Carolina's [[Fort Sumter]], located near [[Charleston]], became the site of the first shots of the [[Civil War]] were fired.
==History==
[[File:Col-sc.jpg|thumb|300px|Charleston was a major Atlantic port]]

South Carolina and North Carolina both claim to be the birthplace of [[Andrew Jackson]], the seventh President of the United States.

== References ==

<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:South Carolina
[[Category:The South]]

South Carolina

2010-01-24T21:18:34Z

RJJensen:

{{USState
|name=South Carolina
|flag=South_Carolina_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Animis Opibusque Parati" (Prepared in mind and resources)
|nick=The Palmetto State
|capital=Columbia
|language=English
|governor=Mark Sanford
|gparty=Republican
|senator1=Jim DeMint
|s1party=Republican
|s1phone=(202) 224-6121
|s1email=http://demint.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.Home Contact
|senator2=Lindsey Graham
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224-5972
|s2email=http://lgraham.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.EmailSenatorGraham Contact
|population=
|date=May 23, 1788 (8th)
}}
'''South Carolina''' was the eighth state to enter into the [[Union]]. The capital city is [[Columbia (city)|Columbia]].

South Carolina is a key primary state in the [[2008 Presidential Election]] - it will hold its primary on January 19, 2008. The early primary date has been controversial, as a number of states have come under fire for the "leapfrogging" practice of scheduling their primaries earlier and earlier in order to hold the earliest primaries.

South Carolina relies heavily on the textile industry and trade with foreign countries, especially [[trade with Germany]]. In [[December]] 2001, it had 299,100 manufacturing jobs. This fell by over 15% to 253,000 manufacturing jobs in December 2006. The state also has fewer than 38,000 textile manufacturing jobs left, while ten years ago it had 80,000 textile jobs.

While non-farm employment overall has increased, the manufacturing jobs were much higher-paying than the service-related jobs. The average weekly wage for non-supervisory workers in January 2007 were:<ref>Source: U.S. Department of Labor</ref>
May 23, 1788 (8th)
*$518 in textile mills
*$404 in apparel facilities
*$250 in the leisure/hospitality sector.

On December 20, 1860, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union. Several months later, South Carolina's [[Fort Sumter]], located near [[Charleston]], became the site of the first shots of the [[Civil War]] were fired.
==History==
[[File:Col-scpg|thumb|300px|Charleston was a major Atlantic port]]

South Carolina is the birthplace of [[Andrew Jackson]], the seventh President of the United States.

== References ==

<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:South Carolina
[[Category:The South]]

Philadelphia

2010-01-24T21:16:42Z

RJJensen: /* Politics */

'''Philadelphia''' is the largest [[city]] in [[Pennsylvania]], and the sixth most populous city in the United States.<ref>http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2007-01.csv</ref>

The name Philadelphia comes from the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] words ''philos'', "love", and ''adelphos'' "brother". This is where the nickname ''The City of Brotherly Love'' comes from.

Philadelphia was a very important city in the history of the United States. It was home to the First and Second Continental Congresses, and was the location for the drafting and signing of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. The [[Constitutional Convention]] was also held in Philadelphia. The city was temporarily the capital of the United States, before it was permanently settled in [[Washington, D.C.]]
==Economy==
The Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) helped preserve urban manufacturing jobs as part of an industrial renewal effort during 1953-76. The PIDC, a nonprofit, quasi-public authority, was created in 1958 in a joint effort between Mayor Richardson H. Dilworth and the chamber of commerce to implement an industrial renewal project. Using industrial mortgages, funds were raised for the construction and renovation of small to medium-sized manufacturing plants on undeveloped land in and around Philadelphia. The PIDC is credited with having moderated the loss of industrial jobs in Philadelphia.<ref> Guian McKee, "Urban Deindustrialization and Local Public Policy: Industrial Renewal in Philadelphia, 1953-1976," ''Journal of Policy History'' 2004 16(1): 66-98, </ref>

==History==
[[File:Col-pa.jpg|thumb|300px|Philadelphia in 1776]]

==Politics==
The city of Philadelphia has a majority of voters affiliated with the [[Democratic Party]]. As of November, 2008, there are 1,126,768 registered voters in Philadelphia. Of those, 880,684 are registered with the Democratic Party, and 147,074 are registered with the [[Republican Party]]. <ref>http://www.dos.state.pa.us/elections/cwp/view.asp?A=1310&Q=446974</ref>

==Sports==
Philadelphia is the home of the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s [[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]], the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] of the [[Major League Baseball|MLB]], the [[NBA]]'s [[Philadelphia 76ers|76ers]], and the [[NHL]]'s [[Philadelphia Flyers|Flyers]].

[[Category:Pennsylvania Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Colonial America]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania]]

====references====
<references/>
[[category:Urban History]]

Pennsylvania

2010-01-24T21:15:46Z

RJJensen: /* 18th century */

{{USState
|name=Pennsylvania
|flag=Pennsylvania_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Virtue, Liberty, and Independence"
|nick=The Keystone State
|capital=Harrisburg
|language=None
|governor=Ed Rendell
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=Bob Casey, Jr.
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-6324
|s1email=http://casey.senate.gov/contact/ Contact
|senator2=Arlen Specter
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-4254
|s2email=http://specter.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.ContactForm Contact
|population=
|date=December 12, 1787 (2nd)
}}
'''Pennsylvania''' was one of the original thirteen colonies. It is now a US state. Its capital is [[Harrisburg]] and it borders [[Ohio]], [[Maryland]], [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Delaware]], and [[West Virginia]].
==History==
When Europeans settlers arrived in the early 17th century the area was inhabited by about 15,000 Indians; they belonged to three main tribal groups, the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Shawnee. The English, Dutch, and Swedes all sought to occupy the land, but the English won the wars and took control. Dutch trading posts were established first; in 1637 Swedes built Fort Christina, and in 1643, began the first permanent settlement, located at the mouth of the Schuylkill River. The Dutch seized New Sweden in 1655, only to lose it to the English in 1664. King Charles II gave it to William Penn to pay off debts; the Penn family were the proprietors (owners) until 1776, when they were overthrown by the patriots as part of the American Revolution.
===Religious tolerance===
The colony was founded and owned by [[William Penn]], an English Quaker who wanted a place where [[Quaker]]s and other denominations could worship freely without persecution. The first Colonial Legislative Act, the Great Law of Pennsylvania, December 7, 1682, mandated: <blockquote>"That no person ... who shall confess and acknowledge one Almighty God
to be the Creator, Upholder and Ruler of the World ... shall in any case be molested or prejudiced for his, or her Conscientious persuasion or practice." <ref>http://www.docheritage.state.pa.us/documents/constitutiontrans.asp</ref></blockquote>

[[Benjamin Franklin]] helped write Pennsylvania's 1776 Constitution. In Frame of Government, Chapter 2, Section 10, it states: "Each member of the legislature, before he takes his seat, shall make and subscribe the following declaration: 'I do believe in one God, the Creator and Governor of the Universe, the Rewarder of the good and Punisher of the wicked, and I do acknowledge the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by Divine Inspiration.'"

===18th century===
Quakers came to the Philadelphia area, where many became successful merchants, handling the long-distance trade to London and other parts of the British Empire. Pennsylvania attracted large numbers of Germans, including Lutherans and many smaller sects. They were farmers in the southeast. Scots-Irish (mostly Presbyterians) settled the frontier regions.
Pennsylvania was the third largest colony by 1775, with 275,000 people (including a few thousand black slaves who worked mostly as house servants.
[[File:Col-pa.jpg|thumb|300px|Philadelphia]]

[[Philadelphia]] grew quickly into the largest city in colonial America and with 35,000 people in 1776 was the second largest city in the British Empire. The city's economy was based on growing agricultural wealth from prosperous inland farms which sent their surplus grains, cattle and horses for export. Entrepreneurs set up prosperous shipbuilding works on the Delaware River, and opened an iron industry. The Quaker merchants favored education and civic culture, creating a rich cultural and intellectual life that gave Philadelphia the nickname, "the Athens of America."

The [[Continental Congress]] met in Philadelphia from 1774 to 1783, with an interruption when the British occupied the city in 1777 and the government moved to Lancaster and York. The [[Declaration of Independence]] was signed there in 1776, the [[Liberty Bell]] is there, and the [[Continental Army]] spent the winter of 1777 at Valley Forge outside Philadelphia, where they suffered severe hardships for want of supplies.

===Early national period===
The [[Constitution of the United States|American Constitution]] was written in [[Philadelphia]] in 1787. Pennsylvania was the 2nd State to join [[United States of America|the Union]] on December 12, 1787 and the city was the national capital from 1790 to 1800. In 1790 the state adopted a more conservative state constitution; state capital was relocated in 1800 to Lancaster, and then to Harrisburg in 1812.

The population grew with high birth rates, and low death rates, but little immigration. Scotch Irish filled out the frontier. A strong sense of commitment to [[Jeffersonian Democracy]] and [[Jacksonian Democracy]] gave the Jeffersonian Republicans and (after 1830) the Democratsa strong position. The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 saw western farmers angrily protest the federal tax on their most portable product. President Washington personally led an army against it, and the rebels immediately gave in. A new and more democratic state constitution was adopted in 1838.
===Civil War Era===
The antislavery movement flourished after Quaker originated the anti-slavery cause and freed their own slaves.

The need for Philadelphia to maintain access to the expanding interior and the West, both as markets and as sources of materials, such as coal and iron, to be sold and manufactured, led to aggressive state programs to improve the transportation system. The Philadelphia-Lancaster Turnpike, first in the nation, was completed in 1794; the state built hundreds of miles of canals; mules pulled boats loaded with commerce and passengers. The canal system was linked by the Allegheny Portage Railroad over the Allegheny mountains in 1835. Private enterprise built railroads that opened up the anthracitge coal region, which became the premier energy source for America by 1850. Philadelphia became an industrial city, famous for textiles, iron and steel, and railroad equipment along with commerce and shipbuilding. The world's first major oil wells were drilled near Titusville in 1859 and the northwestern part of the state became the center for [[Standard Oil]] and other companies.

Pennsylvania's only president, [[James Buchanan]], proved a failure in allowing seven southern states to break away under his watch. During the war Gettysburg was the scene of the war's most decisive battle, July 1-3, 1863--and Pennsylvania furnished men and leaders, including generals George B. McClellan, Winfield S. Hancock, and George Meade and Adm. David D. Porter, for the Union army and navy. Philadelphia banker, Jay Cooke was the leading financier of the Civil War; he invented a sytstem of savings bonds that allowed ordinary people to help finance the war. Philadelphia continued as a financial leader in the nation until after 1870, when it was far overshadowed by New York.

==Major cities==
*[[Allentown]]
*[[Erie]]
*[[Harrisburg]]
*[[Philadelphia]]
*[[Pittsburgh]]
*[[Scranton]]

==Miscellaneous==

Pennsylvania is known as the "Keystone State".

Pennsylvania is the birthplace and home of President [[James Buchanan]].

Pennsylvania was the only one of the 13 original colonies to be completely landlocked, in that it did not border an ocean.

==Sports==

Pennsylvania is home to the [[NBA]]'s Philadelphia 76ers, the NHL's [[Philadelphia Flyers]] and [[Pittsburgh Penguins]], Major League Baseball's [[Philadelphia Phillies]] and [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], and the [[NFL]]'s [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Philadelphia Eagles]]. Additionally, Pennsylvania State University is a traditional college football powerhouse, and Villanova University and the University of Pittsburgh have had great success in college basketball as of late.

==Name==
Pennsylvania was named by the king after William Penn's father (Penn himself did not want the name used.)<ref>
He wrote, "This day, my country was confirmed to me under the great seal of England, with privileges, by the name of Pennsylvania, a name the King would give it in honor of my father. I chose New Wales, being as this, a pretty, hilly country, but Penn being Welsh for head as in Penmanmoire, in Wales, and Penrith, in Cumberland, and Penn, in Buckinghamshire . . . called this Pennsylvania, which is the high or head woodlands; for I proposed, when the secretary, a Welshman, refused to have it called New Wales, Sylvania and they added Penn to it, and though I opposed it and went to the King to have it struck out and altered he said it was past . . nor could twenty guineas move the under-secretary to vary the name" See [http://www.britannia.com/celtic/wales/facts/facts1.html#americaname source]</ref> The name means "Penn's woods".
==Further reading==
* Miller, Randall M. and William A. Pencak, eds. ''Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth'' (2002), detailed scholarly history
* Beers, Paul B. ''Pennsylvania Politics Today and Yesterday'' (1980), government textbook
* Klein, Philip S and Ari Hoogenboom. ''A History of Pennsylvania'' (1973), solid college textbook
* Weigley, Russell. ''Philadelphia: A 300-Year History'' (1982)
* WPA Federal Writers' Project. ''Pennsylvania: A Guide to the Keystone State,'' 1940.
== References ==
<References/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]

New Jersey

2010-01-24T21:14:24Z

RJJensen:

[[Image:New Jersey Counties.svg.png|right]]
{{USState
|name=New Jersey
|flag=New_Jersey_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Liberty and Prosperity"
|nick=The Garden State
|capital=Trenton
|language=None
|governor=Christopher Christie
|gparty=Republican
|senator1=Frank Lautenberg
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-3224
|s1email=http://lautenberg.senate.gov/contact/ Contact
|senator2=Bob Menendez
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-4744
|s2email=http://menendez.senate.gov/contact/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=December 18, 1787 (3rd)
}}
'''New Jersey''' is one of the thirteen original colonies that formed the [[United States]]. It was the third state to enter into the Union. Its population has the highest overall density of any State, featuring many thousands of towns.<ref>http://www.nj.gov/nj/govinfo/county/localgov.html (list of municipalities, which links to each one).</ref>

New Jersey is nicknamed "the Garden State." It has 127 miles of coastline, including resort areas such as [[Atlantic City]], Asbury Park, and Cape May, some with beautiful and historic [[Victorian]] [[architecture]]. Its capital city is [[Trenton]].

It is home to two famous old universities: [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and [[Rutgers University|Rutgers]]. They are both ''colonial colleges,'' the nine colleges chartered in the colonies before the [[American Revolution]]. Princeton traditionally claims 1740 as its year of founding, making it the fourth oldest university in the United States; Rutgers, founded in 1766, is the eighth oldest. Princeton is a member of the [[Ivy League]].

New Jersey legalized [[domestic partnership]]s (for same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples over 62 years of age) in 2004<ref>http://www.answers.com/topic/domestic-partnership-in-the-united-states</ref> and [[civil union]]s for same-sex couples, which are similiar to [[same sex marriage]], in 2007.<ref>http://data.lambdalegal.org/pdf/772.pdf</ref>

The current Governor of New Jersey is [[Chris Christie]], a [[Republican]] elected in 2009.
==History==
[[File:Col-nj.jpg|thumb|300px|The colony was rural and was dominated by New York City to the east and Philadelphia to the west]]

===Conservapedia===
[[Conservapedia]] was founded in New Jersey on November 22, 2006. It was started by a class of 56 homeschooled children, ranging from 11 years old to 18, as a project for homework.

==References==

<References/>

{{USstates}}

[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:New Jersey]]

New Jersey

2010-01-24T21:13:58Z

RJJensen:

[[Image:New Jersey Counties.svg.png|right]]
{{USState
|name=New Jersey
|flag=New_Jersey_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Liberty and Prosperity"
|nick=The Garden State
|capital=Trenton
|language=None
|governor=Christopher Christie
|gparty=Republican
|senator1=Frank Lautenberg
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-3224
|s1email=http://lautenberg.senate.gov/contact/ Contact
|senator2=Bob Menendez
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-4744
|s2email=http://menendez.senate.gov/contact/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=December 18, 1787 (3rd)
}}
'''New Jersey''' is one of the thirteen original colonies that formed the [[United States]]. It was the third state to enter into the Union. Its population has the highest overall density of any State, featuring many thousands of towns.<ref>http://www.nj.gov/nj/govinfo/county/localgov.html (list of municipalities, which links to each one).</ref>

New Jersey is nicknamed "the Garden State." It has 127 miles of coastline, including resort areas such as [[Atlantic City]], Asbury Park, and Cape May, some with beautiful and historic [[Victorian]] [[architecture]]. Its capital city is [[Trenton]].

It is home to two famous old universities: [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and [[Rutgers University|Rutgers]]. They are both ''colonial colleges,'' the nine colleges chartered in the colonies before the [[American Revolution]]. Princeton traditionally claims 1740 as its year of founding, making it the fourth oldest university in the United States; Rutgers, founded in 1766, is the eighth oldest. Princeton is a member of the [[Ivy League]].

New Jersey legalized [[domestic partnership]]s (for same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples over 62 years of age) in 2004<ref>http://www.answers.com/topic/domestic-partnership-in-the-united-states</ref> and [[civil union]]s for same-sex couples, which are similiar to [[same sex marriage]], in 2007.<ref>http://data.lambdalegal.org/pdf/772.pdf</ref>

The current Governor of New Jersey is [[Chris Christie]], a [[Republican]] elected in 2009.
==History==
[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|The colony was rural and was dominated by New York City to the east and Philadelphia to the west]]

===Conservapedia==-
[[Conservapedia]] was founded in New Jersey on November 22, 2006. It was started by a class of 56 homeschooled children, ranging from 11 years old to 18, as a project for homework.

==References==

<References/>

{{USstates}}

[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:New Jersey]]

Harvard University

2010-01-24T21:12:21Z

RJJensen: /* History and Mission */ tweaks

Massachusetts

2010-01-24T21:10:19Z

RJJensen:

{{USState
|name=Massachusetts
|flag=Massachusetts_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem" (By the sword we seek peace, but peace only under liberty)
|nick=The Bay State
|capital=Boston
|language=English
|governor=Deval Patrick
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=John Kerry
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-2742
|s1email=http://kerry.senate.gov/v3/contact/email.html Contact
|population=
|date=February 6, 1788 (6th)
}}

The '''Commonwealth of Massachusetts''' is a state<ref>It is one of four states officially known as "commonwealths"; there are no practical differences between a "commonwealth" and a "state".
</ref> in the [[New England]] region of the northeastern [[United States]]. Its capital city is [[Boston]]. The name is derived from the Indian tribe that lived there, the "Massachusett". It is one of four states officially known as "commonwealths"; there are no practical differences between a "commonwealth" and a "state".

==History==
[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Harvard College was founded in 1638 making Boston the intellectual center of New England]]

Massachusetts was first settled by the [[Pilgrims]] who emigrated from [[England]] on the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620 and founded a settlement at [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]], and soon afterward by the much larger group the [[Puritans]], who founded the "Massachusetts Bay Colony". Both groups came to America seeking religious freedom.

The colony was a major center of the [[American Revolution]], as events such as the [[Boston Massacre]] and [[Boston Tea Party]] helped to create a desire for national independence among the Americans. The first battle of the war was fought at [[Lexington]] and [[Concord]]; the first great American victory was the expulsion of the British from Boston on "Evacuation Day," March 17, 1776.

Shortly after the war ended, tax protesters in the western part of the state revolted in [[Shays' Rebellion]], a major factor leading to demands for a stronger national government at the [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787. Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1783 and ratified the Constitution on February 6, 1788.

During the 1800s, Massachusetts was marked by increasing industrialization, including the founding of textile mills in towns such as Lowell. Important historical figures during this time included [[Horace Mann]], an important educational reformer, and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]], two of the main contributors to the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendental]] movement.

In the 1900s, Massachusetts moved from a factory-based economy to a more service-based economy, sparked by growth in its local colleges and universities as well as by a collapse in the textile industry during the 1920s. This encouraged increased suburbanization, leading to the current demographic situation in which the population is concentrated in suburbs around the city of [[Boston]]. In 1987, the state received federal highway funding for the Central Artery/Tunnel Project, known colloquially as the [[Big Dig]]. The $14.7 billion grant is the largest federal highway project ever approved.

==Politics==
Liberal icon [[Ted Kennedy]], the third longest-serving Senator in U.S. history, died from a brain tumor in August 2009, marking the end of an era. During the [[2004 Presidential Election]] the Democratic super-majority in the state legislator blocked the Republican Governor [[Mitt Romney]] from appointing an interim senator should [[John Kerry]] be elected President. The legislature changed the law back again after Kennedy's death, allowing Governor [[Deval Patrick]], a Democrat, to appoint a temporary replacement for Kennedy. He chose former Democratic National Committee chairman [[Paul Kirk]]. Kirk did not seek a full term of his own, and a special election will be held on January 19, 2010.

Republican State Senator [[Scott Brown]] pulled a major upset, defeating Democrat Attorney General [[Martha Coakley]] in the election. Brown rode on a wave of voter anger at President Obama and his [[health care]] overhaul and won by a 52%-47% margin.<ref> See [http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/01/19/us/politics/massachusetts-election-map.html?hp statistical analysis of 2010 vote]</ref>

Although once a bastion of social conservatism (the term "Banned in Boston" is still in widespread use)<ref>http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Massachusetts/id/1896007</ref> Massachusetts is known as one of the most Catholic and most liberal states. It is the most populous state to have all-Democratic congressional representation (before Brown won in 2010). It was called "Taxachusetts" because of its high tax rate, which has since been lowered by a series of Republican governors in the 1990s and 2000s ([[William Weld]], [[Paul Cellucci]], [[Jane Swift]] and [[Mitt Romney]]); they were among the most liberal Republican governors in the country.<ref>http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Massachusetts/id/1896007</ref>

Its current [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] are [[John Kerry]] (who unsuccessfully ran for [[President]] in 2004) and [[Scott Brown]].

The current governor, elected in 2006 over Republican and former Lieutenant Governor Kerry Murphy Healey,<ref>http://www.boston.com/news/local/politics/candidates/governor/patrick/</ref> is [[Deval Patrick|Deval L. Patrick]], who was the first Democrat to take the office in 16 years, and the first African American to win the post.<ref>http://www.mass.gov/</ref><ref>http://www.nndb.com/gov/911/000051758/</ref> A strong liberal in the state that legalized [[homosexual marriage]], Patrick signed a bill which allowed out-of-state gay couples to marry in Massachusetts. In a speech afterward, Patrick was recorded openly mocking conservatives and the Bible by stating, "In five years now, ... the sky has not fallen, the earth has not opened to swallow us all up."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2008/07/31/massachusetts-gov-patrick-signs-allowing-gay-marriage-non-residents</ref>

Patrick is faring poorly in polls, as he has been ineffective in getting his own priorities enacted, and in dealing with the [[recession of 2008]].

Massachusetts is the home of Presidents [[John Adams]], [[John Quincy Adams]], and [[John F. Kennedy]].

==Notes and references==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:Massachusetts]]
[[Category:New England]]

Massachusetts

2010-01-24T21:09:05Z

RJJensen: /* History */ add

{{USState
|name=Massachusetts
|flag=Massachusetts_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem" (By the sword we seek peace, but peace only under liberty)
|nick=The Bay State
|capital=Boston
|language=English
|governor=Deval Patrick
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=John Kerry
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-2742
|s1email=http://kerry.senate.gov/v3/contact/email.html Contact
|population=
|date=February 6, 1788 (6th)
}}

The '''Commonwealth of Massachusetts''' is a state<ref>It is one of four states officially known as "commonwealths"; there are no practical differences between a "commonwealth" and a "state".
</ref> in the [[New England]] region of the northeastern [[United States]]. Its capital city is [[Boston]]. The name is derived from the Indian tribe that lived there, the "Massachusett". It is one of four states officially known as "commonwealths"; there are no practical differences between a "commonwealth" and a "state".

==History==
[[File:Col-mass.jpg|thumb|300px|Boston was a thriving Atlantic port by 1700]]

Massachusetts was first settled by the [[Pilgrims]] who emigrated from [[England]] on the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620 and founded a settlement at [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]], and soon afterward by the much larger group the [[Puritans]], who founded the "Massachusetts Bay Colony". Both groups came to America seeking religious freedom.

The colony was a major center of the [[American Revolution]], as events such as the [[Boston Massacre]] and [[Boston Tea Party]] helped to create a desire for national independence among the Americans. The first battle of the war was fought at [[Lexington]] and [[Concord]]; the first great American victory was the expulsion of the British from Boston on "Evacuation Day," March 17, 1776.

Shortly after the war ended, tax protesters in the western part of the state revolted in [[Shays' Rebellion]], a major factor leading to demands for a stronger national government at the [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787. Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1783 and ratified the Constitution on February 6, 1788.

During the 1800s, Massachusetts was marked by increasing industrialization, including the founding of textile mills in towns such as Lowell. Important historical figures during this time included [[Horace Mann]], an important educational reformer, and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]], two of the main contributors to the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendental]] movement.

In the 1900s, Massachusetts moved from a factory-based economy to a more service-based economy, sparked by growth in its local colleges and universities as well as by a collapse in the textile industry during the 1920s. This encouraged increased suburbanization, leading to the current demographic situation in which the population is concentrated in suburbs around the city of [[Boston]]. In 1987, the state received federal highway funding for the Central Artery/Tunnel Project, known colloquially as the [[Big Dig]]. The $14.7 billion grant is the largest federal highway project ever approved.

==Politics==
Liberal icon [[Ted Kennedy]], the third longest-serving Senator in U.S. history, died from a brain tumor in August 2009, marking the end of an era. During the [[2004 Presidential Election]] the Democratic super-majority in the state legislator blocked the Republican Governor [[Mitt Romney]] from appointing an interim senator should [[John Kerry]] be elected President. The legislature changed the law back again after Kennedy's death, allowing Governor [[Deval Patrick]], a Democrat, to appoint a temporary replacement for Kennedy. He chose former Democratic National Committee chairman [[Paul Kirk]]. Kirk did not seek a full term of his own, and a special election will be held on January 19, 2010.

Republican State Senator [[Scott Brown]] pulled a major upset, defeating Democrat Attorney General [[Martha Coakley]] in the election. Brown rode on a wave of voter anger at President Obama and his [[health care]] overhaul and won by a 52%-47% margin.<ref> See [http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/01/19/us/politics/massachusetts-election-map.html?hp statistical analysis of 2010 vote]</ref>

Although once a bastion of social conservatism (the term "Banned in Boston" is still in widespread use)<ref>http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Massachusetts/id/1896007</ref> Massachusetts is known as one of the most Catholic and most liberal states. It is the most populous state to have all-Democratic congressional representation (before Brown won in 2010). It was called "Taxachusetts" because of its high tax rate, which has since been lowered by a series of Republican governors in the 1990s and 2000s ([[William Weld]], [[Paul Cellucci]], [[Jane Swift]] and [[Mitt Romney]]); they were among the most liberal Republican governors in the country.<ref>http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Massachusetts/id/1896007</ref>

Its current [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] are [[John Kerry]] (who unsuccessfully ran for [[President]] in 2004) and [[Scott Brown]].

The current governor, elected in 2006 over Republican and former Lieutenant Governor Kerry Murphy Healey,<ref>http://www.boston.com/news/local/politics/candidates/governor/patrick/</ref> is [[Deval Patrick|Deval L. Patrick]], who was the first Democrat to take the office in 16 years, and the first African American to win the post.<ref>http://www.mass.gov/</ref><ref>http://www.nndb.com/gov/911/000051758/</ref> A strong liberal in the state that legalized [[homosexual marriage]], Patrick signed a bill which allowed out-of-state gay couples to marry in Massachusetts. In a speech afterward, Patrick was recorded openly mocking conservatives and the Bible by stating, "In five years now, ... the sky has not fallen, the earth has not opened to swallow us all up."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2008/07/31/massachusetts-gov-patrick-signs-allowing-gay-marriage-non-residents</ref>

Patrick is faring poorly in polls, as he has been ineffective in getting his own priorities enacted, and in dealing with the [[recession of 2008]].

Massachusetts is the home of Presidents [[John Adams]], [[John Quincy Adams]], and [[John F. Kennedy]].

==Notes and references==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:Massachusetts]]
[[Category:New England]]

History of Louisiana

2010-01-24T21:06:34Z

RJJensen: add

The '''History of Lousisiana''' covers the state from European discovery to the 21st century.
==Colonial==
[[File:Col-la.jpg|thumb|300px|The French settled Louisiana--especially and Acadians expelled from Nova Scotia in the 1740s]]
==19th century==
==20th century==
===Prohibition===
The state legislature ratified the 18th Amendment in August 1918 by a narrow margin, as north and central Louisiana "dry" interests defeated the "wet" votes of southern Louisiana and New Orleans. New Orleans opposed [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibition]] and was a center for bootlegging to dry regions throughout the Gulf South. Many establishments in the city secretly and openly defied the ban on alcoholic beverages. Despite heavy enforcement efforts, wine, beer, and liquor remained widely available un New Orleans and other cities throughout the period. Prohibition violation contributed to the rise of organized crime, gangsterism and bribery of public officials in New Orleans as in other large cities. Across the state enforcement battled popular opposition and flaunting of prohibition.<ref> Joy J. Jackson, "Prohibition in New Orleans: The Unlikeliest Crusade," '' Louisiana History'' 1978 19(3): 261-284. 0024-6816 </ref>

==21st century==
===Hurricane Katrina===
In 2005, New Orleans was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina. Democratic governor Kathleen Blanco and Democratic mayor Ray Nagin have been heavily criticized for their ineffective responses.

==Further reading==
====references====
<references/>

[[category:Louisiana]]
[[category:The South]]
[[category:American Civil War]]
[[category:Reconstruction]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Louisiana, History of}}

Savannah, Georgia

2010-01-24T21:04:47Z

RJJensen:

'''Savannah''' is a very old city in Chatham County, [[Georgia]]; ot sits on the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

[[File:Col-ga.jpg|thumb|300px|Oglethorpe builds Savannah]]

In the Civil War it escaped major damage. It was captured by Union General [[William T. Sherman]] in December and presented as a Christmas present to the nation.

==Further reading==
* Jones, Jacqueline. ''Saving Savannah The City and the Civil War'' (2009) 544 pages

[[Category:Georgia Cities and Towns]]

Georgia

2010-01-24T21:04:01Z

RJJensen: art

''For the country of Georgia, see this article: [[Georgia_(country)|Georgia]].''
{{USState
|name=Georgia
|flag=Georgia_State_Flag.gif
|motto= 
#"[[Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation]]"
#"Agriculture and commerce"
|nick=Empire State of the South
|capital=Atlanta
|language=English
|governor=Sonny Perdue
|gparty=Republican
|senator1=Saxby Chambliss
|s1party=Republican
|s1phone=(202) 224-3521
|s1email=http://chambliss.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=ContactUs.ContactForm&CFID=51392169&CFTOKEN=14703251 Contact
|senator2=Johnny Isakson
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224-3643
|s2email=http://isakson.senate.gov/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=January 2, 1788
}}
'''Georgia''' is a state in the southern [[United States]]. It was one of the original [[Colonial America|thirteen British colonies]] in the [[United States]]. It joined the Confederate States of America, [[Confederacy]], before the beginning of the [[American Civil War]]. The capital and largest city is [[Atlanta]].
==History==
[[File:Col-ga.jpg|thumb|300px|Oglethorpe builds Savannah]]
==Politics==
In the 2004 United States Presidential elections, Georgia was a [[red state]], favoring the Republican party<ref>http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/GA/</ref>.

Polls in August 2009 show John Oxedine (R) and Roy Barnes (D) leading their respective primary races for the 2010 election for governor. On the Republican side, Oxendine leads with 39%, followed by Nathan Deal at 13% and Karen Handel at 12%.

On the Democratic side, Barnes tops the field at 45%, followed by Thurbert Baker at 29%.

==Elected officials==
===Federal===
*Sen. [[Saxby Chambliss]] [R]
*Sen. [[Johnny Isakson]] [R]
*Rep. [[Jack Kingston]] [R, GA-1]
*Rep. [[Sanford Bishop]] [D, GA-2]
*Rep. [[Lynn Westmoreland]] [R, GA-3]
*Rep. [[Henry Johnson]] [D, GA-4]
*Rep. [[John Lewis]] [D, GA-5]
*Rep. [[Tom Price]] [R, GA-6]
*Rep. [[John Linder]] [R, GA-7]
*Rep. [[James Marshall]] [D, GA-8]
*Rep. [[Nathan Deal]] [R, GA-9]
*Rep. [[Paul Broun]] [R, GA-10]
*Rep. [[John Gingrey]] [R, GA-11]
*Rep. [[John Barrow]] [D, GA-12]
*Rep. [[David Scott]] [D, GA-13]

==Memorials==
*[[Larry McDonald]] (1935-1983), a conservative Member of Congress, was onboard [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] when it was shot down by Soviet warplanes in 1983. His memory is honored in renamiong Interstate Highway 75, which runs from the Chattahoochee River northward to the Tennessee state line.

==See Also==
*[[Zell Miller]]
*[[State Governors]]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:Georgia]]
[[category:The South]]

Delaware

2010-01-24T21:02:47Z

RJJensen: /* History */ art

{{USState
|name=Delaware
|flag=Delaware_State_Flag.gif
|motto="[[Liberty and Independence]]"
|nick=The First State
|capital=Dover
|language=None
|governor=Jack Markell
|gparty=Democrat
|senator1=Thomas R. Carper
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-2441
|s1email=http://carper.senate.gov/contact/ Contact
|senator2=Ted Kaufman
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-5042
|s2email=http://kaufman.senate.gov/services/contact/ Contact
|population=
|date=December 7, 1787 (1st)
}}
'''Delaware''' was the first state to sign the [[Articles of Confederation]] on February 5, 1778 to enter into the Union. Its capital is [[Dover]], and largest city is Wilmington.

==History==

[[Henry Hudson]], under the Dutch flag is credited with Delaware's discovery in 1609. The following year Capt. Samuel Argall of [[Virginia]] named Delaware for his colony's governor, Thomas West, Baron De La Warr. An attempted Dutch settlement failed in 1631. [[Sweden|Swedish]] colonization began at Fort Christina (now [[Wilmington]]) in 1638, but New Sweden fell to Dutch forces led by New Netherlands' governor [[Peter Stuyvesant]] in 1655. [[England]] took over the area in 1664.<ref>[http://www.factmonster.com Factmonster.com]</ref> Delaware is the 45th most populous state <ref>[http://www.census.gov/population/projections/state/9525rank/deprsrel.txt US Census]</ref>.
[[File:Col-del.jpg|thumb|300px]]
Originally founded as the "Three Lower Counties" of [[Pennsylvania]], in 1701 [[William Penn]] agreed to allow Delaware to have its own Assembly to meet in New Castle, while Pennsylvania's met in [[Philadelphia]]. Delaware was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and is known as the "First State". This motto appears on Delaware's license plates.

==Geography==

Delaware is the second smallest state, with [[Rhode Island]] being the smallest. Delaware is bounded by Pennsylvania to the north, Delaware River, [[New Jersey]] and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and [[Maryland]] to the west and south.

Delaware's border with Maryland was surveyed by the famous team of [[Charles Mason]] and [[Jeremiah Dixon]]. Mason and Dixon also established the border between Pennsylvania and Delaware. To do this, they mapped out a circle with a twelve mile radius from the top of the courthouse in New Castle, DE. The arc extends over to the low-tide mark on the New Jersey side of the Delaware River. This border is unique as most boundaries along watercourses split the water at the midpoint of the main flow channel. The location of this border has been the subject of multiple Supreme Court cases as seen here: <ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=295&invol=694 U.S. Supreme Court - State of New Jersey v. State of Delaware]</ref>

==Economy==
Some of Delaware's largest employers are the State of Delaware, New Castle County, the University of Delaware, DuPont, AstraZeneca, Bank of America, Citigroup, General Motors, DaimlerChrysler and Perdue Farms. Delaware is also home to the Dover Air Force Base, which is one of the largest Air Force Bases in the [[United States]]. Dover AFB is often in the news as it serves as the entry point and mortuary for American military personnel who die overseas.
Delaware has favorable corporate tax laws, which has led to many large corporations using Delaware as their headquarters.
Delaware also does not assess sales tax on consumers.

==Elected officials==
===Federal===
*Sen. [[Ted Kaufman]] [D]
*Sen. [[Tom Carper|Thomas Carper]] [D]
*Rep. [[Michael Castle]] [R, DE-0]

===State===
*Governor [[Jack Markell]] (D)

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:Delaware]]

Florida

2010-01-24T21:01:56Z

RJJensen: /* History */ art

{{USState
|name=Florida
|flag=Florida_State_Flag.gif
|motto="In God We Trust"
|nick=The Sunshine State
|capital=Tallahassee
|language=English
|governor=Charlie Crist
|gparty=Republican
|senator2=George LeMieux
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224-3041
|s2email=http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/senators/one_item_and_teasers/lemieux.htm Contact
|senator1=Bill Nelson
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-5274
|s1email=http://billnelson.senate.gov/contact/email.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=March 3, 1845 (27th)
}}
'''Florida''' is located in the southeastern [[United States]]; it was purchased by the U.S. in 1819 and in 1845 became the 27th state to join the Union. The capital of Florida is [[Tallahassee]], and the main metropolitan areas are Jacksonville, Miami, St. Petersburg and Orlando. Florida's nickname is the "Sunshine State", and its state tree is the "Sabal Palm." Florida has grown very rapidly, pulling in retirees from the cold, giving it the 3rd largest population of the 50 states.

==Politics==
Republican Senator [[Mel Martinez]] astonished Floridians by suddenly resigning in August 2009. Governor [[Charlie Crist]] appointed George LeMieux, age 40, who was Crist's campaign manager in 2006 and served as deputy attorney general of Florida when Crist was attorney general. LeMieux is regarded as one of the shrewdest political strategists in the state and, like Crist, is a moderate conservative Republican.

Crist was elected governor in 2006, running as a fiscal conservative and a moderate on social issues. His style is folksy and he searches for bipartisanship. His handling of the great hurricanes of 2005-6 was widely praised. He appointed one moderate and two conservatives to the state supreme court. His support for [[John McCain]] helped carry the state primary and played a role in giving the 2008 GOP nomination to McCain. He cut property taxes and cut the state budget, but annoyed some conservatives by his enthusiastic support for the Obama administration's stimulus bill in spring 2009. Polls show a strong base of support from conservatives and moderates and some liberals. Crist will run for reelection in 2010; his rival in the 2010 GOP primary will be state House Speaker Marco Rubio, a Cuban American.

==History==
[[File:Col-fla.jpg|thumb|300px|Spain and Britain controlled Florida before 1819, but sent few settlers]]
Florida was first settled by Europeans in 1513, when Spaniard Juan Ponce de Leon landed at St. Augustine. For some time, Spain and France ran competing colonies in Florida, with the Spanish eventually expelling the French. Spain never had effective control and sold Florida to the United States in 1819. Florida seceded from the Union in 1861 and joined the [[Confederate States of America]]; there was little military action in the remote state.

==Elected officials==
===Federal===
*Sen. [[Bill Nelson]] [D]
*Sen. [[George LeMieux]] [R]
*Rep. [[Jeff Miller]] [R, FL-1]
*Rep. [[Allen Boyd]] [D, FL-2]
*Rep. [[Corrine Brown]] [D, FL-3]
*Rep. [[Ander Crenshaw]] [R, FL-4]
*Rep. [[Virginia Brown-Waite]] [R, FL-5]
*Rep. [[Clifford Stearns]] [R, FL-6]
*Rep. [[John Mica]] [R, FL-7]
*Rep. [[Alan Grayson]] [D, FL-8]
*Rep. [[Gus Bilirakis]] [R, FL-9]
*Rep. [[C. W. Young]] [R, FL-10]
*Rep. [[Kathy Castor]] [D, FL-11]
*Rep. [[Adam Putnam]] [R, FL-12]
*Rep. [[Vern Buchanan]] [R, FL-13]
*Rep. [[Connie Mack]] [R, FL-14]
*Rep. [[Bill Posey]] [R, FL-15]
*Rep. [[Thomas Rooney]] [R, FL-16]
*Rep. [[Kendrick Meek]] [D, FL-17]
*Rep. [[Ileana Ros-Lehtinen]] [R, FL-18]
*Rep. [[Robert Wexler]] [D, FL-19]
*Rep. [[Debbie Wasserman Schultz]] [D, FL-20]
*Rep. [[Lincoln Diaz-Balart]] [R, FL-21]
*Rep. [[Ron Klein]] [D, FL-22]
*Rep. [[Alcee Hastings]] [D, FL-23]
*Rep. [[Suzanne Kosmas]] [D, FL-24]
*Rep. [[Mario Diaz-Balart]] [R, FL-25]
===State===
*Governor [[Charlie Crist]] (R)

==Metropolitan Areas==
*[[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]]
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Miami, Florida|Miami]]
*[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]
*[[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]]
*[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]
*[[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]

==History==
see [[History of Florida]]
{{USstates}}
[[Category:Florida]]
[[Category:The South]]

History of California

2010-01-24T20:59:03Z

RJJensen: /* Colonial History */ art

The '''History of California''' extends from the European explorers to the present; the '''Prehistory''' includes the story of the Indians. For current conditions see [[California]].
===Colonial History===
[[File:Col-cal.jpg|thumb|300px]]
Spanish explorers sailed along the coast of California from the early 1500s to the mid-1700s, but no settlements were established. During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first European settlements were established in California. Father [[Junípero Serra]], a Franciscan missionary, founded the mission chain, starting with San Diego de Alcalá in 1769. The California Missions comprised a series of outposts established to spread the Christianity among the local Native Americans, with the added benefit of confirming historic Spanish claims to the area. The missions introduced European technology, livestock and crops, as well as diseases previously unknown, which decimated the tribes.<ref>http://www.californiamissions.com/cahistory/background.html</ref>

The first quarter of the 19th century continued the slow colonization of the southern central, with a Hispanic population of about 10,000 by 1846 living mostly on cattle ranches. before 1820, Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from San Diego to just north of today's San Francisco Bay area, and extended inland approximately 25 to 50 miles from the missions. Outside of this zone, thousands of Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The Mexican government closed the missions.

The highway and missions have become for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The "Mission Revival Style" was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California's past. The Spanish encouraged settlement of California with large land grants which were turned into ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. The Hispanic population reached about 10,000 in the 1840s, located primarily in ranches along the coast of southern California.

===Conquest, 1846===
see [[Conquest of California]]

The United States captured California from Mexico in 1846 in the [[Mexican American War]]. At the time no one knew there was gold in California. There was little blood shed, for the Mexican government had withdrawn most of its forces to suppress rebels elsewhere, and the 10,000 local Hispanics (called "Californios") generally welcomed the new government. For three weeks in 1846 a few hundred Americans in Sonoma declared their independence using the name, "Republic of California", with its "Bear Flag", now part of the official state flag. Then John C. Fremont and the U.S. Army came and took control. The Army was in charge of all of California until it achieved statehood in 1850.

==Gold Rush to 1900==
===Gold Rush===
In January 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 40 miles east of [[Sacramento]] — beginning the great California Gold Rush, which had the most extensive impact on population growth of the state of any era. <ref> See [http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1934] [http://americanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa090901a.htm] </ref>

The Gold Rush brought the world to California. By 1855, some 300,000 "Forty-Niners" had arrived from every continent; many left after a year or so--some rich, most not very rich. A precipitous drop in the Native American population occurred in the decade after the discovery of gold.

With the discovery of gold in 1848 in the north, the California [[Gold Rush]] was one of the great migrations in world history. Population soon reached 100,000 (almost all in the north). The miners and merchants settled in towns along what is now State Highway 49, and settlements sprang up along the Siskiyou Trail as gold was discovered elsewhere in California (notably in [[Siskiyou County]]). The nearest deep-water seaport was [[San Francisco]], and it became an overnight metropolis and the base for bankers who financed exploration for gold.

Precious metals drove the state economy well into the 1860s. The needs of the fast-growing population --almost all adult men--stimulated the rapid growth of San Francisco as a shipping, banking and wholesaling center for the entire West Coast. Agriculture, commerce, and manufacturing grew. In the 1860s and 1870s new wealth poured in from the rich silver deposits of the Comstock Lode in nearby Nevada.
===Statehood: 1849-1850===
In 1847-49 California was run by the U.S. military; local government continued to be run by alcaldes (mayors) in most places; but now some were Americans. Bennett Riley, the last military governor, called a constitutional convention to meet in Monterey in September 1849. Its 48 delegates were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; 8 were Californios. They unanimously outlawed slavery and set up a government that operated for 10 months before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850 as part of the [[Compromise of 1850]]. California thus became a state in record time, for the Americans realized the necessity of orderly government in the far-off land of gold. Slavery was outlawed because no one wanted the rich slave owners moving in to buy up the mines and squeeze out free labor. Thanks to the migrants there were plenty of voluntary workers.<ref>Richard B. Rice et al, ''The Elusive Eden'' (1988) 191-95</ref> A series of small towns were used briefly as the state capital until finally Sacramento was selected in 1854.
===The Civil War===
Because of the distance factor, California played a minor role in the [[American Civil War]]. Although some settlers sympathized with the Confederacy, they were not allowed to organize and their newspapers were closed down. Former U.S. Senator William Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Powerful capitalists dominated state politics through their control of mines, shipping, and finance, using the new Republican party. Nearly all the men who volunteered as soldiers stayed in the West to guard facilities. Some 2,350 men in the "California Column" marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The California Column spent most of its energy fighting hostile Indians.

===Transportation===
Ships provided easy, cheap, slow links among the coastal towns. within California and on routes leading there. The Panama route provided a shortcut for getting from the East Coast to California and a brisk maritime trade developed, featuring fast clipper ships.<ref> A. C. W. Bethel, "The Golden Skein: California's Gold-Rush Transportation Network." ''California History'' 1998-99 77(4): 250-275.</ref>

Steamboats (which needed fresh water and wood every day) plied the Bay Area and the rivers that flowed from the goldfields, moving passengers and supplies. With few roads, pack trains brought supplies to the miners. Soon a system of wagon roads, bridges, and ferries was set up. Large freight wagons
replaced pack trains, and crude roads made it easier to get to the mining camps, enabling express companies to deliver mail and packages to the miners. Stagecoach lines eventually created
routes connecting Missouri to California. By 1869,

Ships brought in many miners from around the globe. Other 49ers, as the Gold Rush arrivals were called, walked overland, with 17,000 to 25,000 taking the southern route from Texas through Arizona, and 25,000-30,000 on the better-known northern route from Kansas.

Before the 1870s, stagecoaches provided the primary form of transportation between towns. Even when railroads arrived stages were essential to link more remote areas to the railheads. Top of the line in quality, with least discomfort was the nine-passenger Concord, but the cheaper, rougher “mud wagons” were also in general use. The Wells Fargo company contracted with independent lines to deliver its express packages and transport gold bullion and coins. Stagecoach travel was usually uncomfortable as passengers shared limited space. Drivers were famous for their skill in driving six horses down winding roads at top speed, rarely overturning. Competition reduced fares to as little a two cents per mile on some routes. Bandits found robbing coaches a profitable if risky venture. US government mail subsidies provided essential base income, but running a stage line was a financially unstable business enterprise.

When the Central Pacific (built east from San Francisco using Chinese laborers) reached Utah in 1869 it linked with the Union Pacific Railroad, built west from Omaha using Irish labor. The transcontinental route meant it was no longer necessary to travel for six+ months by ship or on foot to reach the golden state; travel from Chicago to San Francisco took less than six days. The plunge in the cost and time of travel ended the state's isolation, and brought in cheap manufactured goods, along with more migrants.
===Labor politics and the rise of Nativism===
After the Civil War ended in 1865, northern California continued to grow rapidly. Independent miners were largely displaced by large corporate mining operations. Local railroads emerged, using equipment shipped around the horn of South America. The railroad companies and the mining companies became large-scale employers. The decisive event was the opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869; six days by train brought a traveler from Chicago to San Francisco, compared to six months by ship. Thousands of Chinese men arrived (and a few women), lured by high cash wages. They were expelled from the mine fields. Most returned to China after the Central Pacific was built. Those who stayed mostly moved to the [[Chinatown]]s in San Francisco and a few other cities, where they were relatively safe from violent attacks they suffered elsewhere.

From 1850 through 1900, anti-Chinese [[nativist]] sentiment resulted in the passage of innumerable laws, many of which remained in effect well into the middle of the 20th century. The most flagrant episode was probably the creation and ratification of a new state constitution in 1879. Thanks to vigorous lobbying by the anti-Chinese Workingmen's Party, led by [[Dennis Kearney]] (an immigrant from Ireland), Article XIX of the 1879 state constitution forbade corporations from hiring Chinese coolies, and empowered all California cities and counties to completely expel Chinese persons or to limit where they could reside. It was repealed in 1952.

The 1879 constitutional convention also dispatched a message to Congress pleading for strong immigration restrictions, which led to the passage of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] in 1882. The Act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and it would not be repealed by Congress until 1943. Nativists sentiments later led to a "[[Gentlemen's Agreement]]" with Japan in 1907, by which Japan voluntarily agreed to restrict emigration to the United States. California also passed an Alien Land Act which barred aliens, especially Asians, from holding title to land. Because it was difficult for people born in Asia to obtain U.S. citizenship until the 1960s, land ownership titles were held by their American-born children, who were full citizens. The law was overturned by the California Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1952.

In 1886, when a Chinese laundry owner challenged the constitutionality of a San Francisco ordinance clearly designed to drive Chinese laundries out of business, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in his favor, and in doing so, laid the theoretical foundation for modern equal protection constitutional law. See ''[[Yick Wo v. Hopkins]]'', 118 U.S. 356 (1886). Meanwhile, even with severe restrictions on Asian immigration, tensions between unskilled workers and wealthy landowners persisted up to and through the Great Depression. Novelist [[Jack London]] writes of the struggles of workers in the city of [[Oakland]] in his visionary classic, ''Valley of the Moon'', a title evoking the pristine situation of Sonoma County between sea and mountains, redwoods and oaks, fog and sunshine.

===Southern California===
Southern California until now had a small population, but suddenly began growing rapidly in the 1880s. The arrival of the Southern Pacific railroad, with connections to the east, opened up right farm land, attracting migrants from the Middle West. Boosters advertised the mild sunny climate and stressed the unlimited economic opportunities, as hundreds of thousands of people rushed in. The boom launched wild speculation in real estate and developers platted dozens of promised cities, most of which never materialized. Decline set in by 1890, real estate prices plummeted, and the boom ended. Nevertheless, the boom had lasting positive effects because the influx of population and capital energized some cities and generated the development of hotels, churches, schools, social and civic organizations, and new industries. The small Hispanic population was now vastly outnumbered, as the region took on the values and outlooks of the Middle West.<ref> Gloria Ricci Lothrop. "The Boom of the '80s Revisited". ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1993 75(3-4): 263-301 (0038-3929); William Friedricks, ''Henry E. Huntington
and the Creation of Southern California'' (1992). </ref>
===1890s===
The [[Panic of 1893|Depression of the 1890s]] slowed the state's growth but did not cause the widespread hardship common back east. The major issues were the depression, state expenditures, gold and silver, and railroad regulation. Governor James H. Budd (1853-1908), a [[Bourbon Democrat]] in office from 1895 to 1899, was a statesman of conservative integrity. However he faced a legislature with large Republican majorities after the GOP landslide in 1894 and was was the last Democratic Governor until 1938.<ref> Eric Falk Petersen, "The End of an Era: California's Gubernatorial Election of 1894," ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1969 38(2): 141-156; R. Hal Williams, ''The Democratic Party and California Politics 1880-1896,'' (1973)
</ref>

All too common was the spoils politician on retainer from the Huntington's Southern Pacific Railroad. Huntington failed to stop Los Angeles from getting federal funds for its own port at San Pedro<ref>Huntington wanted federal subsidies to go to his own port at Santa Monica. Opposition to his maneuvers helped mobilize the local Progressive movement. See Curtis Grassman, "The Los Angeles Free Harbor Controversy and the Creation of a Progressive Coalition." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1973 55(4): 445-468</ref> , and was forced to repay the federal government for the land grants of the 1860s, but otherwise got his way to the disgust of the growing middle class whose moralism could not tolerate the corruption of political bosses in both parties. The reform-minded cringed as local public utilities, beer dealers, and other groups seeking special laws set up their own networks of influence among venal officials; The entire state seemed to move on the lubricant of graft and privilege. The moralists tended to blame all the state's ills on Huntington and on corruption generally, but lacked a leader in the 1890s.<ref>George E. Mowry, "The California Progressive and His Rationale: A Study in Middle Class Politics," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 36, No. 2 (Sep., 1949), pp. 239-250 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1891178 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Progressive Era: 1900-1930==
===Progressive politics===
A coalition of reform-minded Republicans, especially in southern California, coalesced around Thomas Bard (1841-1915). Bard's election in 1899 as U.S. Senator enabled the anti-machine Republicans to sustain a continuing opposition to the Southern Pacific Railway's political power. They helped nominate George C. Pardee for governor in 1902 and formed the "Lincoln-Roosevelt League." In 1910 [[Hiram W. Johnson]] won the campaign for governor under the slogan "Kick the Southern Pacific out of politics." In 1912 Johnson became the running mate for [[Theodore Roosevelt]] on the new [[Progressive Party]] ticket.<ref> W. H. Hutchinson, "Prologue to Reform: the California Anti-Railroad Republicans, 1899-1905". ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1962 44(3): 175-218 </ref> By 1916, however, the Progressives were supporting labor unions, which helped them in ethnic enclaves in the larger cities but alienated the native-stock Protestant, middle-class voters who voted heavily against Senator Johnson and President Wilson in 1916.<ref>Michael Rogin, "Progressivism and the California Electorate," ''Journal of American History'' 1968 55(2): 297-314 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899560 in JSTOR]</ref>

Political progressivism varied across the state. Los Angeles (population 102,000 in 1900) focused on the dangers posed by the Southern Pacific Railroad, the liquor trade, and labor unions; San Francisco (population 342,000 in 1900) confronted with a corrupt machine that was finally overthrown following the earthquake of 1906. Smaller cities like San Jose (which had a population of 22,000 in 1900) had somewhat different concerns, such as fruit cooperatives, urban development, rival rural economies, and Asian labor.<ref>Timothy J. Lukes, "Progressivism Off-Broadway: Reform Politics in San Jose, California, 1880-1920." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1994 76(4): 377-400 </ref> San Diego (population 18,000 in 1900) had both the Southern Pacific and a corrupt machine.<ref> Grace L. Miller, "The Origins of the San Diego Lincoln-Roosevelt League, 1905-1909." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1978 60(4): 421-443 </ref>
====Businessmen====
Progressives created a new railroad commission with vastly enlarged powers and brought public utilities under state supervision. Organized businessmen were the leaders of both there reforms. The driving force for railroad regulation came less from an outraged public seeking lower rates than from shippers and merchants who wanted to stabilize their businesses. Public utility officers spearheaded campaigns for the passage, and, later, the enlargement of the Public Utilities Act. They expected that state regulation would reduce wasteful competition between their companies, improve the value of their companies' securities, and allow them to escape continual wrangling with county and municipal authorities. Although the businessmen were influential in obtaining the passage of bills incorporating many of their desires, no group of businessmen dominated the California legislature or the railroad commission in the Progressive Era. Laws desired by some businessmen were opposed by others; it is misleading to assume too sharp a dichotomy between the best interests of business groups and the general public.<ref> Mansel G. Blackford, "Businessmen and the Regulation of Railroads and Public Utilities in California during the Progressive Era." ''Business History Review'' 1970 44(3): 307-319 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3112616 in JSTOR] </ref> Organized labor made significant gains during the Progressive Era, but they were not a result of the benevolent, middle-class reformer actions, but of a powerful lobbying activity on the part of unions with their solid base in San Francisco and Oakland.

In the 1920s, most progressives came to view the business culture of the day not as a repudiation of the progressive "promise of American life" but as the fulfillment of it. The most important progressive victories of 1921 were the passage of administrative reorganization laws, the King Bill, increasing corporate taxes, and a progressive budget. In 1927-31, governor Clement Calhoun Young (1869-1947) brought more progressivism to the state. A beginning was made toward public power development, state aid to handicapped poor was instituted, and California became the first state to enact a modern old-age pension law. The parks system was upgraded and California (like most states) rapidly expanded its highway program, funding it through a tax on users--that is, a tax on gasoline--and creating the California Highway Patrol.<ref>Jackson K. Putnam, "The Persistence of Progressivism in the 1920's: the Case of California," ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1966 35(4): 395-411 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3636975 in JSTOR] </ref>

====Women====
The Progressive movement aimed to purify society of its corruption, and one way was to enfranchise supposedly "pure" women as voters in 1911, nine years before the 19th Amendment enfranchised women nationally in 1920. Women's clubs flourished and turned a spotlight on issues such as public schools, dirt and pollution, and public health. California became the cleanest and healthiest state with the best educational system in the nation, thanks in large part to the women. The women did not often run for office--that was seen as entangling their purity in the inevitable backroom deals routine in politics.

===Oil and more growth===
In the 1920s, oil was discovered, first near Newhall, north of Los Angeles. Soon, more oil was found all over the L.A. Basin and other parts of California. It soon became the most profitable industry in the southern part of the state. The leading company was Standard Oil of California, now Chevron.

Soon, Americans from all over the country, especially the [[Midwest]], were attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and a wide variety of geography within a short drive by truck.
===Hollywood===
The first decades of the twentieth century saw the rise of the movie studio system. [[MGM]], [[Universal Studios]] and [[Warner Brothers]] all built production facilities in in [[Hollywood]], which was then a small subdivision known as "Hollywoodland" on the outskirts of Los Angeles. Desert movies were shot in the Mojave or in [[Death Valley]]; pirate movies used [[Carmel]]. Winter scenes were shot in the San Bernardino Mountains. Outdoor sets on studio land were created to resemble any part of the world, with simulated rain or snow as needed. By the 1930s the show-biz population had extended its reach into radio, and by the 1950s "Hollywood" was the major center of television production, hosting studios for major networks such as NBC and CBS.
==Great Depression and war, 1929-1945==
[[File:EPIC1934.jpg|thumb|300px|Socialist [[Upton Sinclair]] won the Democratic primary for governor in 1934, but voters saw through his fantasies and elected the conservative Republican]]
Historians have usually rated Republican James Rolph, Jr. (1859-1934) as a do-nothing governor during his term 1931-34. He deserves credit for his efforts to combat the economic depression. He was aware of the depression's impact on California's economy and employment. Rolph approved creation of state labor camps for work on highways and forestry, a model for the federal government's Civilian Conservation Corps. He used state surplus funds to meet expenses, and he applied for Reconstruction Finance Corporation loans for construction of the Oakland Bay Bridge and for emergency relief measures. But he also approved a state sales tax on retail items. By 1934 he was in poor health, and he died on 2 June. Although his record of achievement was spotty, Rolph served the state conscientiously and with some tangible accomplishments against a serious economic crisis.<ref> Loren B. Chan, "California during the Early 1930s: The Administration of Governor James Rolph, Jr., 1931-1934" ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1981 63(3): 262-282. Journal Issn: 0038-3929 </ref>
===Strikes===
Unions grew rapidly under the [[New Deal]]. The most serious strike came in 1934 along the state's ports. In May 1934, dock workers and longshoremen along the West Coast [[Waterfront strikes|went on strike]] for better hours and pay, a union hiring hall and a coast-wide contract. Communists were in control of the union, the the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), led by Harry Bridges (1901-1990). On "Bloody Thursday", July 5, 1934, San Francisco was swept by the bloodiest rioting in three quarters of a century. Striking maritime workers, pitting themselves against police, terrorized half of the waterfront and the warehouse area of the city. The West Coast Waterfront Strike lasted 83 days with longshoremen returning to work on July 31. Arbitration was agreed to and it resulted in a victory for the strikers. and the unionization of all West Coast ports in the United States.<ref>Robert W. Cherny, "Prelude to the Popular Front: The Communist Party in California, 1931-35." ''American Communist History'' 2002 1(1): 5-42 online at [[EBSCO]] </ref>

===World War II===
During World War II, California's mild climate and Pacific location became a major resource for the war effort. Numerous air-training bases were established in Southern California, where most aircraft manufacturers, including [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas Aircraft]] and [[Hughes Aircraft]] expanded or established factories. Major naval, shipyards were established or expanded in San Diego, [[Long Beach]] and San Francisco Bay. Mass-produced transport ships for the Army, called "Liberty Ships" were built by San Francisco Bay shipyards.

==Postwar Boom: 1945-1990==
===California Dream===
Historian Kevin Starr in his grand seven-volume history of the state has explored in great depth the "California Dream"--the realization by ordinary Californians of the [[American Dream]]. California starting in the late 19th century promised the highest possible standard of life for the middle classes, and indeed for the skilled blue collar workers and farm owners as well. Poverty existed,, but was concentrated among the migrant farm workers made famous in ''Grapes of Wrath'', where the Joad family, driven out of the [[Dust Bowl]], searches for the California Dream. By the 1950s the Joads and the other "Oakies"and "Arkies" (migrants from Oklahoma and Arkansas) were achieving the dream too. It was not so much the upper class (who preferred to live in New York and Boston). The California Dream meant an improved and more affordable family life: a small but stylish and airy house marked by a fluidity of indoor and outdoor space, such as the ubiquitous California bungalow and a lush [[backyard]]—the stage, that is, for quiet family life in a sunny climate. It meant very good jobs, excellent roads, plentiful facilities for outdoor recreation, and the schools and universities that were the best in the world by the 1940s. James M. Cain, an eastern writer who visited the Golden State, reported in 1933 that the archetypal Californian "addresses you in easy grammar, completes his sentences, shows familiarity with good manners, and in addition gives you a pleasant smile."<ref> Kevin Starr, ''Golden Dreams: California in an Age of Abundance, 1950-1963'' (2009) </ref>
[[Image:LA-grows.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Explosive growth after 1920 around Los Angeles]]

===Baby Boomers===
After the war, hundreds of land developers bought land cheap, subdivided it, built on it, and got rich. Real-estate development replaced oil and agriculture as Southern California's principal industry. In 1955, [[Walt Disney]] opened the world's first theme park at [[Disneyland]] in Anaheim. In 1958, Major League Baseball's [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] and [[San Francisco Giants]] quit New York City and came to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The population of California expanded dramatically, to nearly 20 million by 1970. This was the coming-of-age of the [[baby boom]].
===Hippies===
In the late 1960s the baby-boom generation reached draft age, and many risked arrest to oppose the [[Vietnam War|war in Vietnam]]. There were numerous demonstrations and strikes, most famously on the prestigious Berkeley campus of the University of California, across the bay from San Francisco. In 1965, as soon as civil rights legislation passed in Washington, angry lower class blacks rioted erupted in Watts, in the South-Central area of Los Angeles.

California still was a land of free spirits, open hearts, easy-going living. Popular music of the period bore titles such as "California Girls", "California Dreamin'", "San Francisco", "Do You Know the Way to San Jose?" and "Hotel". These reflected the Californian promise of easy living in a paradisaical climate. The surfing culture burgeoned. Many took low-paying jobs and joined the surfers living in trailers at the beach and many others forsook ambition and joined the hippies free living in cities. By contrast the novels and movies set in Los Angeles reflected the unhappy, scary "film nor" style.

Hippies were young anarchistic radicals whose love of free sex and drug usage made them infamous across the nation. The most famous hippie hangout was the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. The nadir of the hippie subculture was 1967--called the "Summer of Love" by its dazed adherents. California became known as the "land of fruits and nuts," or "the left coast". It was an exaggeration, for at the same time the nerds were revolutionizing society through the computer revolution they launched from "Silicon Valley" (the area south of San Francisco).

==Recent Years==
==Economic power house==
The Golden State attracted financial, commercial and industrial entrepreneurs who made the state a world-famed engine of economic growth. The adoption of a "Master Plan for Higher Education" in 1960 allowed the development of a highly efficient system of public education in the Community Colleges and the [[University of California]] and [[California State University]] systems; by creating an educated workforce, it attracted investment, particularly in areas related to high technology. By 1980, California became recognized as the world's eighth-largest economy. Millions of workers were needed to fuel the expansion. The high population of the time caused tremendous problems with urban sprawl, traffic, pollution, and, to a lesser extent, crime.
[[Image:Freeways.jpg|thumb|left|275px|an actual freeway interchange in Los Angeles]]

As traffic doubled and trebled on the expanding freeway system air pollution ("smog", a mix of smoke and fog) became worse and worse in the Los Angeles area. With city schools being closed routinely for "smog days" when the ozone levels became too unhealthy and the hills surrounding urban areas seldom visible even within a mile, Californians were ready for changes. Over the next three decades, California enacted some of the strictest anti-smog regulations in the United States and has been a leader in encouraging nonpolluting strategies for various industries, including automobiles. Only specially formulated gasoline can be sold. Freeways have carpool lanes that can be used if the car has several passengers, while electric cars can use the lanes with only a single occupant. As a result, smog is significantly reduced from its historic peak.

In the 1970s, hundreds of thousands of refugees from Communism in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia flooded the state. Little Saigons were established in Westminster and Garden Grove in Orange County.

==See also==
* [[California Missions]], run by Spanish Catholic friars.
* [[Central Pacific Railroad]], built transcontinental 1869.
* [[Central Valley]], main farm area made up of the [[Sacramento Valley]] and [[San Joaquin Valley]].
* [[Coachella Valley]], desert resort communities such as [[Palm Springs]] located 100-120 miles east of L.A.
* [[Conquest of California]] by the U.S. in 1846, expelling Mexico
* [[Gold Rush]], 1849-1860s.
* [[Inland Empire, California]] region.
* [[Imperial Valley]], famland on US-Mexican border.
* [[Los Angeles]], the state's largest and USA's 2nd largest city.
* [[Oakland]], notable urban center in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
* [[Ronald Reagan]], governor 1966-74
* [[Sacramento]], state capital.
* [[San Francisco]].
* [[San Diego]], the state's 2nd largest city on the US-Mexican border.
* [[Silicon Valley]], high tech center with [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] as the state's 3rd largest city.
* [[Sierra Nevadas]] mountain range.
* [[Southern Pacific Railroad]], dominant in late 19th century.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Bakken, Gordon Morris. ''California History: A Topical Approach'' (2003), college textbook
* [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex.htm Hubert Howe Bancroft. ''The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft,''] vol 18-24, ''History of California'' to 1890; complete text online; famous, highly detailed narrative written in 1880s
* Cherny, Robert W., Richard Griswold del Castillo, and Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo. ''Competing Visions: A History Of California'' (2005), college textbook
* Cleland, Robert Glass. ''A History of California: The American Period'' (1922) 512pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=4WdgAQbv13EC&dq=%22history+of+california%22 online edition]
* Deverell, William, and David Igler, eds. ''A Companion to California History'' (2008), long essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-California-Blackwell-Companions-American/dp/1405161833/ref=sr_1_23?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249806808&sr=1-23 excerpt and text search]
* Hart, James D. ''A Companion to California'' (2nd ed. 1987), 591 pp; encyclopedia of state history
* Hayes, Derek. ''Historical Atlas of California: With Original Maps,'' (2007), 256pp
* Hittell, Theodore Henry. ''History of California'' (4 vol 1898) old. detailed narrative; [http://books.google.com/books?id=4GFJTXSj8UgC&dq=%22history+of+california%22 online edition]
* Lavender, David. ''California: A History.'' (Some libraries catalog it as ''California: A Bicentennial History.'') States and the Nation series. New York: Norton, 1976. Short and popular
* Rawls, James J. ed. ''New Directions In California History: A Book of Readings'' (1988)
* Rawls, James and Walton Bean. ''California: An Interpretive History'' (8th ed 2003), college textbook; the latest version of Bean's solid 1968 text
* Rice, Richard B., William A. Bullough, and Richard J. Orsi. ''Elusive Eden: A New History of California'' 3rd ed (2001), college textbook
* Rolle, Andrew F. ''California: A History'' 6th ed. (2003), college textbook
* Sucheng, Chan , and Spencer C. Olin, eds. ''Major Problems in California History'' (1996), readings in primary and secondary sources
* Starr, Kevin. (Note that there are numerous editions of this monumental state history, with slight title changes) This is the great state history, with rich narrative and analysis of culture, literaure, social history, economics and politics
** Starr, Kevin ''California: A History'' (2005), a synthesis in 370 pp.
** [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71529502 ''Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915'' (1973)]
** [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=76788150 ''Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (1986)]
** [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59159756 ''Material Dreams: Southern California through the 1920s''(1991)], cultural, social and political history [http://www.amazon.com/Material-Dreams-Southern-California-Americans/dp/019507260X/ref=pd_sim_b_2 excerpt and text search]
** ''Endangered Dreams: The Great Depression in California '' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Endangered-Dreams-Depression-California-Americans/dp/0195118022/ref=pd_sim_b_8 excerpt and text search]
** [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24360325 ''The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s'' (1997)]
** ''Embattled Dreams: California in War and Peace, 1940-1950'' (2003), [http://www.amazon.com/Embattled-Dreams-California-1940-1950-Americans/dp/0195168976/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]
** ''Golden Dreams: California in an Age of Abundance, 1950-1963'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Golden-Dreams-California-Abundance-1950-1963/dp/0195153774/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1250201302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
** ''Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003.'' (2004). 784 pp.

===Environment, transportation, agriculture, water===
* Carle, David. ''Introduction to Water in California.'' (2004). 261 pp.
* Deverell, William and Hise, Greg, eds. ''Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles.'' U. of Pittsburgh Press, 2005. 350 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Land-Sunshine-Environmental-Metropolitan-Pittsburgh/dp/0822959399/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190207073&sr=8-2 excerpt and online search]
* Deverell, William. ''Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910.'' (1994). 278 pp.
* Godfrey, Anthony. ''The Ever-Changing View: A History of the National Forests in California.'' US Forest Service, 2005. 657 pp.
* Griggs, Gary; Patsch, Kiki; and Savoy, Lauret, eds. ''Living with the Changing California Coast.'' (2005). 540 pp.
* Hundley Jr., Norris. ''The Great Thirst: Californians and Water-A History'' (2nd ed 2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Thirst-Californians-Water-History/dp/0520224566/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230451&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Isenberg, Andrew C. ''Mining California: An Ecological History.'' (2005). 242 pp.
* Jelinek, Lawrence. ''Harvest Empire: A History of California Agriculture'' (1982)
* Merchant, Carolyn ed. ''Green Versus Gold: Sources In California's Environmental History'' (1998) readings in primary and secondary sources [http://www.amazon.com/Green-Versus-Gold-Californias-Environmental/dp/1559635800/ref=sr_1_13/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230451&sr=8-13 excerpt and text search]
* Pincetl, Stephanie S. ''Transforming California: A Political History of Land Use and Development'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Transforming-California-Political-History-Development/dp/0801873126/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190411125&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Righter, Robert W. ''The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism.'' (2005). 303 pp.
* Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. ''Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden.'' (2005). 386 pp.
* Street, Richard Steven. ''Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769-1913.'' (2004_. 904 pp.
* Thompson, Gregory Lee. ''The Passenger Train in the Motor Age: California's Rail and Bus Industries, 1910-1941.'' (1993). 247 pp.
===Ethnicity, gender===
* Abelmann, Nancy, and John Lie. ''Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100946216 online edition]
* Camarillo, Albert. ''Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930.'' (1979) 336 pp.
* Camarillo, Albert. ''Chicanos in California: A history of Mexican Americans in California'' (1984) 139pp, for middle schools.
* Camarillo, Albert M., “Cities of Color: The New Racial Frontier in California’s Minority-Majority Cities,” ''Pacific Historical Review,'' 76 (Feb. 2007), 1–28.
* Espiritu, Yen Le. ''Home Bound: Filipino American Lives across Cultures, Communities, and Countries.'' U. of California Press, 2003. 271 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Home-Bound-Filipino-Communities-Countries/dp/0520235274/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230110&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hayes-Bautista, David E. ''La Nueva California: Latinos in the Golden State.'' U. of California Press, 2004. 263 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Nueva-California-Latinos-Golden-State/dp/0520241460/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230154&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kahn, Ava F. and Dollinger, Marc, eds. ''California Jews.'' U. Press of New England, 2003. 196 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/California-Brandeis-American-History-Culture/dp/1584650605/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230184&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Matsumoto, Valerie J. ''Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982'' (1994) [http://www.amazon.com/Farming-Home-Place-Community-California/dp/0801481155/ref=sr_1_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230451&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
* Matthews, Glenna. ''Silicon Valley, Women, and the California Dream: Gender, Class, and Opportunity in the Twentieth Century.'' (2003). 313 pp.
* Pitt, Leonard. ''The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890'' (1966, 1999) [http://books.google.com/books?id=KVBOxT5-G08C&pg=PP1&dq=Pitt,+Leonard.+%27%27The+Decline+of+the+Californios&sig=LFc5OavhXj9wITY4N4ts2_PJ7dE online excerpt and search]
* Pitti, Stephen J. ''The Devil in Silicon Valley: Northern California, Race, and Mexican Americans'' (2003) 320pp; [http://books.google.com/books?id=RPl0Rqh5WFcC&pg=PA225&dq=Matthews,+Glenna.++%27%27Silicon+Valley,+Women,+and+the+California&sig=mKqXeukFZVQ1vU1sEhJhGluay68 online excerpt and search]
* Saxton, Alexander. ''The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California'' (1971) [http://books.google.com/books?lr=&pg=PR9&sig=v2bEcXvNRZHNAgGv6dUkvgy3Nt0&id=H_nWDV0HS2YC&ots=HVMkC5oc0f&output=html online excerpt and search]
* Sides, Josh. ''L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present.'' (2003). 288 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CTtv9tLicKgC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Sides,+Josh.++%27%27L.A.+City+Limits:+&ots=bWQDyvpZTd&sig=PpFos6ncylJEHno2ag_jZACgN-E online excerpts and search]
* Swiontek, Danielle Jean. ''With Ballots and Pocketbooks: Women, Labor, and Reform in Progressive California'' (2006)
===Gold rush===
* Brands, H.W. ''The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Age-Gold-California-American-Dream/dp/0385720882/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230297&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Burns, John F. and Richard J. Orsi, eds; ''Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105960680 online edition]
* Starr, Kevin and Richard J. Orsi eds. ''Rooted in Barbarous Soil: People, Culture, and Community in Gold Rush California'' (2001)

===Politics and economics===
* Boyarsky, Bill, ''Big Daddy: Jesse Unruh and the Art of Power Politics,'' (2007); powerful speaker of the Assembly (1961-1969), defeated for governor in 1970 by [[Ronald Reagan]]; state treasurer from 1975 until his death in 1987.
* Cannon, Lou. ''Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power Public Affairs.'' (2003) detailed biography [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7xGbZWOlfvkC&oi=fnd&pg=PP11&dq=Cannon,+Lou.+%27%27Governor+Reagan&ots=JuHAQcl_IS&sig=XsGw37zD-jwwQRBQ4K1M9Pw8h-A online excerpts]
* Dallek, Matthew. ''The Right Moment: Ronald Reagan's First Victory and the Decisive Turning Point in American Politics.'' (2004). Study of 1966 election as governor. [http://books.google.com/books?id=r-M9H5dEGlcC&pg=PA250&dq=Dallek,+Matthew.+%27%27The+Right+Moment:+Ronald+Reagan%27s+First&sig=nst-XESZFgjhrGbSnB31EY4xIEY online excerpts and search]
* Deverell, William. ''Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910,'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft9489p27w/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]
* Erie, Steven P. ''Globalizing L.A.: Trade, Infrastructure, and Regional Development.'' Stanford U. Press, 2004. 310 pp. [http://www.sup.org/html/book_pages/0804746818/Press%20Release.pdf blurb]
* Giventer, Lawrence. ''Governing California'' (2003), short textbook; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0072488670/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and texts search]
* Lotchin, Roger W. ''Fortress California, 1910-1961'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Fortress-California-1910-1961-WARFARE-WELFARE/dp/0252071034/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190206823&sr=8-1 excerpt and online search]
* McAfee, Ward. ''California's Railroad Era, 1850-1911'' (1973)
* Miller, Sally M., and Daniel A. Cornford eds. ''American Labor in the Era of World War II'' (1995)] essays by scholars, mostly on California [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15166874 online edition]
* Mowry, George E. ''The California Progressives'' (1963), early 20th century
* Olin, Spencer. ''California Politics, 1846-1920'' (1981)
* Orsi, Richard J. ''Sunset Limited: The Southern Pacific Railroad and the Development of the American West, 1850-1930.'' U(2005). 615 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Sunset-Limited-Southern-Development-1850-1930/dp/0520251644/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190206866&sr=8-1 excerpt and online search]
* Putnam, Jackson K. ''Jess: The Political Career of Jesse Marvin Unruh.'' (2005). 462 pp.
* Rarick, Ethan. ''California Rising: The Life and Times of Pat Brown.'' (2005). 501 pp.
* Richardson, James. ''Willie Brown: A Biography'', (1996) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0m3nb07q/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Sabin, Paul. ''Crude Politics: The California Oil Market, 1900-1940.'' (2005). 307 pp.
* Schrag, Peter. ''Paradise Lost: California's Experience, America's Future.'' (3d ed. 2004; original publ. 1998). 370 pp.
* Schrag, Peter. ''California: America's High-Stakes Experiment'' (2006) [http://books.google.com/books?id=EIPF5yWu3a8C&pg=PP1&dq=Erie,+Steven+P.++%27%27Globalizing+L.A.:+Trade,+Infrastructure,+and&sig=AdpVHw_Sn2qa7fOjN4FYi9dKtdM excerpts and online search]
* Tutorow, Norman E. ''The Governor: The Life and Legacy of Leland Stanford, a California Colossus.'' Clark, 2004. 2 vol. 1146 pp.
* Williams, R. Hal. ''The Democratic Party and California Politics, 1880-1896'' (1973)

===Pre 1846===
* Hurtado, Albert L. ''John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier.'' U. of Oklahoma Press, 2006. 412 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/John-Sutter-North-American-Frontier/dp/080613772X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190206969&sr=8-1 excerpt and online search]
* Jackson, Robert H. ''Missions and the Frontiers of Spanish America: A Comparative Study of the Impact of Environmental, Economic, Political, and Socio-Cultural Variations on the Missions in the Rio de la Plata Region and on the Northern Frontier of New Spain.'' Scottsdale, Ariz.: Pentacle, 2005. 592 pp.
* Lightfoot, Kent G. ''Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants: The Legacy of Colonial Encounters on the California Frontiers.'' U. of California Press, 1980. 355 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Indians-Missionaries-Merchants-Encounters-California/dp/0520249984/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190207025&sr=8-1 excerpt and online search]

===Localities===
* Davis, Mike, Kelly Mayhew and Jim Miller. ''Under the Perfect Sun: The San Diego Tourists Never See.'' New York: New Press, 2003.
* Deverell, William and Hise, Greg, eds. ''Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles.'' U. of Pittsburgh Press, 2005. 350 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Land-Sunshine-Environmental-Metropolitan-Pittsburgh/dp/0822959399/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190207073&sr=8-2 excerpt and online search]
* Erie, Steven P. ''Globalizing L.A.: Trade, Infrastructure, and Regional Development.'' Stanford U. Press, 2004. 310 pp. [http://www.sup.org/html/book_pages/0804746818/Press%20Release.pdf blurb]
* Fogelson, Robert M. ''The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930'' (1993) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0b69n6mk/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]
* García, Matt. ''A World of Its Own: Race, Labor, and Citrus in the Making of Greater Los Angeles, 1900-1970'' (2001),
* Halle, David, ed. ''New York and Los Angeles: Politics, Society, and Culture. A Comparative View.'' U. of Chicago Press, 2003. 558 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/New-York-Los-Angeles-Culture/dp/0226313700/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230348&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lécuyer, Christophe. ''Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 1930-1970.'' M.I.T. Press, 2006. 393 pp.
* Pitt, Leonard, and Dale Pitt. ''Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Los-Angeles-Z-Encyclopedia-County/dp/0520205308/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230863&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Pryde, Philip R. ''San Diego: An Introduction to the Region'' (2004)
* Scott, Allen J. ''On Hollywood: The Place, the Industry.'' Princeton U. Press, 2005. 200 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Hollywood-Industry-Allen-J-Scott/dp/0691116830/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230378&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Sitton, Tom and William F, Deverell, eds. ''Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Metropolis-Making-Los-Angeles-1920s/dp/0520226275/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230406&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Valle, Victor M. and Torres, Rodolfo D. ''Latino Metropolis.'' 2000. 249 pp. on Los Angeles
====references====
<references/>
[[Category:California]]
[[Category:Western United States]]

New France

2010-01-24T20:56:51Z

RJJensen: /* History */

'''New France''' was the territory of [[North America]] acquired by [[France]], during the [[Age of Exploration]]. The territory stretched from [[Hudson Bay]] to [[New Orleans]], with the seat of government based in [[Québec]]. The French colony existed from 1655 to 1763, when Britain took over and created the colony of [[Canada]]. The legacy of New France continues to this day, with a significant portion of the Canadian population being descended from about 10,000 of the original settlers.
[[Image:NewFrance1645.jpg|thumb|300px|New France in 1645]]
==Territory==
New France was colonized by France from the exploration of the [[Saint Lawrence River]] by [[Jacques Cartier]] in 1534. At its peak in 1712, the territory of New France extended from Labrador to Lake Superior and from the [[Hudson Bay]] to the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, and included much of what is now eastern [[Canada]]. The territory was then divided in five colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, [[Acadia]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Newfoundland]] and Louisiana. About 16,000 French settlers came, of whom about 10,000 concentrated in farming villages along the St. Lawrence River. The French government formed alliances with some of the Indian tribes, who helped the fur trappers extend their activity throughout the Great Lakes region. With France and Britain often at war, New France was frequently at war with the British colonies to the South.

The area around New Orleans and west of the Mississippi passed to Spain, which ceded it to France in 1803, allowing France to sell it as the [[Louisiana Purchase]] to the United States.

== History ==
The first European explorer to reach New France was [[Jacques Cartier]]<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34229&query=Cartier ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>; he was commissioned by the king of [[France, history|France]] to "discover certain islands and lands where it is said that a great quantity of gold, and other precious things, are to be found." Sailing into the [[St. Lawrence River]] in 1534, he planted a cross in Gaspé, giving France control over what would become Nouvelle France, its North American colony. Travelling up-river, Cartier established a settlement at Stadacona, near present-day [[Quebec City]]. The settlement was not viable and was soon abandoned.

In 1602, King [[Henry IV]] of France gave a monopoly of the Canadian fur trade to a Rouen business group. This charter company, the first of several that were to rule New France for the next 60 years, appointed [[Samuel de Champlain]] chief agent for its overseas adventure.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34237&query=Samuel%20AND%20de%20AND%20Champlain ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Champlain possessed qualities that were needed for the founding of New France. Ardently religious, he was, like the king himself, a Catholic with a Protestant background. Adventurous, a skilled seaman and cartographer, Champlain was also patriotically eager to help expand French power in the new imperial age.

In 1608 Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence to Cape Diamond, where he built the fur-trading fort of Quebec. From there, Champlain began to explore and map systematically the whole upper St. Lawrence region from Georgian Bay in the northwest to Lake Champlain in the south. In order to maintain friendly relations with the local Algonquin and Huron Indians, who controlled the fur-trading routes to the interior, Champlain was also forced to support them in their bloody feud with the Five Nations of the Iroquois confederacy. As a result, the Iroquois aligned with the Dutch and English to the south and became implacable and dangerous enemies of the French.

Trappers and woodsmen such as Etienne Bruléand Jean Nicolet<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34552&query=Jean%20AND%20Nicolet ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> pushed further into the interior. Known as coureurs-de-bois, they extended both the fur trade and French imperial claims as far as the headwaters of the Mississippi. Their success encouraged the charter companies to concentrate on the fur trade rather than build a solid agricultural base in the St. Lawrence Valley and induced many intrepid young colonists to leave the settlements and became coureurs-de-bois. Moreover, with France involved in the [[Thirty Years War]] (1618-1648), little encouragement or support was sent to New France.

What settlement did occur after Champlain's death (1635) was controlled by the [[Jesuits]] (Society of Jesus). Inspired by the missionary spirit of the [[Counter-Reformation]], they sought to convert the Indians to Christianity and to keep New France Catholic. Traveling with the coureurs-de-bois, Jesuit priests established missions as far west as Georgian Bay. Under François Laval,<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=35012&query=laval ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> who was named head of the colonial Church in 1659 and Bishop of New France in 1674, Protestants were not permitted to settle in Canada. This policy strengthened a feeling of common purpose and even a nascent nationalism in New France.

Because of their involvement with the French fur trade, the missionaries were exposed to attacks by the Iroquois, who were allied with rival Dutch traders in the Hudson River valley of New Netherland. The Jesuits were successful in converting the Hurons, who trapped most of the furs. In 1648 the Iroquois, seeking to wipe out the Hurons and divert the flow of furs to the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany, New York), invaded the Huron country and massacred its inhabitants. Father Jean Brébeuf and several other Jesuit priests were tortured and burned at the stake, martyrs to the cause of Christianity and French Canada.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34214&query=Brébeuf ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> The Iroquois then moved on the centre of New France. Montreal, which had been founded in 1642 on an island in the St. Lawrence river, had become the principal control centre for the interior fur trade. It was repeatedly subjected to Iroquois harassment, and its defence to the death by men like Adam Dollard gace it legendary heroes<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34298&query=dollard ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>.
===Royal Province===
In 1663 King [[Louis XIV]] nationalized the private fur-trade monopoly. He made New France a royal province with a superior council to carry out the king's edicts. Three officers dominated the council: the governor, with responsibility for defence; the intendant, to administer justice and promote economic growth; and the bishop, who wielded great power through his control of the church. Despite chronic feuding, conciliar government proved efficient. Under the leadership of dedicated intendants such as Jean Talon, the first to hold the office, New France began to flourish.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34663&query=Talon ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Population grew from 2,000 in 1663 to 6,000 in 1672. In addition, nearly 1,000 members of the veteran French regiment, the Carignan-Salières, were sent in to protect the colony, and many remained permanently. Talon's encouraged large families, domestic industries, and stable farming communities. The French seigneurial landholding system was instituted, whereby a few seigneurs owned all the land and the habitants paid an small annual rent. Few men were rich by colonial standards, and no one by Parisian standards. Thus differences in rank meant little; feudal dues were a modest burden on the habitants. Bishop Laval secured for the Church huge seigneurial land grants as well as heavy endowments for the Jesuit order. Education was in the hands of the clergy. The Church insisted on the right to regulate the colony's morals, but it was unable to prevent the sale of brandy to Indians by the fur traders.
[[File:Newfrance.jpg|thumb|300px]]
====Frontenac====
In 1672 the king appointed an aristocrat Comte de Frontenac as governor of the new colony.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34218&query=Frontenac ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Although he was later celebrated by the American historian [[Francis Parkman]] as the Fighting Governor, Frontenac antagonized many colonists by his corruption and angered the Hurons by not defending them against the Iroquois.<ref> David E. Griffin, "The Man for the Hour": A Defense of Francis Parkman's Frontenac," ''The New England Quarterly,'' Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 1970), pp. 605-620 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0028-4866(197012)43%3A4%3C605%3A%22MFTHA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 in JSTOR]</ref>

===King William's War===
Recalled in 1682, Frontenac left an internally divided and poorly defended colony but when fresh Iroquois began and war with England started again ([[King William's War]]), he was reappointed as governor in 1689. He sent mixed Indian and French raiding parties to raid English settlements in New England and New York. The women and children were kidnapped, the men tortured and killed. The enraged English colonists retaliated in force. In 1690 a fleet from Massachusetts captured Port Royal in Acadia. English attacks on Quebec and Montreal were defeated, however, and the French seized most of the English fur trading posts operated by Hudson's Bay Company posts. Peace was concluded with the English in 1697 and with the Iroquois in 1701. By then it was clear that New France was a minor pawn in the great game of European power politics.

===Queen Anne's War===
In the early 18th century the American colonies experienced a population explosion, accompanied by rapid economic growth. The shortage of land forced young men to the frontiers, west and north, near New France. During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1702-1713) the British again captured Port Royal, which had been returned to France in 1697, and attacked Quebec. France lost the war and the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713 gave the British possession of Hudson Bay and Acadia, which was renamed [[Nova Scotia]].

Having lost most approaches to the St. Lawrence, the French strengthened their defences and threatened Nova Scotia and the [[Newfoundland]] fisheries; the English responded by intensifying their pressure all along the frontier. The English Fort Oswego, on the south shore of Lake Ontario, challenged French territorial claims and threatened their fur trade. French forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, south of the St. Lawrence, blocked a British invasion by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River. In the far northwest Pierre La Vérendrye built a string of fur trading posts in the 1730s that stretched across the prairies as far as the Saskatchewan River, challenging the Hudson's Bay Company's westward thrusts.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=35488&query=Vérendrye ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>

==Captured by Britain==
see [[French and Indian War]]

In the context of the [[Seven Years War]] raging in Europe, the British attached major importance to the capture of North America from the French. The great battle on the Plains of Abraham in 1759 was won by the cleverness of British General James Wolfe (1727-1759),<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1720&interval=20&&PHPSESSID=mo9rhgn2v2uv55grd4a7v5pbf6 ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography'']</ref> who was killed as the British surprised and captured Quebec city; the French commander marquis de Montcalm (1712-59) also was killed<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1720&interval=20&&PHPSESSID=mo9rhgn2v2uv55grd4a7v5pbf6 ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography'']</ref>. The conflict was not over, for at the battle of St Foy in 1760, the French beat the British and again laid siege to Quebec. The siege failed and, aided by the Royal Navy, the British were finally able to force the French army back to Montreal and capture Quebec.<ref> See Stephen Manning, ''Quebec: The Story of Three Sieges'' (2009)</ref> The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ratified British control of New France, now renamed Quebec.

==Colonial society==
New France had a well-established social order, based on a system of seigneurial tenure. It was a diluted form of European feudalism without any rich aristocrats. In Canada, the seigneur owned the land and the habitants (tenant farmers) paid him annual rent. He lacked the political powers of the landowners in France and England, and operated on a much smaller scale than the manorial lords in upstate New York. The habitant family was typically self-sufficient and independent. Nevertheless, the seigneurial system was very effective in establishing cohesive settlement along the St. Lawrence. Catholic religious orders provided the colony with a modest degree of education and medical care, while the Church tried to enforce its strict moral code that prohibited drunkenness, gambling, and sexual improprieties. The government mirrored the absolute monarchy in France. The colony was administered by a governor (a military officer who was responsible for external security), an intendant (entrusted with civil affairs), and a sovereign council (composed of these two officials, the bishop, the attorney-general, and several aides). Individual citizens were allowed to appeal personally or through their patron to members of the government for redress of grievances.

Before 1800 priests and the faithful had created a universe in the wilderness marked by the pervasive presence of the supernatural, which they tried to influence by means both orthodox and magical. God was considered omnipotent, the source of benedictions and punishment; but the people, and to some extent the clergy, attributed much power to magic and the Devil.<ref>Peter Moogk, ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000), ch. 9 </ref>

New France enjoyed growing economic prosperity during the first half of the 18th century. The seigneurs, augmented their rents by financing the fur trade and operated inns, gristmills, trading posts and other small enterprises. An iron forge opened near Trois-Riviers in 1738; it was soon taken over by the government which leased it to local entrepreneurs who remained in business for over a century providing stoves as well as horsehoes iron bars for blacksmiths to use. The colony received revenue both from the fur trade, which was the major economic activity, and a subsidy from Paris. Although [[mercantilism]] (the idea that the colonies existed for the material benefit of the mother country) dominated economic thought in Paris, the Crown used subsidies to promote the economic development of New France. Farming, particularly the cultivation of wheat, was strongly encouraged. Shipbuilding, iron mining, lumbering, and commercial fishing all became important. The population grew steadily but totalled only about 65,000 in 1763, all descended from about 10,000 immigrants. By contrast, the American colonies to the south had more than two million inhabitants. Quebec's final years under French control were ones of repeated wars, with inflation and administrative corruption compounding the hardships of the people. Wartime dislocations hindered agricultural production, causing severe food shortages on some occasions.

==Further reading==
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] the best starting point
* [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''](1966-2006), scholarly biographies of every major person in New France
* Dechêne, Louise. ''Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Montreal'' (2003)
* Eccles, W. J. ''Essays on New France'' (1988) [http://www.amazon.com/Essays-New-France-W-Eccles/dp/0195405803/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206177810&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greer, Allan ''The people of New France'' (1997)
* Havard, Gilles, and Cécile Vidal, "Making New France New Again: French historians rediscover their American past," ''Common-Place'' (July 2007) v 7 #4 [http://www.common-place.org/vol-07/no-04/harvard/ online version]
* Moogk, Peter.; ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000) to 1763 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/la-nouvelle-france-the-making-of-french-canada-a-cultural-history-by-peter-moogk.jsp online edition]
* Parkman, Francis. Author of famous multivolume narrative by America's leading historian, with total command of the sources and a brilliant writing style that engages the reader; liberals strongly dislike Parkman's conservative tone
** ''The Pioneers of France in the New World'' (1865) [http://books.google.com/books?id=Pjd6AAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
** ''The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century'' (1867) [http://books.google.com/books?id=i_pOAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
** ''La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West'' (1869) [http://books.google.com/books?id=N3ktAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
** ''The Old Régime in Canada'' (1874) [http://books.google.com/books?id=CMoNAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
** ''Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV'' (1877) [http://books.google.com/books?id=UwdPAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
** ''A Half Century of Conflict'' (1892) [http://books.google.com/books?id=tHsOAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:francis+inauthor:parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=1 excerpt and text search]
**''Montcalm and Wolfe: The French and Indian War''. (1884), [http://books.google.com/books?id=4BlFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Montcalm+intitle:and+intitle:Wolfe+inauthor:Parkman&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=1&as_miny_is=2009&as_maxm_is=12&as_maxy_is=2009&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPE full text online]
* Trudel, Marcel. ''The Beginnings of New France 1524-1663'' (1973)
====Notes====
<References/>

[[Category:Canadian History]]
[[Category:Colonial America]]

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Colonial New France

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[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Quebec]]

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Colonial New France

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[[Category:States of the United States]]

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Colonial Virginia

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Colonial Virginia

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