Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Natural-born citizen

2009-03-12T12:13:44Z

PhraseCop: phrasing

A '''natural-born [[citizen]]''' is someone who is born in a country and is given citizenship status because of his native birth, as opposed to [[Immigration|immigrants]] who become citizens by applying for citizenship. In the [[United States]], citizenship is automatically conferred on those who are born within its [[jurisdiction]].

Natural-born citizenship is listed in the United States [[Constitution]] a requirement of the [[President]], as found in Article II section I: "No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President...."

There has been some controversy as to whether [[President-elect]] [[Barack Obama]] is a natural-born citzen because he has not revealed his [[birth certificate]].

==See Also==
*[[Barack Hussein Obama]]

[[Category:Political Terms]]

Gun Control in Japan

2009-03-12T12:12:56Z

PhraseCop: because

[[Japan]] has what many consider to be the world's strictest [[gun control]] laws, and the idea is often put forward that the Japanese gun control laws should serve as model for other nations. However, although gun related crimes in Japan are lower per-capita than elsewhere, such reasoning ignores many other factors, which at the end of the day makes for an unpersuasive argument. Many people simply recite the statistics that show that Japan has less guns and less gun crime. However, the claim that fewer guns correlate to less violence is plainly wrong. Japan, even with its severe gun controls, still suffers from a murder rate similar to that of Switzerland, one of the most gun-intensive societies on earth.

One United States Government advisory commission, in a 1973 report, while conceding that cultural factors may have something to do with Japan's lesser crime, argued that gun crime in Japan declined every year since 1964, when the controls were enacted in their current form. <ref>National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, in A National Strategy to Reduce Crime; January 1973; p 141</ref>. But the selection of 1964 was highly artificial. Near absolute gun prohibition had existed for over three centuries, and the current system of controls was put in place during the American occupation, and formally codified in 1958. There was no reason to pick 1964 as the year that gun control went into effect.

Many people cite the Japanese example, without understanding exactly what the law is, how it is implemented and enforced, as well as the culture within the country itself towards both gun ownership and authority. Although crime figures, especially gun-related crimes, are lower in Japan than many other places, it comes at a cost to the civilian population. This cost can be broadly summarised as a combination between increased police monitoring and reduced civil liberties.

In January 2008, then-Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda of Japan's ruling conservative [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|LDP]], in response to an increase in violent crimes committed by minors and organised crime (''bouryokudan'' 暴力団), called for an amendment to the constitution, to allow for even tighter firearms control measures.<ref>"LDP's platform to call for a new Constitution"; http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070524a3.html.</ref>

Extensive police authority is one reason the Japanese gun control system works. Another reason is that Japan has no cultural history of gun ownership by citizens.

This culture (or lack thereof) dates back to the "Sword Hunt" (''taiko no katanagari'') declared on 29 August 1588, by one General Hideyoshi Toyotomi, which prohibited the ownership of swords and firearms by the non-noble classes. He decreed: "The people in the various provinces are strictly forbidden to have in their possession any swords, short swords, bows, spears, firearms or other arms. The possession of unnecessary implements makes difficult the collection of taxes and tends to foment uprisings... Therefore the heads of provinces, official agents and deputies are ordered to collect all the weapons mentioned above and turn them over to the Government." It can be argued that this marked the end of social freedom in Japan. The abolition of firearms probably would not have succeeded if Japan had a free economy or a free political system at the time.

==Gun Control and Crime==

The Firearms Act opens by stating "No-one shall possess a fire-arm or fire-arms or a sword or swords" and there are very few exceptions to this rule.<ref>'Law Controlling Possession, Etc. of Fire-Arms and Swords' (1978), Law No 6, Art 3, EHS Law Bulletin Series, No 3920.</ref> The only firearm a Japanese citizen may own is a rifle or shotgun. Sportsmen are permitted to possess shotguns or rifles for hunting (hunting licenses are valid for 3 years) and for skeet and trap shooting, but only after a lengthy licensing procedure.<ref>'Law Controlling Possession, Etc. of Fire-Arms and Swords' (1978), Law No 6, Art 4-23</ref> Without a license, a person may not even hold a gun in their hands. Civilians may also apply for licenses to possess air rifles, but can never own handguns. In addition, the ownership of small calibre rifles was outlawed in 1971, and although current rifle license holders may continue to own them, their heirs must turn them into the police when the license-holder dies.

This has resulted in a tiny proportion of citizens owning guns privately (approximately 500,000 licenses in a population of 100 million <ref>493,000 shotgun and airgun licenses and 27,000 remaining rifle licenses in 1999</ref>). However, gun-related crimes in Japan are also infrequent.

===Licensing===

The licensing procedure is thorough and strenuous. Any prospective gun owner has to first attend classes and pass a written exam. This is followed by classes held on a shooting range and a shooting test. 95% of applicants usually pass. <ref>The test covers the maintenance and inspection of the gun, loading and unloading cartridges, shooting from various positions, and target practice for stationary and moving objects. "Gun Control Laws in Foreign Countries; 1981; Library of Congress; Washington; Page 130</ref>

Even if they pass the safety exam, applicants then undertake a simple "mental aptitude test" at a local hospital, which ensures that the applicant is not suffering from any readily detectable mental illness. The applicant then provides the police with a medical certificate attesting that they are is mentally sound and not addicted to drugs. The total cost of the procedure is some ￥15000 ($150), with an additional ￥17000 ($170) for a 3-month hunting license.<ref>Article 29 of the Act</ref>

The police then investigate the applicant's background, including his relatives, to ensure that both have no criminal records. In addition, known membership of "aggressive" political or activist groups automatically disqualifies an applicant. The police have the discretion to deny licenses to any person for whom "there is reasonable cause to suspect may be dangerous to other persons' lives or properties or to the public peace." <ref>Articles 5-1 and 6-3 of the Act</ref>

The test and all-day lecture are only held once a month. The lecture almost always requires that the licensee take a full day off from work--not a highly regarded activity by Japanese employers. An annual gun inspection is scheduled at the convenience of the police, and also requires time off from work. Licenses must be renewed every three years, with another all-day safety lecture and examination at police headquarters.

Successful applicants are required to store their weapons in a locker, with any ammunition being kept in a separate locked safe. They are required to provide the police with a map of their apartment, which clearly indicates the location of the locker. The license also allows the holder to purchase a few thousand rounds of ammunition, with each transaction being registered.

===Is Japan Safe?===

There is no mandatory minimum penalty for unlicensed firearm possession. Some 81% of convictions for illegal firearm or sword possession usually result in sentences of a year or more, possibly because the majority of gun-related crimes are committed by gangsters. The maximum penalty is ten years in prison and a one million yen ($10,000) fine.

Gun-related crimes do exist, but in very low numbers. There were only 30 reported crimes committed in 1989, using shotguns or air rifles.<ref>White Paper on Police 1990, Page 80</ref> Most violent crimes perpetrated with a handgun, are committed by members of the ''Bouryokudan'', although must gun-related crimes that come to trial involve unlicensed possession, and not the commission of another crime. Including the possession cases, there are about 600 handgun crimes a year and 900 long gun crimes.<ref>D Bayley; Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States; University of California Press; 1976; p 168</ref>

Tokyo is ranked amongst the safest major cities in the world. Actually Japanese cities account for 9 of the top 15 safest cities in the world <ref>http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/story.aspx?guid={78f1eec7-f1aa-4399-9aaf-f4767058a956}&sit</ref> There are only 59,000 licensed gun owners live in Tokyo and per one million inhabitants, Tokyo has 40 reported muggings a year<ref>White Paper on Police 1990</ref> The official homicide rate in Japan is around 1.2 homicide cases per 100,000 population.

Robbery is almost as rare as murder. Indeed, armed robbery and murder are both so rare that they usually make the national news, regardless of where they occur. Japan's robbery rate is 1.4 per 100,000 inhabitants. People can still walk just about anywhere in Japan at night.

===Comparison of Gun Crime Statistics Worldwide===

*Source: [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/publicat/cdic/cdic191/cd191d_e.html W. Cukier, Firearms Regulation: Canada in the International Context, Chronic Diseases in Canada, April, 1998] (These statistics updated to reflect most recent figures, as at January 2001) <ref>http://www.guncontrol.ca/Content/international.html</ref>. Only the top and bottom five countries, with available information, are shown, out of a total of 25 countries on the list.

{| border="1" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="2px" width="100%"
|-
|-valign=top align="center"
|'''Country'''
|'''Owners licensed?'''
|'''Firearms registered?'''
|'''Other'''
|'''% Households with Firearms'''
|'''Gun Homicides per 100 000'''
|'''Gun Suicide per 100 000'''
|'''Intentional Gun Deaths per 100 000'''
|-valign=top align="center"
|Japan
|Yes
|Yes
|Prohibits handguns with few exceptions
|0.60
|0.03
|0.04
|0.07
|-valign=top align="center"
|Singapore
|Yes
|Yes
|Most handguns and rifles prohibited
|0.01
|0.07
|0.17
|0.24
|-valign=top align="center"
|England and Wales
|Yes
|Yes
|Prohibits handguns
|4.00
|0.07
|0.33
|0.40
|-valign=top align="center"
|Scotland
|Yes
|Yes
|Prohibits handguns
|4.00
|0.19
|0.30
|0.49
|-valign=top align="center"
|Netherlands
|Yes
|Yes
|
|1.90
|0.27
|0.28
|0.55
|-valign=top align="center"
|Northern Ireland
|Yes
|Yes
|Prohibits handguns
|8.40
|3.55
|1.18
|4.73
|-valign=top align="center"
|France
|Yes
|Yes, except sporting rifles
|
|22.60
|0.55
|4.93
|5.48
|-valign=top align="center"
|Switzerland
|Yes
|Yes
|
|27.20
|0.46
|5.74
|6.20
|-valign=top align="center"
|Finland
|Yes
|Yes
|No prohibitions
|50.00
|0.87
|5.78
|6.55
|-valign=top align="center"
|U.S.A.
|In some states
|Handguns, in some states
|Some weapons in some states
|41.00
|6.24
|7.23
|13.47
|}

===Why is Japan "Gun Free"?===

There is one almost over-riding factor that is the result of Japan's low crime rate. More than gun control, more than the lack of criminal procedure safeguards (see below), and more than the
authority of the police, it is the pervasive social controls of Japan. It is these socially-accepted and internalised restraints on individual behaviour that makes Japan stand out from other countries. For example, the former Soviet Union, had severe gun controls, far less criminal justice safeguards, and a more unconstrained police force than Japan, but suffered from a much higher crime rate than Japan. During the 1960s, whilst the English-speaking world suffered from a decline in social controls and a rise in crime, social controls remained and crime fell in Japan.<ref>Anthropologist Joy Hendry attributes the low Japanese crime rate to the effect of group controls such as shame. J Hendry; Understanding Japanese Society; Routledge; 1989</ref>

In addition, the Japanese people fully accept the authority of their police and trust their government. In this cultural context, it is easy to see why gun control has succeeded in Japan - the people accept gun control with the same readiness that they accept other Government controls. Further, they have little incentive to disobey gun controls, since they have hardly any cultural heritage of gun ownership.

The Japanese Government itself promotes a social climate for gun control by essentially disarming itself. The police, although they carry guns when on duty, rarely use them. This too, has a cultural background, as when the National Police Agency was created in the late 19th century, as part of the [[Meiji Restoration]], many of the founder-members were former [[samurai]], who were now unemployed as a result of the abolition of feudalism. Their code believed that guns were for cowards, and that real men fought using the martial arts.

Ironically, the Japanese police only started to carry firearms when ordered to do so in 1946 by [[Douglas MacArthur|General MacArthur]]. Two years later, when the American occupation forces noticed that few police officers had obeyed the order to arm, the Americans supplied the police with guns and ammunition.<ref>D Bayley; Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States; University of California Press; 1976; pp 164 & 180</ref>

The police only carry .38 (Smith & Wesson or Nambu .38s) special revolvers, and must always leave their guns at the station when off duty. Desk-bound police administrators, traffic police, most plainclothes detectives, and even the riot police do not carry guns.<ref>D Bayley; Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States; University of California Press; 1976; pp 162 & 170</ref>

Instead of using guns, the police rely on their martial arts training in judo or the use of their police batons. Indeed, police recruit training spends 60 hours on firearms training, compared to 90 hours on judo, and another 90 on kendo. After police training, very few officers show any interest in any further firearms training; but continued judo and kendo practice is frequent. Annual police martial arts contests are important events and most of the top ranks in [[judo]] and [[kendo]] are filled by police officers.

The official Japanese police culture discourages the use of guns. Shooting at a fleeing suspect is unlawful under any circumstance and police and civilians can both be punished for any act of self-defense in which the harm caused was greater than the harm averted.<ref>''Keiho'' 刑法 (Japanese Penal Code), Art 37.</ref>

However, the police are equally equipped with draconian powers to enforce the gun controls.

==Enforcing the Law==
===Stop, Search and Seize===
In legal terms, illegal gun possession, much like the possession of illegal drugs, is a "consensual offense", as there is no "victim" involved who would lodge a complaint with the police. Japanese police have wide-ranging search-and-seizure powers in order to find illegal weapons. The Firearms Act permits a policeman to stop and search anybody, if the officer feels that there is "sufficient suspicion that a person is carrying a fire-arm, a sword or a knife," or if he feels that somebody "is likely to endanger life or body of other persons judging reasonably from his abnormal behavior or any other surrounding circumstances."<ref>'Law Controlling Possession, Etc. of Fire-Arms and Swords' (1978), Law No 6, Art 24-2, EHS Law Bulletin Series, No 3920.</ref> If a weapon is found, the policeman may confiscate it and even if the confiscation is later found to be in error, the confiscated firearm is sometimes not returned.

Ironically, the law allowing for special weapons searches is almost redundant, as routine searches by the police are commonplace. They can stop anybody they deem to look suspicious and ask them to show the contents of their purse, case or bag. Technically, citizens are not obligated to show the policeman what is in their bag, but given the Japanese culture of deferring to authority, plus the fact that a refusal could result in the citizen being taken in for further questioning, few refuse. Even if a policeman's search does discover a gun or any other illegal substance and the search is subsequently ruled illegal, it makes no difference to the case, as Japanese courts permit the use of illegally seized evidence.<ref>Japan v Hashimoto, 32 Keishu 1672 (Supreme Court, 1st PB, 7 September 1978).</ref>

===House Visits===
One of the most important duties carried out by the police is the so-called "house visit." Twice a year, "residence information cards" are filled in by police officers during door-to-door visits of each household within their precinct. These cards contain information about who lives in the house and which family member to contact in case of emergency, the relationship between the various occupants of the house, their occupations, working hours, and even the make of car they own.<ref>L Craig Parker; The Japanese Police System Today: An American Perspective; Kodasha International; 1984</ref> As part of the home visits, all gun licensees are checked, to ensure that their gun has not been stolen or misused, that it is securely stored as per regulations, and that the licensees are emotionally stable.

However, police surveillance goes beyond house visits and checking up on license owners. Japanese police have a long-standing tradition of keeping tabs on the local populace and monitoring every aspect of life (a fact which came to light with the inclusion of such statistics as the disturbing "Background and Motives for Girls' Sexual Misconduct" in the the nation's official year-end police report.<ref>National Police Agency, Japanese Government, White Paper on Police 1986 (excerpt), translation: Police Association (1986), page 70</ref> Virtually every citizen is the subject of a police dossier of one form or another.

===Is Japan a Police State?===
Virtually all Japanese citizens believe that the police should be respected and not questioned. Due to the esteem in which the police are held, the Japanese people willingly co-operate with them, and this co-operation also extends to obeying the laws which almost everyone believes in. The Japanese people, and even the large majority of Japanese criminals, voluntarily obey the gun control laws.

This is despite the fact that as well as not having the right to bear arms, citizens also have no right to privacy against police searches and many other rights are so restricted that Japan could easily be called a "police state."

If an individual is arrested, whatever the crime, the suspect may be detained - without bail - for a maximum of 28 days, before the prosecutor brings the suspect before a judge.<ref>In terms of the law, detentions are only allowed for 3 days, which are followed by two 10 day extensions which must be approved by a judge. This can be followed by an additional 5 day extension. However, defense lawyers rarely oppose the request by the prosecution for an extension, out of fear of offending the prosecutor. L Craig Parker; The Japanese Police System Today: An American Perspective; Kodasha International; 1984</ref> Bail can be denied if there is reason to believe it could interfere with the police's interrogation of the defendant.

Even if the initial 28 day detention period has expired, detention in a Japanese police station often continues, based on numerous pretexts, such as preventing the defendant from destroying evidence. Another common tactic is to re-arrest the suspect on another charge, called ''bekken taihou'' (別件大法; literally, "separate case, basic law"), which means a fresh 28-day detention period under interrogation. This "rearrest" often occurs whilst the suspect is still being held on the first charge. Some defendants may be held for several months without ever being brought before a judge. The courts approve around 99.5% of prosecutors' requests for extended detentions.<ref>The Joint Committee of the Three Tokyo Bar Associations for the Study of the Daiyö-Kangoku (Substitute Prison) System, Torture and Unlawful or Unjust Treatment of detainees in Daiyö-Kangoku (Substitute Prisons) in Japan (1989)</ref><ref>K Nakayama; "Japan", published in G Cole, S Frankowski, and M Gertz (eds); Major Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey; Sage Press; 1987; page 181</ref>

During a suspect's detention, he may only receive visits from his criminal defense lawyer, and these meetings are strictly limited to 15 minutes at a time and between 1 to 5 visits, depending on the length of the detention. These visits can even be denied if they hamper the police investigation. During the same time, police can interrogate the suspect for up to 12 hours a day and complaints of abuse and torture are rife. <ref>Baba v Japan (Sapporo High Court, 1950) (defense counsel had 20 minutes of access on the third day, and 30 minutes each on the ninth and tenth days of detention; this amount of access was deemed reasonable by the court)</ref><ref>'Japan, Behind the Myth of Japanese Justice', American Lawyer, July/August 1985</ref> [[Amnesty International]] have called the Japanese police custody system a "flagrant violation of [[United Nations]] human rights principles".<ref>"News and Notes"; 1990' 7 CJ International</ref>

The Japanese legal system can best be described as "an omnipotent and unitary state authority." As all the law enforcement administrators in Japan are appointed and funded by the National Police Agency, the police are effectively protected from complaints from politicians or citizens.<ref>J Williams; "Japan: The price of safe streets"; Washington Post; 13 October 1991</ref> The only check on the State's power is its own conscience.

These excessive police powers have a significant impact on the implementation of gun controls. The Japanese gun control laws exist within a society that currently has little need for guns for self-defense purposes. The powers of the Police make owning and hiding an illegal weapon extremely difficult. Add to that a criminal justice system based on a Government which possesses the seemingly inherent authority to do as it pleases, and it results in a society where almost everyone accepts nearly limitless, unchecked Government power, and people do not wish to own guns, even to resist oppression or to protect themselves should the criminal justice system ever break down.

==Gun Control and Suicide==
The situation within Japan also explodes the myth that "fewer guns means fewer suicides." Although the Japanese gun-suicide rate is one-fiftieth of America's, the overall suicide rate is nearly twice as high as America's.<ref>World Health Organization, World Health Statistics; pp 183 & 189; United States Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States</ref>

In particular, teenage suicide is 30% more prevalent in Japan than in America and on average two Japanese under the age of 20 kill themselves every day. Japan also suffers from double or multiple suicides, ''shinjuu'' (心中). These can range from young lovers whose parents disapprove of their relationship, to unrelated groups of people who plan their "suicide-meetings" online. In addition, parents resigned to suicide often take their children with them, at the average rate of one per day, in so-called ''oyako-shinjuu'' (親子心中 "parent multiple suicides"). Some 17% of all Japanese officially defined as homicide victims are actually children killed by suicidal parents.<ref>M Iga and K Tatai, "Characteristics of Suicide and Attitudes toward Suicides in Japan", in N Farberaw (ed); Suicide in Different Cultures; University Park Press; 1975</ref>

This is one of the reasons that the official Japanese homicide rate is so low - if a Japanese mother kills her children and then herself, the police statistics sometimes record it as a family suicide, rather than a murder-suicide. Thus, Japan's tight-knit family structures, and social norms, also conspire to massage the true numbers relating to violent crime.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[category:Japan]][[category:Gun control]]

Seattle Sounders F.C.

2009-03-12T12:12:05Z

PhraseCop: because

[[Image:Sounderscrest.png |thumb|300px|Team logo]]

'''Seattle Sounders F.C.''' is a future [[Major League Soccer]] team set to begin play in 2009. The team's addition to MLS sets a precedent, that being the promotion of [[North American Soccer League|NASL]] teams to MLS.

==Roster==
This roster is as of 12 January 2009. Because the team has not played yet, this roster is highly speculative in nature and is likely to change in the coming months.
===Goalkeepers===
*Chris Eylander
*[[Kasey Keller]]

===Defenders===
*Jeff Parke
*Tyson Wahl
*James Riley
*Nathan Sturgis

===Midfielders===
*Stephen King
*[[Freddie Ljungberg]]
*Sanna Nyassi
*Peter Vagenas

===Strikers===
*Brad Evans
*Nate Jaqua
*Sebastien Le Toux
*Jarrod Smith
*Khano Smith

[[Category:Major League Soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer teams]]

American History Homework Six Answers - Student Eight

2009-03-12T12:11:27Z

PhraseCop: because

VeronikaF

1.Was the main goal of the newly elected [[President]] Lincoln to end slavery, or save the Union?
[[President Lincoln]]’s main goal was to save the Union because he wanted to keep the South and the North together. Abraham Lincoln was not very spiritual, but in his second term God touched his heart and he became more concerned about slavery.

: Excellent! May use as a model answer.

2. Explain the purposes of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution.
The 13th Amendment made slavery illegal and it was ratified very quickly which angered the South greatly. The 14th Amendment intended to give Congress more power to protect the freed slaves so that they could have equal rights, but Congress had trouble ratifying it since it was very complex. The 15th Amendment helped protect a former slave’s right to vote because many white Americans had a different opinion about whether slaves should be able to vote.

: Superb, except note that the opposition to voting by African Americans was primarily in the South. You may be interested in reading a bit more about the 15th Amendment's history: http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h415.html .

3. Who was your favorite military figure from the Civil War, and why?
George McClellan is my favorite military figure because by his attitude you could tell that he did not care how powerful someone was or about someone’s opinion if it interfered with his plans. For example, McClellan did not respond to one of Lincoln’s urgent messages, but decided to sleep. He was brilliant, but on the downside he retreated often which was not good for the Union. George did not like to attack and favored retreating rather than shedding more blood.

: Excellent.

4. How would you have handled Reconstruction differently?
I would have passed a government regulation which would burden businesses so there would not be any business or government scandals. I also would have regulated the number of immigrants coming from China because many American citizens lost their jobs because Chinese immigrants were willing to work harder for less pay. I think the North should have been more merciful towards the South because they had to get over loosing all their slaves; at that time slaves cost a great deal of money, and the slave owners’ natural reaction was to try to hurt their former slaves to make their lives depressing.

: Good analysis. Note spelling: "losing", not "loosing".

5. Abraham Lincoln was homeschooled. Do you see any characteristics in him that might have reflected his homeschooling, such as his independent thinking?
Abraham Lincoln was a self-starter and he decided things by himself because he knew he was the president and with it comes responsibility. He was used to being different and did not worry what other people thought of him. Lincoln did what he thought was right and did not trouble himself over other people’s thoughts on how it show be done. I think Abraham had great characteristics which helped him to succeed in life.

: Terrific.

6. Please interpret the cartoon about the dream to the right. Its title is "Abraham's dream!--'Coming events cast their shadows before.'" Lincoln is fleeing to left while wearing a Scotsman's plaid cap and a cape. He declares, "This don't remind me of any joke!!"
This cartoon was published in 1864 and the artists were Currier and Ives. The cartoon shows Lincoln dreaming of the election in 1864, late in his campaign. Lincoln was greatly worried that he would lose the election against General McClellan. It was known that Abraham took his dreams seriously. Lincoln is covered with a star embroidered sheet and the outfit he is wearing, while he is running from the White House, is very similar to the outfit he wore to his first inauguration while on the train heading for Washington D.C. Abraham was worried that someone might assassinate him on the train. The running Abraham is holding a scroll that has “To whom it may concern” written on it. Columbia, standing at the entrance of the White House is holding up the head of a black man. Located at the right of the cartoon General McClellan is climbing the steps towards the White House holding a suitcase with his initials on it. The press wanted to show how fearful and nervous Abraham Lincoln was.

: Terrific answer again. Right on target.

7. Please interpret the cartoon with Columbia below. The caption is, "The Chinese Question." Columbia says, "Hands off, gentlemen. America means fair play for all men."
This cartoon was published on February 18, 1871 and the artist was Thomas Nast. Columbia, the symbol of America, is protecting the dejected John Chinaman, representing the Chinese immigrants, from public attacks. Harper’s Weekly , the publisher of the cartoon, defends the immigrants from China against the prejudice of the Americans citizens in the late 19th century.

: Well done. As you noted above, however, it was not just "prejudice" that caused people to oppose the Chinese immigration. It was also the impact on American workers, as the Chinese would work for less money.

: Perfect answers! Score: 70/70. One of the best in the class. Congratulations.
[[Category:American History Homework Six Answers]]

Premise Media

2009-03-12T12:10:54Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Premise Media''' is the production company which created "[[Expelled]]", a documentary about the way evolutionists have marginalized supporters of [[intelligent design]] in academia

==Controversy over Expelled==

===Flap over recruiting Dawkins===

*We are interested in asking you a number of questions about the disconnect/controversy that exists in America between evolution, creationism and the intelligent design movement. [http://www.expelledexposed.com/index.php/background/interview-tactics]

===Cell animation flap===

[[PZ Myers]] accused Premise of infringement, on the basis of perceived similarities between their animation of the cell and an earlier work created for Harvard University.<ref>Video available at http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/media.html</ref>

According to the [[Richard Dawkins]] website, "XVIVO claimed that a segment of Expelled portraying the complexity of the cell is patterned upon segments of their well-known animation, produced on behalf of Harvard University." [http://richarddawkins.net/article,2454,n,n]

[[Jonathan Wells]] wrote:
{{quotebox|Expelled does NOT use the Harvard animation. The producers paid a professional to create a new animation that is more accurate than the Harvard one (based on current knowledge of cellular processes). Any similarities between the Expelled animation and the Harvard one are because both animations depict many of the same processes. [http://www.uncommondescent.com/legal/expelled-plagiarizing-harvard/] }}

[[William Dembski]] wrote:
{{quotebox|I’ve gotten to know the producers quite well. As far as I can tell, they made sure to budget for lawsuits. Also, I know for a fact that they have one of the best intellectual property attorneys in the business. I expect that the producers made their video close enough to the Harvard video to get tongues awagging (Headline: “Harvard University Seeks Injunction Against Ben Stein and EXPELLED” — you think that might generate interest in the movie?), but different enough so that they are unexposed. [http://www.uncommondescent.com/legal/expelled-plagiarizing-harvard/] }}

==="Imagine" flop===

In mid-April, 2008, Yoko Ono filed a lawsuit in a Manhattan federal court, claiming that Premise Media and Rocky Mountain Pictures used a video clip of her late husband, John Lennon, singing "Imagine" without her approval. Ono maintains that the documentary's credits could mislead viewers about her having authorized Lennon's clip. <ref>[http://richarddawkins.net/article,2506,n,n] Yoko Ono sues over use of John Lennon videos</ref>

* Ms. Ono's lawyer, Jonas Herbsman, of Shukat, Arrow, Hafer, Weber & Herbsman, said in an interview Wednesday: "It was not licensed." With respect to the filmmakers, he says: "We are exploring all options." [http://richarddawkins.net/article,2477,n,n]

Premise Media issued a statement on April 23, 2008 regarding the use of ''Imagine'' in ''Expelled''.<ref>[http://expelledthemovie.com/blog/2008/04/23/executive-producers-of-expelled-no-intelligence-allowed-statement-on-lawsuit-by-yoko-ono/]Executive Producers of EXPELLED: No Intelligence Allowed Statement on Lawsuit by Yoko Ono</ref> In it, they claim that they used a portion of the song under the principles of Fair Use, "based on the belief that the public is entitled to freely use portions of copyrighted materials for purposes of commentary and criticism." They acknowledge that Ms. Yoko Ono did not license the song for use in the film, but claim that licensing was not required in this context.

On June 2, 2008, U.S. District Judge Sidney Stein (no relation to Ben Stein) ruled in favor of the filmmakers under the "fair use" provision.<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSN0231537020080602</ref>
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Creationism]]

Book of Daniel

2009-03-12T12:09:45Z

PhraseCop: because

The book of '''Daniel''' [Hebrew: '''דניאל'''] Is ranked by the Jews in that division of their Bible called the Ketuvim.<ref name="d"/> It consists of two distinct parts.<ref name="d"/> The first part, consisting of the first six chapters, is chiefly historical; and the second part, consisting of the remaining six chapters, is chiefly prophetical.<ref name="d"/>

The historical part of the book treats of the period of the Captivity.<ref name="d"/> Daniel is "the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates.<ref name="d"/> His narrative may be said in general to intervene between Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter: `And them that had escaped from the sword carried he [i.e., Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia'" (2 Chronicles 36:20).<ref name="d"/>

The prophetical part consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetical communication.<ref name="d">{{Easton|Daniel}}</ref>

==Dispute on Authorship==
Because the book contains prophecies that were fulfilled in the 4th century BC, the genuineness of this book has been much disputed - namely, that the traditional view that the book was written by Daniel the 6th century BC, but the arguments in favor of the book's authenticity fully establish the claims of the traditional view.<ref name="d"/>

(1) We have the testimony of Jesus (Matthew 24:15; 25:31; 26:64) and his apostles (1 Corinthians 6:2; 2 Thessalonians 2:3) for its authority.<ref name="d"/>
(2) The testimony of Ezekiel (14:14, 20; 28:3).<ref name="d"/>
(3)The character and records of the book are also entirely in harmony with the times and circumstances in which the author lived.<ref name="d"/>
(4)The linguistic character of the book is, moreover, just such as might be expected.<ref name="d"/> Certain portions (Dan. 2:4; 7) are written in the Chaldee language; and the portions written in Hebrew are in a style and form having a close affinity with the later books of the Old Testament, especially with that of Ezra.<ref name="d"/> The writer is familiar both with the Hebrew and the Chaldee, passing from the one to the other just as his subject required.<ref name="d"/> This is in strict accordance with the position of the author and of the people for whom his book was written.<ref name="d"/> That Daniel is the writer of this book is also testified to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2; 9:2; 10:1, 2; 12:4, 5).<ref name="d"/>

Additionally, findings in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] dating to the 2nd century BC referred to Daniel as a prophet, which supports the traditional view, as it is unlikely that Daniel would have been accepted as a prophet had the book been written several years previously rather than several centuries previously.<ref>http://www.harvardhouse.com/Daniel_date-written.htm</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Biblical Books| b7]]
[[Category:Old Testament Books| b7]]

Borat

2009-03-12T12:09:04Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of [[Kazakhstan]]''' is a 2007 [[mockumentary]] film released by 20th Century Fox. The film stars British Jewish comic [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] in the title role.

In the film, Borat Sagdiyev is an ignorant, [[anti-Semitic]], [[misogynist]] Kazakhstani journalist who goes to [[United States|America]] to learn about their culture. In America, Borat falls for Pamela Anderson on television, and goes all the way to California in an attempt to marry her. Along the way, he meets up with a lot of people who think that Borat is an actual foreigner with no knowledge of U.S. customs.

This film has a lot of gross sexual references and toilet humor. Many critics believe this film is anti-American because Borat talks to many racists and sexists. Sacha Baron Cohen just says he made this film to show "just how dumb [[racism]] is". Many Jewish people also objected to the film, most notably the [[Anti-Defamation League]], since the main character is anti-Semitic. Ironically, Cohen is an observant [[Judaism|Jew]], and during the film while supposedly speaking [[Kazakh]], is actually speaking [[Hebrew]].

An example of the anti-American nature of the film occurs in a scene at a [[rodeo]]. Borat gets the audience to sing along to the American anthem and then he sings the supposed "Kazakhistani" national anthem, which contains highly offensive verses. The crowd, on the belief that he is well-intentioned, sings along until they realize what he has gotten them to say -- a sing-songy skewering of traditional American values. Another little-noted point is that the name "Borat" is an [[anagram]] of "abort", potentially a concealed jab at conservatives.

Many people that Borat met in the film have filed lawsuits against Cohen and 20th Century Fox. For example, a businessman who ran screaming from Cohen when he attempted to hug him is filing a lawsuit. Also, the fraternity brothers who supposedly made misogynistic remarks while talking to Cohen sued Cohen and Fox, claiming that he tricked them into making the racist and sexist remarks. The case was eventually dropped.

==Links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0443453/ Borat] at IMDB.com

[[Category:Comedy]]

Dazzle painting

2009-03-12T12:08:11Z

PhraseCop: because

[[Image:Leviathandazzle.jpg|300px|thumb|right|SS ''Leviathan'' leaving New York Harbor in 1918, under a dazzle paint camouflage scheme]]
'''Dazzle painting''' was a type of [[camouflage]] created for surface ships as a means of protection from attack during [[World War I]].

==Overview==
During the First World War, Great Britain depended on convoys of ships carrying supplies and war material from North America; normally painted in "haze gray", the ships stood out due to the constantly changing color environment of sea and sky, and were frequent targets of attack by surface raiders, warships, and the new submarine.

Proposals to camouflage ships at sea, i.e. to make them blend into the background, were met with disappointment because it was impossible to make it happen. British naval officer and artist Norman Wilkinson suggested a different approach: each ship would be painted in bold geometric patterns, shapes, and colors; the idea being to break up the pattern of the ship itself, and confuse the range finders on enemy warships as to the vessel's heading, speed, and direction.

What followed was, for all intents and purposes, a "nightmare" of design. The ships themselves became the largest canvas of modern art; SS ''Leviathan'', an American troop transport (and former German luxury liner) became a garish pattern of saw-toothed edges and curves; French cruiser ''Gloire'' became a horizontal assemblage of zebra-striping (some troop liners painted a silhouette of a smaller vessel, such as a [[destroyer]], on the side against a grey background, to make [[submarine]] captains shoot at something else or aim at a smaller target.). So effective was dazzle painting that sinkings dropped, and at one point the captain of a destroyer sent to escort ''Leviathan'' across the Atlantic was so confused by the coloration that he had to circle the ship three times in order to determine the direction she was headed.

===World War II===
The colors that were present in dazzle painting were dropped in favor of a mix of black, white, and gray for most naval vessels and transports. [[Battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] had for a short time three angled black/white stripes on her sides, as well as a false bow wave on her bow and false wake on her stern; these were painted out as she left Norway on her only voyage. With the adoption of radar on warships, camouflage patterns were rendered ineffective except with regard to submarines. By the end of World War II, nearly all warships returned to a single grey color.

==Links==
*[http://smmlonline.com/articles/kriegsmarinecamo/kreigsmarine.html German camouflage 1939-1945]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-co-mk/camouflg/usn-wwii/3--bb3.htm Battleship camouflage patterns BB-55 through BB-61]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-l/id1326-b.htm SS ''Leviathan'' camouflage views]
*[http://www.darkroastedblend.com/2007/11/modernist-art-in-camouflage.html Personal website, but with many examples of ship camoflauge]

[[category:military]]

Cultural heritage

2009-03-12T12:07:32Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Cultural heritage''' is a "dynamic and ongoing process that reflects the people, place and time in which it is being interpreted. Heritage fields include oral tradition, community histories, artefacts, historic sites, monuments, landscape and the natural environment."<ref>''Cultural Heritage Studies'' [http://www.heritagefutures.net/study/index.html Glasgow Caledonian University]. Accessed 28 December 2007.</ref> The term has not always meant the same thing, having at one time referred exclusively to the monumental remains of cultures. However, heritage as a concept has gradually come to include new categories such as the intangible, ethnographic or industrial heritage. This is because closer attention is now being paid to humankind, the dramatic arts, languages and traditional music, as well as to the informational, spiritual and philosophical systems upon which creations are based.<ref>''Cultural Heritage'' "Culture" [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=2185&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html UNESCO]. Accessed 28 December 2007.</ref>

==Types of cultural heritage==
The [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) defines<ref>''The UNESCO list'' "Culture" [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1907&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html UNESCO]. Accessed 28 December 2007.</ref> the different types of cultural heritage as:

*[[Cultural Heritage Sites]]
*[[Historic Cities]]
*[[Cultural Landscapes]]
*[[Natural Sacred Sites]]
*[[The Underwater Cultural Heritage]]
*[[Museum]]s
*[[The Movable Cultural Heritage]]
*[[Handicrafts]]
*The [[Documentary and Digital Heritage]]
*The [[Cinematographic Heritage]]
*[[Oral Traditions]]
*[[Languages]]
*[[Festive Events]]
*[[Rites and Beliefs]]
*[[Music]] and [[Song]]
*The [[Performing Arts]]
*[[Traditional Medicine]]
*[[Literature]]
*[[Culinary Traditions]]
*Traditional [[Sports and Games]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=29008&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html UNESCO.org] Homepage
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/ English Heritage] Homepage
*[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/ The National Trust] Homepage

[[Category:Culture]]

European Diplomacy

2009-03-12T12:06:43Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Western betrayal''' is a popular term in many [[Central Europe]]an nations (including [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]] and the Baltic States) which refers to the [[foreign policy]] of several Western countries during the period from the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919 through [[World War II]] and to the [[Cold War]], as rooted in [[hypocrisy]] and betrayal.

The "betrayal" refers to the fact that the western Allies —in spite of having promoted [[democracy]] and [[self-determination]], signing pacts and forming military alliances during [[World War I]] —nonetheless betrayed their Central European allies by abandoning these pacts (for example giving [[Czechoslovakia]] to [[Nazi Germany]]). After World War II, Western powers did nothing to prevent these states from falling under the influence of communism and the [[Soviet Union]] ([[Eastern bloc]]), the nemesis of the capitalist bloc led by the United States during the [[Cold War]].

The concept is disputed by those historians who argue that [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]] had no option but to accept [[Joseph Stalin]]'s demands in [[Tehran Conference|Tehran]] and later in [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]]. However, there is certainty that there are some misjudgments of the power of the Soviet Union by the Western powers, much like the case with [[Nazi Germany]] a decade before.

==Diplomacy and Central Europe between the wars==
Starting in 1919, it was the policy of France to construct a ''cordon sanitaire'' (quarantine line) in [[Eastern Europe]] that was designed to contain both the Germans and Soviets and their ideologies, which were metaphorically compared to diseases. The crushing of [[Béla Kun]]'s [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] in 1919 by the combined forces of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and France was an early example of an enforcement of the ''cordon sanitaire''. In 1921, France signed a defensive alliance with Poland committing both states to come to each other's aid in the event of one of the powers being attacked by another European power. In 1924, the French signed a similar defensive alliance with Czechoslovakia, in 1926 with [[Romania]] and in 1927 with [[Yugoslavia]].

In 1925, the French signed new treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which tightened the levels of military co-operation between the signatory states. In addition, the French tried to turn the [[Little Entente]] of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia which had been set up as an anti-Hungarian alliance in 1921 into an anti-German alliance. In 1921, Poland and Romania signed a [[Polish-Romanian Alliance|defensive alliance]]. This was as close as Poland came to joining the Little Entente. The French would have preferred to also see Poland a member, but antagonism between Czechoslovakia and Poland doomed the idea.

Beyond the Covenant of the [[League of Nations]], Britain had no defense commitments in Eastern Europe in the 1920s and made clear that they wanted to keep it that way. In 1925, the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Austen Chamberlain had stated in public that the [[Polish Corridor]] was "not worth the bones of a single British grenadier".<ref name="Rothstein"> {{cite book | author =Andrew Rothstein | title =The Soldiers' Strikes of 1919 | year =1980 | editor = | pages =35 | publisher =Macmillan Publishing | location =Basingstoke | id =ISBN 0333276930 | url= http://books.google.com/books?id=wDQaAAAAMAAJ&vid=ISBN0333276930&dq=The+Soldiers'+Strikes&q=&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Harris">[[Arthur Harris]] used the same phrase in 1945 and the historian Frederick Taylor on page 432 in ''Dresden: Tuesday, February 13, 1945'' mentions that it was a deliberate echo of a famous sentence used by [[Bismarck]] "The whole of the Balkans is not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier."</ref>

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or Soviet Russia). In 1932 and again in 1934, Poland signed a 10 year non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Also in 1932, the Soviets signed 10-year non-aggression pacts with [[Finland]], [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]. In January 1934, Germany and Poland signed a 10-year non-aggression pact. In 1935, the Soviets signed treaties of alliance with France and Czechoslovakia. The Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty committed the Soviets to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia if attacked by a neighbor provided France did first.

In November 1933, there were rumors in Paris that a "preventive war" option against Germany was being considered by the French, Belgian and Polish governments. The British historian Lewis Bernstein Namier claimed later that the Poles had proposed a preventive war to the French at this time, but the French declined the offer. However, there is no evidence in the French, Belgian or Polish archives that a "preventive war" was considered in 1933.

==Croatia==
During the final days of the war, large numbers of refugees from Nazi-abandoned [[#Russia|Russia]] and [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatia]] were fleeing from the Red Army and [[Josip Broz|Josip Tito]]'s partisans.

In [[Operation Keelhaul]], British troops gathered these thousands of refugees in Austria including [[Cossacks]], [[Ustase]], Croatian and [[White Russia]]n troops, and civilians. The Croatian citizens were turned over to Slovenia, where in many cases [[Bleiburg massacre|they were summarily shot]]. In the [[Betrayal of the Cossacks]] at Linz, Cossacks including women and children were delivered to the Soviet Union, for a similar fate.

==Czechoslovakia==
''See also: [[History of Czechoslovakia# Before WWII (1938 – 1939)]] and later sections''

The term Western betrayal was coined after the [[Munich Conference]] (1938) when [[Czechoslovakia]] was forced to cede part of its area ([[Sudetenland]]) to [[Germany]]. Czech politicians joined the newspapers in regularly using the term and it, along with the associated feelings, became a stereotype among [[Czechs]]. The Czech terms ''Mnichov'' ([[Munich]]), ''Mnichovská zrada'' (''Munich betrayal'') and ''zrada spojenců'' (''betrayal of the allies'') were coined at the same time and have the same meaning.

During World War II, Czech propagandists from the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (Emanuel Moravec, for example) employed the term to justify collaboration with Nazi Germany.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

During the post-war 1946 parliamentary campaign, the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] argued (with much success) that the historical unreliability of Western allies must be countered by closer relations with the [[Soviet Union]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

After the Communist Party assumed all power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, the betrayal was frequently referenced in propaganda. This interpretation of history was official and the only one allowed.

After the Communist Party lost its power in the 1989 [[Velvet Revolution]], official use of the term stopped and historians began to discuss the events. Occasionally, the media pick up such discussions; the topic is able to attract widely different opinions among the public.

Attempts to add yet another meaning to the term, namely the inability or unwillingness of Western powers to keep Czechoslovakia out of the [[Eastern Bloc]], failed to gain widespread acceptance among Czechs.

==Poland==
=== First World War aftermath ===
After the [[World War I|First World War]], Poland regained independence after [[Partitions of Poland|123 years of partitions]]. While the victorious Western allies proclaimed their support for an independent Poland, they primarily wanted to weaken [[Germany]] and the Soviet Union.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} As a result, their actual support was limited. One instance was the affair of [[Silesia]]. Many French and British politicians desired the industrial region of Silesia to remain part of Germany, so that Germany would have an easier time paying the Great War reparations to France and its allies. Britain provided no aid to Poland during the 1921 [[Silesian Uprisings]]. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], a [[plebiscite]] was to be held to determine which areas of ethnically mixed Silesia were to be ceded to Poland and which were to remain with Germany. In some districts of Upper Silesia, the majority of the people were Polish and opted for Poland; the majority in the rest of Upper Silesia opted for Germany. After the plebiscite, the Germans balked at handing over any part of Upper Silesia, claiming that the Versailles treaty did not call for partitioning Silesia by districts. The German interpretation was that the majority of people in Silesia had chosen Germany and so all of Silesia should remain with Germany. The German view was supported by Britain. In fact, Versailles did clearly state that Upper Silesia was to be partitioned by districts after the plebiscite.<ref name="Butler"> {{cite book | author =various authors | coauthors = | title =Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919–1939 | year =1961 (1974) | editor =[[Rohan Butler]], J.P.T. Bury, M.E. Lambert | pages = | chapter =Upper Silesia, Poland, and the Baltic States, January 1920–March 1921 <333| chapterurl = | series=1st | volume=XI | publisher =[[Her Majesty's Stationary Office]] | location =London | id =ISBN 0-11-591511-7 | url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="Jędruszczak"> {{cite book | author =[[Tadeusz Jędruszczak]] | title =Plebiscyt i trzecie powstanie śląskie | series = Historia Polski | volume = IV | year =1984 | editor = | pages = | publisher =[[Polish Academy of Sciences]] | location =Warsaw | id =ISBN 83-01-003865-9 }}</ref>

However, France and the French military in Silesia generally took a pro-Polish stance during the 1921 Polish uprising. In the years immediately after World War One, it was French policy to weaken Germany as much as possible, and though the French did not champion the border that the Poles wanted in Silesia, the French attitude to the Polish cause in regard to the Silesian dispute was markedly pro-Polish and anti-German. Indeed, it was a ultimatum from [[Paris]] that compelled the Germans to withdraw their forces from Silesia in June 1921.

Ostensibly, the British view that all of Silesia ought to remain with Germany was based on the belief that it would allow Germany to more easily pay reparations to France; by 1921, London had largely abandoned any claims against Germany and was strongly pressuring both France and Belgium to lower their reparations claims against the Germans as much as possible. The British argument about reparations was mostly a bid to influence French public opinion; the real reason for London's pro-German stance was the belief that if Germany were to lose too much territory, this could undermine the fragile [[Weimar Republic]] and lead to extremists taking power in Germany. Thus, British policy towards Silesia in 1921 was largely motivated by the desire to consolidate German democracy. Though the British were prepared to support an interpretation of Versailles that violated both its letter and its spirit, and though the Poles were understandably angry with London’s pro-German view in this matter, it is very hard to refer to British refusal to support the Polish rebels in Silesia as a “betrayal” as Britain had never made any commitments to do so.

During the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1918-1921), there was a debate among western politicians which side they should support: the [[White Russians]] (representing the former [[Imperial Russia]] loyalists), the new [[Bolshevik]] revolutionaries, or newly independent countries trying to expand their territory at the expense of the powers that lost the First World War. Eventually, France and Britain decided to support the White Russians and Poland; however, their support to Poland was limited to the few hundred soldiers of the [[French Military Mission to Poland|French military mission]]. Further, when it seemed likely in early 1920 that Poland would lose the war (which did not happen), Western diplomats encouraged Poland to surrender and settle for large territorial losses (the [[Curzon line]]).

In July 1920, Britain announced it would send huge quantities of World War One surplus military supplies to Poland, but a threatened general strike by the [[Trades Union Congress]] who objected to British support of "White Poland" ensured that none of the weapons that were supposed to go to Poland went any further than British ports. The British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] had never been enthusiastic about supporting the Poles, and had been pressured by his more right-wing Cabinet members such as [[Lord Curzon]] and Winston Churchill into offering the supplies. The threatened general strike was for Lloyd George a convenient excuse for backing out of his commitments. The French were hampered in their efforts to supply Poland by the refusal of [[Danzig]] (modern [[Gdańsk]], Poland) dockworkers to unload supplies for Poland. Likewise, French efforts to supply Poland via land were hindered by the refusal of Czechoslovakia and Germany (both which had border disputes with Poland) to allow arms for Poland to cross their frontiers.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or Soviet Russia). With the rise of [[Nazism]] in Germany, this system of alliances was strengthened by the signing of a series of "mutual assistance" alliances between [[France]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and [[Poland]] ([[Franco-Polish Alliance]] and [[Anglo-Polish Alliance]]). This agreement stated that in the event of war the other allies were to fully mobilize and carry out a "ground intervention within two weeks" in support of the ally being attacked<ref name="Ajnenkiel"> {{cite book | author =[[Andrzej Ajnenkiel]] | title =Polsko-francuski sojusz wojskowy | year =2000 | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Academy of National Defence|Akademia Obrony Narodowej]] | location =Warsaw | id = | url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="Ciałowicz"> {{cite book | author =Jan Ciałowicz | coauthors = | title =Polsko-francuski sojusz wojskowy, 1921–1939 | year =1971 | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN|Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe]] | location =Warsaw | id = }}</ref><ref name="Raczyński">{{cite book | author =Count [[Edward Raczyński (1891–1993)|Edward Raczyński]] | title =The British-Polish Alliance; Its Origin and Meaning | year =1948 | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =The Mellville Press | location =London | id = }}</ref>

===Up to 1939===
====Diplomacy====
In the years following the end of [[World War I]] and the [[Polish-Soviet War]], Poland had signed alliances with many [[Europe]]an powers. The most important were the military alliance with [[France]] signed on February 19, 1921 and the defensive alliance with [[Romania]] of March 3, 1921. The alliance with France was a major factor in Polish inter-war foreign relations, and was seen as the main warrant of peace in [[Central Europe]]; Poland's military doctrine was heavily influenced by this alliance as well.

As [[World War II]] was nearing, both governments started to look for a renewal of the bilateral promises. This was accomplished in May 1939, when General Tadeusz Kasprzycki signed a secret protocol (later ratified by both governments) to the [[Franco-Polish Military Alliance]] with General Maurice Gamelin. It was agreed that France would grant her eastern ally a military credit ''as soon as possible''. In case of war with Germany, France promised to start minor land and air military operations at once, and to start a major offensive ''(with the majority of its forces)'' not later than 15 days after the declaration of war.

On March 30, 1939, the government of the [[United Kingdom]] pledged to defend Poland, in the event of a German attack, and [[Romania]] in case of ''other threats.'' The reason for the British-issued “guarantee” of Romania and [[Poland]] was a panic-stricken ''ad hoc'' reaction to rumors (later proven to be false) of an imminent German descent on Romania in late March 1939. A German seizure of [[Petroleum|oil]]-rich Romania would ensure that in any future Anglo-German war, a British naval [[blockade]] would not starve Germany of oil. From [[London]]’s point of view, it was imperative to keep the oil wells of Romania out of German hands. The British “guarantee” was primarily intended to block a German move against Romania; Poland was added to the “guarantee” almost as an after-thought. Only in April 1939 did it become evident that the next German target was Poland.

The British “guarantee” of Poland was only of Polish independence, and pointly excluded Polish territorial integrity. “The reasons for the guarantee policy are nowhere more clearly stated than in a memorandum by the Foreign Office, composed in the summer of 1939, which submitted that it was essential to prevent Hitler from “expanding easterwards, and obtaining control of the resources of Central and Eastern Europe,” which would enable him “to turn upon the Western countries with overwhelming force. ””.<ref name="Borsody"> {{cite book | author =Stephen Borsody | title =The New Central Europe | year =1994 | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher = Columbia University Press | location =New York | id =ISBN 1-882785-03-7 | url =http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/newce/ }}</ref> The basic goal of British foreign policy between 1919-1939 was to prevent another world war by a mixture of “carrot and stick”. The “stick” in this case was the “guarantee” of March 1939, which was intended to prevent Germany from attacking either Poland or Romania. At the same time, the Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and his Foreign Secretary [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Halifax]] hoped to offer a “carrot” to [[Adolf Hitler]] in the form of another [[Munich Agreement|Munich]] type deal that would see the [[Free City of Danzig]] (modern Gdańsk, Poland) and the Polish Corridor returned to Germany in exchange for a promise by Hitler to leave the rest of Poland alone. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

This declaration was further amended in April, when Poland's minister of foreign affairs Colonel Józef Beck met with Neville Chamberlain and Lord Halifax. In the aftermath of the talks, a mutual assistance treaty was signed. On August 25 the [[Polish-British Common Defence Pact]] was signed as an annex to Polish-French alliance. Like the “guarantee” of March 30, the Anglo-Polish alliance committed Britain only to the defense of Polish independence. It was clearly aimed against German aggression. In case of war, United Kingdom was to start hostilities as soon as possible; initially helping Poland with air raids against the German war industry, and joining the struggle on land as soon as the [[British Expeditionary Corps]] arrived in France. In addition, a military credit was granted and armament was to reach Polish or Romanian ports in ''early autumn.''

However, both British and French governments had other plans than fulfilling the treaties with Poland. On May 4, 1939, a meeting was held in Paris, at which it was decided that ''the fate of Poland depends on the final outcome of the war, which will depend on our ability to defeat Germany rather than to aid Poland at the beginning.'' Poland's government was not notified of this decision, and the Polish–British talks in London were continued. A full military alliance treaty was ready to be signed on August 22, but [[Her Majesty's Government|His Majesty's Government]] postponed the signing until August 25, 1939.

At the same time secret German-Soviet talks were held in [[Moscow]] which resulted in signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] on August 22. The full text of the treaty, including the secret protocol assuming a partition of Poland and Soviet military help to Germany in case of war, was known to the British government thanks to Hans von Herwarth, an American informer in the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Yet, Poland's government was not informed of this fact either.<ref name="Bohlen">{{cite book | author =[[Charles E. Bohlen]] | title =Witness to history, 1929-1969 | year =1973 | editor = | pages =562 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =Norton | location = | id =ISBN 978-0393074765 }}</ref>

====The Phony War====
{{main|Phony War|Invasion of Poland (1939)}}

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany after ultimatums to withdraw expired on September 3. However, some other items of the March 30 guarantee pledge were violated; most notably the failure to respond with an overland invasion from the West. The pledge would not have obliged France and Great Britain to declare war on the Soviet Union due to the actual wording of the pact that specifically named Germany as the potential aggressor. This was kept secret for diplomatic reasons. Great Britain and France enforced a naval [[blockade]] on Germany and seized German ships starting with the declaration of war.

According to the [[Franco-Polish military convention]], the French Army was to start preparations for the major offensive three days after the mobilization started. The French forces were to effectively gain control over the area between the French border and the [[Siegfried Line|German lines]] and to probe the German defenses. On the 15th day of the mobilization (that is on September 16), the French Army was to start a full scale assault on Germany. The pre-emptive mobilization was started in France on August 26, and on September 1, the full mobilization was declared. A French offensive in the [[Rhine river]] valley area ([[Saar Offensive]]) started on September 7. Eleven French divisions (out of 102 being mobilized) advanced along a 32 km line near [[Saarbrücken]] with negligible German opposition. However, the half-hearted offensive was halted after France seized the Warndt Forest, three square miles of heavily-[[land mine|mined]] German territory. At the same time Great Britain, who promised to start air-raids on German industry as soon as possible, conducted a number of air raids against the German [[Kriegsmarine]] on September 4 1939, losing 2 [[Vickers Wellington|Wellington]] and 5 [[Bristol Blenheim|Blenheim]] bombers in the action.<ref>[http://www.worldwar-2.net/timelines/war-in-europe/european-air-war/european-air-war-index-1939.htm] WWII timeline for 1939</ref><ref>[http://www.wlb-stuttgart.de/seekrieg/39-08.htm] German ''Chronik des Seekriegs''</ref> During those first days of the war [[RAF]] Whitley night bombers also dropped propaganda leaflets on German cities, taking great care to ensure that the leaflets were not dropped tied together so that they would cause no casualties on the ground. On September 11, the leaflet raids were halted.

Both the pre-war reports of the Polish intelligence and the post-war testimonies of German generals (most notably of [[Wilhelm Keitel]] and [[Alfred Jodl]]) reported that there was an equivalent of less than 20 divisions facing France in 1939, as compared to roughly 90 French divisions. Eleven of them were under-manned infantry divisions, mostly stripped of all heavy equipment, while the rest was composed mainly of second-line troops, march battalions and border guards. Similarly, most of the [[Luftwaffe]] and all armoured units were then in Poland while the [[Siegfried Line]] was severely under-manned and far from completed. Knowing all of the above, the Allied commanders expected that the French offensive would quickly break the German lines and force the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|OKW]] to withdraw a large part of its forces fighting on Polish soil back to German western frontier. This would force Germany to fight a costly two-front war.

The French assault was to be carried out by roughly 40 divisions, including one armoured division, three mechanized divisions, 78 artillery regiments and 40 tank battalions. All the necessary forces were mobilized in the first week of September. On [[September 12]], the [[Anglo-French Supreme War Council]] gathered for the first time at [[Abbeville]] in France. It was decided that all offensive actions were to be halted immediately. By then, the French divisions have advanced approximately eight kilometers into Germany on a 24 kilometers long strip of the frontier in the [[Saarland]] area. Maurice Gamelin ordered his troops to stop ''not closer than 1 kilometre'' from the German positions along the Siegfried Line. Poland was not notified of this decision. Instead, Gamelin informed marshal [[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] that half of his divisions are in contact with the enemy, and that French advances have forced the [[Wehrmacht]] to withdraw at least six divisions from Poland. The following day, the commander of the [[French Military Mission to Poland]], General [[Louis Faury]], informed the Polish Chief of Staff, General [[Wacław Stachiewicz]], that the planned major offensive on the western front had to be postponed from September 17 to September 20. At the same time, French divisions were ordered to retreat to their barracks along the [[Maginot Line]]. The [[Phony War|Phony war]] started.

The Allied attitude towards Poland in 1939 has been a subject of an ongoing dispute among [[historians]] ever since. Some historians argue that if only France had pursued the offensive agreed on in the treaties, it would have definitely been able to break through the unfinished Siegfried Line and force Germany to fight a costly two-front war that it was in no position to win. At the same time, others argue that France and Britain had promised more than they would deliver — especially when confronted with the option to declare war on the [[Soviet Union]] for violating Poland's territory on September 17, 1939 the way they had on Germany on September 3, 1939 — and that the French army was superior to the [[Wehrmacht]] in numbers only. It lacked the offensive doctrines, mobilization schemes, and offensive spirit necessary to attack Germany. Also, while the bulk of Luftwaffe was engaged in Poland, neither the French airforce nor the British [[Royal Air Force]] engaged in any operations against Germany beyond the leaflet droppings.

It is unlikely, given Soviet strategic doctrine of opportunistic war that they would have carried on with invasion of Poland fulfilling their promises given to Germans. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Though the Germans asked the Russians to invade Poland on [[September 3]] no such action took place till September 17, 1939. This is partly due to [[Soviet Union]] waiting for a proof of Poland's collapse as well as lack of military involvement on the part of the Allies {{Fact|date=March 2007}}.

The problem with Polish expectations was that the French and British commitments greatly exaggerated their capabilities. Although France promptly declared war, the French mobilization was not complete until early October, by which time Poland had fallen. In Britain where mobilization was more rapid, only 1 in 40 men were mobilized (compared to 1 in 10 in France, and 1 in 20 in Poland), thus providing only a token force against Germany's forces of several million. After the war, General Alfred Jodl commented that the Germans survived 1939 "only because approximately 110 French and English divisions in the West, which during the campaign on Poland were facing 25 German divisions, remained completely inactive."

In the end, many Poles believe that although Poland held out for five weeks, three weeks longer than was planned, it received no military aid from its allies, the United Kingdom and France. Additionally Poland never surrendered to either the Germans or Russians. The agreed upon "two week ground response" never materialized, and Poland fell to the Nazis and the Soviets as a result. Nevertheless, many Poles believe that an offensive within a two week timeframe was what they had promised the Polish government.

====Aftermath====

After the hostilities ended, German propaganda tried to win Poles and ensure collaboration by underlining that Poland was abandoned by her allies, and that the only world order that could ensure peaceful and prosperous life for the Poles was the German Reich.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} These claims were even strengthened by the [[France|French]] cease-fire signed in 1940 which was a clear violation of the alliance (both parties agreed not to sign any unilateral agreements with Germany).

Similar slogans were expressed by the Soviet Union propaganda until 1989. The official propaganda in all [[Eastern Bloc]] countries stated that Poland was betrayed and the only ally Poland could rely on was [[the Kremlin]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===1940s===
====Atlantic Charter====
:''See also '''[[Atlantic Charter]]'''''
Soon after the [[Third Reich]] had invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]], the Polish [[government in exile]] signed a pact with [[Joseph Stalin]]. Although the Poles wanted a declaration that all pacts the USSR had signed with the Nazis were null and void, Stalin refused to consider any suggestion that he surrender the territory he seized consequent to the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. It was for Poland that Britain entered the war in the first place and Britain was sympathetic to Polish interests. Britain nonetheless pressured the Poles to withdraw this demand, since, in Churchill's words, "We could not force our new and sorely threatened [Soviet] ally to abandon, even on paper, regions on her frontier which she regarded for generations as vital to her security." The London Poles conceded but only after Britain agreed to state in writing that all agreements that adjusted Poland's pre-war borders were null and void. The Soviet-Polish agreement was signed on July 30, 1941, and [[Anthony Eden]] formally notified the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] of the arrangements that same day. In response to a parliamentary question about Britain's commitment, however, Eden stated that "The exchange of notes which I have just read to the House does not involve any guarantee of frontiers by His Majesty's Government."

The Poles were more successful in obtaining Soviet agreement to the creation of the [[Polish Army in the East]], and obtaining the release of Polish citizens from the [[GULag|Soviet labor camps]]. Despite the difficulties the Soviet government made, many were freed from confinement and permitted to join the Polish Army formed formally on August 12, 1941. However, after the troops were withdrawn to the [[Middle East]] in March 1942, Stalin revoked the amnesty and in June and July arrested all Polish diplomats in the USSR.

Meanwhile, on September 24, 1941, Poland and the Soviet Union signed the [[Atlantic Charter]]. It underlined that no territorial changes should be made that would ''not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.'' It was viewed by the Polish government as a warrant of Poland's borders, although it became apparent that some concessions would have to be made.

In December 1941, a Conference was held in [[Moscow]] between the USSR and Great Britain. Stalin proposed to base post-war Polish western borders on the [[Oder-Neisse Line]] and demanded that the United Kingdom accept the pre-war western borders of the Soviet Union. [[Anthony Eden]] accepted the demand as he assumed that the border in question was the 1939 line.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, Stalin apparently meant the 1941 border with Germany. It was soon discovered, but the British government decided not to change the document. On March 11, 1942, [[Winston Churchill]] notified Prime Minister [[Władysław Sikorski]] that the borders of the [[Baltic States]] and [[Romania]] were guaranteed, and that no decision was made regarding the borders of Poland.

====Katyn and the Soviet pressure====
From the very beginning of Polish-Soviet talks in 1941, the government of Poland was searching for approximately 20,000 Polish officers missing in Russia. Stalin always replied that they either ''must have fled to Mongolia'' or ''are somewhere in Russia, which is a big country and it's easy to get lost here''{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In April 1943 German news agencies reported finding mass graves of Polish soldiers in [[Katyn]]. The Polish government requested the Soviet Union examine the case and at the same time asked the [[Red Cross|International Red Cross]] for help in verifying the German reports.

On April 24, 1943, Sikorski met with Eden and demanded Allied help in releasing Polish prisoners in the [[gulag]]s and Soviet prisons. Sikorski also declined the Soviet demand that Poland withdraw their plea to have the Red Cross investigate Katyn. [[Anthony Eden]] refused to help and the Soviet Union broke diplomatic relations with Poland on the following day, arguing that the Polish government was collaborating with [[Nazi Germany]]. Despite Polish pleas for help, the [[United States]] and the United Kingdom decided not to put pressure on the USSR.

After the Soviets stopped the German advance on the Eastern Front, Poland lost its significance as the main Eastern ally. This was made obvious by the German [[Battle of Stalingrad|defeat at Stalingrad]].

====Tehran====

:''See also: '''[[Teheran conference]]'''''
In November 1943, the [[Big Three]] (USSR, USA, and UK) met at the [[Tehran Conference]]. Both Roosevelt and Churchill officially agreed that the eastern borders of Poland would roughly follow the Curzon Line. Roosevelt did not wish to upset Polish voters in the United States over the betrayal of Polish interests during the upcoming [[Presidential elections of 1944]]. Roosevelt told Stalin, “Next year in the United States elections are in prospect. …In America there are millions of citizens of Polish origin, and therefore, being a practical person, I would not want to lose their concerns. I am agreeable with Marshal Stalin to the fact that we must restore the Polish state, and personally I do not have objections to the borders of Poland being moved from the east to the West - up to Oder, but for political reasons I cannot participate at present in the resolution of this question. I consider Marshal Stalin's ideas, I hope that he will understand, why I cannot publicly participate in resolution of this question” <ref>[http://nobsopus.blogspot.com/2007/08/63-memorandum-of-conversation-i-v.html № 63 Memorandum of conversation Josef Stalin with Franklin Roosevelt], [[Teheran conference]], 1 December, 1943 [http://vlastitel.com.ru/stalin/vov/tegeran.html Russian text].</ref>

The Polish government was not notified of this decision and the only information given was the press release claiming that ''We await the day, when all nations of the world will live peacefully, free of tyranny, according to their national needs and conscience''. The resulting loss of the "eastern territories," approximately 48% of Poland's pre-war territory, to the Soviet Union is seen by Poles as another "betrayal" by their Western "Allies".

According to many historians, Churchill and Roosevelt promised Stalin to settle the issue with the Poles, however they never sincerely informed the Polish side. When the Polish Prime Minister visited Moscow, he was convinced he was coming to discuss borders that were still disputed, while Stalin contended everything had already been settled. This was the principal reason for the failure of Polish Prime Minister's mission to Moscow.

====Warsaw Uprising====
: ''See: [[Lack of outside support in the Warsaw Uprising]] for more info on the Allied policy towards Poland during the Uprising.''

Since the establishment of the [[Polish government in exile]] in Paris and then in London, the military commanders of the Polish army were focusing most of their efforts on preparation of a future all-national uprising against Germany. Finally, the plans for [[Operation Tempest]] were prepared and on August 1, 1944 the [[Warsaw Uprising]] started. The Uprising was an armed struggle by the Polish [[Armia Krajowa|Home Army]] to liberate [[Warsaw]] from German occupation and Nazi rule.

Despite the fact that Polish and later [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) planes flew missions over Warsaw dropping supplies from 4 August on, the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) planes did not join the operation. The Allies specifically requested the use of Red Army airfields near Warsaw on 20 August but were refused by Stalin on 22 August (he referred to the insurgents as 'a handful of criminals'). After Stalin's objections to support for the uprising, Churchill telegrammed Roosevelt on 25 August and proposed sending planes in defiance of Stalin and to 'see what happens'. Roosevelt replied on 26 August that ''I do not consider it advantageous to the long-range general war prospect for me to join you in the proposed message to Uncle Joe''. ([http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/presents/shows/warsaw.rising/interactive/timeline.warsaw/frameset.exclude.html]). The commander of the British air drop, Air Marshal Sir [[John Slessor]], later stated, "How, after the fall of Warsaw, any responsible statesman could trust the Russian Communist further than he could kick him, passes the comprehension of ordinary men."

Various scholars (including [[Norman Davies]] in his recently published ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw'') state the case that during the Warsaw Uprising both the governments of United Kingdom and the United States did little to help the Poland insurgents in their struggle. Also, it is often argued that the Allies put little pressure on Stalin to help the Polish struggle.

====Yalta====
: ''See also: [[Yalta conference]]''.

In 1945, Poland's borders were redrawn following the decision made at the [[Tehran Conference]] of 1943 at the insistence of the Soviet Union. The Polish government was not invited to the talks and was to be notified of their outcome. Polish representatives did present arguments concerning borders at the Potsdam conference, however, and Polish demands for German territory were agreed to. The eastern territories which the Soviet Union had occupied in 1939 (with the exception of the [[Białystok]] area) were permanently annexed, and most of their Polish inhabitants expelled: today these territories are part of [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Lithuania]]. The factual basis of this decision was the result of a forged referendum from November 1939 in which the "huge majority" of voters accepted the incorporation of these lands into Western Belarus and Western Ukraine. In compensation, Poland was given former German territory (the so-called [[Regained Territories]]): the southern half of [[East Prussia]] and all of [[Pomerania]] and [[Silesia]], up to the [[Oder-Neisse Line]]. The German population of these territories [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|were deported]] and these territories were subsequently repopulated with [[Expulsion of Poles after World War II|Poles deported from the eastern regions]]. This combined with other similar migrations in Central and Eastern Europe to form [[Human migration#Post-World War II Migrations|one of the largest human migrations in modern times]]. Stalin ordered Polish resistance fighters to be either incarcerated or deported to [[gulag]]s in Siberia. Many Poles believe that Western leaders tried to force Polish leaders to accept the conditions of Stalin. Some view it as a 'betrayal' of Poland by its Western allies (which can be seen as part of a larger 'betrayal' to 'allow' it to fall entirely into the Soviet sphere of influence).<ref>‘’The Yalta Betrayal’’, Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/pearl/www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/yaltabet.html pgs. 12 - 13]. “Fact is that Roosevelt, eager to succeed where Woodrow Wilson had failed, dreamed of creating a better and more peaceful world through legal instruments, and in pursuit of his illusions obtruded himself upon Joe Stalin with every imaginable gift, including eleven billion dollars' worth of [[lend-lease]], the security of eighty million eastern Europeans and hundreds of millions of Chinese, and the lives of several millions of the best friends free society possessed.”</ref> Moreover, it was used by ruling communists to underline anti-Western sentiments.<ref name="Sharp"> {{cite book | author =[[Samuel Leonard Sharp]] | title =Poland, white eagle on a red field | year =1953 | editor = | pages =163 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Harvard University Press]] | location =Harvard | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xtceAAAAMAAJ&vid=OCLC01457011&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=betrayal&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Davies"> {{cite book | author =[[Norman Davies]] | title =[[God's Playground]] | volume = 2 | year =2005 [1982] | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Columbia University Press]] | location = | id =ISBN 0-231-12819-3| url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref> It was easy to argue that Poland was not very important to the West, since Allied leaders sacrificed Polish borders, the legal government, and free elections.<ref name="Jones"> {{cite book | author =[[Howard Jones]] | coauthors = | title =Crucible of Power: a history of U.S. foreign relations since 1897 | year =2001 | editor = | pages =205-207 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =Rowman & Littlefield | location = | id =ISBN 0842029184 | url =http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0842029184&id=n6Al88smOAUC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&ots=ifNDYJ7z_Y&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&sig=6fllW8jCLI-QEifsfDX0XFTZ2Vk#PPA207,M1 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="PAC"> {{cite journal | author =various authors | year =1948 | month = | title =A compilation of selected resolutions, declarations, memorials, memorandums,... | journal =Selected Documents | volume = | issue =1244-1248 | pages =112 | publisher = [[Polish American Congress]] | location = Chicago, IL | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=x5brwE5vmlwC&vid=OCLC05523398&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=AS+A+PARTY+TO+THE+YALTA+AGREEMENT+THAT+CRUSHED&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Sharp_2">Sharp, op.cit., p.12</ref>

With this background, even Stalin looked more reliable since he did have strong interests in Poland. The Federal Republic of Germany, formed in 1949, was portrayed by Communist propaganda as the breeder of Hitler's posthumous offspring who desired retaliation and wanted to take back from Poland the "[[Recovered Territories]]".<ref>"Poland under Stalinism", _Poznan in June 1956: A Rebellious City_, The Wielkopolska Museum of the Fight for Independence in Poznan, 2006, p. 5</ref> Giving this picture a grain of creditability was contained in the fact that Federal Republic of Germany until 1970 refused to recognize the Oder-Neisse Line and that many West German officials were alleged to have a tainted Nazi past. Thus, for a segment of Polish public opinion, Communist rule was seen as the lesser of the two evils.
[[Image:Sovietambitions.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The darkened areas represent territorries of Soviet ambitions and designs, 1921 - 1949.]]
Defenders of the actions taken by the Western allies maintain that [[Realpolitik]] made it impossible to do anything else, and that they were in no shape to start an utterly un-winnable war with the Soviet Union over the subjugation of Poland and other [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[East Europe|Eastern European]] countries immediately after the end of World War II. Some argue that the actions of the Secretary of State were a result of ignorance rather than Realpolitik.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} is not aware of the fact." Molotov paused for a reply. No denial was forthcoming.85 The truth was out at last. Later Churchill told Mikolajczyk he "was not going to wreck the peace of Europe because of a quarrel between Poles."<ref>Jan Ciechanowski, ''Defeat in Victory'', Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1947, pgs. 330-331, quoted in John T. Flynn, ''The Roosevelt Myth'', Fox and Wilkes, 1948, Book 3, Chapter 9, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Nine___The_Great_Confere.htm ''The Great Conferences''].</ref> It is contended that the presence of a double standard with respect to Nazi and Soviet aggression existed in 1939 and 1940, when the Soviets invaded eastern Poland and the Baltic States, respectively, and the Western Allies failed to declare war. The U.S. State Department never issued a single diplomatic protest against the Soviet Union despite her absorption of [[Sinkiang]] and [[Outer Mongolia]], while at the same time, Japan was censured for stationing troops in [[Manchukuo|Manchuria]].<ref>Communism at Pearl Harbor, How the Communists Helped to Bring on Pearl Harbor and Open up Asia to Communinization, Dr. Anthony Kubek, Dallas Texas, Teaching Publishing Company, 1959, [http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/comatph.html pg. 22]. Dr. Anthony Kubek was the Editor of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]], Report on the ''Morgenthau Diaries''. In 1965, the SISS issued a two volume committee print entitled Morgenthau Diary (China), Edited by Dr. Anthony Kubek, containing entries from the records at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library selected to illustrate the implementation of Roosevelt administration policy in China. According to Dr. Kubek, the subcommittee wanted to produce a documentary history on the subject and "also indicate the serious problem of unauthorized, uncontrolled and often dangerous power exercised by non-elected officials," specifically [[Harry Dexter White]]. White was a major figure in Senator William Jenner's investigation of interlocking subversion in Government departments in 1953. [http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-13-judiciary-1947-1968.html#103] </ref>

What the Western allies sacrificed is also disputed. Some argue that Poland's borders had been re-drawn many times in history, the country had not had free elections since 1926 and throughout the 1930s it had endured increasing political repression under an [[authoritarian]] [[Sanacja]] government. On the other hand, the Polish government in exile was composed entirely of the pre-war democratic opposition and all political parties of the [[Polish Secret State]] underlined the need to follow the democratic traditions of March 1921 constitution, rather than [[autocratic]] [[Polish constitution of 1935|April constitution of Poland]] of 1935.

In May 2005 US President [[George W. Bush]] admitted that the Soviet domination of central and eastern Europe after World War II was "one of the greatest wrongs of history" and acknowledged that the United States played a significant role in the division of the continent and that the Yalta conference "followed in the unjust tradition of Munich and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. (...) Once again, when powerful governments negotiated, the freedom of small nations was somehow expendable." In fact, chief American negotiator at Yalta, [[Alger Hiss]], was later found to be secretly working for the Soviets.<ref>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html Venona 1822 Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945].</ref>

====Aftermath====
[[Władysław Sikorski]], Prime Minister of Polish Government in Exile, was killed in an air crash over [[Gibraltar]] in July 1943. As he was the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles, his death was a severe setback to the Polish cause, and was certainly highly convenient for Stalin. It was in some ways also convenient for the western Allies, who were finding the Polish issue a stumbling-block in their efforts to preserve good relations with Stalin.

This has given rise to persistent suggestions that Sikorski's death was not accidental. Many historians speculate that his death might have been effect of Soviet, British or even a Polish conspiracy. This has never been proven, and the fact that the principal exponents of this theory in the west have been the [[revisionism|revisionist]] historians David Irving and Rolf Hochhuth has not encouraged many western historians to take it seriously.

On the other hand by 2000 only a small part of the British Intelligence documents related to Sikorski's death had been unclassified and made available to Polish historians. The majority of the files will be classified for another "50 to 100 years." This is a common procedure in the release of most types of official secret documents in the UK.

In November 1944, despite his mistrust of the Soviets, Sikorski's successor, Prime Minister [[Stanisław Mikołajczyk]] resigned to return to Poland and take office in the [[People's Republic of Poland|new government]] established under the auspices of the Soviet occupation authorities. Many of the Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a facade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland, a view that was later proved correct; after losing an election which was later shown to have been fraudulent, Mikołajczyk left Poland again in 1947.

Meanwhile the government in exile had maintained its existence, but the United States and the United Kingdom withdrew their recognition on July 6, 1945. The Polish armed forces in exile were disbanded in 1945 and most of the exiles, unable to return to Communist Poland, settled in other countries. The London Poles had to leave the embassy on Portland Place and were left only with the president's private residence at 43 Eaton Place. The government in exile then became largely symbolic, serving mainly to symbolize the continued resistance to foreign occupation of Poland, and retaining control of some important archives from pre-war Poland. [[Ireland]] and [[Spain]] were the last countries to recognize the government in exile.

No representatives of Polish military, veterans of [[Battle of Britain]] and [[Monte Cassino]], were invited to the [[London Victory Parade]] of 1946 - Poles were supposed to attend the Moscow Victory Parade instead. This was because the Victory Parade was solely for the nations of the British Empire and Commonwealth and no other foreign troops were invited.

At the war's end many of these feelings of resentment were capitalized on by the occupying Soviets, who used them to reinforce anti-Western sentiments within Poland. Propaganda was produced by Communists to show Russia as the Great Liberator, and the West as the Great Traitor.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Capitalism was shown as being inherently bad, because capitalists only cared for "their own skin," while communism was portrayed as the great "uniter and protector."

==Russia==
In the final days of the war, masses of refugees from Nazi-abandoned Russia and [[#Croatia|Croatia]] were fleeing from the Red Army and [[Josip Broz|Tito]]'s partisans.
In [[Operation Keelhaul]], British troops gathered these thousands of refugees in Austria including [[Cossacks]], [[Ustase]], [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatian]] and [[White Russia]]n troops, and civilians.
The Soviet and Russian citizens were turned to [[East Germany|Soviet-occupied Germany]], where in many cases they were summarily shot.

==Spain==
A similar feeling occurred among the supporters of the [[Second Spanish Republic]].
During the [[Spanish Civil War]], the democratic countries had taken to neutrality instead of supporting the democratically-elected republic against the rebels supported by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy]].
At most, the people of France, Belgium and Britain took refugee children, and some foreign volunteers, mostly leftists, joined the [[International Brigades]].
Only the [[Soviet Union]] offered military help to the Republic.

To this perception, they added the treatment of republican soldiers that fled to France who were secluded in harsh concentration camps.

During the Second World War, many of the former republican soldiers joined the French Resistance and the [[Free French Forces]], expecting that the next step after allied victory would be the defeat of [[Francoist Spain]].
However, the Allies did not invade Spain, it was just left alone in [[autarky]].

The entry of Spain in the United Nations and the visit of [[President Dwight D. Eisenhower]] to Spain dispelled any hope of Western action against Franco.

==Baltic States==

Although many Poles feel betrayed by a lack of aggressiveness with which the western allies pursued the war against their invaders, the western allies did maintain their commitments to declare war on Germany. For the Baltic States, however, who also had their fate sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, the western allies failed to take up the defense of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania when the Soviet Union invaded in 1940 as they had for Poland in 1939.

===Memel Territory===

The [[Memel territory]] was separated from German [[East Prussia]] in 1920, and put under French administration. The area had been conquered by the [[Teutonic Order]] in the Middle Ages, and had belonged to Prussia for at least 500 years. It was inhabited by Germans as the largest part of the population, while a quarter declared itself Lithuanian, and another quarter, as local Memelländer and/or Klaipedians depending on language.

In 1923, Lithuanian forces occupied the area during what is called the [[Klaipeda revolt]]. The French forces put up a token resistance and left, and later the annexation of the area now called the [[Klaipeda region]] by [[Lithuania]] was confirmed by the [[International Community]]. This was considered a Western betrayal by many, especially by France who did not protect autonomy either with their troops, or by diplomacy {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Also, when the government of the [[Weimar Republic]] agreed to the annexation in 1928, it was also considered a betrayal by many Germans, by their own government.

==Yugoslavia==
At the [[Tehran Conference]] in November 1943, a decision was made by the Allies to cease their support of the Royalist [[Chetniks#World War II|Chetniks]], and switch allegiances to [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s communist [[Yugoslav National Liberation Army]].

The West (primarily the UK) had supported the Yugoslav monarchy, allowing the exiled government to settle in London. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a signatory power to the [[Atlantic Charter]]<ref> [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/atlantic/at17.htm The Atlantic Conference Resolution], Inter-Allied Meeting Held in London at St. James's Palace of September 24,194l.</ref> and the [[United Nations]] Declaration.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/274.html Declaration by United Nations, January 1, 1942].</ref> The Chetniks were provided assistance via RAF and [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE).

Supporters of the Chetniks contend that if the Allies maintained their assistance support for their cause, the Karageorgeovich family would have restored to the Yugoslav throne. This argument has been the subject of considerable controversy.

==Notes and references==


<div class="references-small">
::'''In-line:'''
<references/>

::'''General:'''
* [[Nicholas Bethell]], ''The War Hitler Won: The Fall of Poland, September 1939'', New York, 1972.
* Mieczyslaw B. Biskupski ''The history of Poland'' Westport, CT; London: Greenwood Press, 2000.
* Russell D. Buhite ''Decisions at Yalta: an appraisal of summit diplomacy'', Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc, 1986.
* Anna M. Cienciala "Poland in British and French policy in 1939: determination to fight — or avoid war?" pages 413–433 from ''The Origins of The Second World War'' edited by Patrick Finney, Arnold, London, 1997.
* Anna M. Cienciala and Titus Komarnicki ''From Versailles to Locarno: keys to Polish foreign policy, 1919–25'', Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1984.
* Richard Crampton ''Eastern Europe in the twentieth century — and after'' London; New York: Routledge, 1997.
* [[Norman Davies]], ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw''. Viking Books, 2004. ISBN 0-670-03284-0.
* Norman Davies, ''[[God's Playground]]'' ISBN 0-231-05353-3 and ISBN 0-231-05351-7 (two volumes).
* David Dutton ''Neville Chamberlain'', London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
* Sean Greenwood "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" pages 247–272 from ''The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered: A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians'' edited by Gordon Martel Routledge Inc, London, United Kingdom, 1999.
* Robert Kee ''Munich: the eleventh hour'', London: Hamilton, 1988.
* [[Arthur Bliss Lane]], ''[[I Saw Poland Betrayed]]: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People''. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, 1948. ISBN 1-125-47550-1.
* Igor Lukes & Erik Goldstein (editors) ''The Munich crisis, 1938: prelude to World War II'', London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass Inc, 1999.
* Margaret Olwen Macmillan ''Paris 1919: six months that changed the world'' New York: Random House, 2003, 2002, 2001.
* [[David Martin]], ''Ally Betrayed''. Prentice-Hall, [[New York, New York|New York]], 1946.
* David Martin, ''Patriot or Traitor: The Case of General Mihailovich''. [[Hoover Institution]], [[Stanford, California|Stanford]], 1978. ISBN 0-8179-6911-X.
* David Martin, ''The Web of Disinformation: Churchill's Yugoslav Blunder''. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, [[San Diego]] & [[New York, New York|New York]], 1990. ISBN 0-15-180704-3
* [[Lynne Olson]], [[Stanley Cloud]], ''[http://www.questionofhonor.com/ A Question of Honor: The Kosciuszko Squadron: Forgotten Heroes of World War II]''. Knopf, 2003. ISBN 0-375-41197-6.
* [[Anita Prazmowska|Anita Prażmowska]], ''Poland: the Betrayed Ally''. [[Cambridge University Press]], [[Cambridge]], 1995. ISBN 0-521-48385-9.
* [[Edward Rozek]], ''Allied Wartime Diplomacy: A Pattern in Poland'', New York, 1958, reprint Boulder, CO, 1989.
* Henry L. Roberts "The Diplomacy of Colonel Beck" pages 579–614 from ''The Diplomats 1919–1939'' edited by [[Gordon A. Craig]] & Felix Gilbert, Princeton University Press: Princeton, New Jersey, USA, 1953.
* {{cite book | author= [[Waclaw Stachiewicz|Wacław Stachiewicz]] | title = Wierności dochować żołnierskiej | publisher=Rytm, [[Warsaw]] | year= 1998 | id=ISBN 83-86678-71-2}}
* Robert Young ''France and the origins of the Second World War'', New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996.
* Piotr Stefan Wandycz ''The twilight of French eastern alliances, 1926–1936: French-Czechoslovak-Polish relations from Locarno to the remilitarization of the Rhineland'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
* Piotr Wandycz ''France and her eastern allies, 1919–1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno'', Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962.
* Gerhard Weinberg ''A world at arms: a global history of World War II'', Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
* [[John Wheeler-Bennett]] ''Munich: Prologue to Tragedy'', New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948.
* Paul E. Zinner "Czechoslovakia: The Diplomacy of Eduard Benes" pages 100–122 from ''The Diplomats 1919–1939'' edited by [[Gordon A. Craig]] & Felix Gilbert, Princeton University Press: Princeton, New Jersey, USA, 1953.
* Republic of Poland, ''The Polish White Book: Official Documents concerning Polish-German and Polish-Soviet Relations 1933–1939''; Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland, [[New York]], 1940.
::'''Essays and articles:'''
*[[Daniel Johnson]], ''Betrayed by the Big Three''. [[Daily Telegraph]], [[London]], November 8, 2003
*[[Diana Kuprel]], ''How the Allies Betrayed Warsaw''. [[Globe and Mail]], [[Toronto]], February 7, 2004
*[[Ari Shaltiel]], ''The Great Betrayal''. [[Haaretz]], [[Tel Aviv]], February 23, 2004
</div>

==See also==
*[[history of Poland#World War II in Poland (1939-1945)|History of Poland]]
*[[history of Czechoslovakia#Before WWII (1938 – 1939)|History of Czechoslovakia]]
**[[Munich Agreement]]
**[[Occupation of Czechoslovakia]]
*[[History of Finland]]
**[[Winter War]]
*[[history of Ukraine#The 20th Century|History of Ukraine]]
*[[History of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Operation Keelhaul]]
*[[Polish contribution to World War II]]
*[[Alger Hiss]]
*[[Revolutions of 1989]]

==External links==

* [http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/1333/ Poland the Hawk]
* [http://www.geocities.com/skrzydla/Victory_parade.html Victory Parade, an article]
* [http://news.ft.com/cms/s/0d441dfa-ecf1-11d9-9d20-00000e2511c8.html Polish veterans to take pride of place in victory parade. FT.com, 5th July 2005]
* [http://www.questionofhonor.com/prologue.htm Online excerpt from 'A Question of Honor']
* [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/105/251gawr.html Review of 'A Question of Honor' in The Sarmatian Review, January 2005]
* [http://www.republika.pl/dyku/nowe/rzadpolski.htm 'Polish government 1939 – 1945' - Online ebook in Polish]
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/listmania/list-browse/-/2YJFVLD12EV29 Listmania! Poland: Invaded by totalitarians and betrayed by the Allies]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/Cerskus/english/saitai.html Crimes of Soviet Communists]
* [http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/newce/10newce.htm 'From Munich to Moscow' article on www.hungarian-history.hu]
* [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/0036-0341.00048/abs/ The Munich Crisis and the Issue of Red Army Transit across Romania, Russian Review, Volume 57 Issue 4 Page 614 - October 1998]
* [http://www.nato.int/acad/fellow/97-99/dolinski.pdf Dariusz Doliński NATO in Polish social perception, PDF]
* [http://www.kansascitykansan.com/articles/2005/05/06/ap/headlines/d89ue1vo0.txt George W. Bush: U.S. had hand in European divisions]
* [http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?t=68053 Could the Baltic States have resisted to the Soviet Union?]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/05/20050507-8.html George W. Bush's speech accepting the concept of Western betrayal]
*[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2005/05/08/how_good_was_the_good_war?pg=full How good was the Good War?]
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11441 Shafting the Poles] by Ralph Peters, includes section on post-World War II Western betrayal
* Listen to Lynn Olsen & Stanley Cloud, authors of "A Question of Honor, speak about the Polish contribution to World War II and "Western betrayal" [http://www.engagingtheword.net/lynnolsenstanleycloud.m3u here.]

[[Category:History]]

Common cold

2009-03-12T12:05:57Z

PhraseCop: because

The '''common cold''' is probably the most common [[illness]] in the world. It is characterized by sneezing, a scratchy throat, a stuffy nose, and coughing. In the course of a year, people in the [[United States]] suffer 1 billion colds.

A cold is typically acquired by touching one's eyes or nose after touching surfaces with cold germs on them, or by inhaling the germs. Symptoms usually begin 2 or 3 days after infection and last 2 to 14 days. Colds can be avoided by frequent handwashing and by staying away from infected individuals.

There is currently no cure for the common cold.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/commoncold.html</ref> This is because it is caused by a virus that, due to mutations, constantly changes its genetic base sequence, making it hard to find a cure for all the variations of the common cold.

==Is it caused by cold weather?==

* Going out into the cold weather has no effect on the spread of a cold. The reason that there appears to be a relationship is that people spend more time indoors during the cold winter weather. In fact, however, it is the proximity to other people rather than the temperature outside that seems to be the culprit. For this same reason, children in daycare or kindergarten are particularly prone to having colds. [http://www.medicinenet.com/common_cold/article.htm#4doesit]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Diseases]]

Religious right

2009-03-12T12:05:25Z

PhraseCop: because

The '''"Religious Right"''' was a term given to [[Christian]] [[conservatives]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s who became active in politics. A more common general term is "social conservative." The movement and term is still active today. The general belief is that the common national morality of our nation tracing back to its Judeo-Chritian roots has been eroding and that a return to morality is needed.

People on the "[[Religious Left]]," a newly founded movement meant to weaken the impact of the religious right, argue that moral issues and traditional family values are not important, but focus should be placed in government run and administered secular social programs instead.

The religious left are declining in terms of influence and [[Conservative Christianity|conservative Christianity]] is growing in influence because the religious left in Christianity are losing many members and conservative Christianity is growing especially overseas.<ref>http://www.albertmohler.com/commentary_print.php?cdate=2005-06-06</ref><ref>http://www.lifeway.com/lwc/article_main_page/0,1703,A%253D151165%2526M%253D50011,00.html</ref><ref>http://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/BibleStudyAndTheology/Perspectives/colson020722.aspx</ref>

==Members of the Religious Right==
*[[Jerry Falwell]]
*[[Pat Robertson]]
*[[James Dobson]]
*[[Ted Haggard]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[category:Conservatism]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Noble gas

2009-03-12T12:04:55Z

PhraseCop: because

The '''noble gases''' are the right-most column of [[element]]s on the [[periodic table of the elements|periodic table]], which includes [[helium]], [[neon]], [[argon]], [[krypton]], [[xenon]], and [[radon]].

The noble gases are the most unreactive elements because their outer shell of [[valence electron]]s is already full, causing them to not need to bind with other elements to become stable.

[[category:chemistry]]

Screamo

2009-03-12T12:04:07Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Screamo''' is a musical genre that derived from 90's emo with screaming in it. Screamo was popularized by bands such as [[Circle Takes The Square]] , [[Envy]] , [[Funeral Dinner]] and others. Screamo is also receiving the same criticism as emo; as well as being related to the emo subculture.

Recently, screamo has often been confused with other musical genres such as [[emo]], [[post-hardcore]], and [[experimental]] rock, mostly because non-screamo bands also use screaming techniques. Because of the low number of real screamo bands, it is often difficult to differentiate the genre from other hardcore genres.
[[Category:Musical Genres]]

Badger

2009-03-12T12:03:14Z

PhraseCop: because

[[Image:Badger.jpg|right|thumb|300px|American badger.]]

'''Badgers''' are several species of medium sized [[mustelid]] [[carnivore]]s, the Eurasian badger (''Meles meles''), the North American badger, both grey with striped black and white heads, and the Honey badger or [[Ratel]] of Africa. The dire badger is a large savage variety occasionally encountered in [[role-playing game]]s.

Badgers are carnivorous upon various small animals such as [[rodent]]s, [[mole (animal)|mole]]s and [[hedgehog]]s. They live in elaborate underground burrow complexes called setts.

In the [[United Kingdom]] badgers are commonly blamed by farmers for spreading bovine [[tuberculosis]], although the disease is generally spread by uncontrolled livestock movements.

Badger hairs were sought after for making shaving-brushes, a practise that has ceased in many parts of the world due to the dwindling badger population. Badger hair shaving brushes now have something of an [[heirloom]] quality about them as commercially farming and shaving badgers has failed because they are not social animals and tend to aggression when in captivity.

== Badgers in the Bible ==

(According to the [[King James Version]]) the [[tabernacle]] in which [[Ark of the Covenant]] was kept included badger skins in its construction:

<blockquote>
''And he made a covering for the tent of rams' skins dyed red, and a covering of badgers' skins above that.'' Exodus 36:19, (KJV)
</blockquote>

(Some versions of the Bible (e.g. the NIV) state here that the hides of [[sirenian]]s were used however.)

==Badgers in literature==
*Badger is one of the main characters in [[The Wind in the Willows]].

[[Category:Carnivores]]
[[Category:Biblical Animals]]

Viola

2009-03-12T12:02:33Z

PhraseCop: because

The '''viola''' is one of the four main [[String Instruments]] that comprise a string [[orchestra]]. It serves as the alto voice of the violin family.

Though similar in shape to a [[violin]], the viola is slightly larger and lower in pitch by a perfect fifth. It is usually tuned from high to low, A D G C, an octave higher than the violoncello. The tone of the viola also sets it apart from the [[violin]], being less brilliant and warmer.

The viola has been the subject of many jokes because of its lesser role in orchestral music, implying that one does not require as much talent to play it. However, many musicians claim that the viola is actually more difficult to play and it has its own rewards.

==History==

The modern viola was developed around the same time as the violin, in the mid-fifteenth century. Originally thought to have been developed by Gaspara da Salo, earlier violas have been found proving this theory untrue. During the classical period of music, composers viewed the viola as a lesser instrument, writing music only out of a sense of tradition. It was not until the eighteen and nineteen hundreds that composers started to write better parts for violas, realizing the instrument could provide interesting music of its own.

==Viola Music==

Reading viola music can be difficult at first, even for experienced musicians, because most viola music is written in alto clef (which is rarely used), rather than trebel or base clef. The different clef is difficult for musicians to transpose without practise.

The viola is typically assigned secondary parts in music, often harmonies without significant melodies assigned to the instrument. Chamber music, especially of the 1800s, is one notable exception, where the viola is often assigned significant parts. Even with extensive existing music, few modern composers write viola music.

==Playing the Viola==

The biggest differences between the viola and the smaller violin come primarily from the viola's larger size. Many techniques trasfer over from the violin to the viola with small adjustments for the larger size. The fingers are more widely spaced on the bridge, and the bow is slightly larger.

==Famous Viola Players==

*[[William Primrose]]
*[[Paul Hindemith]](who also composed for the instrument)
*[[Yuri Bashmet]]
*[[Nobuko Imay]]
*[[John Cale]]
*[[Whit Schroder]]
*[[Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown]](also a Texas [[blues]] violist and [[guitarist]]

Many famous violinists also play, or have played, the viola as a secondary instrument, such as
*[[Itzhak Perlman]]
*[[David Gilmour]]
*Sir Yehudi Menuhin.

==Notable Works for the Viola==
Some famous works for the viola include viola sonatas by Brahms, (Brahms' own transcriptions of his clarinet sonatas, op.120) and the works of English composers such as Ralph Vaughan Williams, (who studied the instrument)Benjamin Britten, Frank Bridge, Rebecca Clarke, and Arnold Bax, who used the unique tone of the instrument in their compositions.

Two major compositions for the instrument with orchestra that are regularly played are Berlioz's "Harold in Italy", a musical invocation of a part of Byron's epic "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage"; and William Walton's Viola Concerto, one of the great string concertos of the 20th century.

The viola was W. A. Mozart's instrument of choice when playing chamber music with his friends. His "Kegelstatt" Trio for piano, viola and clarinet is a rare example of this combination.

Dmitri Shostakovich's last work is his Viola Sonata.

* Hindemith - Viola Concerto "''Der Schwanendreher''" (1935)
* Walton - Concerto in A minor (1929)

[[Category:String Instruments]]

Affirmative Action

2009-03-12T12:01:56Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Affirmative action''' means giving someone a preference or advantage based on the color of his skin, or gender, to reverse the effects of [[discrimination]] and often for political motivation. [[Quotas]] are an extreme form of '''affirmative action'''.

The original concept of affirmative action, when introduced by the [[President Johnson|Johnson]] administration, was that it is desirable to not merely act on non-discrimination passively (i.e., saying "this job is open to any applicant", but then making no efforts to find minority applicants), but should also be done ''affirmatively'', by taking definite actions to find applicants from minorities.

This would be, in its way, admirable. However, in current use, affirmative action goes beyond this, often mandating the use of quotas for setting aside jobs or a portion of college entrance positions for each minority (including also some so-called minorities that are actually majorities).

* The worst feature of such programs is that they are presented to the public as if they were "equal opportunity" programs when they are patently aimed at "equal outcomes" regardless of the merits and abilities of job applicants. [http://www.endeavourforum.org.au/frauds1.htm]

In effect, this means selecting applicants by the color of their skin, precisely what the original concept of non-discrimination forbids. This is sometimes called "reverse discrimination," although this term is rather contradictory - discrimination remains discrimination.

''[[Regents v. Bakke]]'' effectively outlawed [[quotas]] but allowed affirmative action as long as there are considerations other than race. This is sometimes called reverse discrimination.

[[Dinesh D'Souza]] wrote:
{{cquote|Many whites have become increasingly scornful of black demands, and vehemently reject racial preferences. Most blacks, by contrast, support affirmative action as indispensable to fighting the enduring effects of white racism.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/endofrac.htm The End of Racism: The White Man's Burden by Dinesh D'Souza]</ref>}}

[[John H. McWhorter]] wrote:
{{cquote|For most black Americans, the rapid increase of the black middle class, of [[interracial relationship]]s and [[interracial marriage|marriages]], and of blacks in prestigious positions has no bearing on the real state of [[black America]]. Further, they believe, whites’ inability to grasp the unmistakable reality of [[oppression]] is itself proof of [[racism]], while blacks who question that reality are self-deluded. [http://www.city-journal.org/html/11_1_whats_holding_blacks.html]}}

On August 28, 2007 the United States Commission on Civil Rights released a report that determined that affirmative action can be harmful to minority law school students because students admitted through affirmative action programs are more likely to be unprepared and are thus being set up for failure.<ref>[http://www.usccr.gov/press/2007/AALS82807.pdf U.S. Civil Rights Commission Warns That Affirmative Action Might Harm Minority Law Students]</ref>

Most recently, the Justice Department was found{{weasel}} to be engaging in affirmative-action-style hiring practices for [[conservatives]]. Instead of taking the best candidates for various jobs and internships, Republican appointees in the Department had been found to have commandeered the hiring process and were denying jobs to most qualified people who were or were thought to be liberal and giving jobs to conservatives who were less qualified.

==See Also==
* [[Affirmative Action President]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Affirmative Action]]

Children's Crusade

2009-03-12T12:01:12Z

PhraseCop: phrasing

{{stub}}

The '''Children's Crusade''' is the name given to the ill-conceived [[crusade]]s which grew out of a series of visions by children, who claimed to have been told by [[Jesus]] in visions that they should go the the [[Holy Land]] and convert [[Muslim]]s to [[Christianity]]. There were two distinct Children's Crusades, both of which originated around the year 1212 A.D., one in [[France]], and one in [[Germany]]. Exactly how many of the participants were young children is not clear because chroniclers used the medieval Latin word ''pueri'', which can mean either children or simply "boys" in the sense of younger persons or servants of any age. Probably they were mostly teenagers. The Children's Crusade ended tragically when the petite crusaders were tricked and sold into slavery by greedy merchantmen.<ref>http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/children.html</ref>

[[category:crusades]]
[[Category:Medieval History]]

American History Homework Eleven Answers - Student Thirteen

2009-03-12T11:53:59Z

PhraseCop: because

== American History Homework 11 ==
'''Leonard G.'''

1.) One very important value in studying History is learning from the past. Events from the past are examples of the outcome of many ideas. If the idea had a negative outcome, then we should not repeat it, but if it had a good turnout, then we should follow through with the idea and perhaps it would have a rippling effect to spur more ideas in our current day.

:Excellent.

2.) I believe the United States entered World War II at the right time. If we entered earlier, then more lives would have been lost with little outcome. If we entered later, more attacks on the nation would have occurred and countless civilian’s lives would have been lost.

:Superb analysis.

3.) I believe that the slow restrictions of immigration in the 1850s by signing bills like the Chinese Restriction Act were good ways to stop overpopulation. At the time, overpopulation was a problem as it was burdening on New York City. As a result of the overcrowding, people were living in extremely small apartments and could only share one bathroom with the rest of the building! These living conditions were a sign that immigration needed to be restricted.

:Good example. But there is lots of space in the nation, so I'm not sure the problem with immigration is based on too little space.

4.) I like the development of music in the Roaring Twenties. With the creation of the jazz genre, music has been growing and growing into many other genres like alternative, blues, and punk.

:Excellent.

5.) I believe that the New Deal, a plan by President Roosevelt to solve the Great Depression, began with good intentions but had an opposite outcome, similar to that of the Prohibition. I would have done things differently by asking Americans to help their neighbors and ask local charities to help out and sponsor events. America as whole would learn to embrace the hardship and get through the rough times together.

:Much better approach! Well done.

6.) I believe that dropping the atomic bombs on Japan was the only way to end the war quickly enough. This is because the Japanese would have never quit fighting due to their beliefs.

:Right.

Answer to question 7???? (Minus 10).

:Good answers: 60/70.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 18:39, 6 December 2008 (EST)
[[Category:American History lectures]]

Premiership

2009-03-12T11:53:22Z

PhraseCop: because

The Barclays Premiership is the most prestigious of the [[English]] Football Leagues. It contains twenty teams, and after each season the bottom two are relegated and the top two from the next League (the Championship) are pormoted.
It operates on a points-based system where a win counts as 3 points, a draw as 1 point and a loss as 0 points. The team with the most points at the end of the season wins; the most recent winners were Manchester United. In the event of a draw on points, goal difference is used to decide the winner.
The Premiership has attracted criticism because the vast majority of the teams stand little chance of winning; the only clubs with a realistic chance of success are Arsenal, Manchester United, Chelsea and Liverpool, known as the 'Big Four'.
[[Category:Soccer]]

American History Homework Nine Answers - Student 21

2009-03-12T11:52:47Z

PhraseCop: because

'''American History Homework 9'''
 Leonard G.

1.) This election was a very interesting election. I believe that this Presidential election is similar to the landslide victories of the past, such as when James Monroe was elected over Rufus King.

: Lots of landslides in history, and I'm not sure that has much significance. A better analogy is sought. (Minus 1).

2.) Imperialism could be positive or negative effects on a nation. On one side, you can have a large country influencing smaller countries to change their weak government into successful governments that enable them to grow. On the other side, you can have a larger country pushing around the smaller countries and being a bad role model to them with communism, just like a bully at school bossing the younger, weaker kids around.

:Excellent.

3.) The lecture states that the progressive movement is explained in two words, “better government.” Better government is always a good thing to strive for. You can have the best government in the world and still look for ways to improve it. This idea is just like running a business; there are always ways to increase sales. The progressive movement has many great points that have greatly improved our country. Some of these points were suffrage for all women, the direct election of senators, laws against “sweat shops,” and safety improvements of work places.

:Good, will use partly as a model.

4.) This cartoon shows President McKinley after the Spanish-American War was trying to figure out what to do with the Philippines. The newspapers were opposed to the idea of giving the new territory to Spain because they thought Spain would mistreat the Filipino people.

:Excellent!

:Well done! Score: 39/40.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 21:23, 15 November 2008 (EST)
[[Category:American History Homework Nine Answers]]

Bunraku

2009-03-12T11:52:17Z

PhraseCop: because

{{Japanese characters}}
[[image:Osonowiki.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Bunraku character Osono, from the play "Sakaya" (酒屋 The ''Sake'' Dealer), with the black-clad puppeteers just visible on either side]]
'''Bunraku''' (文楽) is the traditional puppet theater of [[Japan]]. However, it only assumed the name ''Bunraku'' towards the end of the Meiji era. Prior to that it was known as ''ningyō jōruri'' (人形浄瑠璃 "puppet narrative drama") or ''ayatsuri jōruri shibai'' (操り浄瑠璃芝居 "puppet drama plays"). The name "Bunraku" is taken from the theater in which this puppet drama was performed, but gradually it came to be used as the name of the art itself and is today used as the official name of the puppet theater.

''Jōruri'' also refers to a form of ''shamisen'' (三味線 "three-stringed guitar") music, and the name reflects that the puppet plays are performed to a ''jōruri'' accompaniment. It is the combination of its high-quality artistic technique, the high level of its ''jōruri'' music and the unique nature of manipulating the puppets (each puppet requires three puppeteers to bring it to life), that have led to Bunraku's world renown.

Two things differentiate Bunraku from other forms of puppet theaters around the world. The first is the duration of each play. Whilst most puppet theaters portray simple stories such as myths and legends, only Bunraku requires an entire day for its long, serious drama to play out.

Secondly, in most of the world's puppet theaters, great pains are taken to hide the manipulation of the puppeteers from the audience. This is done by either suspending the puppet from strings attached to the ceiling, as with marionettes, or placing a hand within the puppet and moving it with the fingers, as with ''guignol'' puppets; or by casting shadows upon a screen, as with the ''wayan kulit'' shadow puppets. In Bunraku, however, the puppet's manipulators appear openly, in full view of the audience.

In 2003, Bunraku was added to [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO's]] Intangible Cultural Heritage list as a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity".

==History of Bunraku==

The roots of is today known as Bunraku lie in ''jōruri'' (浄瑠璃 "ballad drama") and ''jōruri gidayu-bushi'' (浄瑠璃義太夫 "''jōruri'' narrative singing"). The latter was created by Takemoto Gidayu (1651 - 1724), and is a distinct form of vocal music.

Vocal music has been divided into two categories in Japan, dating back to ancient times, namely ''Utai'' (謡 "chanting or singing") and ''katari'' (語り "reciting"). The biggest difference between the two is that ''utai'' contained definite melodies, rhythms, and a tempo, whereas the main emphasis of ''katari'' was on explaining the plot. ''Katari'' itself originated from the tale-chanting style of ''heikyoku'' (京華曲), which was used to relate historical dramas from the ''Heika'' , to the accompaniment of a ''biwa'' (琵琶 "a lute-like instrument").

Although ''heikyoku'' was a popular form of entertainment, performers began looking for additional sources of material and it was around the mid-Muromachi Period, during the late 15th century, that ''jōruri'' performers began to attract attention. With the addition of the ''shamisen'' (三味線 "three-stringed guitar") in the mid-sixteenth century, ''jōruri'' made rapid musical advances.

Allied to the development of the musical form, was that of the puppets. The history of "moving dolls" In Japan dates back to at least the in the Heian period (784 - 1185), where there are records of groups of traveling artists who performed as "puppet operators." These performers were known as ''kairaishi'' (傀儡師 "puppet players" or "wire-pullers"). By the thirteenth century, these traveling puppeteers had fallen under the patronage of various shrines and temples, and once the connection with jōruri was made at the end of the sixteenth century, the artform moved from the streets to indoors.

In 1684, Takemoto Gidayu established the Takemoto-za theater in the Dotonbori district of Ōsaka and teamed up with the famous playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon. The plays he wrote were divided into two categories, namely those about the noble and military classes, called ''jidai-mono'' (時代物 "historical drama"), and those based on the lives of the townspeople, called ''sewa-mono'' (世話物 "domestic drama"). Chikamatsu Monzaemon devoted his energy to accurately and vividly portraying the situations in which people found themselves, and in 1703, he published his most famous work, ''Sonezaki Shinju'' (曽根崎心中), or "The Love-Suicide at Sonezaki". The foremost of all his domestic dramas, it is important not only historically, but also for its excellent literary content.

At the same time, the puppets evolved too. Initially, the puppeteers would operate from behind shoulder-high curtains, from behind which they would hold the puppets above the curtain as they operated them. The puppets originally had no feet, so the operators had to thrust their hands in the hems to make the "feet" move, but the dolls had movable hands and arms that could be manipulated to perform simple movements. At about the time that the Takemoto-za was opened, the puppets were small and manipulated only by a single operator. But as time went by, improvements were made, so that by 1734 a plan was devised to have three operators per puppet. Two years later, the size of the dolls was doubled, making them close to the size used today, which is about 2/3 the height of the average person. The stage was changed at about the same time in order to accommodate the three manipulators.

Ironically, it was the first performance of ''Sonezaki Shinju'' that lead to puppet ''jōruri's'' golden age, but for all the wrong reasons. One of Gidayu's apprentices, Toyotake Wakadayu, a gifted and popular chanter, left Takemoto-za and opened his own theater, the Toyotake-za, in the same Dotonbori district. In addition, he took with him Tatsumatsu Hachirobei, Takemoto-za's head manipulator of female puppets, often said to be the best in the country, as well as and Ki no Kaion, Toyotake-za's lead writer and playwright. This, coupled with Toyotake's attention to the jōruri and his stage, resulted in the Toyotake-za becoming a serious rival to the Takemoto-za. However, as the two theaters vied for top position, the art form became ever more popular amongst the populace.

However, the popularity of the puppet theater began to wane in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and both the Takemoto-za and the Toyotake-za went bankrupt. Puppet theater performances returned to the precincts of shrines and temples, as well as in vaudeville-like entertainment halls (寄席 ''yose''), and gradually a number of master performers reappeared who took the art left to them and refined it through great effort.

After the collapse of both the Takemoto-za and the Toyotake-za puppet theaters, a small ''jōruri'' hall was opened near Kozu Bridge in Ōsaka, and in 1811 it found itself within the precincts of the Inari Shrine. The proprietor was a man named Uemura Bunrakuken, and it was in 1872, after it was relocated to Matsushima, that the hall became officially known as the Bunraku-za, after its owner.

Shortly thereafter, the Hikoroku-za was founded within the precincts of the Inari Shrine in 1884, and it became a rival of the Bunraku-za, which had since moved to Ōsaka's Goryo area. Just as in the days of Toyotake-za and Takemoto-za, puppet theater once again became popular. Although the Hikoroku-za was closed in 1893, the Goryo Bunraku-za prospered as the main representative of puppet theater, with the name of the theater, being transferred to the art itself, which came to be called "Bunraku".

The Goryo Bunraku-za burned to the ground in 1926, and its successor, a new Bunraku-za, was built near Yotsubashi in 1930. At the end of World War II, of all the theaters to be rebuilt from the ashes of the air raids, the very first was the Yotsubashi Bunraku-za. This was because Bunraku was not only seen as a famous product of Ōsaka, but also a traditional performing art that had to be preserved.

In 1955, the Japanese government recognized the art of Bunraku as an "Important Intangible Cultural Property (重要無形文化財 ''jūyō mukei bunkazai''). In 1963, the Bunraku Association was formed, and following the completion of Japan's first National Theater in 1966, Bunraku performances in Tōkyō were planned and produced by the National Theatre.

The National Theater's policy of performing full plays evoked the interest of the youth, which was instrumental in developing a new generation of audiences. Further, due to the efforts of the Bunraku Association, both the city and the prefecture of Ōsaka, and the Kansai Economic Association, it was planned to build a National Bunraku Theater in the land of its birth, Ōsaka and the National Bunraku Theater was founded in 1984.

==The Chanter==

Bunraku plays develop through the chanting of ''gidayu-bushi'', and it is their mission is to fill an otherwise expressionless doll made of wood, with the illusion life through the ''gidayu-bushi''. The chanter (太夫 ''tayu'') not only recites the dialogue for all the characters, but also relates the spectacle of the scene and explains the background behind the event taking place. Long pieces last for about 90 minutes, and the number of characters can vary from only a few to around fifteen. The chanter performs them all, both young and old, male and female, warriors and townspeople, in various ways appropriate for each character, all by himself.

The ''tayu's'' greatest objective is to express the actual emotions of each of the characters. Someone who listens for the first time to a chanter's performance might feel besieged by exaggerated emotions, but that is due to the uniquely expressive power of ''gidayu-bushi'', which has to convey to the audience a strong impression about the character's personality.

==The ''Shamisen'' Player==

There are three types of ''shamisen'', namely the ''futo-zao'' (太ざお "thick-necked"), ''naka-zao'' (中ざお "medium-necked"), and ''hoso-zao'' (細ざお "thin-necked"). The ''futo-zao shamisen'' is the largest and lowest pitched of the three types, and is the one used for ''gidayu-bushi'', as the accompanying chanting eminates from the lower abdomen, which is matched by the powerful timbre of the ''futo-zao''. Unlike most other forms of accompaniment, the ''shamisen'' used in ''gidayu-bushi'' must "play the strings of the heart" and like as the chanter, when reciting, places more importance on expressing the feelings of the tale than on actual musicality. The ideal performance is for the ''shamisen'' player to become one in spirit with the chanter. Unlike with the recitation, which is expressed through words, the ''shamisen'' requires extremely difficult techniques to express human emotions through a single tonal colour.
　
==The Puppeteers==

Bunraku puppets differ from any other type of puppet in that it requires 3 puppeteers to manipulate each individual doll. The three puppeteers are the ''omo-tsukai'' (面遣い) , or the "head puppeteer", who operates both the doll's head and face, by holding a stick with levers in his left hand, and also the doll's right hand with his own right hand; the ''hidari-tsukai'' (左遣い), or "left-hand puppeteer", who uses his right hand to operate the doll's left hand; and the ''ashi-tsukai'' (足遣い), or "foot puppeteer", who uses both hands to suggest the movements of the doll's legs and feet. Skillful manipulators can even have the puppets handle and manipulate small objects, or even tear up a letter.

The three puppeteers must work together in perfect harmony, otherwise the puppet's motions will seem unnatural and the doll will never appear to come to life. The left hand of the head puppeteer, which supports the weight of the heavy doll, represents the puppet's spine, and it is through his left hand that the illusion of life is first breathed into the puppet. An apprentice puppeteer will begin with the feet, and then move to the left hand, and finally to the head and right hand. The period of study required to progress is so long that the saying is, "Ten years for the feet, ten years for the left".

In order accommodate the left-hand puppeteer's position, the head puppeteer wears special footwear known as "stage clogs" or "elevated clogs". A large doll can be as tall as 1.5 meters, whilst a smaller one is normally about 1.3 meters tall, so the height of the elevated clogs varies between 20 to 50 centimeters, depending on the size of the doll.

In the case of a doll operated by three puppeteers, the puppet appears on the stage with all three operators in plain view of the audience, which could obstruct the viewing of the play. Therefore, they wear ''kurogo'' (黒巾 "black robes"). The puppeteers are dressed in black robes and head coverings. However, this is not necessarily so they blend into the background, but because originally, the color black signified "nothingness". Thus, Bunraku adopted this concept of "nothing" and started employing black-robed operators, which indicates that they cannot be seen, as there is "nothing" there to see.

However, a situation arose when the manipulation of the puppet was extremely masterful and perfect, the audience wanted to see who was operating the doll. This led to the concept of ''de-tsukai'' - an operator who is visible to the audience, usually by having only his face uncovered.

The three puppeteers must all become one with the doll in order to manipulate it, and they must also become one with, and work together with, the chanter and the shamisen player. It is this phenomenal co-operation that makes the Bunraku so special, as the beautiful puppets move about freely like humans and look like they are alive.

==Heads and Wigs==

The heads (頭 ''kashira'') of Bunraku puppets are divided into male and female, and then further classified into various categories depending on age, social class, and the distinguishing personality traits of the role they portray, and each head has its own name, reflecting their special characteristics. The same head might be used for different characters in different plays, if the characters have the same characteristics or personality. Sometimes, in order better match the character, they may be repainted to give the right skin tone, or have a new wig attached. The heads are the responsibility of the "head master" (頭担当 ''kashira tanto''), who prepares,maintains and repaints them before each performance.

The movement of the eyes, eyebrows, and mouth of each puppet's head is controlled by the main puppeteer, who manipulates, with the fingers of his left hand, the levers attached to the ''dogushi'' stick in the doll's neck. In addition, there is a special lever that is attached to the head with ''shamisen'' strings, which allows the puppet's head to nod up and down in time to the ''shamisen'' music. This movement also relies upon a special construction called the ''bane'' (弾機 "spring"), which is made out of baleen.

There are a number of fundamental styles of Bunraku wigs, depending upon the type of character being portrayed. It is the job of the "wig masters" (床山 ''tokoyama''), to sew and create an appropriate hairstyle (結髪 ''keppatsu'') for every role, based around the fundamental styles. The ''tokoyama'' does not just style the wigs, but also makes them by threading hair through copper plates. Human hair is used most of the time, but occasionally, in order to create the illusion of volume, the hair of a yak's tail is also used. The finished wig is then carefully attached to the head. When creating a special hairstyle, no oil can be used, in order to prevent it running and soiling the face, so the styling is done using only water and beeswax (鬢付け ''bintsuke'').

==Also see==

* [[Kabuki]]
* [[Noh theater]]
* [[Japanese Dance]]

==Bibliography==

* Ronald Cavaye, Paul Griffith, Senda Akihiko, A guide to the Japanese Stage, Kōdansha, 2004
* Keene, D, No and Bunraku, Columbia University Press, 1999,
* Brazell, K (ed), Traditional Japanese Theater , Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN-13: 978-0231108737
* Ortolani, B, The Japanese Theatre, Princeton University Press, 1995, ISBN-13: 978-0691043333
* Mikiko Utiyama, Theater Research Bulletin, 2002 (『十世豊竹若大夫』、2002年)
* Kiyoshi Mizuochi, Bunraku, 1989 (『文楽』、1989年)

==External Links==

* [http://www.bunraku.or.jp/english.html Bunraku Kyokai Official Homepage]
* [http://www.ntj.jac.go.jp/english/index.html National Theater of Japan]
* [http://www.kabuki21.com/sakaya.php The True Story Behind "Sakaya"]

[[category:Japanese culture]][[category:Theater]]

Nimrod

2009-03-12T11:51:33Z

PhraseCop: because

According to the Bible, '''Nimrod''' was the son of [[Cush]] and grandson of [[Ham]]; his name has become proverbial as that of a mighty hunter. His "kingdom" comprised [[Babel]], Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Sinar, otherwise known as the land of Nimrod. <ref name="JE">Jewish Encyclopedia's article on Nimrod</ref> He plays a signifigant role in rabbinic literature.<ref name="JE"/>

==Nimrod in Rabbinic Literature==
Nimrod is considered the prototype of a rebellious people, his name being interpreted as "he who made all the people rebellious against God"<ref name="JE"/> He is identified with [[Cush]] and with [[Amraphel]], the name of the latter being interpreted as "he whose words are dark".<ref name="JE"/> As he was the first hunter he was consequently the first who introduced the eating of meat by man.<ref name="JE"/> He was also the first to make [[war]] on other peoples.<ref name="JE"/>

===His Feats as a Hunter===
Nimrod was not wicked in his youth.<ref name="JE"/> On the contrary, when a young man he used to sacrifice to God the animals which he caught while [[hunting]].<ref name=JE/> His great success in hunting was because he wore the coats of skin which God made for [[Adam and Eve]].<ref name="JE"/> These coats were handed down from father to son, and thus came into the possession of [[Noah]], who took them with him into the ark, whence they were stolen by [[Ham]].<ref name=JE/> The latter gave them to his son [[Cush]], who in turn gave them to Nimrod, and when the animals saw the latter clad in them, they crouched before him so that he had no difficulty in catching them.<ref name=JE/> The people, however, thought that these feats were due to his extraordinary strength, so that they made him their king.<ref name=JE/>

===Nimrod is made king===
According to another account, when Nimrod was eighteen years old, war broke out between the Hamites, his kinsmen, and the Japhethites.<ref name=JE/> The latter were at first victorious, but Nimrod, at the head of a small army of Cushites, attacked and defeated them, after which he was made king over all the people on earth, appointing [[Terah]] his minister.<ref name=JE/> It was then, elated by so much glory, that Nimrod changed his behavior toward God and became the most flagrant [[idolater]].<ref name=JE/> When informed of [[Abraham]]'s birth he requested Terah to sell him the new-born child in order that he might kill it.<ref name=JE/> Terah hid Abraham and in his stead brought to Nimrod the child of a slave, which Nimrod dashed to pieces.<ref name=JE/>

Nimrod is generally considered to have been the one who suggested building the [[Tower of Babel]] and who directed its construction.<ref name=JE/> According to the [[Talmud]], God said: "I made Nimrod great; but he built a tower in order that he might rebel against Me".<ref name=JE/> The tower is called by the Rabbis "the house of Nimrod," and is considered as a house of idolatry which the owners abandoned in time of peace; consequently Jews may make use of it.<ref name=JE/> After the builders of the tower were dispersed Nimrod remained in [[Shinar]], where he reestablished his kingdom.<ref name=JE/> According to the "Sefer ha-Yashar", he at this time acquired the name "[[Amraphel]]" in allusion to the fall of his princes during the dispersion.<ref name=JE/> According to the Targum of pseudo-Jonathan, however, Nimrod had left Babylonia before the building of the tower, and had gone to Assyria, where he built four other cities, namely, [[Nineveh]], Rehobot, Calah, and Resen.<ref name=JE/>

==Nimrod in Islamic Literature==
By the [[Muslims]] Nimrod is considered as the supreme example of the tyrant ("al-jabbar"). There is some confusion among Arabian [[historians]] as to Nimrod's [[genealogy]]. According to one authority he was the son of Mash the son of Aram, and consequently a Semite; he built the Tower of Babel and also a bridge over the [[Euphrates]], and reigned five hundred years over the Nabatæans, his kinsmen. But the general opinion is that he was a Hamite, son of Canaan the son of Cush, or son of Cush the son of Canaan (Tabari gives both); that he was born at the time of Reu, and was the first to establish [[fire-worship]]. Another legend is to the effect that there were two Nimrods: the first was the son of Cush; the second was the well-known tyrant and contemporary of Abraham; he was the son of Canaan and therefore a great-grandson of the first Nimrod. According to Mas'udi, Nimrod was the first Babylonian king, and during a reign of sixty years he dug many canals in [[Iraq]].

===Nimrod and Abraham===
The author of the "Ta'rikh Muntaḥab" (quoted by D'Herbelot in his "Bibliothèque Orientale") identifies Nimrod with Daḥḥak (the Persian Zoḥak), the first Persian king after the Flood. But Al-Kharizmi, identifies him with Kai Kaos, the second king of the second Persian dynasty. Nimrod reigned where [[Baghdad]] is now situated, and at first he reigned with justice; but [[Satan]] perverted him, and then he began to persecute all the worshipers of God. His chief vizier was Azar (Terah), the father of Abraham; and the midrashic legends of Abraham's birth in which Nimrod is mentioned, as well as those concerning Nimrod's persecution of Abraham—whom he cast into a furnace—are copied by the Mohammedans which some changes from Rabbinic Literature.

Nimrod is referred to in the Koran (xxi. 68-69). When Nimrod saw Abraham come unharmed from the furnace, he said to him: "Thou hast a powerful God; I wish to offer Him hospitality." Abraham told him that his God needed nobody's hospitality. Nevertheless Nimrod ordered thousands of horned and small cattle brought, and fowl and fish, and sacrificed them all to God; but God did not accept them. Humiliated, Nimrod shut himself in his palace and allowed no one to approach him. According to another tradition, Nimrod challenged Abraham, when the latter came out of the furnace, to fight with him. Nimrod gathered a considerable army and on the appointed day was surprised to find Abraham alone. Asked where his army was, Abraham pointed to a swarm of gnats, which routed Nimrod's troops (see, however, below). Nimrod assembled his ministers and informed them of his intention to ascend into the heavens and strike down Abraham's God. His ministers having told him that it would be difficult to accomplish such a journey, the heavens being very high, Nimrod conceived the idea of building a high tower, by means of which he might accomplish his purpose (comp. Sanh. 109a). After many years had been spent in the construction of the tower, Nimrod ascended to its top, but he was greatly surprised to find that the heavens were still as remote from him as when he was on the ground. He was still more mortified on the following day, when the tower collapsed with such a noise that the people fainted with terror, those that recovered losing their speech (an allusion to the confusion of tongues).

Undaunted by this failure, Nimrod planned another way to reach the heavens. He had a large chest made with an opening in the top and another in the bottom. At the four corners of the chest stakes were fixed, with a piece of flesh on each point. Then four large vultures, or, according to another source, four eagles, previously fed upon flesh, were attached to the stakes below the meat. Accompanied by one of his most faithful viziers, Nimrod entered the chest, and the four great birds soared up in the air carrying the chest with them. The vizier opened alternately the upper and lower doors of the chest in order that by looking in both directions he might know whether or not he was approaching heaven. When they were so high up that they could see nothing in either direction Nimrod took his bow and shot arrows into the sky. Gabriel thereupon sent the arrows back stained with blood, so that Nimrod was convinced that he had avenged himself upon Abraham's God. After wandering in the air for a certain length of time Nimrod descended, and the chest crashed upon the ground with such violencethat the mountains trembled and the angels thought an order from God had descended upon the earth. This event is alluded to in the Koran (xiv. 47): "The machinations and the contrivances of the impious cause the mountains to tremble." Nimrod himself was not hurt by the fall.

After these adventures Nimrod continued to reign wickedly. Four hundred years later an angel in the form of a man appeared to him and exhorted him to repent, but Nimrod declared that he himself was sole ruler and challenged God to fight with him. Nimrod asked for a delay of three days, during which he gathered a considerable army; but this was exterminated by swarms of gnats. One of these insects is said to have entered Nimrod's nose, reached the chambers of his brain, and gnawed at it. To allay the pain Nimrod ordered some one to strike with a hammer upon an anvil, in order that the noise might cause the gnat to cease gnawing. Nimrod died after forty years' suffering.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DivineComedy}}
[[Category:Biblical Persons]]

Dead Ringers

2009-03-12T11:50:15Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Dead Ringers''' is a British satirical television and radio comedy. It is made up of a number of sketches, usually containing no more than two or three characters, and is performed by a number of impressionists. Primarily, the programme focuses on British political figures and popular culture, but it also satirizes American issues, in particular the current Bush government. It stars Jon Culshaw, Jan Ravens, Phil Cornwell, Kevin Connelly and Mark Perry who each play a large number of the various figures satirized.
Dead Ringers shares much of its comedic style (though not its use of impressionist actors) with a previous [[ITV]] programme called Spitting Image. The name "Dead Ringers" refers to someone who looks identical to someone else, fitting its impressionist nature.

Generally, Dead Ringers avoids any political affiliation; all major British parties are satirized equally, with no real tendency towards any one point of view. This is likely because it is produced by the BBC, who are obliged under their charter to produce non-biased programming.

==Political Figures==
* [[Tony Blair]]: As Prime Minister through most of the series' run, Tony Blair (played by Jon Culshaw) appeared in a large number of sketches. He is portrayed as being more intelligent that the rest of his cabinet, often speaking down to his populace, remarking that he has won "two general elections" whilst his audience haven't. In addition, he has a tendency to describe his mannerisms and appearance: "United the nation in times of crisis hand gesture". Blair also serves as the [[straight man]] in sketches involving both Blair and George Bush, at one point commenting that Bush "is not even listening to what is being said at his own press conference". (To which Bush replies, "That's a good point, what Tony just said.")
*[[Gordon Brown]]: Gordon is portrayed as a [[robot]], and preparing an invasion of the planet. He moves using slow, jerky gestures and frequently ends his sketches by saying "Exterminate!" loudly, in the manner of a [[Dalek]]. The Brown-Blair rivalry is taken to extremes, with Blair ultimately regenerating in the manner of [[Doctor Who]] to avoid giving the Prime Minister's job to Gordon.
*[[David Cameron]]: The leader of the Conservative Party is portrayed as having no real policies, and trying to avoid any difficult decisions or making a stand about anything. Instead, he makes policies about coat-hangers or clothing for children. At one point he remarks that: "hopefully, you won't notice that I don't do ''anything''.
*Menzies Campbell: The leader of the Liberal Democrat party in opposition is lampooned as being senile and in a retirement home, the conditions of which he frequently complains about. He becomes easily confused and manipulated, but has grand visions to take control of the government, such as allying himself with Gordon Brown to become Deputy Prime Minister, then exposing Gordon as a drunkard (as was done with former leader Charles Kennedy) to take control of the government. As a reference to a Flash Gordon villain, Menzies (whose name is pronounced MING-us), refers to himself as "The Mighty Ming".
*Ian Duncan-Smith: The former Conservative Party leader is portrayed as being universally loathed by everyone, at one point remarking that: "Recent [[opinion polls]] do suggest [[Saddam Hussein]] to be more popular than I am."
*[[John Prescott]]: The Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott (played by Mark Perry) is portrayed as being hideously obese, at one point trying to sneak a "Prescott-widening scheme" through the House of Commons as part of a "road-widening scheme" and asking for the addition of three extra mouths to allow him to eat more [[pie]]s. Prescott also speaks in utterly nonsensical sentences, such as "A good Britain to you all!"
*[[George Bush]]: The many slip-ups and mistakes that George Bush makes during speeches are exaggerated in Dead Ringers, such as "My fellow [[invertebrate]]s", "My fellow cabinet members, Donald Rumsfeld and Basmati Rice…" and "Abu Musab al-Safari and the Iraqi detergents are Vanished." In addition, he is portrayed as being hopeless childlike, at one point recording [[Sesame Street]] over an intelligence video tape. However, unlike many of the other caricatures in Dead Ringers, Bush is shown to be relatively friendly, albeit incompetent.
*Robin Cook: The foreign secretary speaks entirely in humming of various pitches (sometimes subtitled for the viewers' benefit).

==Popular Culture==
*Greg Dyke: The former Director-General of the BBC is portrayed as an arrogant and confrontational figure, as well as being not widely known. His sketches generally begin with "I, am Greg Dyke, Director-General of the BBC." Then, in response to an unheard reply: "Shut up, I am!" He is shown to have a personal vendetta against certain programmes, and adds absurd constraints on them: "Bring back Muffin the Mule? Fine. But they've got to film it underwater.". He also has a personal problem with the [[Dalek]]s: "Bring back Doctor Who? Fine. But it's not going to have any Daleks in it. They've crossed me once too many times.
*Fiona Bruce: Practically all of Fiona Bruce's news reports are full of sexual innuendo or double entendres, usually accompanied by her raising her eyebrows.
*Delia Smith: Delia is portrayed as holding very conservative values (at one point remarking that undoing her top button makes her "feel like a whore".) She is also very patronizing to her audience: "Last season, we spent six episodes teaching you how to boil water properly. But you couldn't do it properly, could you? So we're going to do it again."
*David Dickinson: The presenter of Bargain Hunt is generally parodied as being annoying, arrogant and with orange discolored skin and a ridiculous hairstyle. He remarks that nobody ever makes a profit on Bargain Hunt, and that "the only cheap thing here is this show. Cost six [[quid]] to make."
*Torchwood: The numerous homosexual or bisexual characters are satirizes, as well as the Welsh setting. The perceived low budget nature of the programme also receives mention, with Owen referring to the Torchwood computer as "an Apple Mac with stickers on". The sudden scene changes are also satirizes, with Jack referring to them as being "plot holes" caused by "fluctuations in the timeline."
*Alan Rickman, Ian McKellen and Brian Blessed: Frequently, a fight scene emerges between Alan Rickman and Ian McKellen, both well known for playing British villains in American films. Generally, the two will kill each other, at which point the other characters will say something along the lines of "where will I find another villain to save the world from at such short notice?", whereupon Brian Blessed enters through a window. This satire comes from the fact that Blessed has often been noted to take roles turned down by Rickman or McKellen.

[[Category:Radio Shows]]

Solar eclipse

2009-03-12T11:49:14Z

PhraseCop: because

A '''Solar Eclipse''' occurs when the [[Moon]] passes between the [[Earth]] and the [[Sun]] effectively casting the shadow of the Moon over the Earth.

==Types of Solar Eclipses==

Due to the distance variations between the Moon, Sun, and the Earth, there are different kind of solar eclipses.

* A "Partial Eclipse" is when the Moon isn't completely lined up between the Sun and the Earth so only part of its shadow is cast upon the Earth.

* An "Annular Eclipse" is when the Moon is perfectly aligned between the Earth and the Sun, but the Moon appears smaller than the Sun, so rings of light appear around the Moon. The Earth below is not cast in complete darkness.

* A "Total Eclipse" is when the Moon lines up perfectly between the Sun and the Earth and the Moon appears larger than the Sun does. Therefore the Sun is completely blotted out except for a few odd rays of sunlight that appear around the moon for the first 15 seconds of the eclipse. The Earth below is cast in to complete [[darkness]].

==Direct Observation of an Eclipse==

Direct observation of a solar eclipse is not recommended because it can lead to permanent loss of [[eyesight]]. The [[retina]] does not have pain receptors so any damage done by the sun will go unnoticed. Many tools used for indirect observation are available to those who want to gaze upon a solar eclipse.

[[Category:Astronomy]]

Miguel Cairo

2009-03-12T11:47:32Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Miguel Cairo''' is a [[Major League Baseball]] utility infielder (can play all infield positions). Teams he has played with throughout his major league career include the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] (1996), [[Chicago Cubs]] (1997, 2001), [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] (1998-2000), [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (2001-2003), [[New York Mets]] (2005), [[New York Yankees]] (2004, 2006-2007), [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (2007), and [[Seattle Mariners]] (2008). Because he is not a outstanding offensive player, Cairo has managed to stay in the major leagues due to his usefulness as a excellent defensive player.

==External Links==
*[http://mlb.mlb.com/stats/player_locator_results.jsp?c_id=mlb&playerLocator=cairo MLB Stats]
*[http://mlb.mlb.com/team/player.jsp?player_id=111867 MLB.com Bio]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cairo, Miguel}}

[[Category:Baseball Players]]

Fenway Park

2009-03-12T11:46:55Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Fenway Park''' is the stadium for the [[Boston Red Sox]]. It first opened in April 20, 1912. The owner at the time, Charles Henry Taylor, give the name of the ballpark because it was located in the Fenway section of [[Boston]].<ref>http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/bos/ballpark/index.jsp</ref> The park is known for its 37-foot-high<ref>http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/bos/ballpark/facts.jsp</ref> left field wall, the "Green Monster."

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Baseball]]

Manuel Rodríguez de Castro

2009-03-12T11:46:17Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Manuel Rodríguez de Castro''' ([[Seville]], 1964) Economist. Industrialist, Spanish Politician, has a [[MBA]] from the "Instituto de Estudios Superiores de la Empresa" (Institute of Superior Studies of the Company) of the [[University of Navarre]], as well as a graduate degree in International Financial Markets from the CEMFI of the [[Bank of Spain]]. He had specialization studies in [[MIT]] and is also he is an expert in Fusions and Acquisitions from Institute of Company and the Faculty of Laws of the [[University of Harvard]].

==Politic Life==
Manuel Rodriguez de Castro, who had a high position of the [[Spaniard]] government from [[1996]], was the founder and first president in 1998 of one of the most important initiatives of which the Government of [[Jose Maria Aznar]] (1996-2004) called Plan XXI of Information Technologies: Project RILCO (Logistic Latin American Commerce and Network), Uniting the efforts of several of the most important logistic enclaves of Ibero-America and [[USA]], ports, airports and free zones. Manuel Rodriguez de Castro permanently traveled from on side of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the other, until he obtained his objective between 1996 and 2001, year in which he dedicated to private matter businesses.

==Latin American Logistics and Commerce Network (RILCO)==
Latin American Logistics and Commerce Network (Rilco) is a pioneering company as regards the development of transnational [[electronic commerce]]. The offered services enable the free zones, ports, airports and other entities to operate at world level, promoting the international trade between companies, saving costs and time and bringing near geographical points too much far as for the reach of the traditional trade. Thus, Rilco offers a quality service 24 hours and give concrete responses to the commercial needs of [[Latin America]] and the European Union through the New Technologies adapted to trade.

Located at Cadiz, an Andalusian city in southern [[Spain]], opened to sea and having a privilege location as gateway to the [[European Union]] for the American and [[African]] continents, Rilco is provided with one of the best material and human means to carry out foreign trade operations between Latin America and the EU. Relaunching the contacts between these two regions was the first aim of the Network that little by little has been increasing its actuation field. Thus, Rilco has also become a new technology company that develops solutions for other free zones or societies operators located at Cadiz [[Free Zone]] Consortium.

===Background===
Latin American Logistics and Commerce Network starts up in 1998 as an initiative from the Special Delegate and CEO, '''Manuel Rodríguez de Castro''', of Cadiz Free Zone Consortium, a public and managerial entity that depends on the Ministry of Finances of the Spanish Government. At first, it is focused in strengthening foreign trade operations between the European Union and Latin America. That is why the beginning of contacts in the American continent ends with the signature of a business agreement between Cadiz and Miami Free Zone. Thus, the rules of what will become the greatest business community between these two blocks are established.

The signature of the agreement with [[Miami]] is the starting point for different free zones, ports, airports, industrial parks and free deposits, to be interested in this initiative and join to it to increase the list of members of a net that grew as a communication and business channel.

Likewise, because Cadiz Free Zone is member of the Americas Free Zones Committee, in October 2002 the VI Latin American Conference of Free Zones, a congress in which Rilco participated as organizing member where it made several important contacts with Latin American companies, sealed with the signature of an agreement with Fidenor, Monterrey Free Zone ([[Mexico]]) -the city that will host the VII Latin American Conference of Free Zones- to create and start up a headquarter in that country. Nowadays, there is a close relationship with Colon Free Zone ([[Panama]]) and two other ones in [[Costa Rica]] and [[Dominican Republic]].

Nevertheless, in spite of its international vocation, Rilco pays a special attention to the companies located at Cadiz province and, in general, in Andalusia, to lead them towards wider and more modern markets, improving their activity through the New Technologies.

[[Category:Spanish People|Spain|*]]
[[Category:Politicians]]

Monster (novel)

2009-03-12T11:45:44Z

PhraseCop: because

'''''Monster''''' is a 2005 horror novel written by [[Christian]] author [[Frank E. Peretti]]. The novel deals with Christian views on random [[mutations]], [[natural selection]] and the [[theory of evolution]]. The book's treatment of evolution is through the terrible consequences of a scientist's experiments on [[chimpanzee]]s in an attempt to prove that [[ape]]s could evolve into [[humans]].

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}

The novel begins with a couple, Reed and Beck Shelton, who, along with some friends, are camping in the [[Idaho]] wilderness. Reed is very excited about the trip, but Beck would much rather stay home in the comforts of daily life. Reed is trying to get her to broaden her horizons by taking her into the wilderness for a week.

As the couple approach the cabin that they are going to be staying at, they find it trashed and partially destroyed. Reed suspects a [[bear]], so he and Beck stay up on a knoll overlooking the cabin for the night. However, that night the two are awakened by the sound of something rummaging through the cabin's remains, followed by a series of eerie howls. Finally, in a panic, the two run back down the trail they came on but Beck falls over a waterfall and is knocked unconcious at the bottom. Reed sees a giant creature carry her off into the night. He tries searching for her, but eventually gives up and falls asleep in a meadow.

Meanwhile, their two friends, Michael "Cap" Capella and his wife Sing are on their way to the campsite, unaware of the carnage that has taken place. They stop at Abney, a small alpine village on the edge of the Idaho wilderness, where they spend the night at a small hotel. The owner, Arlen Peak, tells them of some strange occurences that have been taking place. Herds of elk have been running through the area when it isn't migrating season, and some high-pitches howls have been heard in the woods at night. Arlen belives that it is a [[bigfoot]].

The next morning, Cap and Sing find Reed in the meadow. He tells them about the awful events that had taken place the night before, and they take him back to the hotel with them. Soon afterwards, a search party is organized the try to find Beck.

Beck wakes up to find herself in the arms of a gigantic [[gorilla]]-like animal, which seems to be trying to feed her serviceberries. Beck refuses at first (because she can't swallow the amount that is being forced into her mouth), but concedes shortly after realizing that it may be all she will eat for a while. The animal is alerted to the sounds of hunters coming through the woods, and runs off with Beck in its arms. They eventually end up with several other of the creatures, who turn out to be actual sasquatches. At first Beck only sees her abductor's rival and her single offspring, but then later meets the alpha male, who is none too pleased to see her. Nonetheless, she is accepted as one of the group. She even comes up with names for them: the big red one, her abductor, is named Rachel (after the biblical Rachel who was [[Laben]]'s daughter), Leah (after Laben's other daughter), her son Rueben (after Leah's firstborn son), and Jacob (after [[Isaac]]'s son and the husband of the two), the alpha male.

Reed tries to convince the party that it was no bear that did the damage, but most of them refuse to believe and proceed to set out bear stands in an attempt to capture one. Arlen seems to be the only one who will believe Reed, as no bear would have simply picked up a person and carried it. Cap, on the other hand, wishes to find out for himself what it was, and soon has his opportunity as another attack is reported not far away, by a young couple by the name of Ted and Melanie Brooks. Cap takes the saliva and dung samples left by the beast and attempts to get them analyzed at the university that he used to work at as a professor, before being fired because he was repeatedly finding problems with [[theory of evolution|Darwinism]]. The samples do not match any known creature, as they seem to contain the DNA of a chimpanzee, that has been contaminated with human DNA. Soon he meets up with several of his former co-workers, who seem to be trying to cover something up. This becomes apparent when Cap begins investigating the office of his former co-worker, Adam Burkhardt. He finds several jars, with preserved specimens of various mutated animals, none of which have survived.

Beck gradually adapts to the ways of her new "family", but it soon becomes apparent that the sasquatches are running from something. Beck thinks it may simply be hunters, and she soon discovers that several of them are indeed out, looking for her. They are anything but successful, however, as the sasquatches are exteremely adept at hiding and blending in with their surroundings. However, one man, by putting out fruit as bait, manages to capture some footprints.

Cap soon discovers that Burkhardt has moved out, and manages to convince his friend, Nick, to tell him where his former collegue went. It turns out that the professor has moved his lab to the wilderness, so that he can study and experiment alone, "without probing eyes". As Cap tours the lab, he finds several of Adam's accmplishments, which are either dead or deformed chimpanzee [[embryos]]. Finally, entering the back room, he finds several monstrous creatures that have been created. One of them has escaped from its cage and into the wilderness, and now Cap knows what has been doing all the killing. As he prepares to exit the lab, he is caught by one of the professors at the university, Phillip Merril, and two campus policemen. Cap, using the hideous, deformed creatures in Burkhardt's lab, demonstrates how mutations cannot work to produce a higher form of life, even controlled, purposeful mutations. Finally, he manages to get out and goes back to get the police.

Reed is further convinced that the creature that has been doing the killings was not a bear, when it kills his boss, Sheriff Mills, by wringing his neck, the same way as it had killed all the others. The others continue to search, but when Reed finds a piece of his wife's bloodied buckskin jacket, he is convinced that she is dead and gives up. However, upon investigation he finds that it is several days old, and continues. Soon, a conspiracy is apparent, as Sing is nearly killed by a member of the team, and the head of the search party, Pete, is murdered by another. Reed is nearly killed, but manages to kill his foe before he can try again.

The sasquatches are running again, this time from something that is definitely not human. Rachel suddenly decides to take a small side-trip, apparently smelling something familiar. In the brush, Beck sees the mostly-eaten corpse of a sasquatch child, with some reddish-brown hairs still on it. Beck realizes that Rachel must have lost her child to the brutal killer that fateful night when Beck and Reed were camped on the knoll, and that Rachel mistook Beck for her own child. As she howls mournfully, she is hurried off by Jacob, leaving Beck alone in the woods. Making her way down the mountain slope, Beck hears something behind her. She turns and soon sees a creature coming through the trees; a hideous, deformed chimpanzee-like beast. It tries to kill her, but then it is killed by a shotgun. A hunter steps into the clearing, and introduces himself to Beck as Adam Burkhardt. He tells her that the monster is the result of "an experiment gone horribly awry", and that it has been doing the killings. Finally, he reveals that he is here to kill her, so that no one will find out about his experiments. However, just as he is about to, Jacob appears in the clearing and knocks him away.

Reed soon finds Beck in the clearing, and after managing to convince Rachel that he is not a threat, she reunites with him. However, soon they are confronted by Adam Burkhardt, who Reed identifies as Max Johnson, a member of the search party. Burkhardt had been in the party all along, under an alias. He tells them that he "must survive" and kill them, but Reed finally puts some sense into his head by telling him that he will end up like his monster if he does so. Adam surrenders and is placed under arrest as Cap arrives with the police.

==Analysis==

Through ''Monster'', Frank Peretti shows the flaws of evolutionary thinking, through the ever-popular science fiction genre. Adam Burkhardt had tried to prove that evolution was true by producing a stronger, more dominant creature through viral transfers. However, he proved nothing other than the exact opposite: mutations cannot produce a higher form of life, and all they are able to do is cause deformities, disabilites and death. Burkhardt had intended the animal to be dominant, but had instead produced a deranged killer.

[[Category:Books]]

Near-death experience

2009-03-12T11:44:49Z

PhraseCop: because

A '''near-death experience''' is an experience reported by someone who is clinically brain-dead or nearly died. Common reports in near-death experiences involve feeling out of one's body seeing events around themselves, and the seeing of bright lights and experiences of feeling like one is floating. Some have interpreted such experiences as evidence for an afterlife while skeptics and many scientists have dismissed the experiences as hallucinations.
[http://skepdic.com/nde.html] However, the evidence for this claim is not sufficient because the brain cannot hallucinate while it is clinically dead. Most people (and many other scientists) generally accept this as evidence of an [[afterlife]]. However, many [[Christian]]s suspect that NDEs may be the result of [[demon]]ic influences.

[[category:psychology]]
[[category:religion]]

Reche Caldwell

2009-03-12T11:43:11Z

PhraseCop: because

[[Image:CaldPats.gif|200px|thumb|Caldwell at the Patriots 2006 Training Camp]]
'''Reche Caldwell''' is a [[National Football League]] (NFL) wide receiver for the [[Washington Redskins]]. He was born on March 28, 1979 in Tampa Florida. His real first name is Donald.... Reche weighs 210 pounds and is 6 feet tall. His brother [[Andre Caldwell]], who also plays wide receiver, is attending the [[University of Florida]] and was a key contributer to the Gators football team that won the 2006 BCS Championship Team.

== High School Football ==
Caldwell attended Jefferson High School in [[Tampa]], [[Florida]] from 1994 -1997. He started at quarterback for the team and passed for 6936 yards and 77 touchdowns and was the District MVP in both his senior and junior seasons (1996 & 1997). As a junior he was also a finalist for the Florida's Mr. Football Award.

== College Career ==
Reche Caldwell played wide receiver for the [[University of Florida]] from 1998 to 2001. In his senior year he a semifinalist for the [[Biletnikoff Award]] (college footballs best receiver award) and became only one of nine Florida receivers in history to gain over thousand yards in a season.

=== University of Florida Stats ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Team
! Rec
! Yds
! Avg
! Lg
! TD
|-
|1999
|FL
|27
|269
|10
|46
|2
|-
|2000
|FL
|49
|760
|15.5
|66
|6
|-
|2001
|FL
|65
|1059
|16.3
|64
|10
|-
!Total
!
! 141
! 2,088
!14.8
!66
!18
|-
{|

== NFL Career==
===2002-2005===
In 2002, Caldwell was picked by the [[San Diego Chargers]] in the second round of the [[2002 NFL draft]]. He played for the Chargers for four seasons as a third or forth wide receiver. As a Charger Caldwell had a total production of 76 receptions for 950 yards and seven touchdowns. In his rookie season he also returned nine kicks for 220 yards. One area that he struggled with was not getting injured. In the 2003 and 2004 seasons, Reche only played in fourteen games total in that period (out of a possible 32 games) due to numerous bodily aliments. However, the 2005 season brought better luck and better health for Reche. In 2005, for the first time since his rookie season, he stayed injury free all year and had his best season up to that point in his career.

===2006===
In 2006 Caldwell's contract with the Chargers ran out and he became a free agent. In the first day of the NFL free agency, March 2, 2006, he signed with the [[New England Patriots]] to a three year deal. Because the Patriots wide receiver core was depleted from loses in free agency and a trade ([[Deion Branch]] being traded to Settle for a first round pick after a contract dispute) Caldwell quickly inherited the role of number one wide receiver in the Patriots offense. He carried the burden far better then expected. His first season as a Patriots was a breakout one. Not only did he set career records in all of his offense categories - but he also managed to stay relatively injury free playing in 15 games while starting 14 of them. He finished the regular season with 61 receptions for 760 yards and 4 touchdowns. He also had two games over 100 yards receiving.

In his first three games of playoff action with the Patriots he amassed 16 receptions for 176 yards and 1 touchdown. He also had both his most memorial play - and the play that he would most like to forget of his career in the 2006 playoffs. In the AFC division game vs. his former team, the [[San Diego Chargers]], Reche caught a pass for 49 yards for a first down on a third down and long play in the forth quarter with under two minutes left in the game. The Patriots would end up winning the game on a field goal from the field position gained on the reception. The next week in the AFC Championship game vs. the [[Indianapolis Colts]] Caldwell, dropped two potential touchdown passes. The second drop forced that Patriots to kick a field goal and they ended up losing by four points that a touchdown would have given them.

===2007===
After the completion of the Patriots 2007 preseason and training camp, Cardwell was released by the Patriots<ref>[http://www.patriots.com/news/index.cfm?ac=latestnewsdetail&pid=27464&pcid=47 Patriots.com, September 3, 2007, "Patriots release WR Reche Caldwell"]</ref>. He was signed by the [[Washington Redskins]] on September 11, 2007<ref>http://www.boston.com/sports/football/patriots/reiss_pieces/2007/09/caldwell_signs.html</ref>.

=== NFL Stats ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Team
! Rec
! Yds
! Avg
! Lg
! TD
|-
|2002
|SD
|22
|208
|9.5
|26
|3
|-
|2003
|SD
|8
|80
|10
|15
|0
|-
|2004
|SD
|18
|310
|17.2
|58
|3
|-
|2005
|SD
|28
|352
|12.6
|43
|1
|-
|2006
|NE
|61
|760
|12.5
|62
|4
|-
!Total
!
!137
!1710
!12.5
!62
!11
|-
{|

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.nfl.com/players/rechecaldwell/profile?id=CAL277848 NFL Stats]
*[http://www.patriots.com/team/index.cfm?ac=playerbio&bio=31420 Patriots Bio]
*[http://www.nflplayers.com/players/player.aspx?id=33024 NFL Players Bio]
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/players/5934/ SI.com Bio]
*[http://www.nfl.com/draft/2002/profiles/caldwell_reche.htm NFL.com Draft Profile]
*[http://i2.chargers.com/news/headlines/news-102749400019057.htm Chargers.com Interview]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Caldwell, Reche}}

[[Category:NFL Players]]

Orville Wright

2009-03-12T11:42:24Z

PhraseCop: because

'''Orville Wright''' (1871 - 1948) was the first to fly the flying machine he and his brother [[Wilbur Wright]] created. These American brothers are generally credited with the invention of the first [[airplane]] (though whether they were truly first or not is debatable). They first flew their aircraft in [[Kitty Hawk]], [[North Carolina]].

Orville was born at Dayton, Indiana, in the year of 1871. Like his brother Wilbur, he never graduated from high school because he took special subjects in his junior year of high school instead of a prescribed course. Wilbur, however, did not graduate because he failed to attend the commencement ceremonies. Together the brothers started a [[bicycle]] shop, called the "Wright Cycle Company", were they built, sold, and repaired bicycles.

The two became interested in [[aviation]] when they read an article on the death of a daring glider pilot and inventor named [[Otto Lilienthal]]. In 1899, they began to experiment with a biplane kite. The next year, the brothers went to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, to test a 16 foot (ft.) glider, which cost them $15.00 to build. They returned to Kitty Hawk in 1901 to experiment with a larger non-motor powered aircraft, but neither glider had the lift they had counted on. They concluded that the published tables of air pressure on curved surfaces were all wrong.

The brothers built a [[wind tunnel]] in their bicycle shop, and began experiments with model wings. From these tests, they determined the first reliable air pressure tables on curved surfaces. They then built a new glider in 1902, with [[aerodynamic]] qualities far in advance of its time. By the fall of 1903, they had completed building a machine that weighed just over 750 pounds with the pilot, and it had a 40 ft. wing span. But would it fly? That remained to be seen.

On December 17, 1903, they returned to Kitty Hawk to test the new aircraft. Orville piloted the machine, and he flew 120 ft. in just over 12 seconds.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wright, Orville}}

[[category:Inventors]]

Canterbury Tales

2009-03-12T11:41:50Z

PhraseCop: because

'''''The Canterbury Tales''''' is a collection of stories by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (1342-1400), written between 1387 and 1400.<ref> http://www.librarius.com/cantales.htm </ref> It concerns a group of thirty [[pilgrim]]s traveling to [[Canterbury]] in [[England]]. The pilgrims, who come from all layers of society, tell stories to each other to kill time while they travel to Canterbury. In the General Prologue to the work, Chaucer states as his intention that each pilgrim should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two tales on the way back.<ref> To this end Chaucer's text reads: "This is the poynt, to speken short and pleyn, / That ech of yow, to shorte with oure weye, / In this viage shal telle tales tweye / To Caunterbury-ward, I mene it so, / And homward he shal tellen othere two, / Of aventures that whilom han bifalle" (General Prologue, lines 792-97).</ref>

This project was left incomplete at Chaucer's death in 1400, and even those tales which were then completed had not been finally revised. Partially as a result of this, and partially because the printing press had yet to be invented when Chaucer wrote his works, ''The Canterbury Tales'' was passed down in several handwritten manuscripts. Scholars are uncertain about the intended order of the tales.

In the tales, pilgrims are given distinct personalities and characters, and the work is considered to be one of the precursors of the modern novel. Many of the tales are ribald and earthy and full of humor. Some of the more notable tales are<ref> For a full account of all the tales see: http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/cantales.html </ref>:

* "The Knight’s Tale": This is the first tale, a story rich in love, rivalry and chivalry. Two men fall in love with the same beautiful young girl.

* "The Miller’s Tale": A bawdy but humorous tale, telling a rather different story of love.

* "The Wife of Bath’s Tale": A woman who has had five husbands tells a thoughtful tale which poses the question, "What thyng is it that wommen moost desiren[?]" ("What do women most desire?"). Her romantic tale is set in the time of King Arthur.

* "The Nun’s Priest’s Tale": An animated farmyard tale of a cockerel, a hen and a wily old fox.

* "The Pardoner’s Tale": A thrilling tale of death and trickery and one which will leave you with a slight tingle down your spine. The tale has an unexpected ending.

Chaucer wrote in [[Middle English]], a form of English that is so archaic that it can be difficult to understand without a glossary or explanatory notes. Most modern English readers prefer to read it in translation.

===References===

<references/>

[[category:literature]]