Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Hiragana

2008-05-23T13:53:46Z

PTBairns:

None of these forms of writing are actually ''alphabets''. [[User:PTBairns|PTBairns]] 09:49, 23 May 2008 (EDT)
:In addition, there are spaces between words in modern Japanese writing, and kanji are not used to distinguish where words begin and end. Kanji are the roots of all Japanese words (like Latin or German in English), and hiragana is used for verb endings, prefixes, suffixes, prepositions, etc. [[User:PTBairns|PTBairns]] 09:52, 23 May 2008 (EDT)
::While "muddied" is the translation of the Japanese term, the English term is "voiced", not "muddied". [[User:PTBairns|PTBairns]] 09:53, 23 May 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Hiragana

2008-05-23T13:52:12Z

PTBairns:

Talk:Hiragana

2008-05-23T13:49:17Z

PTBairns: New page: None of these forms of writing are actually ''alphabets''. ~~~~

None of these forms of writing are actually ''alphabets''. [[User:PTBairns|PTBairns]] 09:49, 23 May 2008 (EDT)

Himalayas

2008-05-20T18:54:37Z

PTBairns: typo

The '''Himalayas''' are a mountain range in south-central [[Asia]], in the states of [[India]], [[China]] ([[Tibet]]), [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]].

The range contains the three highest peaks in the world: [[Mount Everest]], [[K2]] and [[Kangchenjunga]]. The Himalayas formed as a result of the collision of the Arabian and the Australian-Indian tectonic plates. The mountains are still rising as a result of this ongoing collision. <ref>http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm</ref>

The Himalayas are a center of [[Buddhism]], and especially the segment of Buddhism associated with the [[Dalai Lama]].

[[Category:Mountains]]

Himalayas

2008-05-20T18:53:38Z

PTBairns:

The '''Himalayas''' are a mountain range in south-central [[Asia]], in the states of [[India]], [[China]] ([[Tibet]]), [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]].

The range contains the three highest peaks in the world: [[Mount Everest]], [[K2]] and [[Kangchenjunga]]. The Himalayas formed aas a result of the collision of the Arabian and the Australian-Indian tectonic plates. The mountains are still rising as a result of this ongoing collision. <ref>http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm</ref>

The Himalayas are a center of [[Buddhism]], and especially the segment of Buddhism associated with the [[Dalai Lama]].

[[Category:Mountains]]

Autosomal chromosome

2008-05-20T18:39:40Z

PTBairns:

'''Autosomal chromosomes''' are [[chromosome]]s other than those that determine an organism's sex. In humans this includes all but the "X" and "Y" chromosomes.

[[category:genetics]]

The Tale of Genji

2008-05-20T18:37:36Z

PTBairns: typo

'''''The Tale of Genji''''' was a novel written in the eleventh century AD by [[Lady Murasaki]] about life in the Japanese Emperor's court during the [[Heian Period]].

The main character, Genji, was a prince who used his power to seduce women and kidnap girls. He provided each one with their own room and individual garden in a mansion he built especially for his wives and concubines.

In his old age he repented his sins and turned to Buddhism for solace.

[[Category:Novels|Tale of Genji]]

Trilobite

2008-05-19T18:20:18Z

PTBairns:

'''Trilobites''' are an extinct form of [[arthropod]]. They came in a wide variety of sizes ranging from being under a millimeter long to being over two feet in length. [[Evolution]]ists believe that trilobites existed over 300 million years ago and went extinct at the end of the [[Permian]] period.

Trilobites first appeared some 600 million years ago during the Cambrian period. They belonged to the phylum Arthropodal (joint-footed), a phylum which to this day represents the most successful in terms of numbers (78%) of all animal life forms, including crabs, centipedes, spiders, shrimps and insects. The name Trilobite, meaning three lobed one, refers to the three longitudinal lobes across the head (cephalon). The entire bodies were also divided into three: the head (cephalon), thorax (chest) made of up to 30 segments and the tail (pygidium). Underneath and rarely preserved are three pairs of legs for the head and paired legs for each pleural groove. Trilobites are the earliest known animal to possess vision. Some possessed eyes and some seem to have no eyes at all, while others possessed beautiful compound eyes capable of 360 degree vision.<ref>http://www.trilobite.com</ref>

The trilobite is Ohio's official state fossil.<ref>Ohio Revised Code 5.071</ref>

==References==
<references />

==Links==
*[http://www.trilobites.info/ Guide to Trilobites]
*[http://www.westernta.com/ Western Trilobite Association]

[[Category:Invertebrates]]

Trilobite

2008-05-19T18:19:52Z

PTBairns:

'''Trilobites''' are an extinct form of [[arthropod]]. They came in a wide variety of sizes ranging from being under a millimeter long to being over two feet in length. [[Evolution]]ists believe that trilobites existed over 300 million years ago and went extinct at the end of the [[Permian]] period.

Trilobites first appeared some 600 million years ago during the Cambrian period. They belonged the phylum Arthropodal (joint-footed), a phylum which to this day represents the most successful in terms of numbers (78%) of all animal life forms, including crabs, centipedes, spiders, shrimps and insects. The name Trilobite, meaning three lobed one, refers to the three longitudinal lobes across the head (cephalon). The entire bodies were also divided into three: the head (cephalon), thorax (chest) made of up to 30 segments and the tail (pygidium). Underneath and rarely preserved are three pairs of legs for the head and paired legs for each pleural groove. Trilobites are the earliest known animal to possess vision. Some possessed eyes and some seem to have no eyes at all, while others possessed beautiful compound eyes capable of 360 degree vision.<ref>http://www.trilobite.com</ref>

The trilobite is Ohio's official state fossil.<ref>Ohio Revised Code 5.071</ref>

==References==
<references />

==Links==
*[http://www.trilobites.info/ Guide to Trilobites]
*[http://www.westernta.com/ Western Trilobite Association]

[[Category:Invertebrates]]

The Tale of Genji

2008-05-19T18:17:29Z

PTBairns:

'''''The Tale of Genji''''' was a novel written in the eleventh century AD by [[Lady Murasaki]] about life in the Japanese Emperor's court during the [[Heian Period]].

The main character, Genji, was a prince who used his power to seduce women and kidnap girls. He married provided each one with their own room and individual garden in a mansion he built specially for his wives and concubines.

In his old age he repented his sins and turned to Buddhism for solace.

[[Category:Novels|Tale of Genji]]

Parkinson's disease

2008-05-19T18:08:59Z

PTBairns:

'''Parkinson's disease''' is a progressive [[neurological]] [[disorder]] that results from the [[degeneration]] of dopaminergic [[nerve]] cells in a region of the [[brain]] that involves the control of smooth coordinated muscle movement. The first symptom of the disease is usually [[tremor]] of a [[limb]], especially when the body is at rest. <ref>http://www.genome.gov/glossary.cfm?key=Parkinson%27s%20disease</ref>

The disease was first brought to the attention of the medical world in 1817 by an English physician by the name of James Parkinson, who described the condition as the “shaking palsy” because of the trembling limbs of those who suffer from the malady. Rigid or “frozen” muscles, slowness of movement and clumsiness are among other common symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Diagnosis is often problematic because the symptoms of the disease are often confused with those of other conditions. Misdiagnosis, especially in the early stages of the disease, is fairly common and in fact many Parkinson’s patients are never diagnosed at all (the condition may only be revealed after death during a post mortem). In recent years, the disease can be effectively managed as long as it’s identified early enough and appropriate treatment is started. <ref>http://www.guide4living.com/parkinsons/</ref>

== References ==

<References/>

[[Category:Diseases]]

Osmosis

2008-05-19T17:59:39Z

PTBairns:

'''Osmosis''' is movement of a solvent (such as water) across a semipermeable [[membrane]] into areas of higher [[solute]] [[concentration]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia
Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref> '''Osmotic pressure''' determines the quantity of water displaced; it is proportional to the number of solute particles in a give volume of solution.

===See Also===
*[[Cell]]
*[[Reverse Osmosis]]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Biochemistry]]

Sea level

2008-05-15T16:56:14Z

PTBairns:

'''Sea level''' is the level occupied by the top of the world's [[ocean]]s. It is a reference point that is often used to define [[elevation]].

[[Category: Measurements]]
[[Category: Geology]]

User:PTBairns

2008-05-15T16:41:05Z

PTBairns:

I'm a science major with a minor in religion. Am interested in the dialog between religion and science that takes place on this site. I am also interested in the early history and historical development of Christianity.

Genetic factors

2008-05-15T16:40:18Z

PTBairns:

Physical traits determined by the expression of a person's [[DNA]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[category:genetics]]

Northwest Territory

2008-05-15T16:14:38Z

PTBairns:

The '''Northwest Territory''' was the territory northwest of the American colonies in the 1780s: including present-day [[Ohio]], [[Michigan]] and [[Illinois]]. Britain ceded ownership of the area to the United States as a result of the War of 1812.

[[category:United States History]]

Montpelier

2008-05-15T16:11:45Z

PTBairns:

'''Montpelier''' is the capital city of [[Vermont]]. Montpelier is located in a picturesque valley along the Winooski River in Central Vermont. Montpelier is the nation's smallest state capital, and the city's has historic neighborhoods and a diverse community While best known as Vermont's capital city, Montpelier is also known for its many institutions of higher learning, its national insurance company headquarters, its historic and architectural riches, and its location in the heart of Vermont ski country. <ref>http://www.montpelier-vt.org/welcome.cfm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:United States Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:US State Capitals]]

Essay:Conservapedia Awards

2008-05-14T20:08:13Z

PTBairns: /* Nominations */

Conservapedia should consider giving annual awards to people who add value to the world with a creative or striking [[conservative]] insight, project, accomplishment, sacrifice or some equivalent.

First we should develop a simple set of guidelines for the awards, a proposal for what the award would be, and then we can solicit nominations.

== Guidelines ==
# Unique contributions to the world which enable more people to become aware of [[conservative values]].
# Insight in applying [[conservative values]] to help others individually.
# Effort in reaching teenagers who are troubled due to [[liberal]] indoctrination or lack of awareness of [[conservative values]]
# Someone who overcome personal challenges and spread [[conservative values]] for the benefit of others
# Use or development of innovation in connection with the contribution.
# No one associated with Conservapedia may be nominated for an initial award.

(please add)

== Name for the Award ==

(suggestions welcome)

*the [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Ronny]]

== Nominations ==

# The developer(s) of the wiki software for its value in bringing [[conservative values]] to millions of page views.
# [[Henry Morris]] II (posthumous), founder of the [[Institute for Creation Research]]
# [[Chris Ashcraft]], founder of the [[Northwest Creation Network]] and of [[CreationWiki]].
# [[Phyllis Schlafly]], for a lifetime of contributions to the Conservative movement.
# Reverend [[Donald E. Wildmon]], founder of the [[American Family Association]] and [[American Family Radio]].
# [[Vice-President Cheney]], a true Patriot.

Margaret Thatcher should have a lifetime achievement award.

(only add here after more has been filled in above)
[[Category:Essay]]

Painting

2008-05-14T18:54:45Z

PTBairns: /* History */

<div style="width: 70%; margin: 0 15% 1em 15%; text-align: left; background-color: #DEE6ED; padding: 0.5em; border: solid 1px #6699CC;"><big>This article is currently being actively edited and rewritten - to avoid edit conflict and duplication of work please refrain from making edits until this notice is removed. Estimated editing time: 2 hours. Thank you</big></div>
[[Image:Cave art at Lascaux.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Cave art c.15000-10000 B.C. discovered at Lascaux, France]]
[[Painting]], in its most basic form, can be defined as "the process, art, or occupation of coating surfaces with [[paint]] for a utilitarian or artistic effect."<ref>''Painting''. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. (Houghton Mifflin Company; 2000).</ref> An artistic composition made by applying paints to a surface is also "a painting."

==History==
Painting as an [[art]] form is known to have been practiced all over the world since the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period<ref>[http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/glossary/definition.jsp?entryId=435 ''Painting'']. Glossary. The Tate Collection. Tate.org.uk. 14 May 2008</ref>, with fine examples of cave paintings over 17,000 years old being discovered in Lascaux and the Ardèche Valley in [[France]] which demonstrate the conscious use of skill and creative imagination: "They are not stick figures or squiggles. Lines are clear and filled with tints. The animals are vibrant. By utilizing cave features, some of the renderings even have perspective."<ref>[http://www.beyondbooks.com/art11/2.asp ''Painting before 1300'']. History of Painting. BeyondBooks.com. 14 May 2008</ref> These paintings were made using [[pigment]]s inherent in variously coloured earths and powdered rock applied directly to the cave walls and usually depict [[animal]]s, although there are also some human figures.

Essentially, painting has changed very little since these times: the surfaces have evolved through rock faces, the walls of buildings, [[silk]], [[paper]], [[wood]], [[cloth]] and [[canvas]], while the range of pigments used have encompassed earths and minerals, plant extracts and modern synthetic colours. The earliest example of silk painting was excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb in central [[China]] of the Warring States Period (476-221 B.C.)<ref>[http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_artqa/2004-01/19/content_45741.htm ''Chinese Painting'']. ChinaCulture.org. 14 May 2008</ref> The pigments have also been mixed with water and gums to make paint,<ref>''Painting.'' The Tate Collection. op cit.</ref> and the earliest known examples of oil paints were used in [[Afghanistan]] in the seventh century, derived possibly from [[walnut]]s or the [[poppy|poppies]] which grew in the area.<ref>Dowd, Vincent. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7361994.stm ''Oil painting originated in East'']. BBC News. 22 April 2008. news.bbc.co.uk 14 May 2008</ref> Oil paints were eventually introduced in [[Europe]] in the fifteenth century using [[linseed]] oil. The flexibility and durability of this new medium "played a major part in the explosion of creativity in Western painting during and after the [[Renaissance]]."<ref>''Painting.'' The Tate Collection. op cit.</ref>

===Cultural styles===
[[Image:Nefertari Merytmut.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Egyptian wall painting c. 1300–1250 B.C. depicting Queen Nefertari Merytmut]]
From the fourth century onwards the early civilizations of the Mediterranean region and Europe began to produce paintings of sufficiently consistent artistic style that art [[history|historians]] and [[archaeology|archaeologists]] are able to distinguish which works belonged to which cultures. "Egyptian artwork is highly detailed, their figures are still and appear rigid. [[Minoa|Minoan]] art [2800 B.C. onwards], on the other hand, is extraordinary for its sense of movement and its emphasis on the living world."<ref>''Painting before 1300.'' op cit</ref> Few examples of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] painting (c. 600-100 B.C.) have survived, originally painted on wood which has rotted away or buildings which have been destroyed. Its style was very influential however on the Roman style of paintings, which spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] into the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]] and Europe.

[[Christianity]] brought further change to the Roman style, particularly as the "illustration of the Gospels was... necessary in order to spread the beliefs to the new converts, most of whom were illiterate. After the Roman Empire collapsed, Europe's greatest inheritance was the Roman-Christian tradition, which was heavily infused with classical ideas and Christian artistic styles. Despite some scholarly belief that the [[Middle Ages]] was a period of artistic decline, the existence of beautiful painted manuscripts and glowing altars from that period suggests otherwise."<ref>''Painting before 1300.'' op cit.</ref>
[[Image:Pompeii_fresco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Detail of a Roman fresco c.70 A.D. discovered at [[Pompeii]]]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Painting]]

Painting

2008-05-14T18:53:03Z

PTBairns: /* History */

<div style="width: 70%; margin: 0 15% 1em 15%; text-align: left; background-color: #DEE6ED; padding: 0.5em; border: solid 1px #6699CC;"><big>This article is currently being actively edited and rewritten - to avoid edit conflict and duplication of work please refrain from making edits until this notice is removed. Estimated editing time: 2 hours. Thank you</big></div>
[[Image:Cave art at Lascaux.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Cave art c.15000-10000 B.C. discovered at Lascaux, France]]
[[Painting]], in its most basic form, can be defined as "the process, art, or occupation of coating surfaces with [[paint]] for a utilitarian or artistic effect."<ref>''Painting''. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. (Houghton Mifflin Company; 2000).</ref> An artistic composition made by applying paints to a surface is also "a painting."

==History==
Painting as an [[art]] form is known to have been practiced all over the world since the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period<ref>[http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/glossary/definition.jsp?entryId=435 ''Painting'']. Glossary. The Tate Collection. Tate.org.uk. 14 May 2008</ref>, with fine examples of cave paintings over 17,000 years old being discovered in Lascaux and the Ardèche Valley in [[France]] which demonstrate the conscious use of skill and creative imagination: "They are not stick figures or squiggles. Lines are clear and filled with tints. The animals are vibrant. By utilizing cave features, some of the renderings even have perspective."<ref>[http://www.beyondbooks.com/art11/2.asp ''Painting before 1300'']. History of Painting. BeyondBooks.com. 14 May 2008</ref> These paintings were made using [[pigment]]s inherent in variously coloured earths and powdered rock applied directly to the cave walls and usually depict [[animal]]s, although there are also some human figures.

Essentially, painting has changed very little since these times: the surfaces have evolved through rock faces, the walls of buildings, [[silk]], [[paper]], [[wood]], [[cloth]] and [[canvas]], while the range of pigments used have encompassed earths and minerals, plant extracts and modern synthetic colours. The earliest example of silk painting was excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb in central [[China]] of the Warring States Period (476-221 B.C.)<ref>[http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_artqa/2004-01/19/content_45741.htm ''Chinese Painting'']. ChinaCulture.org. 14 May 2008</ref> The pigments have also been mixed with water and gums to make paint,<ref>''Painting.'' The Tate Collection. op cit.</ref> and the earliest known examples of oil paints were used in [[Afghanistan]] in the seventh century, derived possibly from [[walnut]]s or the [[poppy|poppies]] which grew in the area.<ref>Dowd, Vincent. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7361994.stm ''Oil painting originated in East'']. BBC News. 22 April 2008. news.bbc.co.uk 14 May 2008</ref> Oil paints were eventually introduced in [[Europe]] in the fifteenth century using [[linseed]] oil. The flexibility and durability of this new medium "played a major part in the explosion of creativity in Western painting at the [[Renaissance]] and after."<ref>''Painting.'' The Tate Collection. op cit.</ref>

===Cultural styles===
[[Image:Nefertari Merytmut.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Egyptian wall painting c. 1300–1250 B.C. depicting Queen Nefertari Merytmut]]
From the fourth century onwards the early civilizations of the Mediterranean region and Europe began to produce paintings of sufficiently consistent artistic style that art [[history|historians]] and [[archaeology|archaeologists]] are able to distinguish which works belonged to which cultures. "Egyptian artwork is highly detailed, their figures are still and appear rigid. [[Minoa|Minoan]] art [2800 B.C. onwards], on the other hand, is extraordinary for its sense of movement and its emphasis on the living world."<ref>''Painting before 1300.'' op cit</ref> Few examples of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] painting (c. 600-100 B.C.) have survived, originally painted on wood which has rotted away or buildings which have been destroyed. Its style was very influential however on the Roman style of paintings, which spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] into the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]] and Europe.

[[Christianity]] brought further change to the Roman style, particularly as the "illustration of the Gospels was... necessary in order to spread the beliefs to the new converts, most of whom were illiterate. After the Roman Empire collapsed, Europe's greatest inheritance was the Roman-Christian tradition, which was heavily infused with classical ideas and Christian artistic styles. Despite some scholarly belief that the [[Middle Ages]] was a period of artistic decline, the existence of beautiful painted manuscripts and glowing altars from that period suggests otherwise."<ref>''Painting before 1300.'' op cit.</ref>
[[Image:Pompeii_fresco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Detail of a Roman fresco c.70 A.D. discovered at [[Pompeii]]]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Painting]]

Meiji Restoration

2008-05-14T18:49:31Z

PTBairns: /* Politics */

The phrase '''Meiji restoration''' ''(明治維新 Meiji-ishin)'' refers to the events both during and following 1868, which resulted in the restoration of power to the [[Emperor]], as well as the period of significant social and economic reforms within Japanese society that coincided with the [[Meiji]] emperor's reign (1868–1912)<ref>W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972)</ref>.

==History==
Faced with increasing local dissent, fueled by the influence of Western powers, especially the Americans under Admiral [[Matthew Perry|Matthew C. Perry]], and increasing pressure from feudal landlords, the Tokugawa shogunate finally submitted in 1854 to foreign demands and signed a number of treaties that effectively ended Japan's isolation from the outside world. However, as they had done with other subjugated Asian nations, these treaties drawn up by the Western imperial powers were extremely one-sided, granting the Westerners unfair economic and legal benefits within Japan. In an attempt to regain her independence from the [[European]]s and [[American]]s and establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the gap with the Western powers, both economically and militarily. This resulted in drastic reforms being carried out across all sectors of the economy and society. <ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

The Western influence was challenged unsuccessfully by the powerful [[Choshu]] and [[Satsuma]] domains of Western Japan and after their defeat in 1863, they demanded creation of a new government, loyal to the emperor, with the aim of expelling the foreigners. In January 1868, a palace coup took place, led by [[Samurai]] from these two domains, supported by anti-Tokugawa court nobles. This resulted in the abolition of the shogunate and returned power to the Emperor. Shortly afterwards, the court was moved from Kyoto (meaning "Capital City") to Edo (later renamed [[Tokyo]], meaning “Eastern Capital”), where a centralised administration was established.

== Reforms ==
Dramatic reforms were implemented across all areas of Japanese society, under the slogan '' “Fukoku Kyohei” (富国挙兵 enrich the country and strengthen the military)'', in an attempt by the new government to make Japan a democratic state, with equal rights for all its citizens, and to make Japan a power equal to the stronger western nations. This resulted in the class boundaries of Tokugawa Japan being gradually broken down. As a result, the Samurai lost all their privileges, despite the fact that their actions had precipitated the reforms. The reforms also included the introduction of basic human rights such as religious freedom, which was introduced in 1873.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

In order to stabilise the new government, the former [[feudal]] landlords were required to return ownership of all their lands to the control of the Emperor. This process was completed by 1870 and thereafter was followed by the restructuring of the country into [[prefecture]]s, which still exist to this day. The education system was remodeled, based firstly upon the French and later the German schooling systems. During this time, compulsory education was introduced. In addition, many Japanese scholars and politicians were sent abroad to study the Western education and political systems and to research new and existing technologies present in Europe and North America. At the same time, many Westerners were invited to Japan to help build and develop new industries there.<ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

It was around this time that industries such as beer brewing, dairy production and Japan's first railway system were introduced, all under the supervision of Westerners. Large government investments were undertaken to improve infrastructure. The transportation and communication networks in particular benefited from this funding. In addition, the government also directly supported the growth of business and industry, paying attention to the large and powerful family businesses, [[zaibatsu]] ‘’ 財閥 lit. financial clique’’, in particular. <ref>Wall, Rachel F., Japan's Century: An Interpretation of Japanese History since the Eighteen-fifties (1971)</ref>

At the same time, Japan prioritised the development of her military, as a counter-measure to the European and American imperialist forces holding sway in the region at the time. The army was remodeled on the Prussian example and universal conscription was introduced, and later the new navy was structured on similar principles to Britain’s Royal Navy.

== Setbacks ==
A couple of decades into this period of intensive westernisation, conservative and nationalistic feelings began to strengthen again. The principles of [[Confucianism]] and [[Shinto]], including the worship of the Emperor, were taught with increasing emphasis at educational institutions.

The extensive government spending led to a financial crisis in the mid 1880's, which was followed by a reform of the currency system and the establishment of the [[Bank of Japan]].

In spite of the increasing industrialisation of the country, the textile industry grew at the fastest rate and remained the largest Japanese industry until [[World War 2]]. Work conditions in the early factories were poor, but developing socialist and liberal movements were soon suppressed by the ruling clique, thus not only preventing any significant improvement in working conditions, but resulting in a largely subservient and obedient workforce. Combined with the increasing emphasis on Emperor-worship, it could be argued that even at this early date, the seeds had been sown for the fanaticism shown in the build up to, and during, World War 2. <ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== Politics ==
[[Japan]] adopted its first [[European]]-style [[constitution]] in 1889. A parliament, the [[Diet]] was established, although the [[Emperor]] maintained his sovereignty - On paper he headed up all arms of the military, as well as wielding executive and legislative power. The ruling clique, however, kept a firm hold on the reigns of actual power, and the intelligent and capable Emperor [[Meiji]] approved the majority of their actions. A lack of unity among their members prevented the various political parties from wielding any significant power.

Conflicts of interests in [[Korea]], between [[China]] and [[Japan]] gave rise to to the [[Sino-Japanese War]] in 1894-95. Japan defeated China, but was forced by [[Russia]], [[France]] and [[Germany]] to relinquish the territories she’d captured,in the end only managing to annex [[Taiwan]]. This so-called [[Triple Intervention]] led to a stiffening of resolve by the Japanese against the western imperial powers, and an intensification of the build-up of the army and navy.

New conflicts of interests in [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]], this time between [[Russia]] and [[Japan]], led to the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904-05. The Japanese army was once again victorious, thus gaining additional territories, including the full annexation of [[Korea]] in 1910, and international respect. The successes in the recent wars resulted in a surge of nationalism, which filtered through to other Asian nations, which also started to develop national self confidence and identity. In addition, it finally allowed Japan to declare the one-sided treaties with the West null and void, and emerge as a world power.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== End of an Era ==
In 1912 emperor Meiji died, and with his passing, the era of the ruling clique of elder statesmen (genro) was about to follow suit.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Japan]]

Meiji Restoration

2008-05-14T18:44:45Z

PTBairns: /* Reforms */

The phrase '''Meiji restoration''' ''(明治維新 Meiji-ishin)'' refers to the events both during and following 1868, which resulted in the restoration of power to the [[Emperor]], as well as the period of significant social and economic reforms within Japanese society that coincided with the [[Meiji]] emperor's reign (1868–1912)<ref>W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972)</ref>.

==History==
Faced with increasing local dissent, fueled by the influence of Western powers, especially the Americans under Admiral [[Matthew Perry|Matthew C. Perry]], and increasing pressure from feudal landlords, the Tokugawa shogunate finally submitted in 1854 to foreign demands and signed a number of treaties that effectively ended Japan's isolation from the outside world. However, as they had done with other subjugated Asian nations, these treaties drawn up by the Western imperial powers were extremely one-sided, granting the Westerners unfair economic and legal benefits within Japan. In an attempt to regain her independence from the [[European]]s and [[American]]s and establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the gap with the Western powers, both economically and militarily. This resulted in drastic reforms being carried out across all sectors of the economy and society. <ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

The Western influence was challenged unsuccessfully by the powerful [[Choshu]] and [[Satsuma]] domains of Western Japan and after their defeat in 1863, they demanded creation of a new government, loyal to the emperor, with the aim of expelling the foreigners. In January 1868, a palace coup took place, led by [[Samurai]] from these two domains, supported by anti-Tokugawa court nobles. This resulted in the abolition of the shogunate and returned power to the Emperor. Shortly afterwards, the court was moved from Kyoto (meaning "Capital City") to Edo (later renamed [[Tokyo]], meaning “Eastern Capital”), where a centralised administration was established.

== Reforms ==
Dramatic reforms were implemented across all areas of Japanese society, under the slogan '' “Fukoku Kyohei” (富国挙兵 enrich the country and strengthen the military)'', in an attempt by the new government to make Japan a democratic state, with equal rights for all its citizens, and to make Japan a power equal to the stronger western nations. This resulted in the class boundaries of Tokugawa Japan being gradually broken down. As a result, the Samurai lost all their privileges, despite the fact that their actions had precipitated the reforms. The reforms also included the introduction of basic human rights such as religious freedom, which was introduced in 1873.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

In order to stabilise the new government, the former [[feudal]] landlords were required to return ownership of all their lands to the control of the Emperor. This process was completed by 1870 and thereafter was followed by the restructuring of the country into [[prefecture]]s, which still exist to this day. The education system was remodeled, based firstly upon the French and later the German schooling systems. During this time, compulsory education was introduced. In addition, many Japanese scholars and politicians were sent abroad to study the Western education and political systems and to research new and existing technologies present in Europe and North America. At the same time, many Westerners were invited to Japan to help build and develop new industries there.<ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

It was around this time that industries such as beer brewing, dairy production and Japan's first railway system were introduced, all under the supervision of Westerners. Large government investments were undertaken to improve infrastructure. The transportation and communication networks in particular benefited from this funding. In addition, the government also directly supported the growth of business and industry, paying attention to the large and powerful family businesses, [[zaibatsu]] ‘’ 財閥 lit. financial clique’’, in particular. <ref>Wall, Rachel F., Japan's Century: An Interpretation of Japanese History since the Eighteen-fifties (1971)</ref>

At the same time, Japan prioritised the development of her military, as a counter-measure to the European and American imperialist forces holding sway in the region at the time. The army was remodeled on the Prussian example and universal conscription was introduced, and later the new navy was structured on similar principles to Britain’s Royal Navy.

== Setbacks ==
A couple of decades into this period of intensive westernisation, conservative and nationalistic feelings began to strengthen again. The principles of [[Confucianism]] and [[Shinto]], including the worship of the Emperor, were taught with increasing emphasis at educational institutions.

The extensive government spending led to a financial crisis in the mid 1880's, which was followed by a reform of the currency system and the establishment of the [[Bank of Japan]].

In spite of the increasing industrialisation of the country, the textile industry grew at the fastest rate and remained the largest Japanese industry until [[World War 2]]. Work conditions in the early factories were poor, but developing socialist and liberal movements were soon suppressed by the ruling clique, thus not only preventing any significant improvement in working conditions, but resulting in a largely subservient and obedient workforce. Combined with the increasing emphasis on Emperor-worship, it could be argued that even at this early date, the seeds had been sown for the fanaticism shown in the build up to, and during, World War 2. <ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== Politics ==
[[Japan]] received its first [[European]]-style [[constitution]] in 1889. A parliament, the [[Diet]] was established, although the [[Emperor]] maintained his sovereignty - he headed up all arms of the military, as well as wielding executive and legislative power. The ruling clique, however, kept a firm hold on the reigns of actual power, and the intelligent and capable Emperor [[Meiji]] agreed with the majority of their actions. A lack of unity amongst their members prevented the various political parties from wielding any significant power.

Conflicts of interests in [[Korea]], between [[China]] and [[Japan]] gave rise to to the [[Sino-Japanese War]] in 1894-95. Japan defeated China, but was forced by [[Russia]], [[France]] and [[Germany]] to relinquish the territories she’d captured, in the end only managing to annexe [[Taiwan]].,This so-called [[Triple Intervention]] led to a stiffening of resolve by the Japanese against the imperial powers, and an intensification of the rearmament by the army and navy.

New conflicts of interests in [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]], this time between [[Russia]] and [[Japan]], led to the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904-05. The Japanese army was once again victorious, thus gaining additional territories, including the full annexation of [[Korea]] in 1910, and international respect. The successes in the recent wars resulted in a surge of nationalism, which filtered through to other Asian nations, who also started to develop national self confidence and identity. In addition, it finally allowed Japan to declare the one-sided treaties with the West null and void, and finally emerge as a world power.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== End of an Era ==
In 1912 emperor Meiji died, and with his passing, the era of the ruling clique of elder statesmen (genro) was about to follow suit.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Japan]]

Meiji Restoration

2008-05-14T18:42:25Z

PTBairns: /* History */

The phrase '''Meiji restoration''' ''(明治維新 Meiji-ishin)'' refers to the events both during and following 1868, which resulted in the restoration of power to the [[Emperor]], as well as the period of significant social and economic reforms within Japanese society that coincided with the [[Meiji]] emperor's reign (1868–1912)<ref>W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972)</ref>.

==History==
Faced with increasing local dissent, fueled by the influence of Western powers, especially the Americans under Admiral [[Matthew Perry|Matthew C. Perry]], and increasing pressure from feudal landlords, the Tokugawa shogunate finally submitted in 1854 to foreign demands and signed a number of treaties that effectively ended Japan's isolation from the outside world. However, as they had done with other subjugated Asian nations, these treaties drawn up by the Western imperial powers were extremely one-sided, granting the Westerners unfair economic and legal benefits within Japan. In an attempt to regain her independence from the [[European]]s and [[American]]s and establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the gap with the Western powers, both economically and militarily. This resulted in drastic reforms being carried out across all sectors of the economy and society. <ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

The Western influence was challenged unsuccessfully by the powerful [[Choshu]] and [[Satsuma]] domains of Western Japan and after their defeat in 1863, they demanded creation of a new government, loyal to the emperor, with the aim of expelling the foreigners. In January 1868, a palace coup took place, led by [[Samurai]] from these two domains, supported by anti-Tokugawa court nobles. This resulted in the abolition of the shogunate and returned power to the Emperor. Shortly afterwards, the court was moved from Kyoto (meaning "Capital City") to Edo (later renamed [[Tokyo]], meaning “Eastern Capital”), where a centralised administration was established.

== Reforms ==
Dramatic reforms were implemented across all areas of Japanese society, under the slogan '' “Fukoku Kyohei” (富国挙兵 enrich the country and strengthen the military)'', in an attempt by the new government to make Japan a democratic state, with equal rights for all its citizens. This resulted in the class boundaries of Tokugawa Japan being gradually broken down. As a result, the Samurai lost all their privileges, despite the fact that their actions had precipitated the reforms. The reforms also included the introduction of basic human rights such as religious freedom, which was introduced in 1873.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

In order to stabilise the new government, the former [[feudal]] landlords were required to return ownership of all their lands to the control of the Emperor. This process was completed by 1870 and thereafter was followed by the restructuring of the country into [[prefecture]]s, which still exist to this day. The education system was remodeled, based firstly upon the French and later the German schooling systems. During this time, compulsory education was introduced. In addition, many Japanese scholars and politicians were sent abroad to study the Western education and political systems and to research new and existing technologies present in Europe and North America. At the same time, many Westerners were invited to Japan to help build and develop new industries there.<ref>K. B. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan (1969)</ref>

It was around this time that industries such as beer brewing, dairy production and Japan's first railway system were introduced, all under the supervision of Westerners. Large government investments were undertaken to improve infrastructure. The transportation and communication networks in particular benefited from this funding. In addition, the government also directly supported the growth of business and industry, paying attention to the large and powerful family businesses, [[zaibatsu]] ‘’ 財閥 lit. financial clique’’, in particular. <ref>Wall, Rachel F., Japan's Century: An Interpretation of Japanese History since the Eighteen-fifties (1971)</ref>

At the same time, Japan prioritised the development of her military, as a counter-measure to the European and American imperialist forces holding sway in the region at the time. The army was remodeled on the Prussian example and universal conscription was introduced, and later the new navy was structured on similar principles to Britain’s Royal Navy.

== Setbacks ==
A couple of decades into this period of intensive westernisation, conservative and nationalistic feelings began to strengthen again. The principles of [[Confucianism]] and [[Shinto]], including the worship of the Emperor, were taught with increasing emphasis at educational institutions.

The extensive government spending led to a financial crisis in the mid 1880's, which was followed by a reform of the currency system and the establishment of the [[Bank of Japan]].

In spite of the increasing industrialisation of the country, the textile industry grew at the fastest rate and remained the largest Japanese industry until [[World War 2]]. Work conditions in the early factories were poor, but developing socialist and liberal movements were soon suppressed by the ruling clique, thus not only preventing any significant improvement in working conditions, but resulting in a largely subservient and obedient workforce. Combined with the increasing emphasis on Emperor-worship, it could be argued that even at this early date, the seeds had been sown for the fanaticism shown in the build up to, and during, World War 2. <ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== Politics ==
[[Japan]] received its first [[European]]-style [[constitution]] in 1889. A parliament, the [[Diet]] was established, although the [[Emperor]] maintained his sovereignty - he headed up all arms of the military, as well as wielding executive and legislative power. The ruling clique, however, kept a firm hold on the reigns of actual power, and the intelligent and capable Emperor [[Meiji]] agreed with the majority of their actions. A lack of unity amongst their members prevented the various political parties from wielding any significant power.

Conflicts of interests in [[Korea]], between [[China]] and [[Japan]] gave rise to to the [[Sino-Japanese War]] in 1894-95. Japan defeated China, but was forced by [[Russia]], [[France]] and [[Germany]] to relinquish the territories she’d captured, in the end only managing to annexe [[Taiwan]].,This so-called [[Triple Intervention]] led to a stiffening of resolve by the Japanese against the imperial powers, and an intensification of the rearmament by the army and navy.

New conflicts of interests in [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]], this time between [[Russia]] and [[Japan]], led to the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904-05. The Japanese army was once again victorious, thus gaining additional territories, including the full annexation of [[Korea]] in 1910, and international respect. The successes in the recent wars resulted in a surge of nationalism, which filtered through to other Asian nations, who also started to develop national self confidence and identity. In addition, it finally allowed Japan to declare the one-sided treaties with the West null and void, and finally emerge as a world power.<ref>M. Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modern State (1988)</ref>

== End of an Era ==
In 1912 emperor Meiji died, and with his passing, the era of the ruling clique of elder statesmen (genro) was about to follow suit.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Japan]]

Essay:Greatest Conservative Legislation

2008-05-14T18:39:32Z

PTBairns:

Here is a growing list of the greatest [[conservative]] legislation:
#[[Taft-Hartley Act]]
#[[Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981]] (Kemp-Roth Tax Cut)
#[[Tax Reform Act of 1986]] (substantially lowered tax rates)
#[[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996]] (welfare reform)
#[[Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003]]
#[[The Volstead Act]]

(add more, especially from earlier periods in history)

[[Category:Essay]]

Essay:Greatest Conservative Legislation

2008-05-14T18:39:21Z

PTBairns:

Here is a growing list of the greatest [[conservative]] legislation:
#[[Taft-Hartley Act]]
#[[Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981]] (Kemp-Roth Tax Cut)
#[[Tax Reform Act of 1986]] (substantially lowered tax rates)
#[[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996]] (welfare reform)
#[[Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003]]
#[[The Volsead Act]]

(add more, especially from earlier periods in history)

[[Category:Essay]]

Endogen

2008-05-13T17:17:02Z

PTBairns: examples

An '''endogen''' is a [[plant]] having a primary stem with vascular bundles that are not arranged in concentric circles and that have older stems lacking distinct wood and bark layers. The endogens constitute one of the great primary classes of plants, and include all palms, true lilies, grasses, rushes, orchids, the banana and the pineapple. <ref>http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?endogen</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]
[[category:Obtuse Definitions]]

Robert Hooke

2008-05-12T23:06:09Z

PTBairns:

'''Robert Hooke''' (Freshwater, 1635 - London, 1703) was a famed [[English]] scientist, inventor, member of the [[Royal Society]], and manufacturer of instruments.

Hooke was at the forefront of the field of microscopy, and published countless images of magnified organisms in his ''Micrographia''.
He is also credited with discovering [[Hooke's Law]], which describes the magnitude of forces in springs, and proposing the idea of an inverse-square law for gravitation, later adopted by [[Isaac Newton]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hooke, Robert}}
[[Category:Inventors]]

Nelson Mandela

2008-05-12T23:01:44Z

PTBairns: /* Early Life and Political Socialization */

[[Image:Mandela2.jpg|right|thumb]]

'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' (b. July 18, 1918 in the Transkei) is a [[South Africa]]n leader who fought hard against [[apartheid]] until he was imprisoned in 1964. He was released in 1990 and went on to become South Africa's first democratically elected president in 1994.

== Early Life and Political Socialization ==

Almost immediately, we see Mandela plunged into political life, as his father was the ‘right hand man’ to the Acting Paramount Chief of Thembuland (ANC archive). Although the reasons for his political socialization are evident and obvious, one ought to consider the ramifications of his environment; for instance, it can be argued that the class system in South Africa was in conflict with his ideals: “Ideologies and ideologists arise in class-divided societies…” (Ball and Dagger) If this is true, then it is vital to speak of Mandela and apartheid as two sides of the same coin.

Mandela’s primary education began in a local mission school, and his secondary education was completed in a Wesleyan institute in Healdtown. Around this time, he began to see cases in the Chief’s courts, many involving apartheid issues, and this primed him to want to become a lawyer instead of taking his father’s place in Thembuland politics (ANC archive).

Mandela’s earliest political experience came while enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare, where he was working to obtain a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. While at the college, he was elected to a student political organization known as the Student’s Representative Council. Soon after, Mandela was expelled for participating in a protest on campus (ANC archive). Because of this, Mandela attended Johannesburg where he finally obtained his BA. Soon after, he joined the [[African National Congress]] in 1942, during the height of [[World War II]].
Nelson Mandela’s personal fixation with freedom brought him to work with many other members of the African National Congress to form a group under the leadership of a colleague, Anton Lembede (ANC archive). The group’s main focus was to change the African National Congress into a mass movement, including all people from urban communities to those in the countryside\.

Mandela was instrumental in many political endeavors, many of which were anti-apartheid movements such as the Programme of Action, a policy based initiative which was founded on the principal of using the non-violent weapons of “boycott, strike, civil disobedience and non-co-operation” (ANC archive). This eventually became the modus operandi of the African National Congress.

And yet, some of our greatest leaders and role models have to resort to evil in order to do good. Mandela, being no exception to this, was the leader of an armed resistance group known as Umkhonto we Sizwe, formed in 1962. Mandela explains his reasoning:

“At the beginning of June 1961, after long and anxious assessment of the South African situation, I and some colleagues came to the conclusion that as long violence in this country was inevitable, it would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and non-violence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force.” –Nelson Mandela (ANC archive)

It was this notion, along with strong governmental apartheid sentiment that would eventually land Nelson R. Mandela in prison.

== Mandela in Prison ==

In contrast to his peaceful methods, Nelson Mandela, like many political activists, eventually found himself imprisoned. He was sent to the notorious Robben Island Prison where he would eventually serve twenty seven years (Battersby). He was one of the many victims of the Treason Trial. After the trial, the African National Congress was banned, and the already convicted Mandela was sentenced to prison.

Mandela was in prison for twenty seven years, during which he endured a radical transformation. Mandela, by self-admittance, had a temper problem prior to being incarcerated. During prison, however, he had to learn to control his anger. “One was angry,” says Mandela, “at what was happening [in apartheid in South Africa]- the humiliation, the loss of our human dignity. We tended to react in accordance with anger and our emotion rather than sitting down and thinking about things properly” (Battersby).

Nelson Mandela claimed it was the solitude in the prison cell that allowed one to think to oneself, allowing the nerves to become calm. In addition, many of Mandela’s prison mates were well-educated, well-traveled individuals. “When they told you of their experiences,” Mandela says, “you felt humbled” (Battersby). Mandela, while in prison, was also instrumental in the transformation of Robben Island from a ‘criminal’ prison to a ‘student’ prison.
Mandela had chances to prove his political worth while in prison, as well. During the seventies, Mandela was offered remission of his sentence if he recognized the apartheid racially segregated region of Transkei. He refused. Later, during the eighties, Mandela was given a second opportunity at remission, only this time he was asked to renounce the violence that some of his groups partook in. He, again, refused (ANC archive).

Indeed, during his prison time, Mandela proved to be a prime example of a strong believer in principle, while at the same time erupting as a shining light to others suffering alongside him.

==Mandela is Released==

Mandela, stepping out of his prison cell, faced a newly changed South Africa through the eyes of a newly changed man. Shortly after being released, Mandela and his colleagues agreed on the suspension of the armed struggle (Umkhonto we Sizwe). He was officially released from prison in 1990, and was eventually elected President of the African National Congress in 1991 (ANC archive). Later, in 1994, he was democratically elected President of the State of [[South Africa]].

Before retiring from public life in June of 1999, he had received over fifty honorary degrees at prestigious universities all over the world, and was chancellor of the University of the North (ANC archive).
Elsewhere in the world, Mandela has made several attempts to make peace, even with nations outside his personal safety realm. For instance, in October of 1999, Mandela met with leaders from Iran, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Gaza, and the United States. Although Mandela found these numerous meetings to be pleasant, he did mention that the [[Israeli]] prime minister, [[Ehud Barak]], rejected Mandela’s intervention into the conflict (Battersby).
Mandela went on to win the Nobel Peace Prize, in a respect, as a representative of those who stand for peace and combat racism. Mandela, in the wake of this, regards his winning of the Peace Prize as a tribute to the people of Norway who stood against apartheid for so many years while so many more remained silent (ANC archive).
Certainly, Nelson Mandela’s political career after prison is one which many could be both envious of, while at the same time stand in awe at such greatness.

==Mandela and President Bush==

In a September, 2007 speech defending the Iraq war, [[George W. Bush]] blamed Mandela's death on [[Saddam Hussein]]. Mandela was, in fact, still alive.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070921/wl_nm/safrica_mandela_bush_dc Mandela still alive after embarrassing Bush remark ]</ref>

==Closing Thoughts==

Nelson R. Mandela, in the wake of political turmoil, was one man who was both willing and able to stand up and fight back. Indeed, we can see how the man developed his legacy through his activist years, his years in prison, and his much more elaborate life afterwards.

== Notes ==

Ball, Terence, and Richard Dagger. Ideals and Ideologies. Fifth ed. Pearson Education,
2004.

Battersby, John. "Mandela." Christian Science Monitor (2000)
"Birth of Freedom." Ed. Jon E. Lewis. New York: Gramercy Books.

Denenberg, Barry. No Easy Walk to Freedom. Ca-Print Harcourt Heinamann.

"Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela." African National Congress Archive

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]

==References==

<references/>

Chess

2008-05-09T19:44:59Z

PTBairns:

[[Image:Staunton chess set.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A typical chess set and tournament clock.]]

'''Chess''' is a turn-based [[board game]] for two players, and is one of the most popular games in the world. The goal of the game is to place the opposing king into ''checkmate'', that is, a position in which the king is under attack but cannot escape. The game used to be treated as a status symbol of education and aristocracy and in recent times has become to be known as an [[elitist]]'s game.

Modern international chess has a powerful, sweeping [[queen]] who was not a piece provided in the original game. The long reach of bishops today was also lacking at first. Maneuvers such as castling or capturing ''en passant'' have been developed within the past few hundred years.

Today, chess is one of the most popular board games in the world. International competitions, including world [[champion]]ship events, are organized by an organization called FIDE and American competition organized by the USCF (United States Chess Federation). The only American world champion was [[Bobby Fischer]], although [[Paul Morphy]] of [[Louisiana]] was likely the strongest player in the world in the 1850s, before a formal world champion was determined. The current world champion is [[India | Indian]] Viswanathan "Vishy" Anand.

==Origins==
Chess has its roots in [[India]], where a game called Shaturanga was played. The earliest extant description of the game is contained in the [[Bhavishya Purana]], which dates from A.D. 300 to A.D. 600. Shaturanga used [[dice]], but [[Hinduism]] bans gambling. As a result, the game of chess developed free from any dice or chance. The exact rules of Shaturanga are not known, but the game developed further in Persia into something very like its modern form. The Persian game Shatranj - which remains popular in the middle east today - is nearly identical to modern chess. By A.D. 1200 the game reached southern Europe, and in the late fifteenth century the Europeans adopted a number of changes: the queen, which had formerly been a very weak piece, became the strongest piece on the board, and allowing pawns to move two squares on the first move became standard. These changes had the effect of speeding up play, and they brought the game into the form we know today.

There has been some speculation that chess has roots in [[China]]. It's clear that chess is in some way related to [[XiangQi]] (Chinese Chess) and [[Shogi]] (Japanese Chess), but scholars disagree about whether either of these variants predates Shaturanga.

==The Board==
The chess board is a square, divided into 64 smaller squares arranged in eight rows of eight. The squares are alternating light and dark, with a light square in the bottom right hand corner. A chess board is the same as a [[Checkers|checker board]].

The horizontal rows of squares are referred to as "ranks" and the vertical rows are referred to as "files".

==Pieces==
[[Image:StauntonPieces.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Staunton Style chess pieces. From left to right: King, Queen, Bishop, Knight, Rook, and Pawn.]]
Each player has a total of 16 pieces; 8 pawns, 2 knights, 2 bishops, 2 rooks, 1 queen, and 1 king. 

===Relative Value of Pieces===
There are several different ideas about the relative value of the pieces. It is important to note that the "points" used to assign a value to each piece are hypothetical and do not constitute a score; they are merely an attempt to quantify the relative power that each piece can hypothetically exert upon the board.

The method most often used is:
*[[Image:chesspawn.jpg|20px]] Pawn--1
*[[Image:chessknight.jpg|20px]] Knight--3 (some say 2.5)
*[[Image:chessbishop.jpg|20px]] Bishop--3
*[[Image:chessrook.jpg|20px]] Rook--5
*[[Image:chessqueen.jpg|20px]] Queen--9
*[[Image:chessking.jpg|20px]] King--Priceless
 (The value to the player of some pieces will actually vary during the course of the game, for instance, in an endgame, the King has an attacking power of about 3)

===Style===
The most popular style of pieces are known as Staunton style pieces, the tournament standard for chess pieces, although other types exist. Often, popular themed chess sets will appear with characters from [[popular culture]] or [[fiction]] taking the places of the more common Staunton style pieces. These novelty pieces are not tournament sanctioned however, and can sometimes cause confusion during game play as to which piece is which.

Although chess pieces can come in a variety of materials, [[marble]] and [[glass]] tend to be very popular, but for most chess tournaments, simple [[plastic]] pieces are usually favored. Also, while many home chess sets use heavy boards made out of [[wood]] or [[stone]] or some [[polymer]] material, tournament boards are actually roll-able mats with the board printed on it.

==Gameplay ==

The object of the game is to checkmate the other player's '''King''' before he checkmates your king. When a pawn reaches the far side of the board, it may be promoted to any other piece (except a King).

*The players alternate moving until the game has ended.
*The player with the White pieces always moves first.

===Initial Conditions===
The pieces are put on the board in each player's side as follows:
*In the first row from left to right (with the leftmost square being black): '''rook''', '''knight''', '''bishop''', '''queen''', '''king''', '''bishop''', '''knight''' and '''rook'''.
*The second row is filled with '''pawns'''.

===Movement===
The pieces move as follows.
*The '''pawn''' moves one square forward, except when moving from its opening position, when it can optionally move two. The pawn is the only piece that captures in a way different from the way it moves. It captures opposing pieces by capturing one square diagonally forward. When another piece is on the square directly in front of a pawn it cannot move unless it is making a capture. 
*The '''knight''', which is the only piece that can jump over other pieces, moves one square in one straight direction and two in the other. 
*The '''bishop''' can move as many squares as desired diagonally. 
*The '''rook''' can move as many squares as desired in a straight direction. 
*The '''queen''' is the most powerful piece in the board. It can move as many squares as desired (without jumping over another piece), either straight or diagonally. 
*The '''king''', which is the most important piece on the board, moves one square, either straight or diagonally.

====Capturing====

All pieces except for the pawn capture along their lines of motion. A capture is made by moving a piece to a square occupied by one of the opponent's pieces, and removing the opponent's piece from the board. If a piece can move to occupy the location of an opponent's piece, it can capture that piece. The '''pawn''', can only capture by moving diagonally forward one square. A piece is said to be undefended if it has no piece "supporting" its position - i.e., preventing an opponent from capturing it by threat of losing his attacking piece.

====Special Moves====
*'''Castling'''- When a player has no pieces between a rook and his king, and he has not moved either piece, he can move the king two squares in the direction of the rook, and then place the rook on the square that the king passed over. A player cannot castle if the King is currently in check, would be in check after castling, or would move through a square which is under attack.
*'''en passant'''- French for "In passing." In chess, if a player pushes his pawn far down to the end of the board, and his opponent pushes a starting pawn 2 spaces ahead, to put the pawn on the same row to avoid confrontation, the player may choose to invoke the "en passant" move, which treats the enemy pawn as though it had only moved one space. The player may capture diagonally on the square '''behind''' the enemy pawn, and remove the enemy pawn. The principle is that the two space rule for a pawn's first move cannot be used to avoid confrontation between two pawns. However, the player may only invoke "en passant" on the first turn after the opponent pushes his pawn. He cannot make it after that turn.

===The end of the game===
A chess game may end in a number of ways.
*'''Checkmate''': The winning player checkmates his opponent's King (see below).
*'''Resignation''': The losing player, facing an inevitable future checkmate, ''resigns'' rather than play out an extended series of hopeless moves. A player may indicate resignation by toppling his king on its side.
*'''Loss on Time''': In games with a time limit, a player may lose by failing to make a time control, causing his clock to run out.
*'''Draw''': The game may end in a draw, in which case neither player wins.

====Checkmate====
Checkmate is achieved when the following conditions are met.
* The King is ''in check''; that is, it is directly attacked by an opponent's piece.
* Every square that the King can move to is also attacked by an opponent's piece.
* The Piece that is attacking the King cannot be captured.
* Another Piece cannot be interposed between the attacking piece and the King to block the check.
When a King is checkmated, the game is over, and the player initiating the checkmate is the winner.

====Draw====
There are several ways that the game can end in a draw.
*'''Stalemate''': A player is said to be ''stalemated'' when he cannot make a legal move, and is not in check.
*'''Draw by agreement''': The players mutually agree to a draw. In competitive chess, a player may make a draw offer after he has made his move, but before he has started his opponent's clock.
*'''Draw by repetition''': Either player may claim a draw if the same position has appeared on the board three times. The three occasions need not be consecutive.
*'''50 move rule''': Either player may claim a draw if fifty moves have transpired without a capture or a pawn move.

==Notation==
Chess notation is used to record the moves of a chess game. This has several uses. Notation can be used to record games for review at a later time. There are two major methods of chess notation, Algebraic and Descriptive.

====For all forms of Notation====
The notation for a chess game is taken like this. At the top of the page are the players — white listed first — with their names under their colors. Numbers go down the left side of the page to indicate the move number. (see below) 
White, Black 
Name Name
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Moves are recorded in columns, separated by commas.

Space is usually allotted on the top of tournament scoresheets to record the date and location of the game, and sometimes to record the time limit and opening name.

=====Pieces=====
Each piece is designated by its corresponding letter as follows: 
K = King 
Q = Queen 
R = Rook 
B = Bishop 
N = Knight (notice 'K' is reserved for the King) 
P = Pawn

(In strict chess parlance, the pawns are not considered pieces; officially, a standard chess set consists of sixteen pieces and sixteen pawns.)

=====Moves=====
- Moves to
x Captures
+ Check
++ Checkmate
0-0 Castles king-side
0-0-0 Castles queen-side
e.p. en passant
/ to indicate which square a piece moved from (only when needed to clarify)
/Q Pawn promotion. (use /Q for queen, /R for rook, etc.)
! A good move
!! A very good move
!? An interesting move
?! A dubious move
? A questionable move
?? A blunder

===Algebraic===
Algebraic is the most commonly used method of notation. [[Image:Chessboardanote1.jpg|right]]

====The Board====
In algebraic notation, each file is assigned a letter, and each rank is assigned a number. Each square is designated by the letter and number from it's rank and file. a1 is the square in the bottom left corner for the white player.

====Movement====
Moves are recorded by indicating the piece to be moved followed by a hyphen (-) and the square it is to be moved to. Example if white wants to move his night out and to the left to start the game the notation would be:
White Black
1. N-f3, ....

In algebraic notation, a P is not used to indicate the pawn. A pawn move is implied when no piece is indicated. So if white wants to advance his king pawn 2 squares, and black responds by advancing his king pawn 2 squares, the notation would be:
White Black
1. e4, e5,
2. ....

Occasionally, two pieces of the same type can move to the same square. To eliminate ambiguity, the unique rank or file of the moving piece is identified after the piece symbol. For example, suppose both of Black's Rooks are on the 8th rank (on the squares f8 and a8), and there are no pieces in between them. Black moves the f8 Rook to d8. In other circumstances, the move would be annotated
17. .... Rd8
but because either Rook could have moved to d8, the identifying file for the f8 Rook must be included, as in
17. .... Rfd8

====Captures====
Captures by a piece or pawn are indicated by first transcribing the symbol for the piece performing the capture, followed by an 'x', followed by the square the capturing piece or pawn moved to. For example, if White uses his Queen to capture a piece on the square h7 on move 23, the correct notation is
23. Qxh7, ....

Because pawns are not designated with a symbol, the system is slightly different for pawn captures. The file originally occupied by the pawn is used to identify the pawn performing the capture. If a black pawn on e5 captures a white piece or pawn on d4 on move 5, the notation is
5. ...., exd4

===Descriptive===
In the more archaic descriptive notation, squares are described according to the starting piece positions. The square originally occupied by the Rook on the Queenside is referred to as "Queen's Rook One" (QR1), while "Queen's Rook Four" is the square directly in front of the Queen's Rook on the fourth rank. Thus, a typical opening move is described as "Pawn to King Four", and is written as
1. P-K4, ....

Note that in descriptive notation, pawns have the designation 'P'. The notation's disadvantages become apparent over the course of a complex game, especially because the same square has different names depending on the perspective of the White and Black pieces. King's Bishop Three (KB3) for White is King's Bishop Six (KB6) for Black.

Captures in descriptive notation operate similar to algebraic notation; for example,

45. .... R-xQN7

means that on his 45th move, Black captured a piece or pawn on his Queen's Knight Seven square (the b2 square in algebraic notation).

==Tactics and strategy==
Chess players often refer to shorter, forcing sequences of moves that lead to clear advantages as ''tactics'', while moves designed to create or nurture long-term advantages are called ''strategic.''

For more information on specific tactics, see [[chess tactics]]. For more information on specific strategic themes, see [[chess strategies]].

==Chess Variants==
There are a number of games based on chess with rule variations, and these are referred to as ''chess variants''. One of the most popular of these is ''Bughouse'', a partner-based game in which a player who captures his opponent's piece can give it to a partner on another board to drop on a square of his choosing. Another is ''Kriegspiel'', a game in which a player can see his pieces but not that of his opponent. [http://www.chessvariants.com/incinf.dir/kriegspiel.html] A simpler variant is ''Antichess'', which is also called ''Suicide chess'', in which a player must make a capturing move if any legal captures exist on the board, and in which the goal is to run out of pieces first.

In 1996, [[Bobby Fischer]] introduced a variant called FischerRandom Chess, which involves scrambling the positions of the pieces on the first and eighth ranks before starting play. A number of rules govern the precise manner in which the pieces can be arranged; for example, the king must be somewhere between the two rooks, so that castling to either side is still possible, and the black and white positions must mirror one another. The rules provide for 960 possible starting positions, and for this reason the game is sometimes called Chess960. Fischer hoped his variant would encourage creative thinking and avoid the memorization associated with opening play in modern chess.

==Computer Chess==
Deep Blue, a computer developed by IBM, was the first computer engine to beat a human world champion in 1997, when it defeated Garry Kasparov in a six game series. This series was a rematch of 1996 series which Kasparov won, although Deep Blue had been upgraded since the first series. It should be noted that during this second match, Deep Blue was also upgraded between games to avoid falling into the same type of trap more than once.

Chess engines have increased in strength in recent years to the point where humans are falling behind. In 2005, Michael Adams, one of the top fifteen players in the world, played a six game match against the engine Hydra, and lost five games with only one draw. Chess writer Eric Schiller, who uses computer assistance in writing his books, admits that "computers have taken some of the fun out of (chess)."

==External links==
:[http://www.fide.com/ FIDE] - World Chess Federation
:[http://www.uschess.org USCF] - United States Chess Federation
:[http://www.iccf.com/ ICCF] - International Correspondence Chess Federation
:[http://www.chess-players.org/eng/index.html ACP] - Association of Chess Professionals
:[http://www.freechess.org FICS] - Free Internet Chess Server

[[Category:Chess]]

Chromosomes

2008-05-09T19:39:34Z

PTBairns: /* Physical Characteristics of Chromosomes */

'''Chromosomes''' (literally: ''colored bodies'', from [[Greek]]) are packaged units of [[DNA]] and associated proteins.<ref>http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/whatarechrom.cfm</ref> The chromosome carries portions of the hereditary information of an organism. The DNA is tightly coiled many times around proteins called [[histone]]s that support the chromosome structure.<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/chromosome</ref> The bound DNA units are called [[nucleosome]]s.

==Physical Characteristics of Chromosomes==

Most chromosomes have the rough shape of an X. Each chromosome has a constriction point called the [[centromere]], which divides the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific genes.<ref>http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/notebook/courses/guide/chromo.htm</ref>

The chromosomal DNA molecule contains three specific [[nucleotide]] sequences which are required for replication: a DNA replication origin; the [[centromere]] to attach the DNA to the mitotic spindle.; a [[telomere]] located at each end of the linear chromosome. <ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ghr/chromosomes</ref>

==Number of Chromosomes==

The chromosome number varies in different species. In humans there are 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs of chromosomes ([[diploid]]), in every cell except the mature egg and sperm which have a set of 23 chromosomes ([[haploid]]).

==Cell Division==

Chromosomes are visible only during cell division, when the DNA is super coiled and condensed to facilitate distribution into daughter cells. Cell division in somatic cells (mitosis) results in the creation of daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the original cell, a total of 46 chromosomes in a human. Cell division in the germ cells, eggs and sperm (meiosis), results in the creation of daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell (haploid cells). This reduction in the number of chromosomes is important so that the original number of chromosomes is restored following fertilization of the egg by the sperm.

==Karyotype Analysis==

The chromosome constitution of an individual, karyotype, can be analyzed following tissue culture of an appropriate sample. The most commonly used sample is blood (using the white blood cells or lymphocytes) since it is the most accessible. However, other samples are used depending upon the indication: amniotic fluid cells, to analyze the karyotype of the fetus; products of conception, to analyze the cause of a miscarriage or stillbirth; bone marrow cells, to diagnose the presence or type of leukemia; and skin, to determine the presence of another cell line (mosaicism).

Cell division is arrested during metaphase, when the chromosome material is condensed. Following hypotonic treatment and fixation, the cells are dropped on a slide and then stained. At least 20 metaphase spreads are analyzed and 2 or 3 metaphase spreads are photographed. The chromosomes are arranged from largest to smallest to create a karyotype.

Chromosomes vary in size and in shape. The pairs of [[Autosome|autosomal chromosomes]] are arranged in a karyotype from the biggest to the smallest. The [[sex chromosomes]] are placed to the right of the smallest autosomes. Chromosomes vary in shape depending upon the position of the [[centromere]], the structure that holds the two arms of the chromosomes together. If the [[centromere]] is in the middle, the chromosome is metacentric and the chromosome arms are equal in size. If the centromere is off center, the chromosome is submetacentric with a short arm labeled p (for petite) and a long arm labeled q (the next letter after p). If the centromere is close to the end, the chromosome is acrocentric and the very short arm consists of a stalk and a knob (satellite). Based upon size and shape, human chromosomes are divided into eight groups: A (1 to 3), B (4 and 5), C (6 to 12), D (13 to 15), E (16 to 18), F (19 and 20), G (21 and 22) and the sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males.

Chromosomes are further identified by banding patterns created by specialized staining procedures to produce G bands, R bands, C bands, etc. The choice of staining procedure depends upon the information that is desired. Most commonly, chromosomes are stained with trypsin-Giemsa to produce the G-banded pattern. The banding pattern is determined by the degree of chromatin condensation and the specific DNA-protein present at the different sites on the chromosome. These banding patterns are distinct and consistent for each chromosome. Thus, one can reliably identify the chromosome pairs (e.g., although of the same size and shape, the six acrocentric chromosomes in the D group can be differentiated into pairs 13, 14 or 15 based upon banding patterns). The bands are individually numbered (e.g., 11q23 refers to band #23 on the long arm q of chromosome #11). :<ref>http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/genetics/medgen/chromo/cytotech.html</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Biology]]

Go

2008-05-09T19:35:42Z

PTBairns: typo

'''Go''' is a two-player, strategic turn-based board game. It originated in [[China]], over two thousand years ago, and is very popular in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] as well. It didn't reach [[Europe]] and [[America]] until the end of the 19th century. It was in Japan that a theory of Go strategy was developed, and numerous books have been published on the subject in Japanese.

The moves of the game are quite simple, involving the placing of black and white stones on the intersection of lines on a grid, and attempting to gain control of points on the grid by surrounding them with stones of one's own color. Despite the simple rules, the game is strategically very deep, even more complex than [[chess]]. Unlike [[chess]], computer programs for playing Go are considered highly inferior to most human players.<ref>[http://users.eniinternet.com/bradleym/Compare.html "Comparison between Go and Chess"], Comparison between Go and Chess by Milton N. Bradley.</ref>.

Go also benefits from a good handicap system, which allows players of differing strengths to play competitive games against each other. The system involves allowing the weaker player to start with some stones already on the board, the number increasing with the difference in the players strengths.<ref>[http://senseis.xmp.net/?Handicap Sensei's Library: Handicap]</ref>

==Reference==
<references />

[[Category:board games]]

Go

2008-05-09T19:35:09Z

PTBairns:

'''Go''' is a two-player, strategic turn-based board game. It originated in [[China]], over two thousand years ago, and is very popular in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] as well. It didn't reach [[Europe]] and [[America]] until the end of the 19th century. It was in Japan that a theory of Go strategy was developed, and numerous books have been published on the subject in Japanese.

The moves of the game are quite simple, involving the placing of black and white stones on the intersectin of lines on a grid, and attempting to gain control of points on the grid by surrounding them with stones of one's own color. Despite the simple rules, the game is strategically very deep, even more complex than [[chess]]. Unlike [[chess]], computer programs for playing Go are considered highly inferior to most human players.<ref>[http://users.eniinternet.com/bradleym/Compare.html "Comparison between Go and Chess"], Comparison between Go and Chess by Milton N. Bradley.</ref>.

Go also benefits from a good handicap system, which allows players of differing strengths to play competitive games against each other. The system involves allowing the weaker player to start with some stones already on the board, the number increasing with the difference in the players strengths.<ref>[http://senseis.xmp.net/?Handicap Sensei's Library: Handicap]</ref>

==Reference==
<references />

[[Category:board games]]

User:PTBairns

2008-05-09T19:29:34Z

PTBairns: New page: I'm a science major with a minor in religion. Am interested in the dialog between religion and science that takes place on this site.

I'm a science major with a minor in religion. Am interested in the dialog between religion and science that takes place on this site.