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Nelson Mandela

2021-06-06T23:54:38Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Infobox officeholder
|name=Nelson Mandela
|image=Mandela2.jpg
|birth_date=July 19, 1918
|birth_place=Mvezo, South Africa
|death_date=December 5, 2013 (aged 95)
|death_place=Johannesburg, South Africa
|religion=[[Methodism]]
|spouse=Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1944–1957) Winnie Madikizela (1958–1996) Graça Machel (1998-)
|children=
|alma_mater=
|party=[[African National Congress]]
|office=President of South Africa
|term_start=May 10, 1994
|term_end=June 10, 1999
|preceded=F. W. de Klerk
|succeeded=[[Thabo Mbeki]]
}}

'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' (July 18, 1918 – December 5, 2013) was a [[South Africa]]n anti-apartheid leader and politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994-1999. For his life Mandela received more than 250 honors, including the 1993 [[Nobel Peace Prize]], the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] (from [[George W. Bush]]), the [[Sakharov Prize]], the Soviet Order of Lenin and the Bharat Ratna.

He belonged to the African National Congress, a political party from the center-left to the ultra-left Leninist, which he presided from 1991 to 1997, after its legalization in 1990. He was a member and was general secretary of the MPNA (Movement of Non-Aligned Countries) between 1998 and 2002. This was a coalition of countries that remained "neutral" in the Cold War. Nelson supported the Marxist Cuban revolution, [[Fidel Castro]], and the values of and actions taken by the regime.<ref>Speech by Nelson Mandela, July 26, 1991, in Cuba: http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS1526&txtstr=cuba</ref> He also supported [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]<ref>https://youtu.be/G-afUmpGBmw</ref> and Ayatollah [[Ali Khamenei]].<ref>https://youtu.be/wCPlz9-SyPM</ref>

==Early life==
Mandela was born Rolihlahla Mandela on July 18, 1918, in Mvezo, to Nonqaphi Nosekeni and Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa,<ref name="AllAfrica"/> a chief of the Thembu people, a subdivision of the Xhosa nation.<ref name="NYT obituary">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela_obit.html?pagewanted=1&ref=international-home|work=The New York Times|author=Keller, Bill|date=December 5, 2013|accessdate=12-10-2013|title=Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s Liberator as Prisoner and President, Dies at 95|language=English}}</ref> When his father died at nine Nelson was taken in as a ward to Jongintaba Dalindyebo.<ref name="official biography">{{cite web|work=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=Biography|language=English|accessdate=12-10-2013|url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/biography}}</ref>

===Education===
Mandela was sent to a [[Methodist]]<ref name="independent biography">{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nelson-mandela-life-story-a-long-walk-to-immortality--the-life-and-times-of-madiba-8406457.html|work=The Independent|language=English|country=UK|title=Nelson Mandela biography: A long walk to immortality - the life and times of Madiba|author=Sampson, Anthony}}</ref> mission school for his primary education,<ref name="AllAfrica">{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312091064.html|work=AllAfrica|title=South Africa: Biography of Nelson Mandela|date=12-06-2013|accessdate=12-10-2013|language=English}}</ref> followed by time at Clarkebury Boarding Institute and Healdtown.<ref name="official biography"/> He began studying for a [[bachelor's degree]] at University College of Fort Hare, the only residential college for [[blacks]] in South Africa,<ref name="NYT obituary"/> but, along with Oliver Tambo,<ref name="AllAfrica"/> was expelled for joining a student [[protest]].<ref name="official biography"/> Upon returning to his village, as retribution,<ref name="official biography"/> Mandela's family selected a bride for him and his cousin, Justice; the two fled the family - and the prospect of leadership in [[tribal]] government - for [[Johannesburg, South Africa]].<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> There he worked in gold mines as a guard, but was fired when his superior discovered he was a runaway.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela would complete his bachelor's degree at the University of South Africa in 1943 and return to Fort Hare for his graduation.<ref name="official biography"/>

==Pre-imprisonment career==
===Work experience, early political activism===
In Johannesburg, Mandela was introduced to Walter Sisulu, a [[real estate]] businessman and a prominent member of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) - a black liberation party opposed the extreme segregation called [[apartheid]];<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/apartheid|title=Apartheid|work=History|publisher=A&E Television Networks, LLC|accessdate=December 18, 2013|language=English}}</ref> Sisulu arranged for Mandela to be articled to a white attorney, Lazar Sidelsky, while Mandela studied [[law]] part-time at University of the Witwatersrand - though he would leave the school in 1948.<ref name="official biography"/><ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela began to follow Anton Lembede; he, along with Mandela, Tambo and Sisulu organized the radical A.N.C. Youth League, alienating some white sympathizers with their strong black national rhetoric.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> The Youth League was also critical of the "old guard" leadership of the ANC.<ref name="AllAfrica"/>
{{QuoteBox2|quote=“I was angry at the white man, not at racism ... While I was not prepared to hurl the white man into the sea, I would have been perfectly happy if he climbed aboard his steamships and left the continent of his own volition.”|source=Nelson Mandela<ref name="NYT obituary"/>|align=left|width=300px}}
At this time, Mandela fell strongly onto the side of Africanism is the liberation debate between Africanism and nonracialism
in liberation theology, though his eventual embrace of nonracialism would define his later life and career.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> The ANC Youth League was also fiercely anti-[[communist]]; Mandela would break up Communist Party meetings - regarding Communism as foreign and non-Afircan and believing that blacks should liberate themselves.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> This philosophy changed with the victory of the Afrikaner National Party in 1948 in the all-white elections; the National Party had run on a platform of [[apartheid]] and strong anti-communism.<ref name="independent biography"/> The elections sparked the radicalization of the ANC<ref name="telegraph biography">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10503342/Nelson-Mandela-A-life-rich-in-drama-tragedy-triumph-and-reconciliation.html|work=The Telegraph|title=Nelson Mandela: A life rich in drama, tragedy, triumph and reconciliation|language=English|author= Holman, Michael|date=December 7, 2013|accessdate=December 18, 2013}}</ref> - in 1949 the Youth League's tactics of boycott, strike, civil disobedience and non-co-operation were adopted as official ANC policy, and older members were purged from leadership positions.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela would assume leadership positions within the party - including President of the Youth League and National Volunteer-in-Chief of the ANC.<ref name="AllAfrica"/>

In 1952, the ANC launched its first passive resistance - the Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/> The Defiance Campaign was suppressed with legislation lead by the National Party; protests were met with arrests - including that of Mandela's in 1956 on charges of [[treason]] (one of 156 ANC leaders to be arrested that year).<ref name="independent biography"/> The court found that Mandela had consistently advised his adherers to not resort to violence, but he was found guilty of contravening the Suppression of Communism Act and given a suspended prison sentence.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela was also confined to Johannesburg for six months and prohibited from attending gatherings; during this time, Mandela, despite not completing his law degree, and Tambo set up the first black law partnership in South Africa;<ref name="NYT obituary"/> the firm helped black clients with their political and other legal difficulties.<ref name="independent biography"/>

In 1953, Mandela created the M-plan (named after him) - a contingency plan in case the ANC - like the Communist Party - was declared illegal. The M-plan detailed how the party could run underground, communicating with members without resorting to public meetings.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Throughout the fifties Mandela would be consistently banned, arrested and imprisoned.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> In 1960 - the more radical Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) broke away from the ANC; their tactics- though still peaceful - were more aggressive and were met with violence.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/> On March 21, 1961 police killed 69 peaceful protestors in what became known as the Sharpeville Massacre; after this massacre both parties were banned.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/>

He also had been a Communist, and even went as far as to give a speech on how to be a good communist.<ref name="web.archive.org">https://web.archive.org/web/20041204063644/http://home.wanadoo.nl/rhodesia/goodcom.html</ref> In addition, he also was a senior member of the South African Communist Party by his arrest in 1962.<ref>http://newobserveronline.com/mandela-lied-to-world-south-african-communist-party-admits-he-was-senior-central-committee-member/</ref> In 1990 at Johannesburg, he was also photographed with his then-wife Winnie (who was infamous for her method of execution known as necklacing, which involved putting a tire to a person's neck filled with gasoline and setting them on fire) as well as Stalinist member Joe Slovo during a South African Communist Party rally with the Soviet Star and Hammer and Sickle logos prominently displayed on a red background.<ref>https://timeonhands.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/soviet-support-for-nelson-mandela.jpg</ref>

===Militarist leader===
The Sharpeville Massacre sparked a turning point for Mandela - he became convinced that the ANC needed to adopt a separate military wing, called Umkhonto we Sizwe, or Spear of the Nation; Mandela was made commander-in-chief.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> There is also evidence that Mandela joined the South African Communist Party and a member the party's Central Committee (though he denied it through his life) - presumably for contacts.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member|work=Business Day Live|title=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member|author= Marrian, Natasha|date=December 6, 2013|language=English}}</ref>
The new, violent, methods of the ANC were to destroy power plants and communications systems; the goal was that these acts would limit overseas investment. Mandela was adamant that the group not kill, but by the end of its 20-year campaign 63 people had been killed and 483 injured; the group was declared a [[terrorist]] group by the white South African government and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/8304153/Nelson-Mandelas-Spear-of-the-Nation-the-ANCs-armed-resistance.html|title=Nelson Mandela's Spear of the Nation: the ANC's armed resistance|author=Laing, Aislinn|work=The Telegraph|language=English|date=February 5, 2011|accessdate=December 18, 2013}}</ref> Mandela left the country soon after the Spear of the Nation began its tactics, hoping to generate worldwide support and economic sanctions so that Pretoria might abandon apartheid.<ref name="independent biography"/> In 1962, Mandela was arrested after 17 months in hiding, charged with incitement to strike and illegally leaving the country.<ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/>
{{QuoteBox2|quote=“I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal for which I hope to live for and to see realized. But my lord, if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”|source=Nelson Mandela<ref name="NYT obituary"/>|align=right|width=300px}}
While serving, the South African police raided a farm near Rivonia - finding future plans of sabotage; Mandela and his colleagues were charged with organising sabotage and violent revolution as well as furthering the aims of communism; at his trial, Mandela declared his ideal of democracy in a four-hour speech - concluding, "It is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."<ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela acknowledged his crimes - that he was the commander of Spear of the Nation and that he had made alliances with Communists, but declared that he had turned to violence only when nonviolent means were foreclosed and likened his affiliation with Communists to Churchill's cooperation with Stalin against Hitler.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Nelson also commented on his political evolution from black nationalist to multiracialist.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> In part due to overwhelming pressure from the international community - including a near-unanimous vote by the [[United Nations]] - the lives of the accused were spared; Mandela and his colleagues were sentenced to life in prison.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> When President Botha offered to have him pardoned if he would renounce terrorism, he refused.<ref name="web.archive.org"/>

==Imprisonment==
Mandela became an elder statesman of the prison on Robben Island<ref name="telegraph biography"/> - where there were frequent clashes with prisoners and guards, he seemed above the fray; he was also singled out for cruelties. He was denied permission to attend the funerals of his mother and oldest son, and his wife endured persecution after being exiled from Johannesburg.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela and the prisoners initially turned down officers of release; he commented "Prisoners cannot enter into contracts - only free men can negotiate."<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela credited his time in prison with the cessation of his desire for vengeance, speaking of sympathetic white guards and National Party members who would attempt a dialogue.<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

Pretoria began a more stringent crackdown on minority party activities - it detained 20,000 people without trial,<ref name="independent biography"/> but the pressure from the international community was too great. Mandela ultimately decided to negotiate with the white government without telling his fellow inmates and party-members, saying, “My comrades did not have the advantages that I had of brushing shoulders with the V.I.P.’s who came here, the judges, the minister of justice, the commissioner of prisons, and I had come to overcome my own prejudice towards them ... So I decided to present my colleagues with a fait accompli.”<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

In December 1988, as negotiations gathered momentum, and Mandela's health deteriorated (he had prostate surgery while in prison), he was moved to the Victor Verster Prison - where he could be better cared for and live in more comfortable conditions.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> In February 1990, President Frederik Willem de Klerk legalized the ANC and shortly after released Mandela; two weeks later Mandela became the Deputy President of the ANC.<ref name="independent biography"/>

===Release and election===
Negotiations between Mandela, the ANC and the ruling party continued until eventually free elections were agreed upon, in exchange for a share of power for opposition parties and a guarantee that whites would not be threatened with reprisals.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> In the ensuing elections of April 1994, the ANC won 62% of the vote - ensuring that Mandela would be the next President of South Africa.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/>

==Presidency==
Though elected leader, Mandela was frequently deferring to others in leadership. De Klerk and Thabo Mbeki - the latter selected by the ANC - were Mandela's deputy presidents, and privately he left most appointments and practical decisions to Mbeki, referring to himself as "head of state" rather than "head of government".<ref name="independent biography"/> When De Klerk left the coalition, Mbeki was allowed more power - sometimes presiding over the cabinet.

Mandela was not as effective in elected office as he was revolutionary leader. Prior to his election - he sought the financial support of 20 industrialists to build up the ANC. When he took office, he allowed the industrialists to have unprecedented access to the executive - and favored his big donors over unions.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela also made minimal progress towards the modest goals he had set on housing, education and jobs.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> He failed to grab the lead at the dawn of the ensuing crisis of [[AIDS]]; refusing to acknowledge the unpopular subject at a time when contraceptives were considered [[taboo]] in South Africa.<ref name="independent biography"/>

Still, Mandela continued to act as a unifier among races - as in 1995 when he shook the hand of Francois Pienaar - the Springbok [[rugby]] captain - significant due to rugby's strong association with Afrikaners - whose leaders strongly supported apartheid.<ref name="telegraph biography"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Mandela - Francois Pienaar’s tribute: short, simple, apt|work=Daily Maverick|author=Muller, Antoinette|date=December 12, 2013|accessdate=December 18, 2013|url=http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-12-12-mandela-francois-pienaars-tribute-short-simple-apt/#.UrM_sJGilDI}}</ref>

==Post-Presidency==
===Reaction to successor===
Mandela rarely directly criticized his successor, Mbeki, but privately criticized his inability to take criticism and his conspiratorial view of the world.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> When Mbeki publicly doubted the scientifically proven cause of AIDS, Mandela finally spoke out on the issue - citing the importance of condoms and contraceptives.<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

===Reaction to global affairs===
[[File:Gaddafi and Mandela 1.JPG|thumb|Nelson Mandela with [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]]]

===Health problems and death===
Mandela suffered from a lung infection. From December 2012 to April 2013 he remained in a hospital. He had a procedure to remove a [[gallstone]].<ref>{{cite web|work=Associated Press|publisher=Fox News|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/03/31/south-africa-mandela-remains-in-hospital/|title=Mandela remains hospitalized for lung infection, spokesman says|language=English|date=March 31, 2013}}</ref> On April 6, 2013 he left the hospital,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/04/06/nelson-mandela-discharged-from-hospital-south-africa-says/|title=Nelson Mandela discharged from the hospital, South Africa says|language=English|publisher=Fox News|work=Associated Press|date=April 6, 2013}}</ref> but returned again in June 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/06/08/south-africa-mandela-taken-to-hospital/|work=Associated Press|publisher=Fox News|title=Nelson Mandela remains in hospital with recurring lung infection|language=English|date=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Mandela was in a critical condition for a long time.<ref>{{cite web|work=Associated Press|publisher=TownHall|url=https://townhall.com/news/politics-elections/2013/06/23/south-africa-mandela-in-critical-condition-n1625432|language=English|title=South Africa: Nelson Mandela in critical condition}}</ref>

On July 4, 2013, it was revealed that court documents indicated that Nelson Mandela was on life support and was being kept alive by a breathing machine and faced "impending death"; he was kept in the hospital from June 8, 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/07/04/nelson-mandela-africa-apartheid/2489137/|work=Associated Press|publisher=USA Today|author=Straziuso, Jason|date=July 4, 2013|title=Nelson Mandela on life support, court documents show}}</ref> to December 5th, 2013, when he died.

====Global reaction and funeral====
[[George W. Bush]] and [[Barack Obama]] both spoke at Mandela's funeral - which was marred by a fake sign language interpreter, who was later admitted to a psychiatric hospital.<ref>{{cite web|work=NBC News|publisher=NBC|author=Smith, Alexander|title='Fake' interpreter from Mandela event is admitted to psychiatric hospital: report|language=English|url=http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/12/19/21969085-fake-interpreter-from-mandela-event-is-admitted-to-psychiatric-hospital-report?lite|date=December 19, 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}

[[Category:Former Heads of State]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]
[[Category:Nobel Laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom award winners]]
[[Category:Sakharov Laureates]]
[[Category:Terrorists]]
[[Category:Communists]]
[[Category:Peace Makers]]
[[Category:Leftists]]
[[Category:South Africans]]
[[Category:Christian Socialists]]

Category:Left-wing Nationalism

2021-06-06T23:53:59Z

Nationalamerican:

Though many left-wingers are anti nationalists. There are many in both the western and non-western world known to embrace nationalism.
[[Category:Nationalists]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]

Nelson Mandela

2021-06-06T23:53:12Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Infobox officeholder
|name=Nelson Mandela
|image=Mandela2.jpg
|birth_date=July 19, 1918
|birth_place=Mvezo, South Africa
|death_date=December 5, 2013 (aged 95)
|death_place=Johannesburg, South Africa
|religion=[[Methodism]]
|spouse=Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1944–1957) Winnie Madikizela (1958–1996) Graça Machel (1998-)
|children=
|alma_mater=
|party=[[African National Congress]]
|office=President of South Africa
|term_start=May 10, 1994
|term_end=June 10, 1999
|preceded=F. W. de Klerk
|succeeded=[[Thabo Mbeki]]
}}

'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' (July 18, 1918 – December 5, 2013) was a [[South Africa]]n anti-apartheid leader and politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994-1999. For his life Mandela received more than 250 honors, including the 1993 [[Nobel Peace Prize]], the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] (from [[George W. Bush]]), the [[Sakharov Prize]], the Soviet Order of Lenin and the Bharat Ratna.

He belonged to the African National Congress, a political party from the center-left to the ultra-left Leninist, which he presided from 1991 to 1997, after its legalization in 1990. He was a member and was general secretary of the MPNA (Movement of Non-Aligned Countries) between 1998 and 2002. This was a coalition of countries that remained "neutral" in the Cold War. Nelson supported the Marxist Cuban revolution, [[Fidel Castro]], and the values of and actions taken by the regime.<ref>Speech by Nelson Mandela, July 26, 1991, in Cuba: http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS1526&txtstr=cuba</ref> He also supported [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]<ref>https://youtu.be/G-afUmpGBmw</ref> and Ayatollah [[Ali Khamenei]].<ref>https://youtu.be/wCPlz9-SyPM</ref>

==Early life==
Mandela was born Rolihlahla Mandela on July 18, 1918, in Mvezo, to Nonqaphi Nosekeni and Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa,<ref name="AllAfrica"/> a chief of the Thembu people, a subdivision of the Xhosa nation.<ref name="NYT obituary">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela_obit.html?pagewanted=1&ref=international-home|work=The New York Times|author=Keller, Bill|date=December 5, 2013|accessdate=12-10-2013|title=Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s Liberator as Prisoner and President, Dies at 95|language=English}}</ref> When his father died at nine Nelson was taken in as a ward to Jongintaba Dalindyebo.<ref name="official biography">{{cite web|work=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=Biography|language=English|accessdate=12-10-2013|url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/biography}}</ref>

===Education===
Mandela was sent to a [[Methodist]]<ref name="independent biography">{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nelson-mandela-life-story-a-long-walk-to-immortality--the-life-and-times-of-madiba-8406457.html|work=The Independent|language=English|country=UK|title=Nelson Mandela biography: A long walk to immortality - the life and times of Madiba|author=Sampson, Anthony}}</ref> mission school for his primary education,<ref name="AllAfrica">{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312091064.html|work=AllAfrica|title=South Africa: Biography of Nelson Mandela|date=12-06-2013|accessdate=12-10-2013|language=English}}</ref> followed by time at Clarkebury Boarding Institute and Healdtown.<ref name="official biography"/> He began studying for a [[bachelor's degree]] at University College of Fort Hare, the only residential college for [[blacks]] in South Africa,<ref name="NYT obituary"/> but, along with Oliver Tambo,<ref name="AllAfrica"/> was expelled for joining a student [[protest]].<ref name="official biography"/> Upon returning to his village, as retribution,<ref name="official biography"/> Mandela's family selected a bride for him and his cousin, Justice; the two fled the family - and the prospect of leadership in [[tribal]] government - for [[Johannesburg, South Africa]].<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> There he worked in gold mines as a guard, but was fired when his superior discovered he was a runaway.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela would complete his bachelor's degree at the University of South Africa in 1943 and return to Fort Hare for his graduation.<ref name="official biography"/>

==Pre-imprisonment career==
===Work experience, early political activism===
In Johannesburg, Mandela was introduced to Walter Sisulu, a [[real estate]] businessman and a prominent member of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) - a black liberation party opposed the extreme segregation called [[apartheid]];<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/apartheid|title=Apartheid|work=History|publisher=A&E Television Networks, LLC|accessdate=December 18, 2013|language=English}}</ref> Sisulu arranged for Mandela to be articled to a white attorney, Lazar Sidelsky, while Mandela studied [[law]] part-time at University of the Witwatersrand - though he would leave the school in 1948.<ref name="official biography"/><ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela began to follow Anton Lembede; he, along with Mandela, Tambo and Sisulu organized the radical A.N.C. Youth League, alienating some white sympathizers with their strong black national rhetoric.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> The Youth League was also critical of the "old guard" leadership of the ANC.<ref name="AllAfrica"/>
{{QuoteBox2|quote=“I was angry at the white man, not at racism ... While I was not prepared to hurl the white man into the sea, I would have been perfectly happy if he climbed aboard his steamships and left the continent of his own volition.”|source=Nelson Mandela<ref name="NYT obituary"/>|align=left|width=300px}}
At this time, Mandela fell strongly onto the side of Africanism is the liberation debate between Africanism and nonracialism
in liberation theology, though his eventual embrace of nonracialism would define his later life and career.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> The ANC Youth League was also fiercely anti-[[communist]]; Mandela would break up Communist Party meetings - regarding Communism as foreign and non-Afircan and believing that blacks should liberate themselves.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> This philosophy changed with the victory of the Afrikaner National Party in 1948 in the all-white elections; the National Party had run on a platform of [[apartheid]] and strong anti-communism.<ref name="independent biography"/> The elections sparked the radicalization of the ANC<ref name="telegraph biography">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10503342/Nelson-Mandela-A-life-rich-in-drama-tragedy-triumph-and-reconciliation.html|work=The Telegraph|title=Nelson Mandela: A life rich in drama, tragedy, triumph and reconciliation|language=English|author= Holman, Michael|date=December 7, 2013|accessdate=December 18, 2013}}</ref> - in 1949 the Youth League's tactics of boycott, strike, civil disobedience and non-co-operation were adopted as official ANC policy, and older members were purged from leadership positions.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela would assume leadership positions within the party - including President of the Youth League and National Volunteer-in-Chief of the ANC.<ref name="AllAfrica"/>

In 1952, the ANC launched its first passive resistance - the Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/> The Defiance Campaign was suppressed with legislation lead by the National Party; protests were met with arrests - including that of Mandela's in 1956 on charges of [[treason]] (one of 156 ANC leaders to be arrested that year).<ref name="independent biography"/> The court found that Mandela had consistently advised his adherers to not resort to violence, but he was found guilty of contravening the Suppression of Communism Act and given a suspended prison sentence.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela was also confined to Johannesburg for six months and prohibited from attending gatherings; during this time, Mandela, despite not completing his law degree, and Tambo set up the first black law partnership in South Africa;<ref name="NYT obituary"/> the firm helped black clients with their political and other legal difficulties.<ref name="independent biography"/>

In 1953, Mandela created the M-plan (named after him) - a contingency plan in case the ANC - like the Communist Party - was declared illegal. The M-plan detailed how the party could run underground, communicating with members without resorting to public meetings.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Throughout the fifties Mandela would be consistently banned, arrested and imprisoned.<ref name="AllAfrica"/> In 1960 - the more radical Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) broke away from the ANC; their tactics- though still peaceful - were more aggressive and were met with violence.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/> On March 21, 1961 police killed 69 peaceful protestors in what became known as the Sharpeville Massacre; after this massacre both parties were banned.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/>

He also had been a Communist, and even went as far as to give a speech on how to be a good communist.<ref name="web.archive.org">https://web.archive.org/web/20041204063644/http://home.wanadoo.nl/rhodesia/goodcom.html</ref> In addition, he also was a senior member of the South African Communist Party by his arrest in 1962.<ref>http://newobserveronline.com/mandela-lied-to-world-south-african-communist-party-admits-he-was-senior-central-committee-member/</ref> In 1990 at Johannesburg, he was also photographed with his then-wife Winnie (who was infamous for her method of execution known as necklacing, which involved putting a tire to a person's neck filled with gasoline and setting them on fire) as well as Stalinist member Joe Slovo during a South African Communist Party rally with the Soviet Star and Hammer and Sickle logos prominently displayed on a red background.<ref>https://timeonhands.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/soviet-support-for-nelson-mandela.jpg</ref>

===Militarist leader===
The Sharpeville Massacre sparked a turning point for Mandela - he became convinced that the ANC needed to adopt a separate military wing, called Umkhonto we Sizwe, or Spear of the Nation; Mandela was made commander-in-chief.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/> There is also evidence that Mandela joined the South African Communist Party and a member the party's Central Committee (though he denied it through his life) - presumably for contacts.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member|work=Business Day Live|title=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member|author= Marrian, Natasha|date=December 6, 2013|language=English}}</ref>
The new, violent, methods of the ANC were to destroy power plants and communications systems; the goal was that these acts would limit overseas investment. Mandela was adamant that the group not kill, but by the end of its 20-year campaign 63 people had been killed and 483 injured; the group was declared a [[terrorist]] group by the white South African government and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/8304153/Nelson-Mandelas-Spear-of-the-Nation-the-ANCs-armed-resistance.html|title=Nelson Mandela's Spear of the Nation: the ANC's armed resistance|author=Laing, Aislinn|work=The Telegraph|language=English|date=February 5, 2011|accessdate=December 18, 2013}}</ref> Mandela left the country soon after the Spear of the Nation began its tactics, hoping to generate worldwide support and economic sanctions so that Pretoria might abandon apartheid.<ref name="independent biography"/> In 1962, Mandela was arrested after 17 months in hiding, charged with incitement to strike and illegally leaving the country.<ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="independent biography"/>
{{QuoteBox2|quote=“I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal for which I hope to live for and to see realized. But my lord, if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”|source=Nelson Mandela<ref name="NYT obituary"/>|align=right|width=300px}}
While serving, the South African police raided a farm near Rivonia - finding future plans of sabotage; Mandela and his colleagues were charged with organising sabotage and violent revolution as well as furthering the aims of communism; at his trial, Mandela declared his ideal of democracy in a four-hour speech - concluding, "It is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."<ref name="independent biography"/> Mandela acknowledged his crimes - that he was the commander of Spear of the Nation and that he had made alliances with Communists, but declared that he had turned to violence only when nonviolent means were foreclosed and likened his affiliation with Communists to Churchill's cooperation with Stalin against Hitler.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Nelson also commented on his political evolution from black nationalist to multiracialist.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> In part due to overwhelming pressure from the international community - including a near-unanimous vote by the [[United Nations]] - the lives of the accused were spared; Mandela and his colleagues were sentenced to life in prison.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> When President Botha offered to have him pardoned if he would renounce terrorism, he refused.<ref name="web.archive.org"/>

==Imprisonment==
Mandela became an elder statesman of the prison on Robben Island<ref name="telegraph biography"/> - where there were frequent clashes with prisoners and guards, he seemed above the fray; he was also singled out for cruelties. He was denied permission to attend the funerals of his mother and oldest son, and his wife endured persecution after being exiled from Johannesburg.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela and the prisoners initially turned down officers of release; he commented "Prisoners cannot enter into contracts - only free men can negotiate."<ref name="AllAfrica"/> Mandela credited his time in prison with the cessation of his desire for vengeance, speaking of sympathetic white guards and National Party members who would attempt a dialogue.<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

Pretoria began a more stringent crackdown on minority party activities - it detained 20,000 people without trial,<ref name="independent biography"/> but the pressure from the international community was too great. Mandela ultimately decided to negotiate with the white government without telling his fellow inmates and party-members, saying, “My comrades did not have the advantages that I had of brushing shoulders with the V.I.P.’s who came here, the judges, the minister of justice, the commissioner of prisons, and I had come to overcome my own prejudice towards them ... So I decided to present my colleagues with a fait accompli.”<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

In December 1988, as negotiations gathered momentum, and Mandela's health deteriorated (he had prostate surgery while in prison), he was moved to the Victor Verster Prison - where he could be better cared for and live in more comfortable conditions.<ref name="AllAfrica"/><ref name="NYT obituary"/> In February 1990, President Frederik Willem de Klerk legalized the ANC and shortly after released Mandela; two weeks later Mandela became the Deputy President of the ANC.<ref name="independent biography"/>

===Release and election===
Negotiations between Mandela, the ANC and the ruling party continued until eventually free elections were agreed upon, in exchange for a share of power for opposition parties and a guarantee that whites would not be threatened with reprisals.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> In the ensuing elections of April 1994, the ANC won 62% of the vote - ensuring that Mandela would be the next President of South Africa.<ref name="NYT obituary"/><ref name="independent biography"/>

==Presidency==
Though elected leader, Mandela was frequently deferring to others in leadership. De Klerk and Thabo Mbeki - the latter selected by the ANC - were Mandela's deputy presidents, and privately he left most appointments and practical decisions to Mbeki, referring to himself as "head of state" rather than "head of government".<ref name="independent biography"/> When De Klerk left the coalition, Mbeki was allowed more power - sometimes presiding over the cabinet.

Mandela was not as effective in elected office as he was revolutionary leader. Prior to his election - he sought the financial support of 20 industrialists to build up the ANC. When he took office, he allowed the industrialists to have unprecedented access to the executive - and favored his big donors over unions.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> Mandela also made minimal progress towards the modest goals he had set on housing, education and jobs.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> He failed to grab the lead at the dawn of the ensuing crisis of [[AIDS]]; refusing to acknowledge the unpopular subject at a time when contraceptives were considered [[taboo]] in South Africa.<ref name="independent biography"/>

Still, Mandela continued to act as a unifier among races - as in 1995 when he shook the hand of Francois Pienaar - the Springbok [[rugby]] captain - significant due to rugby's strong association with Afrikaners - whose leaders strongly supported apartheid.<ref name="telegraph biography"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Mandela - Francois Pienaar’s tribute: short, simple, apt|work=Daily Maverick|author=Muller, Antoinette|date=December 12, 2013|accessdate=December 18, 2013|url=http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-12-12-mandela-francois-pienaars-tribute-short-simple-apt/#.UrM_sJGilDI}}</ref>

==Post-Presidency==
===Reaction to successor===
Mandela rarely directly criticized his successor, Mbeki, but privately criticized his inability to take criticism and his conspiratorial view of the world.<ref name="NYT obituary"/> When Mbeki publicly doubted the scientifically proven cause of AIDS, Mandela finally spoke out on the issue - citing the importance of condoms and contraceptives.<ref name="NYT obituary"/>

===Reaction to global affairs===
[[File:Gaddafi and Mandela 1.JPG|thumb|Nelson Mandela with [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]]]

===Health problems and death===
Mandela suffered from a lung infection. From December 2012 to April 2013 he remained in a hospital. He had a procedure to remove a [[gallstone]].<ref>{{cite web|work=Associated Press|publisher=Fox News|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/03/31/south-africa-mandela-remains-in-hospital/|title=Mandela remains hospitalized for lung infection, spokesman says|language=English|date=March 31, 2013}}</ref> On April 6, 2013 he left the hospital,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/04/06/nelson-mandela-discharged-from-hospital-south-africa-says/|title=Nelson Mandela discharged from the hospital, South Africa says|language=English|publisher=Fox News|work=Associated Press|date=April 6, 2013}}</ref> but returned again in June 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/06/08/south-africa-mandela-taken-to-hospital/|work=Associated Press|publisher=Fox News|title=Nelson Mandela remains in hospital with recurring lung infection|language=English|date=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Mandela was in a critical condition for a long time.<ref>{{cite web|work=Associated Press|publisher=TownHall|url=https://townhall.com/news/politics-elections/2013/06/23/south-africa-mandela-in-critical-condition-n1625432|language=English|title=South Africa: Nelson Mandela in critical condition}}</ref>

On July 4, 2013, it was revealed that court documents indicated that Nelson Mandela was on life support and was being kept alive by a breathing machine and faced "impending death"; he was kept in the hospital from June 8, 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/07/04/nelson-mandela-africa-apartheid/2489137/|work=Associated Press|publisher=USA Today|author=Straziuso, Jason|date=July 4, 2013|title=Nelson Mandela on life support, court documents show}}</ref> to December 5th, 2013, when he died.

====Global reaction and funeral====
[[George W. Bush]] and [[Barack Obama]] both spoke at Mandela's funeral - which was marred by a fake sign language interpreter, who was later admitted to a psychiatric hospital.<ref>{{cite web|work=NBC News|publisher=NBC|author=Smith, Alexander|title='Fake' interpreter from Mandela event is admitted to psychiatric hospital: report|language=English|url=http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/12/19/21969085-fake-interpreter-from-mandela-event-is-admitted-to-psychiatric-hospital-report?lite|date=December 19, 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}

[[Category:Former Heads of State]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]
[[Category:Nobel Laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom award winners]]
[[Category:Sakharov Laureates]]
[[Category:Terrorists]]
[[Category:Communists]]
[[Category:Peacemakers]]
[[Category:Leftists]]
[[Category:South Africans]]
[[Category:Christian Socialists]]

Indira Gandhi

2021-06-06T23:52:21Z

Nationalamerican:

'''Indira Gandhi''' (1917-1984) became the prime minister of [[History of India|India]], serving from 1966 to 1977 and again 1980-84. [[File:Indira1.jpg|thumb|230px|''Time'' Nov. 12, 1984, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926929,00.html read cover story on her assassination]]]

Her charisma as the daughter of the founder of independence [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], her secularist outlook, her identification with the poor, her commitment to sociliasm, and her image as a strong national leader had made her the only politician of all-India stature acceptable across regional, religious, caste, and class lines. Mrs. Gandhi was devoted to national unity, secularism, self-reliance, reduction of economic disparities, and—usually—to democratic processes. She repudiated the methods of Marxist [[class struggle]] and thus strove to combat India's poverty without changing the structure of society. She was willing to use coercive measures if necessary, however, to achieve economic progress and social reform; she defended the emergency, for example, as necessary to protect the economy from the disruptive activities of the opposition and to assure the poor the benefits they were entitled to as equal citizens under the law.

In foreign affairs during the [[Cold War]], Gandhi relied on good diplomatic relations and with the Soviet Union to protect India against a possible U.S.-China-Pakistan alignment. She purchased modern arms from the Soviets, which made possible her greatest achievement, the quick, decisive victory by the Indian army in the 1971 war with Pakistan. Victory ended the refugee crisis and led to the creation of independent [[Bangladesh]] from the former East Pakistan. She was sympathetic to liberation movements in the third world and often supported neitral movements.

==Career==
She was the only child of Congress Party leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], who became India's first prime minister following independence in 1947.

Indira Nehru was educated in India and Switzerland and attended Oxford University briefly. Returning to India in 1941, she married a Parsi lawyer, Feroze Gandhi (no relation of [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]]). After India's independence Mrs. Gandhi became her father's official hostess. Gradually she became a political figure in her own right, and in 1959 she was elected president of the ruling Indian National Congress. She stepped down in 1960 after her husband's death but continued as an aide to her father. In the years before his death in 1964 she acquired increasing importance as an intermediary between the ailing prime minister and his government and party officials. She became minister of information in 1964 and was chosen prime minister in 1966 on the death of Nehru's immediate successor, Lal Bahadur Shastri.

==First term==
Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy. In 1969, after her government nationalized 14 of India's largest banks, conservative older leaders of the Congress Party tried to expel her from the party. The attempt failed, but it caused a split into a ruling Congress (R) and an opposition Congress (O). Mrs. Gandhi called for socialist economic and social reforms, while her conservative opponents, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation’s massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties. Gandhi was left without a majority in parliament; but she boldly called elections a year early, and in March 1971 her Congress (R) scored a smashing victory, polling more than two thirds of the vote.

Considerable real economic growth took place, often in spite of or contrary to her proposals. Prosperity enabled Mrs. Gandhi to win a landslide reelection victory in 1971. It partly resulted from her reputation for strong leadership, and also resulted from the effects of the New Economic Policy, implemented in 1966. After hesitant beginnings in the early 1960s the [[Green Revolution]] rapidly improved food production and spurred the entire economy after 1967. She nationalized India's banks in 1967 to allow for easy credit. Social discontent resulting from the Green Revolution was still limited.
===Foreign policy===
In foreign policy she led the nation to a triumphant victory in a major war with Pakistan in 1972. It resulted in the independence of [[Bangladesh]], which had revolted over the widespread mistreatment by Pakistan. Mrs. Gandhi's pragmatic, coldly calculated friendly relationships with the Soviet Union and her hostile attitude toward the United States left India a more important and independent regional power than it had been under her father. Her nuclear policy was characterized by the refusal to sign the [[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]], insistence on the further development of peaceful uses of atomic energy, and maintenance of a nuclear technological capability in response to developments in Pakistan and China.

====State of Emergency====
In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Although India had a strong tradition of democracy, that tradition was challenged when Mrs. Gandhi moved toward a personal dictatorship. In the summer of 1975, following a long siege of political invective and legal reverses, she arrested her chief critic Jayaprakash Narayan and thousands of his political supporters and suspended the constitution under the Defence of India Rules. She said the drastic action was necessary to preserve national unity. Mrs. Gandhi then issued edicts to curtail rising prices, improve the efficiency of government, and control crime and violence. The opposition, however, maintains that these things were accomplished only at the price of higher unemployment, increased government bureaucracy, and growth of hoarding, smuggling, and black marketeering. The newspapers of India were suppressed by heavy censorship rulings and the laws regarding the office of prime minister were altered to virtually ignore the role of the Indian Parliament.

===Mrs Gandhi defeated by Janata===
Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by [[Morarji Desai]], who headed the [[Janata Party]], an amalgam of five opposition parties. In January 1978 she engineered another split in the Congress; her Congress-I (for "Indira") scored successes in state elections the following month, and in November Mrs Gandhi herself won election to parliament.

In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. Since the early 1970s she had been grooming her son Sanjay Gandhi, a forceful and controversial politician with strong support among urban youth. She suffered a severe personal and political loss when Sanjay died in an airplane accident. She then persuaded her older son, Rajiv, to enter politics as her main deputy.
===Assassinations and instability===
In 1980 she regained power. When the [[Sikhs]] demanded an independent state and engaged in a violent campaign against the government, she ordered an attack on the Sikh's holiest site, the Golden Temple, where the insurgents were based. In response, two of her Sikh bodyguards retaliated by assassinating her in November 1984. The killing was followed by a nationwide outburst of violent attacks on Sihks. Her son Rajiv Gandhi, was chosen by the Congress (I) Party to take her place. His government was plagued with allegations of corruption resulting in an early call for national elections in 1989.

==Further reading==
* Brown, Judith M. ''Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy'' (2nd ed. 1994) 464 pgs [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250 online edition]
* Dommermuth-Costa, Carol. ''Indira Gandhi: Daughter of India'' (2001), 128pp; for elementary students [https://www.amazon.com/Indira-Gandhi-Daughter-Lerner-Biographies/dp/0822549638/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242619389&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Frank, Katherine. ''Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Indira-Life-Nehru-Gandhi/dp/039573097X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242619389&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Gupte, Pranay. ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.
* Jayakar, Pupul. ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.
* Malhotra, Inder. ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.
* Mansingh, Surjit. ''India's Search for Power: Indira Gandhi's Foreign Policy.'' (1984). 405 pp.
====References====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gandhi, Indira}}
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]
[[Category:Heads of Government]]
[[Category:Indian History]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of India]]

Jawaharlal Nehru

2021-06-06T23:51:59Z

Nationalamerican:

'''Jawaharlal Nehru''' (1889-1964) was an [[India]]n statesman who succeeded [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]] as leader of the [[Indian National Congress]] after Gandhi's assassination.<ref>The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History, Bulliet et al, 2005</ref> Following the work that Gandhi had already put in motion, he negotiated the end of British colonial rule in [[India]] and became India's first prime-minister. Nehru was educated in [[England]] at [[Trinity College]] and was a classmate of [[St. John Philby]].<ref>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press (2004).</ref>

Nehru was profoundly influenced by [[Fabian Socialism]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=z1ctAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT22 Nehru: The Invention of India]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=N924CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 CONTRIBUTION OF PANDIT JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TO INDIAN POLITICS – A CRITICAL STUDY]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bWxDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT40 Why I Am Paying More: Price Theory and Market Structure Made Simple]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nehru, Jawaharlal}}

[[Category:Indian History]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Heads of Government]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of India]]

Golda Meir

2021-06-06T23:51:10Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Prime Minister
|name=Golda Meir
|image=455px-Golda Meir 03265u.jpg
|seq=
|country=Israel
|term_start=March 17, 1969
|term_end=June 3, 1974
|party=[[Mapai]] [[Labour Party (Israel)]]
|previous=Yigal Allon
|next=Yitzhak Rabin
|birth_date=May 3, 1898
|birth_place=Kyiv
|death_date=December 8, 1978
|death_place=Jerusalem
|spouse=
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Atheism]]
}}
'''Golda Meir''' (1898-1978) was one of the founders of the State of [[Israel]] and served as its fourth Prime Minister from 1969 to 1974.

She is famous for her quote “We will have peace with the Arabs when they love their children more than they hate us,” a statement that made reference to the casualties that the Arabs would suffer while trying to make incursions into Israel and from Israeli reprisals.

==Biography==
She was born in [[Ukraine]], but her family soon emigrated to the [[United States]]. Golda became an ardent [[Zionist]] at an early age and moved to Israel with her husband in the 1920s well before it became a nation in its own right. It was under British rule at the time due to the [[Ottoman Empire]] losing [[World War I]] and being forced to give up the land. She spent her life in service to the dream of a Jewish state and in service to it once the nation of Israel became a reality. She held many positions during her lifetime such as the Minister of Labor, Foreign Minister, and then as the fourth Prime Minister of Israel in her 70s. Her term in office included the [[Munich massacre|massacre of Israeli athletes]] during the 1972 Munich olympics and the [[Yom Kippur War]] the following year. The war stunned the nation wherefore Meir could form a new government coalition only with great difficulty and decided to resign on April 10, 1974.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Golda-Meir</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Ehud Olmert]]
*[[Yom Kippur War]]
==References==
<references/>
{{IsraelPrimeMinisters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meir, Golda}}

[[Category:Prime Ministers of Israel]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]
[[Category:Middle East]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Jewish People]]
[[Category:European Jews]]
[[Category:Atheists]]

David Ben-Gurion

2021-06-06T23:50:38Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Prime Minister
|name=David Ben-Gurion
|image=Ben Gurion 1959.jpg
|seq=
|country=Israel
|term_start=May 17, 1948
|term_end=January 26, 1954
|party=Mapai
|previous=''New office''
|next=Moshe Sharett
|office2=
|seq2=
|term_start2=November 3, 1955
|term_end2=June 26, 1963
|party2=
|previous2=Moshe Sharett
|next2=Levi Eshkol
|birth_date=October 16, 1886
|birth_place=Jerusalem
|death_date=December 1, 1973
|death_place=Tel Aviv
|spouse=
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Atheism]]<ref>http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/biography-david-ben-gurion/5810.aspx</ref>
}}
'''David Ben-Gurion''' (Oct 16, 1886, in Jerusalem, Israel – Dec 1, 1973, Tel-Aviv) was a leader of the modern state of [[Israel]], which he proclaimed on May 4, 1948. He served Israel as its first [[prime minister]] until 1963 except for a brief period from 1954 to 1955. He also served as the minister of defense.

==Biography==
A [[Zionist]], he settled in [[Palestine]] as an orchard worker in 1906. He was involved in the foundation of the worker's union ''Histradut'' (general secretary 1921–1935) and of the [[socialist]] party ''Mapai''. As chairman of the Jewish Agency (1935–1948), he organized the immigration of Jewish refugees from [[Europe]] to Palestine against the resistance of the [[Palestinian]] [[Arab]]s and the [[British]], who held a [[League of Nations]] mandate over the area and wished to avoid immigration policies that would upset the status quo. In 1944, he became president of the World Zionist Organization.

In 1956 during the [[Suez Crisis]] as a result of Egyptian provocations Ben-Gurion ordered to take over the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The Israeli army withdrew from it when Israel was allowed to use the Strait of Tiran and when de facto peace was established along the Egyptian-Israeli border.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Ben-Gurion</ref>

He read extensively, accumulating a library of some 20,000 books.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Centenary%20of%20Zionism/Zionist%20Leaders-%20David%20Ben-Gurion Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs]: Zionist Leaders: Ben-Gurion</ref>

==See also==
* [[Binyamin Netanyahu]]

==References==
* Bar-Zohar, Michael: ''Ben Gurion'', 1971–1974
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=684 Knesset: David Ben-Gurion]
{{IsraelPrimeMinisters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ben-Gurion, David}}
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Template:Nationalism

2021-06-06T23:49:29Z

Nationalamerican:

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<noinclude>
[[Category:Templates]]
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</noinclude>

Henry Clay

2021-06-06T23:48:25Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Henry Clay
|image = henryclay.jpg
|caption =
|office = 9th [[United States Secretary of State]]
|president = [[John Quincy Adams]]
|term_start = March 4, 1825
|term_end = March 4, 1829
|predecessor = John Quincy Adams
|successor = [[Martin Van Buren]]
|jr/sr1 = United States Senator
|state1 = [[Kentucky]]
|term_start1 = December 29, 1806
|term_end1 = March 3, 1807
|predecessor1 = [[John Adair]]
|successor1 = [[John Pope (Kentucky politician)|John Pope]]
|term_start2 = January 4, 1810
|term_end2 = March 3, 1811
|predecessor2 = [[Buckner Thruston]]
|successor2 = [[George M. Bibb]]
|term_start3 = November 10, 1831
|term_end3 = March 31, 1842
|predecessor3 = [[John Rowan (Kentucky politician)|John Rowan]]
|successor3 = [[John J. Crittenden]]
|term_start4 = March 4, 1849
|term_end4 = June 29, 1852
|predecessor4 = [[Thomas Metcalfe (Kentucky politician)|Thomas Metcalfe]]
|successor4 = [[David Meriwether (Kentucky politician)|David Meriwether]]
|office5 = 7th [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]]
|president5 = [[James Madison]]
|term_start5 = March 4, 1811
|term_end5 = January 19, 1814
|predecessor5 = [[Joseph Bradley Varnum|Joseph Varnum]]
|successor5 = [[Langdon Cheves]]
|president6 = James Madison [[James Monroe]]
|term_start6 = March 4, 1815
|term_end6 = October 28, 1820
|predecessor6 = Langdon Cheves
|successor6 = [[John W. Taylor (politician)|John Taylor]]
|president7 = James Monroe
|term_start7 = March 4, 1823
|term_end7 = March 3, 1825
|predecessor7 = [[Philip P. Barbour]]
|successor7 = [[John W. Taylor (politician)|John Taylor]]
|office8 = Member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Kentucky]]
|term_start8 = March 4, 1811
|term_end8 = January 19, 1814
|predecessor8 = [[William T. Barry]]
|successor8 = Joseph H. Hawkins
|constituency8 = 2nd district (1813–1814) 5th district (1811–1813)
|term_start9 = March 4, 1815
|term_end9 = March 3, 1821
|predecessor9 = [[Joseph H. Hawkins]]
|successor9 = [[Samuel H. Woodson (Kentucky politician)|Samuel Woodson]]
|constituency9 = 2nd district
|term_start10 = March 4, 1823
|term_end10 = March 6, 1825
|predecessor10 = [[John Telemachus Johnson|John Johnson]]
|successor10 = [[James Clark (Kentucky politician)|James Clark]]
|constituency10 = 3rd district
|party = [[Democratic-Republican]] (1797–1825) [[National Republican Party|National Republican]] (1825–1833) [[Whig Party]] (1833–1852)
|spouse = Lucretia Hart
}}
'''Henry Clay''' (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852) was one of the half-dozen most important American leaders in the 1812-1850 era, running three times for president, and losing each time. He represented the West—his state of [[Kentucky]]—in House and Senate, and founded and dominated the [[Whig Party]] during the [[Second Party System]]. Clay led the opposition to [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Martin Van Buren]], [[James Knox Polk]] and [[Jacksonian Democracy]]. He is called the "Great Compromiser" for his leadership that prevented the slavery issue from ripping the nation apart in the [[Missouri Compromise]] in 1820, the [[Nullification Crisis]] in 1832, and the [[Compromise of 1850]]. His ideas greatly influenced [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the [[Republican Party]], which emerged after his death and promoted his ideas of national greatness through industry, banking and modernization. Clay was a leading [[nationalist]].

Clay's economic goal was the modernization of the American economy, based on cities, railroads, factories, banks, and well-educated middle class entrepreneurs, in opposition to the Jacksonians who opposed modernization and wanted instead more western farms for their yeoman farmers. Clay opposed "[[Manifest Destiny]]", geographical expansion and the [[Mexican War]]. Clay is considered (along with [[Daniel Webster]]) the leading conservative of his age, even though he was often defeated by the [[Jacksonian Democracy|Jacksonian liberals]].

Clay owned slaves but tried to downplay or compromise the slavery issue, in opposition to [[John C. Calhoun]] who emphasized it. Clay served as [[Speaker of the House]], [[Secretary of State]], and [[Senator]] and is noted for his three unsuccessful [[president of the United States of America|presidential]] campaigns in 1824, 1832, and 1844. "I would rather be right than be president," he often said.

==Origins==
His father, a [[Baptist]] minister, died when Clay was four; the boy was limited to three years of country schooling. In 1791, when his mother remarried, the family moved to [[Richmond]], where Clay spent a year clerking in a store and then became a copyist for the High Court of Chancery. He later became secretary and protégé of Chancellor George Wythe—the first professor of law in America and a co-author of the [[Constitution]]. During 1796 Clay studied law with the attorney general of [[Virginia]], and in 1797 was admitted to the bar. Although well-connected in Richmond, he decided to move west, where opportunities seemed greater. In 1803 he moved to the growing city of [[Lexington, Kentucky]], the center of the rich [[bluegrass]] region with an economy based on horses, hemp, tobacco, and farming. Clay soon won recognition as a criminal lawyer and specialist in land cases; he became wealthy from fees, business operations, and land speculation. His marriage in April 1799 to Lucretia Hart united him with a prominent family. Clay had a warm, likable personality. He enjoyed a happy home life at Ashland, his plantation, where he bred livestock; he introduced Herefords into Kentucky from [[England]], improved the strains of mules, and bred race horses.

==Kentucky leader==
Clay's political base was not the whole of Kentucky but the bluegrass region - the plantation area where hemp farming was prominent. Lexington, the center of the bluegrass, was the major metropolis west of the Alleghenies. The town was surpassed by Louisville and Clay turned to help the hemp industry.<ref>Hemp was used only to make rope and cordage.</ref> The hemp growers and rope makers sought protective tariffs on cotton bagging and ropes, the market was the lower South, which insisted upon free trade.

==Political career==
Clay had an unusually long legislative career, serving in the state legislature, in the U.S. Senate (1806-7, 1809–10, 1831–42, 1849-52), and U.S. House (1811–21, 1823–25, Speaker 1811-20 and 1823–25). He was a leader of the [[Jeffersonian Republicans]] until the party collapsed in the mid-1820s. He tried to create the "National Republican Party" (in 1828), then threw his energies into a new national [[Whig party]].
===[[War of 1812]]===
Clay won election to the House of Representatives, taking his seat in 1811. His personality and skill in oratory had given him authority in Washington; Clay was promptly elected speaker, and by his unprecedented energy and competence gave the office a new significance. He was elected to the post six times, never meeting serious opposition.

Clay in 1811 became the leader of the "[[War Hawks]]," a combination of Westerners and Southerners that included [[Felix Grundy]] of Kentucky and [[John C. Calhoun]] of South Carolina. Displaying aggressive nationalism at a time Britain and France were at war, they were outraged by Great Britain's refusal to permit American trade with France, and its impressment of American seamen into the British navy. Kentuckians resented what it considered British influence among western Indians, which turned to massacre settlers on the American frontiersmen. Clay boasted that the Kentucky militia alone could seize Montreal and Upper Canada and so settle all frontier problems. As speaker of the House, he appointed "War Hawks" to key committees and supported President [[James Madison]] demands for war (the [[War of 1812]]) with Great Britain. The House and Senate declared war in June, after stormy debates, which showed New England strongly opposed the war. During the ensuing hostilities—which were made more difficult by the noncooperation of New England [[Federalists]], who felt that Madison had foisted an unwanted war on them—Clay's appeals for patriotism and fortitude were a source of strength to the administration.

In 1814 he was at Ghent with the American delegation, which
negotiated the [[Treaty of Ghent]], signed [[Christmas eve]] 1814. His shrewd surmise that the British would accept moderate terms despite their land victories, served the United States better than did [[John Quincy Adams]]' readiness to give the British free navigation of the Mississippi River in exchange for the right of New Englanders to fish in Canadian waters.

===American System===
Clay resumed the speakership of the House of Representatives
and, looking toward the presidency, began to develop his famous
"American System." It called for national defense, construction
of roads and canals with federal aid, protection of home industry
through duties on foreign imports, and establishment of a second
Bank of the United States, which was chartered in April 1816.
His defense of the South American revolution against Spanish
rule broke ground for the Monroe Doctrine. In 1820, when
Missouri's proposed statehood threatened the balance between
free and slave states, Clay emerged as "the Great Compromiser,"
holding a unique political position through his status as a
Southerner and a slaveholder on the one hand and as a friend to
Northern industry on the other. Under his solution, known as the
Missouri Compromise, Missouri entered the Union as a slave
state, Maine entered as a free state to preserve the balance, and
slavery was prohibited thereafter in any other new state north of
36°30'.
===Land issue===
Van Atta (2004) shows that the [[Panic of 1819]] and the ensuing economic depression helped shape the public lands policy proposed in Clay's American System. To achieve stability in the West, Clay favored land prices low enough for men of average means yet sufficiently high to protect the region from undesirable emigrants and to maintain the supply of workers needed by manufacturers. In opposing the transfer of public lands to control by the states, Clay advocated congressional distribution of public land proceeds to the states for use toward education, internal improvements, and colonization. Despite the failure of his land bills in 1832 and 1833, Clay articulated what became the Whig party position on public land issues. From the very first Clay wanted to include the newly independent Spanish American states in his system. As early as 1818 Clay indicated that the system of political democracy and commercial freedom should operate throughout the hemisphere, while tariffs could protect the Americas from further entanglements with Europe. Although the declaration of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 fulfilled the political aspects of the system, Southerners in Congress were able to obstruct Clay's continued attempts to establish its commercial policies. Nor was he any more successful as Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829. Yet Clay is still considered by many to have been the first North American Pan-Americanist.<ref>Campbell (1967)</ref>

A leader of the Jeffersonian Republican party, he was defeated for president in 1824. He was Secretary of State under [[John Quincy Adams]] (1825–29). [[Andrew Jackson]] accused Clay and Adams of a "corrupt bargain" to elect Adams instead of Jackson in 1824. Clay and Jackson became bitter enemies, and Jackson defeated him for the presidency in 1832.

===Forming the Whig Party===
Clay formed the Whig Party in 1832, to support what he called "The American System," involving a National Bank, promotion of industrialization through tariffs, and support for internal improvements like canals and railroads. A rich slaveowner, he nevertheless brokered a series of north–south compromises over slavery, especially the Compromise of 1850, as well the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the "Corrupt Bargain" Compromise of 1825, the Tariff Compromise of 1833, the Slavery Compromises of 1837–39, the Texas Annexation Compromise of 1844, and his noncompromise on a protective banking system scheme in 1841. He was the foremost advocate of modernization, and was great admired by aspiring young men like [[Abraham Lincoln]].

===1844 campaign; Texas===
In 1844 the issue was annexation of Texas, which Clay opposed and his Democratic opponent [[James K. Polk]] supported. Polk won and Texas was annexed. As Morrison (1990) shows, Whig opposition was consistent with their beliefs in controlled expansion in a market economy. Clay opposed immediate annexation of Texas, arguing that gradual development of occupied land was preferential to a policy that could lead to war with Mexico. Whigs dismissed the Democrats' notion that expansion and democracy were intertwined and instead argued that personal and economic prosperity came from ordered progress, harmony, enterprise, and economic growth through the federal government. The Whigs perceived Texas annexation as a retreat from the foreign policy tenets established in the Federalist period, an attack on union stability, and an invitation to selfishness and fragmentation. Furthermore, Whigs concluded that Democrats carefully concocted annexation in order to pander to the laboring classes and extend slavery. The ability of the Democrats to make Texas annexation the paramount issue in the election of 1844 and equate territorial expansion with individual freedom was critical to Polk's defeat of Clay.

==Compromise of 1850==
[[Image:Henry-clay5.jpg|thumb|420px|Clay appeals for compromise in the Senate, 1850]] In 1849 Clay returned to the Senate in a last effort to modify the influence of the increasing numbers of extremists, Northern and Southern. His [[Compromise of 1850]] was intended to satisfy both sections, brought California into the Union as a free state, ended the slave trade in Washington DC (but did not abolish slavery there), and included other provisions intended to balance Southern and Northern interests. Its most controversial provision, the [[Fugitive Slave Law]], would have guaranteed slaveholders the return of their runaways and thus presumably have done away with the root of sectional differences. Clay hoped that this, his last and greatest compromise, would forever prevent a civil war. Alongside Clay in the Senate were the other two of the great triumvirate which had dominated American politics for more than thirty years.<ref>Peterson 1987</ref> The dying [[John C. Calhoun]] demanded for the South what was in effect equality with the federal government. [[Daniel Webster]], on the other hand, joined with Clay in his famous Seventh of March address and pleaded for an end to sectional strife. Clay was unable to get his compromise passed but Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unpackaged the compromise so that each component was passed by a different coalition. The compromise effectively postponed war for another decade, but Clay did not live to see the collapse of his Whig party after it lost the 1852 elections.
===Legacy===
He died in Washington on June 29, 1852. Clay lacked Webster's powerful logic and learning and Calhoun's cast-iron principles, but he was equal to both men in national power and he outranked them in the affection he inspired. Although his program of compromise suffered a loss of prestige during the secessionist crisis, it was renewed in the vision of one of his admirers: [[Abraham Lincoln]] called his fellow Kentuckian "my beau ideal of a statesman, the man for whom I fought all my humble life."<ref>Mark E. Neely, Jr. "American Nationalism in the Image of Henry Clay: Abraham Lincoln's Eulogy on Henry Clay in Context." ''Register of the Kentucky Historical Society'' 1975 73(1): 31-61.</ref>

==Quotes==
*"The Constitution of the United States was made not merely for the generation that then existed, but for posterity-unlimited, undefined, endless, perpetual posterity."<ref>https://quotes.thefamouspeople.com/henry-clay-1607.php</ref>

*"I always have had, and always shall have, a profound regard for Christianity, the religion of my fathers, and for its rights, its usages and observances."<ref>https://quotefancy.com/quote/1135971/Henry-Clay-I-always-have-had-and-always-shall-have-a-profound-regard-for-Christianity-the</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Baxter, Maurice G. ''Henry Clay and the American System'' (1995) 261pp
* Baxter, Maurice G. ''Henry Clay the Lawyer'' U. Press of Kentucky, 2000. 141pp
* Brown, Thomas. ''Politics and Statesmanship: Essays on the American Whig Party'' (1985) ch 5 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=35907993 online edition]
* Brown, David. "Jeffersonian Ideology and the Second Party System." ''Historian'' 1999 62(1): 17–30. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ebsco
* Campbell, Randolph B. "The Spanish American Aspect of Henry Clay's American System." ''Americas'' 1967 24(1): 3-17.
* Eaton, Clement. ''Henry Clay and the Art of American Politics'' (1957), short
* Gammon, Samuel R. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922)[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58576510 online version]
* Holt, Michael F. ''The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War'' (1999) the standard history (over 1000 pages) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99173945 online version]
* Knupfer, Peter B. "Compromise and Statesmanship: Henry Clay’s Union." in Knupfer, ''The Union As It Is: Constitutional Unionism and Sectional Compromise, 1787-1861'' (1991), pp. 119–57.
* Mayo, Bernard. ''Henry Clay, Spokesman of the West'' (1937)
* Morrison, Michael A. "Westward the Curse of Empire: Texas Annexation and the American Whig Party." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' (1990) 10(2): 221–249. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext: in Jstor
* Peterson, Merrill D. ''The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun'' (1987)
* Poage, George Rawlings. ''Henry Clay and the Whig Party'' (1936)
* Remini, Robert. ''Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union'' (1991), 818pp; the standard scholarly biography
* Schurz, Carl. ''Life of Henry Clay: American Statesmen''. 2 vol. (1899) [https://books.google.com/books/pdf/Life_of_Henry_Clay.pdf?vid=0qGyMNrCpXOh21xzeK&id=hrdi-qZgSdYC&output=pdf&sig=LAXdeffJ0aYktl12t29VBNb1Xlw online edition vol 1] [https://books.google.com/books/pdf/Life_of_Henry_Clay.pdf?vid=0ftV79J0aZ1FmRC6a2&id=TMS3EzxVJpMC&output=pdf&sig=-_CJroqtpWiBAssm9tM5xjXBfWw online edition vol 2]
* Shankman, Kimberly C. ''Compromise and the Constitution: The Political Thought of Henry Clay.'' 1999. 129 pp.
* Strahan, Randall; Moscardelli, Vincent G.; Haspel, Moshe; and Wike, Richard S. "The Clay Speakership Revisited" ''Polity'' 2000 32(4): 561–593. ISSN 0032-3497 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3497(200022)32%3A4%3C561%3ATCSR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 in JSTOR]
* Strahan, Randall. ''Leading Representatives: The Agency of Leaders in the Politics of the U.S. House'' (2007)
* Van Atta, John R. "Western Lands and the Political Economy of Henry Clay's American System, 1819-1832." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2001 21(4): 633–665. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0275-1275(200124)21%3A4%3C633%3AWLATPE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in Jstor]
* Van Deusen, Glyndon G. ''The Life of Henry Clay'' (1937)
* Watson, Harry L. ed. ''Andrew Jackson vs. Henry Clay: Democracy and Development in Antebellum America'' (1998) brief collection of readings
* Zarefsky, David. "Henry Clay and the Election of 1844: the Limits of a Rhetoric of Compromise" ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 2003 6(1): 79–96. ISSN 1094-8392 fulltext in Swetwise

===Primary sources===
* Clay, Henry. ''The Papers of Henry Clay'', 1797–1852. Edited by James Hopkins, Mary Hargreaves, Robert Seager II, Melba Porter Hay et al. 11 vols. University Press of Kentucky, 1959–1992. [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/reader.pl?call=31007&search= vol 1 online, 1797-1814]
* Clay, Henry. ''Works of Henry Clay'', 7 vols. (1897) [https://books.google.com/books?id=1HUDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:henry+inauthor:clay+inpublisher:henry+inpublisher:clay&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

====Notes====
<references/>
==External links==
* [https://www.c-span.org/Events/The-Contenders-Henry-Clay/10737431071/ C-SPAN biography program on Henry Clay]
* [https://librivox.org/author/8682 Works by Henry Clay - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clay, Henry}}
{{nationalism}}
[[Category:Speakers of the House(US)]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Nationalists]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:Whig Party]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Failed Presidential Candidates]]
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]

Alexander Hamilton

2021-06-06T23:47:11Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Officeholder
|name=Alexander Hamilton
|image=alexhamilton.jpg
|party=[[Federalist]]
|spouse=Elizabeth Schuyler
|religion=[[Christian]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/secretary (cabinet)
|of=the Treasury
|number=1st
|president=[[George Washington]]
|terms=September 11, 1789 – January 31, 1795
|preceded=none
|succeeded=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]
}}
}}
'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 – July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most [[conservative]] and [[Patriotic|nationalistic]], of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. One of the greatest American intellectuals ever, Hamilton became a [[Christian]] about a decade before he was shot and killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.<ref>D'Elia, Donald (1983). [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history/alexander-hamilton-from-caesar-to-christ.html "Alexander Hamilton: From Caesar to Christ"], ch. 6 of ''The Spirits of 76'' (Front Royal, VA: Christendom College Press), p. 87. Republished at Catholic Education Resource Center website/Culture/History.</ref>

After wartime service as aide-de-camp to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in [[New York]]. He called for a strong new [[constitution]] to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time and the driving force of the [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] Administration that shaped the young nation.

Hamilton realized that the basis of [[British]] power was its system of centralized [[tax]] collection and its funded [[national debt]] together with its sophisticated [[banking]] structure and its open market in public securities. For a state to wage [[war]] successfully, it had to tax efficiently and borrow cheaply—to become a powerful nation, America had to follow the British financial example. Hamilton's conclusion horrified [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his followers—they saw a deliberate adoption of British methods as an evil corruption—a betrayal of the values of [[Republicanism]] inherent in the [[American Revolution]].

Hamilton played a key role in:

* the continued success of [[George Washington]] as his top aide
* the ratification of the Constitution in 1788
* the interpretation of the Constitution to this day
* the policies that made the United States an economic power
* writing George Washington's [[Farewell Address]], which remains one of the finest statements of [[conservative values|conservative principles]]
* the compromise that placed the nation's capital at [[Washington, D.C.]]
* the election of [[Thomas Jefferson]] as president rather than [[Aaron Burr]] in 1801
* preventing secessionist Aaron Burr from winning the governorship of New York and then breaking up the Union, in 1804

As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far-reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over [[state debt]]s as well as [[debts]] owed by the [[Federal government|national government]], and funded them with long-term [[national debt]], which in turn was paid by a new [[tariff]] on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a [[central bank]] to make [[liquidity]] in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single [[economy]], and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular [[political party]] in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republicans]], a party founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]].

In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of [[Britain]], and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with [[George Washington]], Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored [[France]] in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was president, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless, he helped Jefferson become president when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by [[Democrats]] as undemocratic and even pro-[[monarchy]].

By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's [[patriotism|nationalism]], financial wizardry, and promotion of business and [[banking]] increasingly appealed to [[conservative]]s, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an [[aristocracy]] or [[monarch]].

==Early life==
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the British [[West Indies]] to a mother who had a reputation as the town harlot and a father who was a gambler and who had a wife on another Caribbean island. When he was ten his father left, leaving he, his brother, and his mother alone. At twelve, his mother died while sick, due to fever. Alexander and his brother James would later move in with their older cousing Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide.

A prodigy in every sense of the word, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a [[hurricane]] that had hit the town attracted patrons, who would later collect a fund to pay his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton's origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.

==Revolution==
As a student at King's College (now [[Columbia University]]), Hamilton took a major role in the political debates over independence, writing several papers refuting opponents and activists. Most notably, Hamilton refuted the bishop Samuel Seabury (who wrote under the pen name A. W. Farmer) in a paper titled ''The Farmer Refuted'', published on February 23, 1775.<ref>[http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hamilton-the-revolutionary-writings-of-alexander-hamilton#lfHamilton_head_008 The Farmer Refuted], ''The Online Library of Liberty''</ref>

Hamilton later raised a company of artillery and was selected captain. Fighting the British invasion of [[New York City]] in late 1776, he came to the attention of [[George Washington]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Continental Army]]. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel and made him his aide-de-camp — in effect the chief of staff (although that title was not in use). Hamilton had a combat command in the [[Battle of Yorktown]], which ended the war in 1781. Hamilton may have alerted General Washington to the existence of the Newburgh Conspiracy, in which disgruntled officers may have become a threat to civilian government. Washington prevented that.

After the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. New York appointed Hamilton to the Congress of the Confederation for the term beginning in November 1782, and appointed him as a delegate to the [[Annapolis Convention]] in 1786.

==New York==
Hamilton became a leading lawyer in [[New York City]], and married into the rich and powerful Schuyler family. Along with his close friend [[John Jay]], he was active in anti-[[slavery]] movements. In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature. He was also chosen by the legislature as a delegate to the [[Philadelphia]] [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787 along with [[Robert Yates]] and [[John Lansing, Jr.]]

==Constitutional Convention==
Hamilton, alongside [[James Madison]] and [[James Wilson]], voiced strong opposition to [[state's rights]], [[decentralization]], and [[limited government]] at the Constitutional Convention and favored a radically [[nationalist]] approach to American government. Hamilton believed that the central principle of the [[Articles of Confederation]] was the idea of state sovereignty, but he argued that this indicated that the entire idea was completely wrong. Because state sovereignty, "the fundamental principle of the old Confederation," was wholly defective, Hamilton argued that America's only choice was to "eradicate and discard this principle before we can expect an efficient government."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, Elliot II, 234. The idea is also present in "The Federalist" no. 15.</ref>

During the convention, Hamilton argued for the most heavily centralized plan of government out of all of the attendees. He proposed making the chief executive an elected monarch who could not be removed from office unless he ceased to rule "in good behavior." The president under Hamilton's plan would have been given an absolute veto which could not be overturned by the legislature. The national government would have had the power to appoint all state [[governors]] and would wield absolute veto power over all state legislation. Hamilton's plan also gave a life-time tenure in office to senators and to the judiciary. With his plan considered as a whole, Hamilton "advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty, noting that as long as there was power to be had in the states, people would aspire to acquire that power, to the detriment of the nation as a whole."<ref>https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html#hamilton</ref> Hamilton himself put it even more tersely, saying that "no amendment of the confederation can answer the purpose of a good government, so long as State sovereignties do, in any shape, exist."<ref>https://archive.org/stream/secretproceedin00convgoog/secretproceedin00convgoog_djvu.txt</ref>

Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in [[newspaper]]s in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].

==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington's Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and [[excise tax]]es (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world's leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an [[agriculture|agrarian]] republic.

In 1790, Hamilton appointed [[Tench Coxe]] as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury.<ref>[http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0280 Appointment of Tench Coxe as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, (10 May 1790)]</ref>

==The Hamilton-Reynolds Affair==
In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in an affair. Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton started an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds; according to Hamilton's recount, Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband, James Reynolds, had abandoned her and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. Hamilton retrieved her address and delivered her $30 personally at her boarding house where she led him into her bedroom. The two began an illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.

Over the course of that year, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness. He continually supported their relationship in order to regularly gain blackmail money from Hamilton. The common practice in the day was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a pistol duel, but Reynolds, realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, insisted on monetary compensation instead; after an initial request of $1,000 to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend" only to extort forced "loans" after each visit. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 (including the initial extortion). Hamilton, at this point, was probably aware of both Reynoldses' being involved in the blackmail, and welcomed, as well as strictly complied with, Reynolds' request to end the affair.

In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in veteran back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton. Monroe consulted with Congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the Congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both Reynoldses, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.

In the summer of 1797, however, when "notoriously scurrilous journalist" James T. Callender published ''A History of the United States for the Year 1796'', it contained accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton, using documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg and Venable asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. Muhlenberg and Venable complied with Hamilton's request but Monroe didn't, and after several rounds of argument, the two almost resorted to a duel. When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe, he published a 91-page pamphlet, later usually referred to as the [[The Reynolds Pamphlet|Reynolds Pamphlet]], in order to preserve his public reputation, discussing the affair in exquisite detail. His wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him.

==Federalist Party==
Hamilton saw the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Hamilton started the ''[[New York Evening Post]]''.<ref>It is currently published by [[Rupert Murdoch]] under the name ''[[New York Post]]''.</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations==

==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of [[American values]]—and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in [[republicanism]], admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a [[monarchy]]. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "[[Farewell Address]]." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican [[citizenship]] and [[freedom of the press]]. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, [[elitist]] reformulation of republicanism.

Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on [[John Locke]]'s concept of [[liberty]], [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s concept of power, and [[Nicolò Machiavelli]]'s concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian [[philanthropy]] that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74</ref>

In defense of Republicanism, Hamilton authored papers under the pseudonym ''Lucius Crassus''.

==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, [[New Jersey]]. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's [[gun]]shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day.<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.

<blockquote>
At dawn on the morning of July 11, 1804, political antagonists and personal enemies Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr met on the heights of Weehawken, New Jersey, to settle their longstanding differences with a duel. The participants fired their [[pistol]]s in close succession. Burr's shot met its target immediately, fatally wounding Hamilton and leading to his death the following day. Burr escaped unharmed. This tragically extreme incident reflected the depth of animosity aroused by the first emergence of the nation's [[political party]] system.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jul11.html Alexander Hamilton.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==Reputation==
No figure in [[American history]] has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet [[monarchist]] or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan [[politics]] or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a [[foreign policy]] mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father of a vigorous national government or the destroyer of genuine federalism? A defender of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose and Martin, ed. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) p. 11</ref>

==Trivia==

Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of only two non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill.

Originally the United States Treasury planned to replace Hamilton with a female on the $10 bill (since Hamilton was not a sitting president); however, the plan was shelved due to the popularity of [[Hamilton (musical)|the Hamilton musical]].

==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."
* "In the general course of human nature, a power over a man's subsistence amounts to a power over his will." - Federalist 79

==See also==
*[[Hamilton (musical)]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [https://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [https://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [https://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [https://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [https://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
* Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism.
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1]
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [https://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207–31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]
* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429–444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist—A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21–46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970),
* Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005)

===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [https://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581–630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1993), the most advanced history of politics in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [https://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287–326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.
* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history and policy
* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
* Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-study-in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemis.jsp online edition]
* Coleman, Aaron N. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183–214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse]
* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power and a "heroic state" dominating the Western Hemisphere, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain
* Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]
* Lycan, Gilbert L. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),
* Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004)
* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999),

===Personality===
* Ambrose, Douglas and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006)
* Freeman, Joanne B. ''Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic'' (2001). essential on the meaning of duels; [http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-02/author/ online interview]
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)

===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [https://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers'' under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]
*[https://librivox.org/alexander-hamilton-by-charles-a-conant/ Alexander Hamilton], by Charles A. Conant - Audiobook at [[LibriVox]]

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4266 Works by Alexander Hamilton - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}
{{nationalism}}
[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of the Treasury]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Nationalists]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Modernization]]
[[Category:Federalist Papers]]

Abraham Lincoln

2021-06-06T23:46:26Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Officeholder
|name=Abraham Lincoln
|image=Abraham-lincoln-by-story.jpg
|party=[[Whig]] (before 1854)
[[Republican]]

National Union (1864)
|spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]]
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]<ref>http://abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/sites/nyave.htm</ref>
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=16th
|terms=March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865
|vp=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861–1865) [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865)
|preceded=[[James Buchanan]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Andrew Johnson]]
}}
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=Illinois
|district=7th
|terms=March 4, 1847 – March 3, 1849
|preceded=John Henry
|former=y
|succeeded=Thomas L. Harris
}}
|military=y
|allegiance=Illinois Militia
|serviceyears=1832
|battles=Black Hawk War
}}
'''Abraham Lincoln''' (February 12, 1809 - April 15, 1865) was the 16th [[President of the United States of America]] serving from 1861 to 1865. He led his country through its greatest crisis, the [[American Civil War]], abolished [[slavery]] and built the [[Republican Party]] that dominated national politics outside [[the South]] during the [[Third Party System]]. Veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) became the Grand Old Party (GOP). Lincoln converted to [[Christianity]] upon visiting the grim site of the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and honoring the fallen soldiers there; he attended [[church]] often afterwards.<ref>https://www.crosswalk.com/faith/spiritual-life/abraham-lincoln-consecrated-to-christ-1184005.html</ref>

Lincoln was [[homeschooled]] and virtually entirely self-taught, which likely gave him independent thinking, reliance on logic, and a desire to continue to learn as an adult.<ref>For example, Lincoln successfully proved all of Euclid's theorems while serving in Congress.</ref> His eloquence as a writer was second only to [[Thomas Jefferson]] among presidents. Lincoln was a president, like [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Donald Trump]] after him, whose [[faith]] developed and grew while holding high public office.

Lincoln joined the newly formed anti-slavery [[Republican Party]] after the [[Whig Party]] fell apart over the issue of [[abolition]]. With a profound sense of American history, unswerving commitment to [[Republicanism]], and an almost [[Shakespeare]]an command of the language, Lincoln articulated a vision of a new birth of freedom for all Americans. The destruction of the [[Confederacy]], and of the [[Slave Power|slave power]] that menaced [[conservative]] American values, affirmed Lincoln's vision in the [[Gettysburg Address]] (1863) and guaranteed that "government of the people by the people for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

Abraham Lincoln is the only president who held a registered [[patent]] for his invention, to buoy vessels over shoals in the [[Mississippi River]]; Lincoln supported the American patent system because it "added the fuel of interest to the fire of genius."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120101160557/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/object-oct06.html Smithsonian description of Patent No. 6,469, which was granted on May 22, 1849 for a device for "Buoying Vessels Over Shoals"]</ref>

==Early life==
Lincoln grew up in a hard-luck, hard-scrabble environment on
the middle border. His paternal ancestors were English; they migrated from Hingham, England, to Hingham Massachusetts, in 1637. In the 1730s they moved to backwoods Pennsylvania and Virginia. His grandfather moved to Kentucky in 1782, where he was scalped by Indians raiding his farm in 1786. His father Thomas owned some farmland near Elizabethtown, where he farmed and worked as a carpenter.

Abe later wrote:
:''“I was born Feb. 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. My parents were both born in Virginia, of undistinguished families-- second families, perhaps I should say. My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of Hanks, some of whom now reside in Adams, and others in Macon Counties, Illinois.”''<ref>See [http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/autobiog.htm Speeches]</ref>

Abe was born in a backwoods cabin some three miles south of Hodgenville, Kentucky. His father Thomas Lincoln was a sturdy man, committed to pioneering in the new lands of Kentucky and Indiana. He married Nancy Hanks on June 12, 1806, and together they had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas, who did not survive infancy. The family belonged to a Hardshell Baptist church; Abe ridiculed the preachers and never joined their church, or any other church.

Young Abraham's earliest memories of his days in Kentucky involved helping his father plant some seeds of corn and sunflower, and a flood that washed them away.
[[Image:Young abraham lincoln.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The oldest-known photograph of Lincoln, about 1847.]]
In December 1816 Thomas had to pack up his family and leave for southwestern Indiana after a slaveowner with a better lawyer won title to his Kentucky property.

Penniless, the family in Indiana lived in a “half-faced” camp; a crude log structure with one side open to the elements, and there the family stayed as squatters on public land until Thomas had finished a permanent cabin; he later bought the land outright on which it stood. Helping Thomas clear the land and plowing the fields was Abe, who in sharp contrast to other boys developed a strong aversion to hunting. The poverty, Lincoln recalled, was “pretty pinching” at times, and by the age of nine he was a tall, lanky boy dressed rather ragged and unkempt.

Then the fall of 1818 brought the hardest blow: Nancy had died of the “milk sickness”, leaving Abraham without the mother whom he deeply loved. Some time later, Thomas had taken the buckboard and the mule, and left Abraham and Sarah on their own for two weeks; when he returned, he was with a new wife, Sarah Bush Johnson; she immediately made up for the absence of Nancy by replacing Abraham's corn husk mattress with one of down, winning him over the first day. The new step-mother treated both children with an even hand (she herself was a widow with three children, whom she had brought), but she became very fond of Abraham, and he in turn was fond of her, referring to her as his “angel mother” for the rest of his life.

===Education===
Both of Abraham's parents were nearly completely illiterate, and he himself had not much more than one year of formal education. When he did go to school, it was by “littles” – a little here, a little there – and he would call it “blab” school, which meant that they had to recite their lessons constantly due to lack of paper, pencils, and chalk. “Of course, when I came of age I did not know much. Still, somehow, I could read, write, and cipher to the rule of three; but that was all.” The rule of three means up to one thousand.

His step-mother encouraged his reading as much as possible, and although Abraham did not have access to a large number of books, he would read as much of what was there, and read voraciously. He read John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, ''Aesop’s Fables'', Daniel DeFoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'', Parson Weems's ''Life and Memorable Actions of George Washington'', Edward Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', and undoubtedly he read many times the only book his family actually owned, the Bible. He would walk for miles to borrow a book he heard about, and after his chores he would collapse into a heap in front of the fire and read for hours. He would say years later that his best friend was the man who let him borrow a book he hadn't read yet.

As a practicing lawyer, Lincoln gained respect for the work of [[Blackstone]] and his [[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]. Lincoln was known for giving the following advice to others in his field: "Begin with Blackstone's "''Commentaries''", and after reading it carefully through, say twice, take up Chitty's "Pleadings," Greenleaf's "Evidence," and Story's "Equity," etc., in succession."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ldfcBd_-O8QC&pg=PT128 Abraham Lincoln: A Life, Volume 1]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sRwqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40 Personal Traits of Abraham Lincoln]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L7ZDo_sjOFMC&pg=PA77 Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President]</ref>

===The Rail-Splitter===
[[Image:Railsplitter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An artist's impression of a young Abe Lincoln, the ''Rail-Splitter''.]]
The Lincolns moved to Illinois in March, 1830, with Abraham driving the team of oxen himself, a young man of 21, rawboned and lanky at six feet four inches tall. But the years working on the Indiana farm also made him physically powerful, and on his arrival in Illinois he was soon to demonstrate the skill with which he could wield an axe, putting it to good use by clearing the trees and laying the fence on his father’s new farm; the speed with which he could take tree trunks and split them into the rails needed for the fencing just by using his axe earned him the nickname “rail-splitter.” He could make an axe flash and bite deep; one neighbor saying “He could sink an axe deeper into wood than any man I ever saw.” After a good deal of chopping, he could take the axe by its handle and hold it straight out away from his body, without a single quiver. (Sandburg, pg. 14) Good-natured as well, he would make friends easily, despite his awkward-looking stride and backwoods language.
[[Image:Lincoln hair.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Fearing that his friends wouldn't recognize him "without a bad tousle", Lincoln messed his hair up in this picture before the photographer closed the shutter.]]
Soon, he signed on as a deckhand on a flatboat, and made a voyage down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. When he returned he settled in a small town on the Sangamon River called New Salem, working as a store keeper, surveyor, or a postmaster, the later of which allowed him to be the first to read the arriving newspapers. Then talk went about town of Lincoln's utter honesty, how he would walk six miles to return a few cents to a customer he had accidentally overcharged, or the woman that had bought some tea, and having used the wrong weight for the purchase, Lincoln made the correction and walked the many miles to her house to ensure she got the right order (Sandburg, pp 24–25).

In 1832 he enlisted in the Black Hawk War, and was elected captain of his company, but the only fighting he admitted seeing action in was the “many bloody struggles with the mosquitoes.” After he was mustered out of his company, he aspired for the state legislature, losing the contest the first time he ran, then getting elected and re-elected several times afterward. He had briefly thought about practicing the trade of blacksmithing, but his craving of reading led him to law books, which caused some serious studying. Lincoln passed the bar in 1836, and began a new career practicing law.

===Insulting letters===

In the early 1840s, Lincoln had a habit of writing critical letters that skewered his political opponents unmercifully. In 1842, after the default of the state bank, Lincoln wrote a letter to the editor of the ''Sangamo Journal'' about Illinois' governor, treasurer and auditor's refusal to accept the state's own paper money for payment of debts. The letter directly attacked James Shields, the state auditor, who then challenged Lincoln to a duel. After taking lessons in swordsmanship, Lincoln met Shields on September 22, 1842 on a Missouri sandbar. Two mutual friends rushed to the scene and talked the two combatants into cancelling the duel.<ref>[http://www.historynet.com/abraham-lincoln-prepares-to-fight-a-saber-duel.htm Abraham Lincoln prepares to fight a saber duel]</ref>

==Springfield==
The following year he moved to the new state capital of Illinois, Springfield, becoming law partners with John T. Stuart, Stephan T. Logan, and finally William H. Herndon in 1844, who, although junior in age to Lincoln by a decade, made a good, balanced partner. Few records exist of their law business, and when they got paid for their services they split the cash, no matter who was paid. Lincoln would earn $1,200 - $1,500 annually within just a few years; by comparison circuit judges earned $750. But to earn it he kept busy and worked hard; often he would climb into his buggy and travel the circuit of neighboring counties and practice before the courts there. And often the cases he would be involved in were petty

Years before he had tried, and failed, to push legislation through the state assembly to have the Sangamon River made navigable to New Salem; by 1850 the railroads were bringing business and prosperity to Illinois, and Lincoln, by virtue of the ease the railroad made in traveling to his courts, profited more. He had served as a lobbyist for the Illinois Central Railroad, enabling it to get a state charter; he would defend the company against McClean County's unsuccessful efforts to tax it. He handles cases for other railroads, banks, manufacturing, and other large companies in the state; he handled some patent suits and a few criminal trials. And he also saved the first bridge to cross the Mississippi River from demolition, when river interests demanded the bridge be taken down.

===The moonlit murder===
In Lincoln's New Salem days he was introduced to the Clary's Grove Boys, a group of rowdy men from a nearby town who came into New Salem to bully some of the townsmen. The leader of the group was Jack Armstrong, whose challenge to wrestle the New Salem men usually resulted in Armstrong quickly throwing the unfortunate man to the ground. When he saw Lincoln, Armstrong dismissed the lanky young man as a pushover. When they fought, neither man was able to throw the other. The battle ended in a draw, and the good-natured Lincoln made a new friend. Armstrong would later be one of the men to elect Lincoln to lead the company of volunteers in the Black Hawk War.<ref name="Jack Armstrong">[http://www.mrlincolnandfriends.org/inside.asp?pageID=32&subjectID=2 Jack Armstrong]</ref>

In 1856, Jack Armstrong's son, William (or "Duff"), was charged with murder. A witness claimed he had seen Duff and another kill a New Salem man late at night by the light of full moon. Lincoln pulled out an almanac and proved that the witness could not have seen anything at all, as the moon was at its quarter and had actually set over an hour before. Duff was acquitted, and Lincoln won the case.<ref name="Jack Armstrong"/>

==Politics==
[[Andrew Jackson]], the hero of New Orleans in the [[War of 1812]] and a Democrat from Tennessee, was in the White House when Lincoln first entered politics. He shared with Jackson the sympathies for the common man, but differed in the role of government as related to it; Jackson stated the government should be separated from the economic enterprise, while Lincoln was of the view that “the legitimate object of government is to do for a community of people whatever they need to have done, but cannot do at all, or cannot do so well, for themselves, in their separate and individual capacities.” Lincoln most associated himself with the Whig Party, as among their members Henry Clay and Daniel Webster both advocated a government should be encouraging business, and the development of the country to that end. It was an easy choice for Lincoln: he saw Illinois as needing such aid to improve the development of its own economy.

In the Illinois State Legislature Lincoln found that politics could be detrimental and harsh, as well as rewarding. An example of the former occurred in 1836, just as he gave a speech in support of his re-election. Democrat John Forquer, also seeking election, used his response and acid tongue to denounce him. "This young man needs to be taken down" he said, pointing to Lincoln, "and I'm afraid the task devolves upon me." The success of Forquer's speech convinced some of Lincoln's own allies that his career was over.

But when Lincoln rose to make his rebuttal, he thought of Forquer, and what he had done recently in conniving with President Jackson to change parties; in reward for doing so he was made Government Land Register with a $3,000 annual salary. Forquer was then able to construct a fine new house in Springfield, complete with a curiosity residents had heard about from science but had never seen before: a lightning rod. Before he entered the state house building that day, Lincoln spent a few minutes at Forquer's house staring at the thing, and having heard Forquer's speech later on, he thought of what he saw. Lincoln's reply was blistering, and sealed Forquer's fate.

:''"Among other things he said, the gentleman commenced his speech by saying that 'this young man,' alluding to me, 'must be taken down.' I am not so young in years as I am in the tricks and the trades of a politician, but, live long or die young, I would rather die now than, like the gentleman, change my politics, and with the change receive an office worth $3,000 a year, and then feel obliged to erect a lightning-rod over my house to protect a guilty conscience from an offended God!"'' (Sandburg, pg.49)

Lincoln also proposed state funding to construct a network of roads, railroads, and canals. Both Whigs and Democrats would join in for the passing of this omnibus bill, but a business depression was created by the [[panic of 1837]], and as a result most of the provisions in the bill were abandoned. 1837 was also marked by the murder of Elijah Lovejoy, a newspaperman from Alton who was killed by a mob due to his anti-slavery views. The legislature introduced resolutions defending Southern slavery while condemning abolitionist societies, as per the U.S. Constitution. In protest of the resolutions Lincoln, with a fellow legislator, drew up a declaration which stated that slavery was “founded on both injustice and bad policy,” while also declaring that “the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than to abate its evils.”
[[Image:Lawyer Lincoln.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Lincoln in the late 1850s, about to debate his rival Stephen A. Douglas.]]
He only served one term in the United States Congress, 1847 to 1849, during which time he did little on legislative matters. He did introduce a bill calling for a gradual emancipation of slaves within the District of Columbia, but since it hinged on the approval of the white citizens there, it only caused mild anger from abolitionists as well as slave holders, and was quietly dropped. His one main issue was over the Mexican War, in which he condemned the American entry into it on false pretenses, particularly blaming current president James K. Polk. He worked toward the nomination of Zachary Taylor for the presidency, and when Taylor had won, Lincoln expected to be rewarded with the job of land commissioner, but failed. He was voted out of office by his constituents, as they felt he was too critical of the war. Disillusioned, he left politics and reentered his law practice.

==Return to politics==
He stayed out for five years, winning several cases before the courts, then in 1854 he had read in the papers that Stephan A. Douglas, his political rival and Democratic senator from Illinois, had placed before Congress a bill which would reopen the territory of the Louisiana Purchase to slavery, as well as allow settlers in the Kansas and Nebraska territories to vote for themselves whether or not they wanted it, a concept which was called “[[popular sovereignty]]” by Douglas. The resulting [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] would do nothing more than provoke violent opposition; a border war would result between Kansas and Missouri as both pro and anti-slavery forces would cause much bloodshed; and voters in the Old Northwest, Illinois among them, would react vehemently against it, resulting in the destruction of the Whigs as a political party, and the birth of the Republicans, of which Lincoln quickly became a member.<ref>Yervand Kochar. [https://www.americanthinker.com/2009/11/i_am_a_lincoln_republican_1.html I Am a Lincoln Republican], ''American Thinker'', November 14, 2009.</ref> The [[Dred Scott]] decision of 1856, in which a black man who sued for his freedom only to be told that he was never a citizen and had to remain a slave, only added more fuel to the fire, as the states were aligning slave versus free, North versus South.

As the leading member of the Republican Party in Illinois, Lincoln was nominated for the Senate seat held by Douglas at the Republican State Convention in Springfield on June 16, 1858. The acceptance speech he gave has been called the [[Lincoln's "House Divided" Speech|House Divided]] speech, after the opening lines, which were based upon Matthew 12:25:

:''If we could first know where we are, and whither we are tending, we could better judge what to do, and how to do it. We are now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object, and confident promise, of putting an end to slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but has constantly augmented. In my opinion, it will not cease, until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. "A house divided against itself cannot stand."  I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved -- I do not expect the house to fall -- but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old as well as new -- North as well as South.''<ref>[http://www.historyplace.com/lincoln/divided.htm "House Divided" Speech], ''The History Place'', June 16, 1858.</ref>

August through October, 1858 saw seven Illinois towns witnessing the [[Lincoln-Douglas debates]]; Douglas the national figure defending the choice of voters whether to accept slavery or not, and the little-known Lincoln taking a stand against slavery on political, social, and moral grounds.<ref>https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debates.htm</ref> Douglas never wavered from defending popular sovereignty, and he also played on the voters' fears of [[black integration]]. Stating blacks were inferior to whites, he appealed to racists by declaring that the government was "established upon the white basis. It was made by white men, for the benefit of white men." (TL 1, pg 106). Lincoln on the other hand knew Douglas was in a war of his own with President [[James Buchanan]]'s administration over acceptance of the Kansas constitution which barred slavery from the state, further alienating Southern Democratic support; the fear was that Douglas would be more appealing to moderate Republicans in the east. Lincoln's strategy therefore was to point out and use the vast difference between the moral indifference to slavery as embodied by Douglas's popular sovereignty, and the moral wrong that slavery actually was as embodied by Republican opposition to it. Douglas was, Lincoln insisted, a man who did not care whether slavery was "voted up or voted down." By his last debate, Lincoln would narrow the differences between himself and Douglas as the basic principle of right and wrong.

:''"That is the real issue. That is the issue that will continue in this country when these poor tongues of Judge Douglas and myself shall be silent. It is the eternal struggle between these two principles -- right and wrong -- throughout the world. They are the two principles that have stood face to face from the beginning of time; and will ever continue to struggle. The one is the common right of humanity and the other the [[divine right of kings]]. It is the same principle in whatever shape it develops itself. It is the same spirit that says, "You work and toil and earn bread, and I'll eat it." No matter in what shape it comes, whether from the mouth of a king who seeks to bestride the people of his own nation and live by the fruit of their labor, or from one race of men as an apology for enslaving another race, it is the same tyrannical principle."''

Douglas for his part knew how formidable his foe was, and declared that if he won, “it would be a hollow victory.” He did win, retaining his Senate seat, but by a narrow margin.

==The 1860 Election==
[[Image:Lincoln and beard.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Soon after his election, a little girl named Grace Bedell wrote to Lincoln, telling him his face would be softened by the addition of a beard; here he just started on her advice.]]
:''My friends, no one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when, or whether ever, I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of the Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell.'' Lincoln's Farewell Speech to the citizens of Springfield, February 11, 1861.

On May 18, 1860 at the Republican National Convention held in Chicago, Lincoln was nominated on the third ballot. He then set aside his law practice and gave full-time to the direction of his campaign, with the object of first uniting the Republicans from anything with which the party could disagree over. The Democrats were already divided, having nominated Douglas in Baltimore on the Northern platform of popular sovereignty, and John C. Breckenridge who was elected on a platform of states’ rights and slavery by Southern Democrats. Lincoln won the [[United States presidential election of 1860]], winning a clear majority in popular votes as well as electoral votes, despite winning no votes in the South.
==Presidency==
For the social, political, economic and diplomatic history see [[American Civil War homefront]]

The state of South Carolina proclaimed its secession from the Union in December, 1860, soon after Lincoln's victory. To try to prevent other states from following, compromises were hurriedly pushed through Congress, one of which, the [[Corwin Amendment]], guaranteed the existence of slavery in perpetuity where it already existed. The failed [[Crittenden Compromise]] would have gone even further and permanently divided the territories between slave and free. Lincoln publicly supported the Corwin Amendment, believing that it was already implicit in the Constitution; however, he opposed the Crittenden Compromise because it would have given slavery additional protections beyond what the Constitution already gave it. Despite these attempted compromises, six more states seceded and joined with South Carolina to form the [[Confederate States of America]].

A crisis was thus forced upon Lincoln before he even entered the White House. The Confederacy claimed [[Fort Sumter]], in South Carolina's [[Charleston]] Harbor, and ordered its commander, Major [[Robert Anderson]] to turn it over. He refused. Lincoln, still in Springfield, asked [[Winfield Scott]], general in chief of the U.S. Army, to be prepared “to either hold, or retake, the forts, as the case may require, at, and after the inauguration.”

On the 4th of March, 1861, a few weeks after [[Jefferson Davis]] was inaugurated as president of the Confederacy, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as the nation's 16th president. In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural Address|first inaugural address]] he reiterated his stance: to not interfere with slavery where it existed, to prevent slavery from spreading in the territories, but above all to preserve the Union. The substance of what he said was conciliatory, but it also mentioned the obvious

{{quotebox|In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the Government, while I shall have the most solemn one to "preserve, protect, and defend it.<ref>Historical Document. [https://www.pbs.org/civilwar/war/lincoln_address1.html Lincoln's First Inaugural Address], ''PBS'', March 4, 1861.</ref>}}

However, communications between the fort and Charleston broke down, and Confederate general [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], believing Fort Sumter had a supply ship on the way, ordered the fort shelled on April 14, 1865. The Civil War had begun.

==Civil War==
[[File:Abraham Lincoln 1863 LOC.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Abraham Lincoln at the front.]]
Lincoln's goal was to preserve the Union; he would have been happy to preserve the peace as well, but he was willing to engage in a war to preserve it as well, a war he thought would be short. Title 10, Section 332 of the [[Insurrection Act of 1807]] was enacted in 1861 at the request of President Lincoln to increase Presidential authority to use the militia and the regular army to suppress insurrections and enforce the laws. This law was the legal basis for waging the Civil War. This law allows the President to use federal troops on his own initiative and act on his own judgment without waiting for a request from a governor.<ref>https://www.sofmag.com/understanding-the-posse-comitatus-act-and-the-insurrection-act-the-posse-comitatus-act/</ref>

After Fort Sumter he proclaimed a blockade of Southern ports and called for thousands of volunteers to enlist for ninety days. He also believed that an overland war was inevitable, and he ordered forces on a march on the Virginia front, resulting in the first great defeat for the Union at [[Bull Run]] (July 21, 1861). Shortly afterward, Lincoln issued a set of memoranda for the military, of which his basic thought was that armies in the field must advance concurrently and on several fronts.
{{cquote|
''I expect to maintain this contest until successful, or till I die, or am conquered. Or my term expires, or Congress or the country forsakes me.'' – Abraham Lincoln, 1862.}}
Finding himself as the leader of a country now at war, Lincoln used a description of himself in which he let events control him, and then react to the problem. It was something of himself that was used with success as a politician. In this sense he was being practical, ready to employ an action or decision which would help the cause, and ready to abandon it and use another if the first failed. But his first insight with which he held fast to, that of taking the fight to the enemy's army, failed many times when successive generals tried to take the fight to the enemy's capitol and failed, or failed in following up on a rare victory. He had [[George McClellan]] on the Peninsula, but was beaten back during the Seven Days battles. His replacement, John Pope, lost in a repeat of Bull Run. McClellan was back again, winning a victory at [[Antietam]], but failed to follow through in capturing the enemy's army afterwards. Then [[Ambrose Burnside]], followed by [[Joseph Hooker]], led the [[Army of the Potomac]] to massive defeats at [[Fredericksburg]] and [[Chancellorsville]], respectively. Then [[George Gordon Meade]] was put in, just in time for the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]; Meade would not finish off the enemy either. [[Robert E. Lee]], the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commented on the frequent changes in generals. “I’m afraid they’re going to find a general I cannot understand.”

Having seen what he done at [[Donelson]], [[Shiloh]], [[Vicksburg]], and [[Chattanooga]], Lincoln found the fighting general he was looking for in [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. In March 1864 he promoted Grant to lieutenant general and gave him command of all Federal armies. Grant would have his headquarters in the field with Meade's Army of the Potomac, and his subordinates William T. Sherman, Philip Sheridan, and George H. Thomas would each lead an army to take the fight to the enemy. Halleck would be given a new title, chief of staff, and remain in Washington as the presidential liaison. Secretary of War [[Edwin M. Stanton]] would be responsible for the procurement of men and supplies. By this reorganization Lincoln created the structure of the high command in which all the energies of and resources of the country were mobilized into a grand strategy for the completion of the war. It was all the more remarkable as prior to 1861, he had no knowledge of military theory or affairs; he threw himself into studying the subject that by 1864, he was considered to be something of a military genius.

==Personal life==

Ann Rutledge played a part in stories as being the first woman Lincoln may have fallen in love with. However, evidence is scant, and what surviving letters and documents there are indicate they were close friends. She died in 1835 at the age of 22, and the entire community grieved with Lincoln.
[[Image:Lincoln and tad.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The irrepressible Tad Lincoln, striking a typical pose next to his father, who could barely restrain a smile.]]
The one true love of Lincoln's life was a well-educated woman with a quick wit, [[Mary Todd]], from a well-to-do family in Springfield. Lincoln endured a courtship that lasted two years (and was broken once), before they were married on November 4, 1842. Together they would have four boys: Robert Todd, Edward Baker (“Eddie”, who died at age 4), William Wallace (“Willie”), and Thomas (“Tad”). Willie and Tad were the first children in the White House, and the halls and gardens were filled with childish romps, especially from the rambunctious, uncontrollable Tad, who once took a group of office seekers there to see the president on a trip through a confusing maze of hanging laundry; drove a herd of goats inside; got into the attic and rang the servants’ bells for hours; and succeeded in getting his doll executed for sleeping on watch.
[[Image:Mary Todd Lincoln.jpg|thumb|200px|Mary Todd Lincoln]]
The Lincolns also had their share of quarrels, and stories passed through the years tended to exaggerate them, but existing letters between the two indicate they were like any other married couple. They were devoted to each other's company, and when apart they missed each other. "I have fallen in love with her," Lincoln would write to a friend about Mary, "and have never fallen out." Mary did have fits of temper and a sense of insecurity; while in the White House she had spells of simple jealousy which she staged in front of guests; sometimes the scene would be quite embarrassing. She also rang up large bills for her personal wardrobe and redecorating the White House; Lincoln, when he found out one such bill which totaled near $20,000 and coupled with a request for Congress to appropriate the money needed to pay for it, displayed a rare occurrence of pure anger:

:''"It would stink in the nostrils of the American people to have it said the President of the United States had approved a bill overrunning an appropriation of $20,000 for flub dubs, for this damned old house, when the soldiers cannot have blankets!"'' [http://www.historyswomen.com/1stWomen/marytoddlincoln.htm]

The early deaths of Eddie in 1850 and Willie in 1863 may have played a role in Mary's eccentricity. Lincoln did what he could to support her, even pointing out the presence of a nearby building which housed a sanitarium, hinting that Mary could be placed there if she didn't control herself over Willie's death.

==On slavery==
In 1841, Lincoln had a flatboat trip down the Mississippi, and he saw sitting on board another boat a group of slaves chained together. He described the sight in a letter to Joshua Speed in 1855: “You may remember, as I well do, that from Louisville to the mouth of the Ohio there were, on board, ten or a dozen slaves, shackled together with irons. That sight was a continual torment to me; and I see something like it every time I touch the Ohio, or any other slave-border.”

Though a gradualist, Lincoln hated slavery. “I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself,” he declared. “I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world; enables the enemies of free institutions with plausibility to taunt us as hypocrites.” Lincoln often penned fragments on slavery. He would begin it by starting a hypothetical vested interest in slavery, and end it with the only logical conclusion, that is was a great moral wrong.

:''If A. can prove, however conclusively, that he may, of right, enslave B.—why may not B. snatch the same argument, and prove equally, that he may enslave A?''

:''You say A. is white, and B. is black. It is color, then; the lighter, having the right to enslave the darker? Take care. By this rule, you are to be slave to the first man you meet, with a fairer skin than your own.''

:''You do not mean color exactly? You mean the whites are intellectually the superiors of the blacks, and, therefore have the right to enslave them? Take care again. By this rule, you are to be slave to the first man you meet, with an intellect superior to your own.''

:''But, say you, it is a question of interest; and, if you can make it your interest; you have the right to enslave another. Very well. And if he can make it his interest, he has the right to enslave you.'' (Fragment on Slavery, April, 1854)

In 1857, in response to [[Stephen Douglas]] with a focus on the [[Dred Scott]] decision, Lincoln recalled of the brilliance of the [[Declaration of Independence]] and its authors that they:

<blockquote>constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=u63XdiM9330C&pg=PA234 The Life and Public Services of Hon. Abraham Lincoln]</ref></blockquote>

Lincoln was elected on a platform which pledged no interference with slavery where it had already existed, and he was hesitant to adopt an abolitionist policy. He was concerned about the reaction of the border states should such a policy be enacted. He was concerned about four million newly freed blacks being incorporated into the country's social, economic, and political life. Some individuals, such as General John C. Freemont, made it a point to proclaim freedom in districts which they had conquered; Lincoln revoked those proclamations. In a letter to Horace Greely, Lincoln plainly stated
:''"My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that."''<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1862/08/24/news/letter-president-lincoln-reply-horace-greeley-slavery-union-restoration-union.html</ref>

Lincoln was willing to play a major part in removing slavery altogether during the war. He first proposed an idea in which slaves were to be freed gradually by the actions of the states, with the federal government sharing the cost of compensation. None of the border states were willing to implement it, and no prominent African-American leader was willing to see newly freed blacks sent to Africa, as part of the idea called for.

But with the victory at Antietam in September 1862, Lincoln brought out an idea which he read before his cabinet, that slaves held in the Confederate States were declared to be free. He would declare it formally with his [[Emancipation Proclamation]] on January 1, 1863. Although it did not include those areas under Union control, and officially it was a war measure, it had a great deal of significance as a symbol, and European countries who had toyed with the idea of recognizing the Confederacy abandoned it and supported the Union.<ref>http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/EmanProc.html</ref>

Lincoln also felt that the freed slaves would be put back in chains at war's end, as the Proclamation itself was not constitutional. But Lincoln was prepared for something else: he drafted the [[Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution, which stated slavery was illegal except for crimes committed. He also urged the Republican Party to add the proposed amendment as a plank to the 1864 presidential campaign, stating slavery was the cause of the war, and that the Proclamation had aimed “a death blow at this gigantic evil;” only by a constitutional amendment could slavery be rendered extinct. After the election, Lincoln did not wait for the new Congress. He got the two-thirds needed for ratification before the year was over, and rejoiced when his state of Illinois led the way.

:''"In giving freedom to the slave, we assure freedom to the free - honorable alike in what we give, and what we preserve. We shall nobly save, or meanly lose, the last best hope of earth. Other means may succeed; this could not fail. The way is plain, peaceful, generous, just - a way which, if followed, the world will forever applaud, and God must forever bless."'' Annual Message to Congress, December 1, 1862.

===Founding Fathers===
Lincoln routinely acknowledged that a clear majority of the [[Founding Fathers]] condemned slavery.<ref name=echoes>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0PVc-rDIKRoC&pg=PA194 Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Echoes of the Bible and Book of Common Prayer]</ref> In his sixth debate with Steven Douglass, Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers considered slavery wrong, and firmly expected it to die a natural death.<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/slavery.htm Lincoln on Slavery]</ref> In [[Lincoln's Cooper Union Speech]],<ref name=echoes /> as well as in Lincoln's "Peoria Speech", where he pointed out that "only argument they ever admitted in favor of slavery" was necessity, that they blamed the "British King for having permitted its introduction".<ref name=peoria>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CkqG9YhZGygC&pg=PT90 The Writings of Abraham Lincoln]</ref>

<blockquote>[[Slave Trade Act of 1794|In 1794]], they prohibited an out-going slave-trade - that is, the taking of slaves from the United States to sell.

In 1798, they prohibited the bringing of slaves from Africa, into the Mississippi Territory - this territory then comprising what are now the States of Mississippi and Alabama. This was ten years before they had the authority to do the same thing as to the States existing at the adoption of the constitution.

[[Slave Trade Act of 1800|In 1800]] they prohibited American citizens from trading in slaves between foreign countries - as, for instance, from Africa to Brazil.

[[Slave Trade Act of 1800|In 1803]] they passed a law in aid of one or two State laws, in restraint of the internal slave trade.

[[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|In 1807]], in apparent hot haste, they passed the law, nearly a year in advance to take effect the first day of 1808 - the very first day the constitution would permit - prohibiting the African slave trade by heavy pecuniary and corporal penalties.

[[Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy|In 1820]], finding these provisions ineffectual, they declared the trade piracy, and annexed to it, the extreme penalty of death.

While all this was passing in the general government, five or six of the original slave States had adopted systems of gradual emancipation; and by which the institution was rapidly becoming extinct within these limits. Thus we see, the plain unmistakable spirit of that age, towards slavery, was hostility to the principle, and toleration, only by necessity.<ref name=peoria /></blockquote>

==Religion==
Abraham Lincoln, like many other people of his day, believed, at least initially, that "Religion is a private affair between a man and his God." Doubts about Lincoln's faith have arisen mainly because he never officially joined a church, which his political opponents used sometimes to accuse him. He had a love of the Bible and memorized parts of the Bible, and used biblical allusions later on in political speech. Lincoln said once that:
''"I doubt the possibility or propriety of settling the religion of Jesus Christ in the models of man-made [[creed]]s and [[dogma]]s. I cannot without mental reservations assent to long and complicated creeds and [[catechism]]s."''

He also said on another occasion:
:''"That I am not a member of any [[Christian church]] is true, but I have never denied the truth of the [[Scriptures]], and I have never spoken with intentional disrespect of religion in general or of any [[denomination]] of Christians in particular."''

He also made statements that suggest a strong faith, such as when his father was ill:
:''"Tell father to remember to call upon and confide in our great, and good, and merciful Maker who will not turn away from him in any extremity. He notes the fall of a sparrow and numbers the hairs of our heads; and he will not forget the dying man who puts his trust in him. If it is to be his lot to go now, he will soon have a joyous meeting with many loved ones gone before; and where the rest of us, through the help of God, hope ere long to join them."''

As a supporter of the Christian religion and who recognized its beneficial effects, Lincoln stated to a Methodist delegation,

:''"Nobly sustained, as the Government has been, by all the churches, I would utter nothing which might in the least appear invidious against any. Yet without this, it may fairly be said, that the Methodist Episcopal Church, not less devoted than the best, is by its greatest numbers the most important of all. It is no fault in others that the Methodist Church sends more soldiers to the field, more nurses to the hospitals, and more prayers to Heaven than--any other. God bless the Methodist Church Bless all the churches; and blessed be God, who in this our great trial giveth us the churches."''<ref>[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/american-authors/19th-century/abraham-lincoln/the-writings-of-abraham-lincoln-07/ebook-page-41.aspAbraham Lincoln, "The Writings of Abraham Lincoln"] VO7, p. 41</ref>

Regardless of Lincoln's views on faith as a youth, it seemed to grow as president. Lincoln penciled in "under God" after "one nation" for his [[Gettysburg Address]] delivered on November 19, 1863. The phrase "under God" was not in the early drafts. Mrs. Lincoln recalled her husband's last words just prior to his assassination in Ford's Theater: "He said he wanted to visit the Holy Land and see those places hallowed by the footprints of the [[Savior]]. He was saying there was no city he so much desired to see as Jerusalem."<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-09-08&view=View</ref>

In 1864, a close friend of Lincoln's, Joshua Speed, confided in Lincoln that he did not accept the Bible as true. Lincoln famously replied, "Take all this book upon reason that you can, and the balance on faith, and you will live and die a happier and better man".
After Lincoln was shot at Ford's theater two clergy claimed that he had made a secret trip from Washington to be baptized. Also a Roman Catholic Priest claimed that Lincoln received the sacrament of baptism in secret. Neither of these claims have any proof in White House records or his personal diary.<ref>[[God and the Oval Office]], by John C. McCollister, W Publishing, 2005.</ref>

==Lincoln's conservatism==
In his [[Lincoln's Cooper Union Speech|Cooper Union Address]], Lincoln spoke of the sectionalism which was fracturing the country as a result of slavery; the Republican Party was new in 1859, and a serious threat to slavery's existence. Lincoln and his party were called radical and destructive, but he counted himself among the earliest defenders of conservative principles, which was in essence a defense of time-honored, traditional values. Lincoln said that out of the 39 framers of the Constitution, 23 of the 39 voted on whether to prevent the spread of slavery, and that 21 of the 23 voted in favor of doing so. Lincoln therefore said that it was the pro-slavery South that was radically breaking with the tradition begun by those that created the Constitution. As Lincoln said:

:''But you say you are conservative - eminently conservative - while we are revolutionary, destructive, or something of the sort. What is conservatism? Is it not adherence to the old and tried, against the new and untried? We stick to, contend for, the identical old policy on the point in controversy which was adopted by "our fathers who framed the Government under which we live;" while you with one accord reject, and scout, and spit upon that old policy, and insist upon substituting something new. True, you disagree among yourselves as to what that substitute shall be. You are divided on new propositions and plans, but you are unanimous in rejecting and denouncing the old policy of the fathers. Some of you are for reviving the foreign slave trade; some for a Congressional Slave-Code for the Territories; some for Congress forbidding the Territories to prohibit Slavery within their limits; some for maintaining Slavery in the Territories through the judiciary; some for the "gur-reat pur-rinciple" that "if one man would enslave another, no third man should object," fantastically called "Popular Sovereignty;" but never a man among you is in favor of federal prohibition of slavery in federal territories, according to the practice of "our fathers who framed the Government under which we live.''

Again, in a speech in Columbus, Ohio, he said:

:''The chief and real purpose of the Republican Party is eminently conservative. It proposes nothing save and except to restore this government to its original tone in regard to this element of slavery, and there to maintain it, looking for no further change . . . than that which the original framers of the government themselves expected and looked forward to.''<ref>http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/pre-civil-war/1859-1860/speech-columbus-ohio-september-16-1859/</ref>

He also nominated [[conservative]] [[Stephen Johnson Field]] to the [[Supreme Court]] and foreshadowed future arguments by [[conservatives]] that opposed the [[Federal Reserve]]. Senate Minority Leader and [[Old Right]] [[Republican]] [[Everett Dirksen]], who helped write and pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], said Lincoln called himself a "conservative Republican" and that the Republican party "was the only party to still adhere to the gospel of Abraham Lincoln"<ref>https://youtu.be/lm6fnQ5no0o</ref> in a 1967 interview.

==Lincoln's style of writing==
[[Image:Lincoln seated.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Lincoln in November, 1863, about to leave for Pennsylvania. The reason for his confident look may have been within the envelope lying on the table, believed to contain his draft of the Gettysburg Address]]
A White House visitor, Orville Browning, told Lincoln's personal secretary John Nicolay one day that he had spoke to Lincoln sometime in 1861 on the subject of slavery; that if the right thing about slavery wasn't done, God just couldn't be on the side of the Union. Browning remembered Lincoln's reply: "What if the Almighty takes a different view of slavery than we do?", and right then and there Browning realized that Lincoln had thought very deeply on the subject, much deeper than Browning did.<ref>Douglas L. Wilson. [http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/books/wilson.htm Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words], ''Lincoln's Sword''.</ref>

Lincoln was known to think long and deeply on various topics, and often he would take notes, write them on little scraps of paper, and stuff them into his tall stovepipe hat for later use. When it was time for use, such as his "House Divided" speech, he pulled them out, laid them on a table, and would commence to writing. He would sift through the subject, adding this, removing that, and sometimes he would stand in his empty room and deliver it out loud to an imaginary audience, testing the effects of what he spoke, and altering it as needed. According to author Garry Wills, Lincoln brought to bear the rhetorical tone of the Greek Revival and Transcendental movements, in which spoken oratory was practiced in government and on the stage. The leading speakers of this time, and whom Lincoln looked upon, were Danial Webster and Henry Clay, both of the Senate, and Edward Everett, a speaker much in demand.

The training he had given himself also enabled him to write a simple letter or a speech on the spot. Words would flow clear when Lincoln wrote in his later years, and he didn't have to do twice one of his finest personal letters, one of consolation to Mrs. Bixby of Boston, who had lost five sons in the war.

:''Executive Mansion,''
:''Washington, Nov. 21, 1864.''

:''Dear Madam,''

:''I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle.''
:''I feel how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save.''
:''I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.''

:''Yours, very sincerely and respectfully,''

:''A. Lincoln''

What many consider his masterpiece is the [[Gettysburg Address]]. Here Lincoln, going through perhaps a dozen writes and re-writes of what he had thought on the subject, entirely changed the meaning of the war itself in a mere 272 words, and in so doing, according to Wills, remaking America.

==Politics in war==
[[File:Abraham Lincoln by George Peter Alexander Healy, 1869.jpg|thumb|350px|Abraham Lincoln by George Peter Alexander Healy, 1869.]]
That there had to be a certain degree of support to win the war was a given, and Lincoln strove to have unity for that effort in the North. Politics was required, and Lincoln had a special knack for appealing to his fellows and talking to them at their own level and language. He would smooth over lingering differences, and held the loyalty of those who were antagonistic to one another.

But the Democrats remained strong, and frequently clashed. Its member included both war and peace Democrats; the peace side was called “Copperheads”, after the snake which strikes without warning while hidden. Lincoln tried conciliating with both, but with the latter he had to resort to arrest at times, most famously to an Ohio Congressman, Clement L. Valandigham, who was arrested after he had repeatedly exhorted soldiers to desert. He justified his actions on the grounds that the suspension of ''habeas corpus'' was necessary only in times of rebellion, insurrection, or when the public safety may require it, as stated in the Constitution; certainly the Civil War had met those specific conditions. Many would dissent, and openly criticize Lincoln for arbitrarily violating the Constitution that he had sworn to preserve. In response to the criticism in general, and the case of Valandigham in particular, Lincoln wrote:
:''"Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts, while I must not touch a hair of a wiley agitator who induces him to desert? This is none the less injurious when effected by getting a father, or brother, or friend, into a public meeting, and there working upon his feeling, till he is persuaded to write the soldier boy, that he is fighting in a bad cause, for a wicked administration of a contemptable government, too weak to arrest and punish him if he shall desert. I think that in such a case, to silence the agitator, and save the boy, is not only constitutional, but, withal, a great mercy."''<ref>[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=lincoln;cc=lincoln;type=boolean;rgn=div1;q1=soldier;op2=and;q2=deserts;op3=and;q3=agitator;singlegenre=All;view=text;subview=detail;sort=occur;idno=lincoln6;node=lincoln6%3A569 Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 6.], Lincoln, Abraham, 1809-1865.</ref>
Lincoln faced reelection against Democrat George McClellan in 1864, who promised a restoration of the Union, but waffled on many of its points, even abandoning the Democratic platform of armistice and peaceful separation. Lincoln was able to beat him in the election, assisted by the timely victories of Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, and Sherman in Georgia. Overtures of peace from Confederates were not wholly rejected. On February 3, 1865, Lincoln met with Confederate commissioners, among them Vice President Alexander Stephens, on a steamship in Hampton Roads, Virginia. There would be peace, he insisted, if the South would quit the war, abandon slavery, and accept re-unification, and once these conditions were met he would be gracious with pardons. But his terms satisfied neither the Confederacy nor the Radical Republicans in Congress.

His postwar policy was one of compassion. As he explained to his top leaders on board a riverboat, the City Queen, he wanted peace above all else. His Second Inaugural Address expressed his point of healing the wounds caused by the war.
:''With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations."''

When asked specifically, he related the following, according to General Sherman, one of those present:
:''Mr. Lincoln was full and frank in his conversation, assuring me that in his mind he was all ready for the civil reorganization of affairs at the South as soon as the war was over; and he distinctly authorized me to assure Governor Vance and the people of North Carolina that, as soon as the rebel armies laid down their arms, and resumed their civil pursuits, they would at once be guaranteed all their rights as citizens of a common country; and that to avoid anarchy the State governments then in existence, with their civil functionaries, would be recognized by him as the government de facto till Congress could provide others.''
:''I know, when I left him, that I was more than ever impressed by his kindly nature, his deep and earnest sympathy with the afflictions of the whole people, resulting from the war, and by the march of hostile armies through the South; and that his earnest desire seemed to be to end the war speedily, without more bloodshed or devastation, and to restore all the men of both sections to their homes. In the language of his second inaugural address, he seemed to have "charity for all, malice toward none," and, above all, an absolute faith in the courage, manliness, and integrity of the armies in the field.''<ref>[http://www.sonshi.com/sherman24.html General William T. Sherman "Memoirs"], Volume 2, Chapter XXIV, April and May, 1865.</ref>

==Final curtain==

''See also: [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln]]'' 

Lincoln received the news of Lee's surrender at Appomattox, Virginia, on April 9, and he was called out to the balcony of the White House that night by a large crowd gathered in celebration. When asked to make a speech, Lincoln noticed a band among them, and made an unusual request.
:''"I have always thought ‘Dixie’ one of the best tunes I have ever heard. Our adversaries over the way attempted to appropriate it, but I insisted that we fairly captured it. I presented it to the Attorney General, and he gave it as his legal opinion that it is our lawful prize. I now request the band to favor me with its performance."''
He entered Richmond the following day, to the joyous delight of free blacks, who welcomed the arrival of "Father Abraham" as they called him, and he paid a visit to the Confederate White House, and sat at the desk of Jefferson Davis. The only thing he asked for was a glass of water.

Just four days later on April 14 he attended a play at Ford's Theater. It was called ''Our American Cousin'', with well-known stage actress Laura Keane and comedian Harry Hawke in the title role. Unseen to the audience was another actor making his way quietly up the stairs to the president's private box, [[John Wilkes Booth]], a Southern sympathizer who had hatched a conspiracy with a few others to kill the president and other leading officials. Booth entered the box, shot Lincoln in the head, stabbed a guest, and dropped to the stage, escaping behind the curtains. Taken across the street to a boarding house, the mortally-wounded Lincoln was laid across a small bed in humble surroundings, similar it seemed, to where he was born. He died at sunrise a few hours later.

"Now he belongs to the ages" Edwin Stanton was heard to say.

<blockquote>
''Dying as he did die, by the red hand of violence, killed, assassinated, taken off without warning, not because of personal hate…but because of his fidelity to union and liberty, he is doubly dear to us, and his memory will be precious forever.'' [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/today.html]
</blockquote>

==Liberal revisionist history==
Some liberals are taught and claim that Lincoln was a tyrant. That he alone trampled on the Constitution. That the civil war was not about slavery but about taxation. Also, he favored the white race.

The suspension of [[Habeas corpus]] is often brought up as an example. The fact remains that the South trampled the Constitution by breaking away from the Republic to form their own nation. It was the South that launched the first attack. It was the South that fought to keep slavery as a right. While Lincoln's actions may have been controversial, he made the tough decision to save the Republic. A merciful victor who was lenient on the South for their egregious actions. Freedom for the black man was the noble outcome that white Northerners gave their lives for.

Other liberals, however, claim that Lincoln was one of them, [[Censorship|trying to force the narrative]] that the racists switched parties overnight. The take his "old and tired" quote but clip it just right to make it appear that he was a liberal.

==Quotes==
[[File:Lincoln by Augustus Saint Gaudens, 1887.jpg|thumb|Bust of Lincoln by Augustus Saint Gaudens, 1887.]]
* "A friend is a man who has the same enemies you have." <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgM4tztnJFcC&pg=PA275&dq=lincoln+A+friend+is+man+who+has+the+same+enemies+you+have&ei=lV4fSuv8N5TyzQS1yq21Dw Civilization's quotations P.275] by Richard Alan Krieger</ref>

* "Those who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, cannot long retain it" <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_-WNU7VapFAC&pg=PA187&dq=Those+who+deny+freedom+to+others+deserve+it+not+for+themselves&ei=NBA8SsSUCp-EzATw0cW6BQ Black Belt Patriotism: How to Reawaken America‎ - Page 187] by Chuck Norris</ref>

* "Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man's character, give him power." <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aRv_xCpMC&pg=PA11&dq=Nearly+all+men+can+stand+adversity,+but+if+you+want+to+test+a+man%27s+character,+give+him+power&ei=jJFBSo7nHZbozATAipVi Law school 101: survival techniques from pre-law to being an attorney‎ - Page 11] by R. Stephanie Good</ref>
*“When I left Springfield I asked the people to pray for me. I was not a Christian. When I buried my son, the severest trial of my life, I was not a Christian. But when I went to Gettysburg and saw the graves of thousands of our soldiers, I then and there consecrated myself to Christ. Yes, I do love Jesus,"<ref>https://www.christianheadlines.com/slideshows/8-presidents-who-looked-to-god-for-guidance.html</ref>
*His last words: "We will visit the Holy Land, and see those places hallowed by the footsteps of the Savior. There is no city on earth I so much desire to see as Jerusalem."<ref>https://ourlostfounding.com/abraham-lincolns-last-words-no-city-on-earth/</ref>

{{Clear}}

==Basic Further reading==
* Carwardine, Richard. ''Lincoln: A Life of Purpose and Power'' (2003), sophisticated biography emphasizing religion and politics [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Purpose-Power-Richard-Carwardine/dp/1400096022/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336315&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln'', (1995), by a conservative historian; the best scholarly biography [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-David-Herbert-Donald/dp/068482535X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336403&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Gienapp, William E. ''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' (2002), short bio by scholar; stress on politics [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-Civil-War-America/dp/0195151003/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336352&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103538783 online edition]
*Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''Team of Rivals: the Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'', (2005) well written popular narrative of Lincoln and his cabinet
* McPherson, James. ''Abraham Lincoln'' (2009), 96pp; very short overview by leading expert [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-James-M-McPherson/dp/0195374525/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249335698&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Neely, Mark E. ''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL
* Thomas, Benjamin P. ''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' (1952; 2nd ed. 2008) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25051697 online edition], very well written biography by leading scholar
*White, Ronald C. Jr. ''The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words'', (2005)
* White, A. Ronald C. ''A. Lincoln: A Biography'' (2009), good recent biography [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Biography-Ronald-White-Jr/dp/1400064996/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249335698&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilentz, Sean. "Who Lincoln Was" ''New Republic'' (July 15, 2009) leading scholar rips apart liberal distortions [http://www.tnr.com/politics/story.html?id=2634954a-b287-480e-9fbd-8a4663174031 online edition]
===For children===
* Stone, Tanya. ''Abraham Lincoln'' (DK Biography, 2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-Biography-Tanya-Stone/dp/0756608341/ref=pd_ts_b_12?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]

== Bibliography ==
=== Biographies ===
* Beveridge, Albert J. ''Abraham Lincoln: 1809-1858'' (1928). 2 vol. to 1858; notable for strong, unbiased political coverage [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3925146 online edition]
* Burlingame, Michael. "Abraham Lincoln: A Life" (2008), 2v 2024 pp, the most highly detailed scholarly biography [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-Life-Michael-Burlingame/dp/0801889936/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336108&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search]
* Carwardine, Richard. ''Lincoln: A Life of Purpose and Power'' (2003), sophisticated biography emphasizing religion and politics [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Purpose-Power-Richard-Carwardine/dp/1400096022/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336315&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln'', (1995), by a conservative historian; the best scholarly biography [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-David-Herbert-Donald/dp/068482535X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336403&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search];
* Guelzo, Allen C. ''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99466893 online edition], conservative religious approach
* Harris William C. ''Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency'' (2007) conservative author argues Lincoln was basically conservative [https://www.amazon.com/Lincolns-Rise-Presidency-William-Harris/dp/0700615202/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164706&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Nicolay, John George and John Hay. ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890); online at [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] [https://books.google.com/books?id=bDEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:nicolay+inauthor:hay&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP19,M1 vol 6] 10 volumes in all; highly detailed narrative of era written by Lincoln's top aides
* Luthin, Reinhard H. ''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' (1960), emphasis on politics
* Neely, Mark E. ''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL
* Neely, Mark E. ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author
* Oates, Stephen B. ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994) [https://www.amazon.com/Malice-Toward-None-Abraham-Lincoln/dp/0060924713/ref=pd_sim_b_img_7 excerpt and text search], good biography by liberal historian
* Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the President'' (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) analytic biography by leading conservative scholar
** ''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5993790 online edition]
* Sandburg, Carl. ''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939). Pulitzer Prize winning biography by famous liberal poet [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82392773 vol. 1 online] [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97896367 vol 2 online]
* Thomas, Benjamin P. ''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' (1952; 2nd ed. 2008) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25051697 online edition], very well written biography by leading scholar
* White, A. Ronald C. ''A. Lincoln: A Biography'' (2009), good recent biography [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Biography-Ronald-White-Jr/dp/1400064996/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249335698&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]

=== Specialty topics ===
===Prewar===
* Angle, Paul M., ''Here I Have Lived: A History of Lincoln's Springfield, 1821-1865,'' (1935) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=210869 online edition]
* Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102075782 online edition]
* Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies, by conservative historian
* Fehrenbacher, Don E. "The Origins and Purpose of Lincoln's "House-Divided" Speech," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 46, No. 4. (Mar., 1960), pp. 615-643. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28196003%2946%3A4%3C615%3ATOAPOL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I in JSTOR]
* Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970) intellectual history of different prewar faction's in AL's party
* Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004). [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Cooper-Union-President-Schuster/dp/0743299647/ref=pd_sim_b_img_44 excerpt and text search]
* Jaffa, Harry V. ''A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War'' (2000) by leading conservative
* Jaffa, Harry V. ''Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Crisis-House-Divided-Interpretation-Lincoln-Douglas/dp/0226391132/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196166006&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search] by leading conservative
* Nevins, Allan. ''Ordeal of the Union'' 8-volume (1947-1971). 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847-1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852-1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857-1859. most thorough coverage of the era, with Lincoln at center
* Schneider, Thomas E. ''Lincoln's Defense of Politics: The Public Man and His Opponents in the Crisis over Slavery.'' (2006). 224 pp.

===Wartime===
===Lincoln Administration===
* Burton, Orville Vernon. ''The Age of Lincoln'' (2007), sweeping history from 1840 to 1900. [https://www.amazon.com/Age-Lincoln-Orville-Vernon-Burton/dp/0809095130/ref=pd_bbs_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196112530&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* Carwardine, Richard. "Abraham Lincoln and the Fourth Estate: the White House and the Press During the American Civil War." ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 2006 7(1): 1-27. Issn: 1466-4658 Fulltext: Ebsco
* Ford, Lacy K., ed. ''A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction.'' Blackwell, 2005. 518 pp.
* Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=790159 online edition]
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' (2005)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=64327148 online edition]
* Marvel, William. ''Mr. Lincoln Goes to War'' (2006), neo-Confederate attack that blames Lincoln for defeating the Confederacy and freeing the slaves by stretching the Constitution
* Nevins, Allan. ''Ordeal of the Union'' 8-volume (1947-1971). vol 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865; most thorough coverage of the era, with Lincoln at center
* Paludan, Phillip S. ''A People's Contest: The Union and Civil War 1861-1865'' (1996), outstanding history of the homefront [https://www.amazon.com/Peoples-Contest-1861-1865-Modern-Studies/dp/0700608125/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336636&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paludan, Phillip S. ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), thorough treatment of Lincoln's administration [https://www.amazon.com/Presidency-Abraham-Lincoln-American/dp/0700607455/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249336636&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997)
* Williams, Kenneth P. ''Lincoln Finds a General: A Military Study of the Civil War'' (1959) 5 volumes on Lincoln's control of the war

===Lincolnia===
[[Image:DcLincMor.JPG|right|thumb]]
* Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998)
* Belz, Herman. "Lincoln's Construction of the Executive Power in the Secession Crisis," ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'' 27.1 (2006):[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/27.1/belz.html online edition]
* Boritt, Gabor S. ed. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994)
* Briggs, John Channing. ''Lincoln's Speeches Reconsidered.'' (2005). 370 pp.
* Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978110 online edition]
* DiLorenzo, Thomas. ''Lincoln Unmasked: What You're Not Supposed to Know About Dishonest Abe'' (2007) poorly written diatribe by a neo-Confederate
* Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960)
* Donald, David Herbert. ''We Are Lincoln Men: Abraham Lincoln and His Friends'' (2003), on Lincoln's friends and associates; by leading conservative scholar
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. "'My Whole Soul Is in It.'" ''Smithsonian'' 2006 36(10): 48+ Fulltext: at Ebsco, essay on the writing of the Emancipation Proclamation
*Hanchett, William. ''The Lincoln Murder Conspiracies'', (1983)
* Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction; by conservative historian
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth."
* McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992) [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-Second-American-Revolution/dp/0195076060/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164807&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=79055694 online version]; [https://www.amazon.com/Fate-Liberty-Abraham-Lincoln-Liberties/dp/0195080327/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164768&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Perret, Geoffrey. ''Lincoln's War: The Untold Story of America's Greatest President as Commander in Chief'' (2004). well-written but has many factual errors and questionable interpretations [https://www.amazon.com/Lincolns-War-Americas-President-Commander/dp/0375507388/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164840&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Polsky, Andrew J. "'Mr. Lincoln's Army' Revisited: Partisanship, Institutional Position, and Union Army Command, 1861–1865." ''Studies in American Political Development'' (2002), 16: 176-207
* Potter, David M. ''Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis'' (1942)
* Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947).
* Schmitz, Neil. "Refiguring Lincoln: Speeches and Writings, 1832-1865," ''American Literary History'', Vol. 6, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), pp. 103–118 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199421)6%3A1%3C103%3ARLSAW1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in JSTOR]
* Striner, Richard. ''Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery.'' (2006). 295 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Father-Abraham-Lincolns-Relentless-Struggle/dp/0195325397/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164883&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* White Jr., Ronald C. ''Lincoln's Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural'' (2001) Pp. 234. [https://www.amazon.com/Lincolns-Greatest-Speech-Second-Inaugural/dp/0743212991/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164921&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, T. Harry. ''Lincoln and His Generals'' (1967).
* Wills, Garry. ''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' (1993) [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Gettysburg-America-Schuster-Library/dp/0743299639/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196164981&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wilson, Douglas L. ''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by (1999).
* Wilson, Douglas L. ''Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words'' (2007)

===Historiography and Memory===
* Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln'' U. of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography [https://www.amazon.com/Historians-Lincoln-Pseudohistory-Psychohistory-History/dp/0252065441/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196165019&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Braeman, John. "Albert J. Beveridge and Demythologizing Lincoln." ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'' 2004 25(2): 1-24. Issn: 0898-4212 Fulltext: online in History Cooperative. Albert J. Beveridge (1862-1927), former US senator from Indiana began work on a multivolume biography of Abraham Lincoln in 1922. His goal was to demolish the myths surrounding Lincoln and present the facts. Beveridge tended to sympathize with the South and admire Stephen A. Douglas, as well as rely on information collected by William H. Herndon. But, he did more intense research on Lincoln's pre-presidential career than any previous biographer. Beveridge died as he reached 1858.
* Cross, Roland R. "Edgar Lee Masters's Peculiar Biographies of Abraham Lincoln and Vachel Lindsay." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2004 7(4): 281–296. Issn: 1522–0532. The poet Edgar Lee Masters in 1931 wrote the only hostile biography of Lincoln; he debunks the "myth of Honest Abe." In Masters's view, Lincoln's actions as president was a corruption of true American ideals. The theme has occasionally resurfaced among neoconfederates and extreme libertarians who tolerate slavery but not strong government.
* Fields, Kevin. "Historiographical Trends and Interpretations of President Abraham Lincoln's Reputation and the Morality on the Slavery Question: Part I and II." ''Lincoln Herald'' Lincoln Herald 2004 106(4): 150-167 and 2005 107(1): 11–30. Issn: 0024–3671; Part 1 siscusses William Herndon, John Nicolay, and John Hay.; Part 2 notes the civil rights movement prompted historians to reevaluate Lincoln's attitude toward race and emancipation. Many continued to portray him as the pragmatic, essentially conservative, "reluctant emancipator." However, by the 1980s a postrevisionist consensus had emerged, which emphasized the evolution of Lincoln's attitudes and asserted that freedom for black slaves, and not merely the preservation of the Union, became one of his key objectives.
* McPherson, James M. "No Peace Without Victory, 1861-1865." ''American Historical Review'' 2004 109(1): Xvi, 1-18. Issn: 0002-8762 Fulltext: in History Cooperative and Ebsco.
* Peterson, Merrill D. ''Lincoln in American Memory'' (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865
* Schwartz, Barry and Schuman, Howard. "History, Commemoration, and Belief: Abraham Lincoln in American Memory, 1945-2001." ''American Sociological Review'' 2005 70(2): 183–203. Issn: 0003-1224 Fulltext: in Ingenta
*Trefousse, Hans L. ''"First among Equals?" Abraham Lincoln's Reputation during His Administration.'' 2005. 199 pp.

=== Primary sources ===
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln,'' 9 vol Rutgers Univ. Press 1953–55
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings, '' (1946) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/abraham-lincoln-his-speeches-and-writings-by-abraham-lincoln-roy-p-basler.jsp online edition]
* Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, 1989

===Memoirs and interviews===
* Chittenden, Lucius E., [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00587058&id=b-N27vdmIt4C&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22Recollections+of+President+Lincoln+and+His+Administration%22 ''Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration''], (1891). – [[Google Books]]
* Holzer, Harold, ed. ''Dear Mr. Lincoln: Letters to the President.'' (1993). 380 pp.
* Nicolay, John G. ed. ''Oral History of Abraham Lincoln: John G. Nicolay's Interviews and Essays.'' Michael Burlingame, ed. (1996). 186 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Abraham-Lincoln-Observations-John-Nicolay/dp/0809327384/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196165058&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Herndon's Informants: Letters, Interviews, and Statements about Abraham Lincoln'' edited by Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis. (1998) 864pp, with over 600 interviews and letters about Lincoln [http://durer.press.illinois.edu/wilson/ complete text online ??] [https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gilcp4yYQC&source=gbs_navlinks_s excerpt and text search]

== See also ==
*[[American Civil War homefront]]
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln Online]
*[http://www.abrahamlincolnarchive.com/Home.aspx Lincoln Archive of original newspaper articles]
*[http://www.historyplace.com/lincoln/ History Place: Lincoln timeline]
*[http://www.nps.gov/liho/index.htm Lincoln's Home National Historic Site]
*[https://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House site; short bio on Lincoln]
*[http://www.mrlincolnandfriends.org/inside.asp?pageID=112&subjectID=1 Mr. Lincoln and Friends]
*[http://www.nps.gov/archive/liho/slavery/al02.htm Declaration against slavery, Illinois State Legislature, March 3, 1837]
*[http://www.nps.gov/archive/liho/slavery/al03.htm Lincoln's letter to Joshua Speed, August 24, 1855]
*[http://www.nps.gov/archive/liho/slavery/al05.htm Speech in Peoria, Illinois, October 16, 1854]
*[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=lincoln;cc=lincoln;q1=erastus;q2=corning;op2=and;op3=and;rgn=works;idno=ACK7441.0001.001;didno=ACK7441.0001.001;view=image;seq=00000227 Letter to Erastus Corning and Others, June 13, 1863, in which Lincoln explains his suspention of ''habeas corpus'']
*[http://www.sonshi.com/sherman.html Memoirs of William T. Sherman ]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/E-Books/misc/Lincoln/ALindex.htm The Life, Public Services and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln by Henry J. Raymond]
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/ A. Lincoln, few words/E.Everett, many words]
* [https://librivox.org/author/2233 Works by Abraham Lincoln - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
*[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln1.asp First Inaugural Address]
*[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln2.asp Second Inaugural Address]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fU6UacteZus I Heard Lincoln That Day] at YouTube
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[[Category:Whig Party]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Nationalists]]
[[Category:Veterans]]
[[Category:Patriots]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Peace Makers]]

Patrick Buchanan

2021-06-06T23:45:39Z

Nationalamerican:

[[File:Pat Buchanan.JPG|thumb|250px|Buchanan in 2008.]]
'''Patrick Joseph "Pat" Buchanan''' is a noted [[paleoconservative]] commentator, author, and three-time candidate for [[President of the United States]]. He was employed as a commentator at [[MSNBC]] until he was permanently suspended from there in February 2012, after which he became a commentator at [[Fox News]]. He was one of the first to identify the threats caused by the declining population and exploding immigrant populations in Europe.<ref>Buchanan, Patrick J., The Death of the West, How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2002).</ref>

==Background==
Pat Buchanan was born on November 2, 1938, in [[Washington, D.C.]] to Catherine and William Buchanan. His sister, [[Bay Buchanan]], served as U.S. [[Treasurer]] under the [[Reagan Administration]]. He is a lifelong [[Roman Catholic]].

==Education==
Buchanan studied in Catholic Jesuits schools, earned his bachelor's degree from [[Georgetown University]] in 1961 and his master's degree in journalism from [[Columbia University]] in 1962.

==Career==
At age 23 he was hired by the ''St. Louis Globe-Democrat'' as an editorial writer. He was a supporter of the [[Barry Goldwater]] campaign for President in 1964.

In 1965, Buchanan was hired by the law firm of [[Richard Nixon]], and the next year, as a researcher for the pending 1968 Nixon presidential campaign. He was on board for the entire Nixon campaign and ensuing administration and grew personally close to Nixon. He was a speechwriter and White House special assistant. He continued in that capacity for the early months of the interim [[Gerald Ford]] administration. It was Buchanan who first created the phrase "the great [[silent majority]]."<ref name="Alberta"/>

Buchanan became a [[radio]] commentator starting in the 1970s, and a regular on ''The McLaughlin Group'' and [[CNN]]'s ''[[Crossfire]]'' starting in the early 1980s.

Buchanan also served as White House Communications Director during the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration, from 1985 to 1987.

==Presidential campaigns==
Buchanan has run for President three times. In 1992, he sought the [[Republican Party]] nomination against then-President [[George H.W. Bush]]. Many conservatives were alienated from the first Bush administration's policies, especially his reneging on his "read my lips, no new taxes" pledge and his frequent use of the term, "[[New World Order]]" to describe his [[foreign policy]] goals. Buchanan offered conservatives who were disillusioned by the Bush Administration a choice in the 1992 primaries. Buchanan came in a distant second in the primaries but is remembered for his fiery keynote speech at the 1992 Republican convention.

In 1996, Buchanan sought the Republican nomination again and pulled an upset victory in the [[New Hampshire]] primary. However, after [[Bob Dole]] emerged as the clear favorite after the [[Super Tuesday]] primaries, Buchanan suspended his campaign.

In 2000, Buchanan left the Republican Party and announced his intention to seek the [[Reform Party]] nomination for President. He easily won the Reform Party nomination over his main rival for the nomination, [[John Hagelin]], but carried only about 1/4 of 1% of the votes in the general election, coming in fourth place behind [[George W. Bush]], [[Al Gore]], and [[Ralph Nader]]. Ironically, however, the placement of his name on the [[butterfly ballot]] in Palm Beach County, [[Florida]], probably provided [[George W. Bush]] with his margin of victory due to [[Democratic]] voters mistakenly selecting Pat Buchanan.

==Later life==
Buchanan supported the successful presidential campaign of [[Donald Trump]], who ran on the same views that Buchanan had run on 20 years earlier.<ref name="Alberta">Alberta, Tim (2017). [https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/04/22/pat-buchanan-trump-president-history-profile-215042 ‘The Ideas Made It, But I Didn’t’]. ''Politico Magazine'' (May/June 2017 edition). Retrieved April 22, 2017.</ref> Despite being advanced in age, Buchanan continued to be very mentally competent.<ref name="Alberta"/>

==Political Positions==
Since the end of the [[Cold War]], Pat Buchanan has been largely identified with the [[paleoconservative]] wing of the conservative movement. As such he is an opponent of [[free trade]], a critic of mass [[immigration]], and a critic of foreign policy interventionism such as the [[Iraq War]], positions which put him at odds with the [[neoconservative]]s.

Buchanan criticized [[President Trump]] for his air strikes against [[Syria]]n dictator [[Bashar al-Assad]], seeing it as a sign of the administration's abandonment of its America First foreign policy and its caving to [[neoconservatism]].<ref>https://www.creators.com/read/pat-buchanan/04/18/is-trump-standing-down-in-syria</ref> He is a supporter of [[Russia]]´s president [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>http://buchanan.org/blog/putin-one-us-6071</ref>

==Author==
Buchanan is the author of:

* ''The New Majority: President Nixon at Mid-Passage (Girard Essays) (1973)
* ''Conservative Votes, Liberal Victories: Why the Right Has Failed (1975)
* ''Right from the Beginning'' (1988)
* ''The Great Betrayal: How American Sovereignty and Social Justice Are Being Sacrificed to the Gods of the Global Economy'' (1998)
* ''A Republic, Not an Empire: Reclaiming America's Destiny'' (1999)
* ''The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization'' (2002)
* ''Where the Right Went Wrong: How Neoconservatives Subverted the Reagan Revolution and Hijacked the Bush Presidency'' (2004)
* ''State of Emergency: The Third World Invasion and Conquest of America'' (2006)
* ''Day of Reckoning: How Hubris, Ideology, and Greed Are Tearing America Apart'' (2007)
* ''Churchill, Hitler and "The Unnecessary War"'' (2008)
* ''Suicide of a Superpower: Will America Survive to 2025?'' (2011)
* ''The Greatest Comeback: How Richard Nixon Rose from Defeat to Create the New Majority'' (2014); ISBN: 978-0-533-41863-7.
* ''Nixon's White House Wars: The Battles That Made and Broke a President and Divided America Forever'' (2017); ISBN:978-1-101-90284-4.

He is also a co-founder and founding editor of ''[[The American Conservative]]'' magazine.

==See also==
*[[Cultural Marxism]]
*[[Henry C. Grover]]
*[[Paul Craig Roberts]]
*[[Joe Shell]]

==External links==
*[http://www.Buchanan.org Pat Buchanan's official website]
*Hayward, John (April 25, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/radio/2017/04/25/exclusive-pat-buchanan-trumps-first-100-days/ EXCLUSIVE — Pat Buchanan on Donald Trump’s First 100 Days]. ''Breitbart News''.
*[https://www.youtube.com/user/rescueKAL007#p/a/FD3DE4F0642C350C/0/1c8v-kgLvhM Buchanan's "Crossfire" interview with [[Larry McDonald]] 3 months before downing of [[KAL 007]], Ron Paul intro]

==References==
<references/>

{{Nationalism}}
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[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Conservative Commentators]]
[[Category:Nationalists]]
[[Category:Paleoconservatives]]
[[Category:Patriots]]
[[Category:Reform Party Politicians]]
[[Category:Failed Presidential Candidates]]
[[Category:American Authors]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]
[[Category:Anti-war Movements]]

Boris Johnson

2021-06-06T23:43:58Z

Nationalamerican:

{{Prime Minister
|image=Boris Johnson, foreign minister.jpg
|seq=77
|term_start=July 24, 2019
|term_end=present
|previous=Theresa May
|next=
|party=Conservative Party
|birth_date=June 19, 1964 (aged 56)
|birth_place=New York City
|spouse=Allegra Mostyn-Owen (div.) Marina Wheeler (div.)
|religion=
}}
'''Boris Johnson''' (born New York, June 19, 1964) is the Prime Minister of the [[United Kingdom]] and leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], serving since July 2019. Previously, he served as Mayor of [[London]] from May 2008 to May 2016 and as UK Foreign Minister from July 2016 to July 2018. He is a noted supporter of [[Brexit]], though he also holds [[left-wing]] and [[neoconservative]] positions on certain issues such as abortion, "climate change" and homosexuality. Johnson defeated incumbent London mayor [[Ken Livingstone]] in 2008 and was succeeded by [[Sadiq Khan]]‎, the first [[Muslim]] mayor of any European capital. Observers in the media have noted Johnson's effective public speaking skills.<ref>Hayward, Freddie; Faulconbridge, Guy (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-johnson-language/boris-johnsons-magniloquent-tongue-reaps-political-gold-linguists-say-idUSKCN1UI1LV Boris Johnson's magniloquent tongue reaps political gold, linguists say]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref>

Less than 10 months after taking office, Boris Johnson fell victim of the [[CCP virus]] and entered intensive care.<ref>[https://www.ntd.com/uk-prime-minister-johnson-moved-to-intensive-care-as-ccp-virus-symptoms-worsen_452809.html UK Prime Minister Johnson Moved to Intensive Care as CCP Virus Symptoms Worsen], By Jack Phillips, April 6, 2020.</ref> He was fortunate that he was not placed by the hospital employees on a respirator, which is terminal for many [[CCP virus]] patients. Johnson improved without a respirator and was subsequently discharged from the hospital.

==Early life and career==
Johnson was born in [[New York City]]. He no longer claims U.S. citizenship because he chose to renounce it following trouble entering the U.S. on his British passport.<ref>http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1681132/posts</ref> However, he did not clarify whether he had ever formally renounced his U.S. citizenship before a U.S. consular officer and it is uncertain whether he remains a citizen under U.S. law. His mother was a successful artist, while his father was an author and politician. He is patrilineally descended from Ali Kemal, the Ottoman politician who was murdered. He is also the great-grandson of Elias Avery Lowe, the Russian-American Paelaeographer.

===Mayor of London===
Johnson's campaign for Mayor of London from the Conservative Party was in a majority [[Labour Party]] dominated region. Johnson promised during the campaign that he would roll back a recent expansion of Central London congestion charging Livingstone had introduced.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/7188239.stm</ref> He also advocated the removal of articulated, or "bendy", buses that had been introduced to London.<ref>http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23411785-details/Scrap+the+bendy+bus+and+bring+back+Routemasters,+says+Boris/article.do</ref> He also called for minor changes to law and order in London in the form of a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport (the London Underground in particular)<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7387113.stm</ref> and the revocation of free travel for youths who misbehave on buses and trains.

===Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs===
On July 13, 2016, Johnson was appointed as the British [[Foreign Secretary|Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]] by Prime Minister [[Theresa May]].<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/foreign-secretary Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]</ref>

In July 2018, due to his opposition to May's Brexit plan which he believed undermined UK sovereignty and independence, Johnson resigned as Foreign Secretary.<ref>Lane, Oliver JJ (July 9, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2018/07/09/british-foreign-secretary-boris-johnson-resigns-government-amid-brexit-rebellion/ British Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson Resigns Government Amid Brexit Rebellion]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 9, 2018. See also:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-johnson-resignation/former-foreign-minister-johnson-warns-britain-will-end-up-like-colony-to-the-eu-after-brexit-idUSKBN1JZ2AH Former foreign minister Johnson warns Britain will end up like colony to the EU after Brexit]. ''Reuters''. July 9, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
*Montgomery, Jack (July 9, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2018/07/09/boris-speaks-brexit-is-dying-white-flags-are-fluttering-may-deal-will-make-britain-an-eu-colony/ BORIS SPEAKS: ‘Brexit is Dying, White Flags Are Fluttering, May Deal Will Make Britain an EU Colony’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 9, 2018.</ref> He was replaced by [[Jeremy Hunt]], who he later competed against and defeated in the race for leader of the Conservative Party.

==Premiership==
On July 23, 2019, Johnson won the Conservative Party leadership election, campaigning on a strongly pro-[[Brexit]] platform and defeating [[Jeremy Hunt]]. By winning the leadership election, he also became the UK's prime minister.<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (July 23, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/32930-hardline-brexiteer-boris-johnson-selected-as-new-prime-minister-of-uk Hardline Brexiteer Boris Johnson Selected as New Prime Minister of U.K.] ''The New American''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/23/boris-johnson-wins-uk-leadership-race-will-be-prime-minister/ Boris Johnson Wins UK Leadership Race, Will be Prime Minister]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Fidler, Stephen; Colchester, Max (July 23, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-to-become-u-k-prime-minister-after-winning-party-election-11563879952 Boris Johnson to Become U.K. Prime Minister After Winning Party Election]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (July 23, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/6f533afc9bb14c29a1b9e013f270159e Boris Johnson chosen as new UK leader, now faces Brexit test]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Mikelionis, Lukas (July 23, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnson-to-become-next-british-prime-minister-after-winning-conservative-party-leadership-ballot Boris Johnson to become next British Prime Minister, after winning Conservative Party leadership ballot]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
See also:
*Kassam, Raheem (July 23, 2019). [https://humanevents.com/2019/07/23/how-to-make-boris-work/ How to Make Boris Work.] ''Human Events''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/23/does-he-have-courage-deliver-brexit-reactions-johnson-victory/ ‘Does He Have the Courage to Deliver?’: Reactions to Johnson’s Leadership Victory]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Norman, Laurence (July 22, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/i-dont-know-what-he-will-do-europe-braces-for-brexit-with-boris-johnson-11563825742 ‘I Don’t Know What He Will Do’: Europe Braces for Brexit With Boris Johnson]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Mikelionis, Lukas (July 23, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnson-profile-brexit-winston-churchill Gaffe-prone Boris Johnson seeks to turbo-charge Britain's departure from EU, prove he's modern-day Winston Churchill]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref> His tenure as prime minister began the following day.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (July 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/24/boris-johnson-makes-first-speech-as-uk-prime-minister/ ‘Brexit in 99 Days, No Ifs, No Buts’: Boris Johnson Makes First Speech as UK Prime Minister]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Mikelionis, Lukas (July 24, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnson-queen-officially-prime-minister-britain-brexit-theresa-may Boris Johnson officially becomes Prime Minister, pledges 'modern Britain' cabinet with pro-Brexit tilt]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (July 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-picks-his-top-team-for-brexit-battle-11563966841 Boris Johnson Takes the Helm as Prime Minister, Gears Up for Brexit Battle]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Klar, Rebecca (July 24, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/454505-boris-johnson-officially-becomes-new-uk-prime-minister Boris Johnson officially becomes UK prime minister, vows to get Brexit done]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (July 24, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/18957b2a83e14a31865610cf1ee20579 Boris Johnson becomes UK PM, aims to win over doubters]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*James, William; MacLellan, Kylie (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-leader/british-prime-minister-johnson-vows-brexit-with-no-ifs-or-buts-idUSKCN1UI2WK British Prime Minister Johnson vows Brexit with 'no ifs or buts']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Hill, Geoff (July 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/jul/24/boris-johnson-new-uk-prime-minister-sets-sights-br/ 'No ifs, ands or buts': Boris Johnson takes charge, sets sights on Brexit]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*James, William; MacLellan, Kylie (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader/british-prime-minister-johnson-promises-a-bold-new-brexit-deal-idUSKCN1UI2W2 British Prime Minister Johnson promises a bold new Brexit deal]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Kennedy, Merrit (July 24, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/07/24/744839100/the-time-has-come-to-act-boris-johnson-takes-the-helm-as-u-k-prime-minister 'The Time Has Come To Act': Boris Johnson Takes The Helm As U.K. Prime Minister]. ''NPR''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
See also:
*Gingrich, Newt (July 30, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/newt-gingrich-boris-johnson-prime-minister-britain-government Newt Gingrich: Boris Johnson has already made a huge imprint on British government and politics]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved July 30, 2019.</ref>

Johnson appointed a much more conservative candidate than his predecessor, firing over half of May's cabinet in the largest purge in British history, and with cabinet positions going to MPs open to a "no-deal" Brexit.<ref>Multiple references:
*Cooper, Charlie; Dickson, Annabelle; Casalicchio, Emilio (July 24, 2019). [https://www.politico.eu/article/boris-johnson-day-1-revolution-brexit/ Boris Johnson’s Day 1 revolution]. ''Politico''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Hutton, Robert (July 24, 2019). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-24/boris-johnson-has-put-the-old-brexit-gang-back-together-again Boris Johnson Has Put the Old Brexit Gang Back Together Again]. ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
* https://www.ft.com/content/7999d570-ae17-11e9-8030-530adfa879c2
*Staunton, Denis (July 24, 2019). [https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/boris-johnson-all-smiles-amid-biggest-cabinet-bloodbath-in-british-history-1.3966401 Boris Johnson all smiles amid biggest cabinet bloodbath in British history]. ''The Irish Times''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Stewart, Heather; Mason, Rowena (July 24, 2019). [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jul/24/boris-johnson-takes-his-revenge-and-sacks-over-half-the-cabinet Boris Johnson takes his revenge and sacks over half the cabinet]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (July 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/24/prime-minister-johnson-clears-out-cabinet-makes-fresh-appointments/ Prime Minister Johnson Purges Hardline Remainers from Cabinet, Prepares to Deliver Brexit in 99 Days’ Time]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Morales, Alex; Mayes, Joe; Donaldson, Kitty (July 24, 2019). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-24/the-great-purge-johnson-culls-cabinet-to-make-his-brexit-mark The Great Purge: Boris Johnson Culls Cabinet to Make His Brexit Mark]. ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Rayner, Gordon; Yorke, Harry; Bennett, Asa; Rothwell, James (July 24, 2019). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/07/24/boris-johnson-prime-minister-new-cabinet-latest-news-speech/ Boris Johnson promotes Brexit loyalists in biggest Cabinet cull in 60 years]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-reesmogg/uk-pm-johnson-appoints-rees-mogg-as-leader-of-the-house-of-commons-idUSKCN1UJ31I UK PM Johnson appoints Rees-Mogg as leader of the House of Commons]. ''Reuters''. July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Delingpole, James (July 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/25/boriss-brexit-cabinet-is-achingly-sound/ Delingpole: Boris’s Brexit Cabinet Is the Soundest Since Margaret Thatcher]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
List of cabinet members:
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49043973 Prime Minister Boris Johnson: Who's in his cabinet?] ''BBC News''. July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-cabinet-factbox/factbox-who-has-uk-pm-johnson-appointed-to-his-cabinet-idUSKCN1UJ2MH Factbox: Who has UK PM Johnson appointed to his cabinet?] ''Reuters''. July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
See also:
*Rogan, Tom (July 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/boris-johnson-just-cleaned-house-in-the-uk-and-his-new-cabinet-is-far-more-conservative Boris Johnson just cleaned house in the UK, and his new Cabinet is far more conservative]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (July 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/24/johnson-to-assemble-brexiteer-cabinet-that-reflects-modern-britain/ Johnson to Assemble Brexiteer Cabinet that Reflects ‘Modern Britain’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.</ref> He also appointed strongly pro-Brexit individuals to other administration positions.<ref>Multiple references:
*Delingpole, James (July 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/24/boris-appoints-brexit-axeman-tackle-deep-state/ Delingpole: Boris Appoints Brexit Mastermind Cummings to Drain the Swamp]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (July 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/17/pm-in-waiting-boris-johnson-appoints-brexit-hardliner-as-senior-advisor/ PM-in-Waiting Boris Johnson Appoints Brexit Hardliner as Senior Advisor]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth (July 24, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-cummings/architect-of-brexit-campaign-becomes-adviser-to-new-uk-pm-johnson-idUSKCN1UJ0XU Architect of Brexit campaign becomes adviser to new UK PM Johnson]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Corse, Alexa (July 26, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-turns-to-maverick-brexit-architect-to-deliver-eu-split-11564133799 Boris Johnson Turns to Maverick Brexit Architect to Deliver EU Split]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49101464 Who is Dominic Cummings?] ''BBC News''. July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref>

Johnson won by a landslide in the [[2019 United Kingdom general election|December 2019 general election]], winning the largest Conservative Party majority since Margaret Thatcher in 1987 and taking longtime Labour-held seats, while the Labour Party received its worst result since 1935.<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (December 13, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/34332-u-k-general-election-boris-johnson-conservatives-and-brexit-claim-historic-victory U.K. General Election: Boris Johnson, Conservatives, and Brexit Claim Historic Victory]. ''The New American''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (December 12, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/12/boris-johnson-new-government-deliver-will-people-brexit/ Boris: Election Has Given Tories a ‘Powerful Mandate to Get Brexit Done’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (December 13, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/13/no-more-miserable-threats-of-a-second-referendum-as-tories-secure-biggest-majority-since-thatcher/ No More ‘Miserable Threats’ of a Second Referendum as Tories Secure Biggest Majority Since Thatcher]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Shaw, Adam (December 13, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/boris-johnson-vows-brexit-jan-31-european-market-surge-buckingham-palace-queen-elizabeth Boris Johnson vows to resolve Brexit by Jan 31st, European markets hit record high after Conservative sweep]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Plackett, Benjamin; Bhatti, Jabeen (December 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/dec/12/boris-johnson-conservatives-win-big-british-electi/ Boris Johnson, Conservatives secure smashing win in British election]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Douglas, Jason (December 13, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/with-u-k-election-win-in-sight-johnson-set-to-best-his-detractors-11576190324 With U.K. Election Win in Hand, Johnson Bests His Detractors]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Hannon, Paul (December 13, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/after-thumping-victory-boris-johnson-focuses-on-swift-brexit-boost-to-public-spending-11576236384 After Thumping Victory, Boris Johnson Focuses on Swift Brexit, Boost to Public Spending]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica; Corder, Mike (December 13, 2019). [https://apnews.com/f972f14e0fdaf579c43dd3e2ea36bfd4 UK’s Johnson claims Brexit mandate as Tories secure majority]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Milliken, David; Schomberg, William (December 13, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-election/johnson-election-victory-propels-britain-toward-swift-brexit-idUSKBN1YH18O Johnson election victory propels Britain toward swift Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Faulconbridge, Guy; James, William (December 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-election-exit-poll/britain-speeds-towards-brexit-as-johnson-wins-large-majority-in-election-idUSKBN1YG2NZ Britain speeds towards Brexit as Johnson wins large majority in election]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (December 12, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/12/world/europe/uk-election-boris-johnson.html Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: ‘Brexit Will Happen’]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ; Montgomery, Jack (December 12, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/12/britain-votes-breitbart-london-election-night-2019-live-wire/ Britain Votes: Breitbart London Election Night 2019 Live Wire]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Young, Sarah; Bruce, Andy (December 13, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-election/brexit-closure-johnson-wins-commanding-victory-in-uk-election-idUSKBN1YH18G 'Brexit closure' - Johnson wins commanding victory in UK election]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Tapsfield, James; Maidment, Jack (December 12, 2019). [https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-7786809/Exit-poll-shows-Boris-Johnson-track-WIN-crucial-election.html 'We have created an earthquake': Boris Johnson hails his massive Brexit mandate as election results put Tories on track for EIGHTY majority - while Jeremy Corbyn announces he is on way out after worst Labour result since 1935]. ''Daily Mail''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
See also:
*Tomlinson, Chris (December 12, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/12/uk-election-conservatives-take-seat-held-by-labour-for-nearly-70-years/ UK Election: Conservatives Take Seat Held By Labour For Nearly 70 Years]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Delingpole, James (December 13, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/13/rejoice-rejoice-britain-just-dodged-the-marxist-bullet/ Delingpole: Rejoice! Rejoice! Britain Just Dodged the Marxist Bullet!] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Hookway, James (December 13, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-u-k-as-elsewhere-many-blue-collar-voters-are-switching-allegiances-11576205499 In U.K. as Elsewhere, Many Blue-Collar Voters Are Switching Allegiances]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (December 13, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/13/collapse-red-wall-labour-voters-backed-conservatives/ Collapse of the Red Wall: Labour Voters Back Conservatives in Revolt Against the Elites]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Evans, Simon; Roe, Emily G (December 13, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-election-burnley/labour-partys-red-wall-across-england-falls-as-voters-clamor-for-brexit-idUSKBN1YH1DU Labour Party's Red Wall across England falls as voters clamor for Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Corder, Mike (December 13, 2019). [https://apnews.com/b2a8d3e24603609ab17868231b46e975 Key takeaways from Boris Johnson’s sweeping election victory]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill (December 13, 2019). [https://apnews.com/41360172184354db5ef52c0631ebc73b From punchline to political star: the rise of Boris Johnson]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Katz, Gregory (December 13, 2019). [https://apnews.com/34d660d3c45dcd657a1578764ac7b842 Johnson victory means Brexit is coming, tough talks loom]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth (December 13, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-election-strategy-insight/how-boris-johnsons-election-gamble-paid-off-idUSKBN1YH0K3 How Boris Johnson’s election gamble paid off]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*MacAskill, Andrew (December 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-election-remain/the-dream-is-dead-johnson-election-triumph-breaks-uk-remainer-hearts-idUSKBN1YH0B4 The dream is dead: Johnson election triumph breaks UK 'remainer' hearts]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Montgomery, Jack (December 13, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/13/boris-time-brexit-closure-let-healing-begin/ Boris: Time for Brexit ‘Closure’ – ‘Let the Healing Begin’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Fidler, Stephen; Seib, Gerald F. (December 13, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-joins-trump-in-redefining-conservatism-11576277776 Boris Johnson Joins Trump in Redefining Conservatism]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Van Maren, Jonathon (December 13, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/blogs/brexit-go-ahead-and-death-of-anti-semitism-good-news-out-of-uk-elections Brexit go-ahead and death of anti-Semitism: Good news out of UK elections]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
*Webster, Ashley (December 14, 2019). [https://www.foxbusiness.com/politics/boris-johnson-uk-win-makes-him-captialist-king Boris Johnson's UK win makes him capitalist king]. ''Fox Business''. Retrieved December 14, 2019.
*Juan, Jovi; French, Jason (December 13, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/graphics/how-the-conservatives-won/ How the Conservatives Won]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 14, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (December 15, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/15/how-corbyn-red-wall-crumbled-uk-election-maps/ How Corbyn’s Red Wall Crumbled: The UK Election in Maps]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
*Allen, Mike (December 14, 2019). [https://www.axios.com/boris-johnson-brexit-britain-cc46e9f3-bd50-413b-b74e-ec78a4d33edf.html Britain remade by Boris Johnson]. ''Axios''. Retrieved December 14, 2019.
*[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/general-election-results-2019-maps-breakdown-constituency/ Election Result – Conservatives win historic majority]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
*Blond, Phillip (December 13, 2019). [https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2019/12/boriss-red-tory-victory Boris's Red Tory Victory]. ''First Things''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
*Goodwin, Matthew (December 12, 2019). [https://unherd.com/2019/12/time-for-boris-johnson-to-show-his-true-colours/ Time for Boris Johnson to show his true colours]. ''Unherd''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
*Sullivan, Andrew (December 13, 2019). [http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/12/andrew-sullivan-boris-johnsons-winning-formula.html Boris Johnson Is Showing Western Politicians How to Win]. ''New York Magazine''. Retrieved December 15, 2019.
*Barone, Michael (December 16, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/boris-johnsons-revolution Boris Johnson's revolution]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved December 16, 2019.
*Chorley, Matt (December 17, 2019). [https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/news/general-election-results-working-class-switched-to-tories-kfwptc6cr General election results: Working class switched to Tories]. ''The Times''. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
*Duke, Selwyn (December 18, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/34381-lifelong-labour-voter-explains-conservatives-victory-libs-are-killing-our-culture Lifelong Labour Voter Explains Conservatives’ Victory: Libs Are Killing Our Culture]. ''The New American''. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
*Goodwin, Matthew (December 15, 2019). [https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/blue-collar-and-true-blue-the-audacious-boris-johnson-alliance-7tpjbpgmj Blue collar and true blue, the audacious Boris Johnson alliance]. ''The Times''. Retrieved December 22, 2019.
*Handa, Sahil (January 2, 2020). [https://www.nationalreview.com/2020/01/boris-johnson-election-victory-political-realignment-western-democracies/ Boris Johnson’s Victory and the Political Realignment Shaking Western Democracies]. ''National Review''. Retrieved January 5, 2020.</ref>

===Brexit===
Immediately upon becoming Prime Minister, Johnson took a tough stance on Brexit, promising to fulfill the 2016 referendum result.<ref>Multiple references:
*Faulconbridge, Guy; Piper, Elizabeth (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader/britains-new-leader-johnson-we-are-going-to-get-brexit-done-idUSKCN1UH2JQ Britain's new leader Johnson: 'We are going to get Brexit done']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (July 25, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-talks-tough-on-brexit-in-combative-first-speech-11564061650 Boris Johnson Talks Tough on Brexit in Combative First Speech]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*Faulconbridge, Guy; MacLellan, Kylie (July 25, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu/ill-make-britain-great-again-pm-johnson-echoes-trump-over-brexit-idUSKCN1UK0OI I'll make Britain great again, PM Johnson echoes Trump over Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (July 25, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/a6eb435cefad4679b995e78470c5a550 Showdown looms as new British PM wants to redo Brexit deal]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref> His government stated it would not pay any "divorce bill" to the EU in the case of a "no-deal" Brexit,<ref>Friedman, Victoria (July 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/25/new-boris-govt-confirms-uk-wont-pay-39bn-brussels-no-deal-brexit/ New Boris Govt Confirms UK Won’t Pay £39bn to Brussels in No-Deal Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref> and Johnson stated he would push to adopt an independent trade policy and not nominate an EU commissioner.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-commission/british-pm-johnson-unveils-new-approach-no-uk-commissioner-to-eu-idUSKCN1UK1GC British PM Johnson unveils 'new approach', no UK commissioner to EU]. ''Reuters''. July 25, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref>

Johnson immediately put his cabinet to work preparing for a "no-deal" Brexit,<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (July 29, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/29/johnson-sets-up-brexit-war-cabinet-no-deal-preparation-number-one-priority/ Johnson Sets up Brexit ‘War Cabinet’, No Deal Preparation ‘Number One Priority’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 29, 2019.
*Shipman, Tim (July 28, 2019). [https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/news/boris-johnson-vows-no-deal-brexit-by-any-means-necessary-55tjljkfw Boris Johnson vows no‑deal Brexit ‘by any means necessary’]. ''The Times''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
*Falconer, Rebecca (July 28, 2019). [https://www.axios.com/boris-johnson-brexit-no-deal-war-cabinet-1bf3d0b3-18e3-427e-b4c5-c506b31fad12.html Boris Johnson forms "war cabinet" to prepare for no-deal Brexit]. ''Axios''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
*MacLennan, Kylie (July 28, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/assuming-eu-will-not-budge-britain-ramps-up-preparations-for-no-deal-brexit-idUSKCN1UN08Q Assuming EU will not budge, Britain ramps up preparations for no-deal Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
See also:
*Montgomery, Jack (July 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/28/chancellor-javid-treasury-turbocharging-preparations-no-deal-brexit/ Chancellor Javid: Treasury ‘Turbocharging Preparations’ for No Deal Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
*Malnick, Edward (July 27, 2019). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/07/27/sajid-javids-brexit-blitz-prepare-no-deal/ Sajid Javid to announce Brexit spending blitz to prepare for no deal]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
* https://www.ft.com/content/5c65e0e4-b118-11e9-bec9-fdcab53d6959
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-javid/uks-javid-to-ramp-up-funding-for-no-deal-brexit-preparations-paper-idUSKCN1UM0O9 UK's Javid to ramp up funding for no-deal Brexit preparations: paper]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
*James, William (August 9, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-johnson/no-deal-brexit-preparation-is-top-priority-johnson-tells-officials-idUSKCN1UZ1I3 No-deal Brexit preparation is top priority, Johnson tells officials]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 9, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (August 10, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/10/johnson-tells-civil-servants-preparing-no-deal-brexit-top-priority/ Johnson Tells Civil Servants to Make Preparing for No-Deal Brexit ‘Top Priority’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (September 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/02/govt-prepares-no-deal-brexit-get-ready-campaign/ Johnson Govt Prepares for No Deal Brexit with ‘Get Ready’ Campaign]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 2, 2019.</ref> and he stated he would refuse to negotiate with the EU unless it dropped its Irish backstop demand.<ref>Friedman, Victoria (July 29, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/29/johnson-plays-hardball-wont-meet-with-eu-until-they-remove-backstop/ Johnson Plays Hardball, Won’t Meet with EU Until They Remove Backstop]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 29, 2019. See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (August 15, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/15/johnson-accuses-remainer-mps-collaborating-eu-stop-brexit/ Boris Accuses Remainer MPs of ‘Collaborating’ with EU to Stop Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 15, 2019.</ref> Very early in Johnson's tenure, his government doubled the amount of money devoted to preparing for a "no-deal" Brexit,<ref>Multiple references:
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/business-49183324 No-deal Brexit plans to get £2.1bn boost]. ''BBC News''. July 31, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2019.
*MacAskill, Andrew (July 31, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-javid/britain-to-spend-an-extra-2-1-billion-on-no-deal-brexit-planning-idUSKCN1UQ2RR Britain to spend an extra £2.1 billion on no-deal Brexit planning]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 1, 2019.
See also:
*Piper, Elizabeth (August 4, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/after-brexit-pledges-british-pm-johnson-announces-cash-injection-for-health-idUSKCN1UU0OF After Brexit pledges, British PM Johnson announces cash injection for health]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 4, 2019.</ref> and his treasury minister announced a one-year spending review to help the government prepare for a "no-deal" Brexit.<ref>Markham, Joe (August 9, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/09/chancellor-announces-special-spending-review-to-prepare-for-brexit/ Chancellor Announces Special Spending Review to Prepare for Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 9, 2019.</ref> The government announced that in the event of a "no-deal" Brexit, it would end its adherence to the EU's "freedom of movement" rules.<ref>Multiple references:
*Markham, Joe (August 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/19/home-secretary-to-end-free-movement-on-october-31st/ Patel: UK Government to End Free Migration Regime on Brexit Day]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
*MacLellan, Kylie (August 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-immigration/uk-plans-to-end-eu-freedom-of-movement-immediately-in-no-deal-brexit-idUSKCN1V91IN UK plans to end EU freedom of movement immediately in no-deal Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 19, 2019.</ref> Johnson voiced confidence and patriotism in his country.<ref>Friedman, Victoria (August 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/26/johnson-uk-great-country-can-easily-cope-no-deal-brexit/ Johnson: UK Is a ‘Great Country’ and Can ‘Easily Cope’ with No Deal Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 26, 2019.</ref> However, regarding the Brexit agreement with the EU, Johnson only called for the EU to remove the Northern Ireland backstop in order for him to accept it, angering Brexit supporters.<ref>Friedman, Victoria (August 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/28/johnson-faces-brexiteer-backlash-only-seeking-changes-backstop/ Johnson Faces Brexiteer Backlash over Only Seeking Changes to the Backstop]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.</ref> In August 2019, the EU appeared to take a softer stance on renegotiating the Brexit agreement, but this public stance was actually a way to deflect blame in the event of a no-deal Brexit.<ref>Baczynska, Gabriela (August 28, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-diplomacy-analysis/eus-softer-tone-a-ploy-to-sidestep-blame-in-case-of-a-no-deal-brexit-idUSKCN1VI1ZP EU's softer tone a ploy to sidestep blame in case of a no-deal Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.</ref>

In August 2019, Johnson's government announced it would stop sending its officials to most EU meetings.<ref>Multiple references:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-meetings/britain-to-unshackle-officials-from-most-eu-meetings-ahead-of-brexit-idUSKCN1VA1GH Britain to 'unshackle' officials from most EU meetings ahead of Brexit]. ''Reuters''. August 20, 2019. Retrieved August 20, 2019.
*Dickson, Annabelle (August 20, 2019). [https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-officials-to-withdraw-from-eu-meetings-from-september-1/ UK officials to withdraw from EU meetings from September 1]. ''Politico''. Retrieved August 20, 2019.</ref>

On August 28, 2019, Johnson announced he would ask the queen to suspend parliament as Brexit Day approached.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (August 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/28/british-government-to-suspend-parliament-for-five-weeks-outraging-anti-brexit-rebels/ British Government to Suspend Parliament For Five Weeks, Outraging Anti-Brexit Rebels]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Colchester, Max (August 28, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-s-johnson-to-ask-queen-to-suspend-parliament-making-no-deal-brexit-more-likely-11566985097 Boris Johnson Moves to Suspend Parliament, Making No-Deal Brexit More Likely]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Darrah, Nicole (August 28, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnson-queen-suspend-parliament-brexit Boris Johnson asks queen to suspend Parliament to push through no-deal Brexit]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Rodrigo, Chris Mills (August 28, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/459076-johnson-asking-for-suspension-of-uk-parliament-to-push-through-brexit Johnson asks Queen to suspend UK Parliament ahead of Brexit deadline]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Murphy, James (August 28, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/33261-boris-johnson-plays-queen-card-monarch-agrees-to-shut-down-parliament-ahead-of-brexit Boris Johnson Plays Queen Card: Monarch Agrees to Shut Down Parliament Ahead of Brexit]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (August 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/28/tin-pot-dictator-remainers-melt-down-over-bojo-suspending-parliament/ ‘Tin Pot Dictator’: Remainers Melt down over BoJo Suspending Parliament]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Axelrod, Tal (August 28, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/459108-queen-agrees-to-suspend-parliament-as-johnson-seeks-to-deter-no Queen agrees to suspend UK Parliament as Johnson seeks to deter no-deal Brexit showdown]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (August 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/28/its-official-suspension-of-uk-parliament-approved-by-queen-elizabeth-ii/ It’s Official: Suspension of UK Parliament Approved by Queen Elizabeth II]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Campisi, Jessica (September 10, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/460642-johnson-suspends-uk-parliament-in-brexit-push Johnson suspends UK Parliament in Brexit push]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved September 10, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill (September 10, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/1673b60fcc264a4ebaea2d08bb0bb05f Johnson suspends UK Parliament after latest Brexit defeat]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved September 10, 2019.</ref> He threatened to expel any Tory MP who voted to delay or block Brexit.<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (September 2, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/33296-boris-johnson-threatens-to-purge-tory-rebels-unless-they-get-on-board-his-brexit-train Boris Johnson Threatens to Purge Tory Rebels Unless They get on Board his Brexit Train]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 3, 2019.
*Montgomery, Jack (September 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/02/ultimatum-tory-remain-mps-be-kicked-out-party-back-brexit-delay/ Ultimatum: Tory Remain MPs to Be Kicked Out of Party If They Back Brexit Delay]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 2, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (September 2, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brexit-battle-lines-harden-as-lawmakers-prepare-for-parliamentary-showdown-11567432609 U.K.’s Johnson Brandishes Election in Bid to Stop Parliament From Foiling Brexit]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 2, 2019.</ref> Parliament voted to block a no-deal Brexit and Johnson followed through on his threat.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/04/bojo-purges-party-of-anti-brexit-rebel-former-ministers/ BoJo Purges Party of Anti-Brexit Rebel Former Ministers]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
*[https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/04/brexit-delay-bill-passes-commons-johnson-tables-motion-election/ Brexit Delay Bill Passes in Commons, Johnson Tables Motion for Election]. ''Breitbart News'' (from the ''Associated Press''). September 4, 2019. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
See also:
*Delingpole, James (September 6, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/06/boris-has-drained-the-swamp-saved-the-conservatives/ Delingpole: Rejoice! Rejoice! Boris Johnson Has Drained the Swamp and Saved the Conservatives]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 6, 2019.</ref> While calling for a new election for two years, the Labor Party suddenly opposed holding a new election after Johnson announced his support for it.<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (September 5, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/33342-as-the-uk-turns-more-brexit-drama-delay-and-dithering-in-british-parliament As the U.K. Turns: More Brexit Drama, Delay, and Dithering in British Parliament]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/04/would-turkeys-vote-for-christmas-why-mps-will-resist-boris-johnsons-snap-election/ Would Turkeys Vote For Christmas? Why MPs Will Resist Boris Johnson’s Snap Election]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 4, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/04/after-years-of-demanding-an-election-labours-corbyn-refuses-vote-offered-by-boris-johnson/ After Years of Demanding an Election, Labour’s Corbyn Refuses Vote Offered by Boris Johnson]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
*Douglas, Jason (September 4, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-lawmakers-seek-to-delay-brexit-again-dealing-johnson-another-blow-11567602853 U.K. Lawmakers Foil Johnson With Votes to Delay Brexit and Bar Snap Election]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (September 4, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/3539dba87ab343a8a7252bb0387addc3 Johnson’s Brexit plans in crisis after 3rd defeat in 2 days]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved September 4, 2019.</ref> Johnson continued voicing support for achieving Brexit,<ref>Multiple references:
*Lovell, Hunter (September 5, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/boris-johnson-on-delaying-brexit-id-rather-be-dead-in-a-ditch Boris Johnson on delaying Brexit: 'I'd rather be dead in a ditch']. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
*Hannon, Paul; Douglas, Jason (September 9, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-insists-he-wants-a-brexit-deal-despite-no-deal-planning-11568037248 Boris Johnson Vows Oct. 31 Brexit as Law Rules Out No Deal, Election Bid Fails]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
*James, William; MacLellan, Kylie (September 9, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/british-pm-johnson-tells-parliament-you-can-tie-my-hands-but-i-will-not-delay-brexit-idUSKCN1VU0PH British PM Johnson tells parliament: You can tie my hands, but I will not delay Brexit]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (September 16, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/16/pm-johnson-stands-brexit-date-ahead-meeting-top-eurocrat/ PM Johnson Stands by Exit Date Ahead of Meeting with Top Eurocrat, Condemns MPs ‘Trying to Crush Brexit’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 16, 2019.</ref> and he refused to request a Brexit extension from the EU.<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (September 7, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/07/defiant-johnson-will-not-ask-eu-brexit-delay-remainers-ready-take-pm-court/ Defiant Johnson ‘Will Not’ Ask EU for Brexit Delay, Remainers Ready to Take PM to Court]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth (September 8, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/sticking-to-brexit-plan-uks-johnson-will-not-seek-a-delay-idUSKCN1VT0BS Sticking to Brexit plan, UK's Johnson will not seek a delay]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved September 8, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 9, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/09/future-of-october-31st-brexit-in-doubt-as-parliament-attempts-to-force-three-month-delay/ Future of October 31st Brexit In Doubt As Parliament Attempts to Force Three Month Delay]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
See also:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 9, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/09/parliament-votes-against-early-election-as-pm-boris-reaffirms-he-will-not-seek-brexit-extension/ Parliament Votes Against Early Election as PM Boris Reaffirms He Will Not Seek Brexit Extension]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 9, 2019.</ref> The UK Supreme Court, however, ruled against Johnson's parliamentary suspension on September 24, 2019.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/24/boris-johnson-suspended-parliament-unlawfully-uk-supreme-court-finds/ Boris Johnson Suspended Parliament Unlawfully, UK Supreme Court Finds]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Wallace, Danielle (September 24, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnsons-suspension-of-parliament-ruled-unlawful-by-uk-supreme-court Boris Johnson's suspension of Parliament ruled unlawful by UK Supreme Court]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Douglas, Jason; Fidler, Stephen (September 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-court-rules-against-johnsons-freeze-on-parliament-11569318257 Boris Johnson Acted Illegally in Suspending Parliament, U.K.’s Highest Court Rules]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (September 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/24/farage-prorogation-worst-political-decision-ever-reactions-supreme-court-ruling/ Farage Calls Prorogation ‘Worst Political Decision Ever’: Reactions to Supreme Court Ruling]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Delingpole, James (September 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/24/supreme-court-enemies-of-the-people-sabotage-brexit/ Delingpole: Judicial Enemies of the People Sabotage Brexit Again]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Delingpole, James (September 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/24/a-sinister-shadow-government-is-killing-brexit/ Delingpole: A Sinister, Nebulous Shadow Government Is Holding Brexit Hostage]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Hannan, Dan (September 26, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/boris-brexit-and-the-politicization-of-britains-judiciary Boris, Brexit and the politicization of Britain's judiciary]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved September 27, 2019.
Johnson's response after Parliament reconvened:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/25/bojo-throws-down-gauntlet-fight-election-or-ill-deliver-brexit/ PM Bojo Throws Down the Gauntlet to Remainers: Challenge me in an Election or I’ll Deliver Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 25, 2019.
*Colchester, Max (September 25, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/british-leader-goads-rivals-to-end-his-rule-call-new-vote-11569443576 British Leader Goads Rivals to End His Rule, Call New Vote]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 25, 2019.</ref>

Despite pushing for Brexit, Johnson made the mistake of publicly disavowing and insulting [[Nigel Farage]] when he proposed forming an electoral coalition – and incident which illustrated that Johnson was not a political conservative.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (September 11, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/11/embattled-boris-slaps-down-farages-offer-of-help-not-fit-and-proper-persons/ Embattled Boris Slaps Down Farage’s Offer of Help: ‘Not Fit and Proper Persons’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 11, 2019.
*Faulconbridge, Guy; James, William (September 11, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-farage/uk-pm-johnson-rules-out-farage-deal-despite-warning-of-electoral-kicking-idUSKCN1VW12Q UK PM Johnson rules out Farage deal despite warning of electoral 'kicking']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved September 11, 2019.
Later comments:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-johnson-farage/pm-johnson-says-no-to-election-pact-with-brexit-party-idUSKBN1W82N1 PM Johnson says no to election pact with Brexit Party]. ''Reuters''. September 23, 2019. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Casalicchio, Emilio (September 23, 2019). [https://www.politico.eu/article/johnson-rejects-uk-election-pact-with-nigel-farage/ Johnson rejects UK election pact with Nigel Farage]. ''Politico''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Montgomery, Jack; Lane, Oliver JJ (September 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/24/boris-refuses-farages-offer-of-an-electoral-pact-to-deliver-brexit/ Boris Refuses Farage’s Offer of an Electoral Pact to Deliver Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
See also:
*Delingpole, James (September 11, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/11/boris-johnson-should-not-be-attacking-nigel-farage/ Delingpole: Boris Attacking Farage Is a Foolish, Unforced Error]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 11, 2019.
*Fridman, Victoria (September 13, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/09/13/spartans-call-johnson-reverse-rejection-farage-election-pact/ Brexit Spartans Call for Johnson to Reverse Rejection of Farage Election Pact]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 13, 2019.</ref>

Johnson announced a revised Brexit deal proposal on October 2, 2019.<ref>Multiple references:
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (October 2, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnson-announces-last-ditch-brexit-proposal-11570014506 Boris Johnson Makes Last-Ditch Brexit Bid to EU]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (October 2, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/04a5ab581a1747528024e94285b29c95 Boris Johnson: UK is offering Brexit ‘compromise’ to EU]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth; James, William; MacLellan, Kylie (October 1, 2019). [hhttps://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu/pm-johnson-makes-final-brexit-offer-draws-guarded-welcome-from-eu-idUSKBN1WG4S8 PM Johnson makes final Brexit offer, draws guarded welcome from EU]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (October 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/02/eu-rejects-boriss-politically-unacceptable-final-brexit-offer/ Europeans Reject Boris’s Politically ‘Unacceptable’ Final Brexit Offer]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-nireland/dup-deputy-leader-says-ireland-reaction-shows-backstop-a-trap-idUSKBN1WI1X7 DUP deputy leader says Ireland reaction shows backstop a trap]. ''Reuters''. October 3, 2019. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
*Zindulka, Kurt (October 14, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/14/lets-finish-this-off-boris-pitches-take-leave-last-ditch-brexit-deal/ ‘Let’s Finish This off’: Boris Pitches a Take it or Leave it, Last Ditch Brexit Deal]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 14, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (October 22, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/22/boris-deal-uk-remains-subject-eu-court-rulings-brexit/ Boris Deal Means UK Subject to EU Court Rulings up to 3 Years After Brexit]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 22, 2019.
*Gomez, Christian (October 22, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/33814-problems-with-boris-johnson-s-brexit-mirror-those-of-usmca Problems With Boris Johnson’s “Brexit” Mirror Those of USMCA]. ''The New American''. Retrieved October 22, 2019.</ref> On October 17, 2019, Johnson announced he had reached an agreement with the EU.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bydryk, Zack (October 17, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/466223-boris-johnson-says-brexit-deal-between-uk-eu-reached Boris Johnson says Brexit deal between UK, EU reached]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (October 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/17/weve-got-great-new-deal-brexit-treat-agreed-uk-eu/ ‘We’ve Got a Great New Deal’: Brexit Treaty Agreed by Boris Johnson and EU]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Darrah, Nicole (October 17, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/brexit-breakthrough-boris-johnson-deal-eu-vote Brexit breakthrough: Boris Johnson agrees 'great new deal' with EU; British MPs to vote Saturday]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Halaschak, Zachary (October 17, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/weve-got-a-great-deal-uk-and-eu-agree-to-brexit-deal 'We’ve got a great deal': UK and EU agree to Brexit deal]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Norman, Laurence; Colchester, Max (October 17, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brexit-talks-are-dealt-a-blow-as-northern-irish-party-rejects-draft-11571294766 U.K., EU Agree on Draft Brexit Deal, Paving Way for Key Vote]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Casert, Raf; Lawless, Jill (October 17, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/e28aa5a31bc74a84844e7277821cf9b8 UK, EU reach tentative Brexit deal; still needs ratification]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth; Chalmers, John (October 17, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/britain-clinches-brexit-deal-johnson-now-faces-parliament-hurdle-idUSKBN1WW13M Britain clinches Brexit deal, Johnson now faces parliament hurdle]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
See also:
*Milliken, David; John, Mark (October 17, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-economy/uk-heading-for-fairly-hard-brexit-if-johnson-deal-passes-idUSKBN1WW2BO UK heading for 'fairly hard' Brexit if Johnson deal passes]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Herszenhorn, David M.; Barigazzi, Jacopo; Von der Burchard, Hans (October 17, 2019). [https://www.politico.eu/article/concessions-eu-led-brexit-deal/ 3 concessions by the EU that led to a Brexit deal]. ''Politico''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.</ref> The conservative Northern Irish [[Democratic Unionist Party]] announced it would oppose the proposed agreement,<ref>Multiple references:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-dup-statement-text/northern-irelands-dup-party-wont-support-new-brexit-deal-idUSKBN1WW1RA Northern Ireland's DUP party won't support new Brexit deal]. ''Reuters''. October 17, 2019. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-letwin-dup/northern-irelands-dup-say-they-will-use-every-strategy-to-seek-changes-to-brexit-deal-idUSKBN1WY0BZ Northern Ireland's DUP say they will use every strategy to seek changes to Brexit deal]. ''Reuters''. October 19, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.</ref><ref name="PaisleyFarage">Lane, Oliver JJ; Montgomery, Jack (October 19, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/19/no-surrender-ian-paisley-nigel-farage-denounce-boriss-brexit-deal/ ‘No Surrender’ – Ian Paisley, Nigel Farage Denounce Boris’s Brexit Deal]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.</ref> and [[Brexit Party]] leader [[Nigel Farage]] also criticized it.<ref name="PaisleyFarage"/><ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (October 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/17/brexit-deal-reaction-not-brexit-farage-dup/ Farage Says New Deal Is ‘Just Not Brexit’ as DUP Says It Won’t Support It]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
*Friedman, Victoria (October 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/24/farage-treaty-not-brexit-urges-boris-drop-deal-partnership/ Farage Says Treaty ‘Is Not Brexit’, Tells Boris to Drop Deal and Agree Election Pact]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 24, 2019.</ref> On October 19, 2019, the House of Commons voted to delay the vote on the agreement and to delay Brexit if the agreement did not pass.<ref>Multiple references:
*Shaw, Adam (October 19, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/brexit-delay-vote-derailed Brexit vote derailed at last minute by rebel lawmakers; Boris Johnson pledges not to negotiate a delay]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Becker, Carlin (October 19, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/brexit-deal-on-hold-as-uk-parliament-votes-to-withhold-full-approval Anti-Brexit forces block UK Parliament vote on Boris Johnson deal with EU]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (October 19, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-parliament-poised-to-force-delay-on-critical-brexit-vote-11571484241 U.K. Parliament Defers Critical Vote, Likely Forcing Brexit Delay]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Corder, Mike (October 19, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/1e0eeb157ec143b48cdcc1d6860ae493 UK lawmakers vote to delay final Brexit decision again]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50110601 Brexit: Johnson vows to press on despite defeat over deal delay]. ''BBC News''. October 19, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*James, William, Piper, Elizabeth; MacLellan, Kylie (October 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/johnson-defiant-after-british-parliament-votes-to-force-brexit-delay-idUSKBN1WX2M2 Johnson defiant after British parliament votes to force Brexit delay]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Frazin, Rachel (October 19, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/466573-british-parliament-passes-amendment-to-delay-brexit-decision British Parliament passes amendment to delay Brexit decision]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.</ref> Later in the day, Johnson requested a Brexit extension despite promising not to take such an action.<ref>Multiple references:
*Montgomery, Jack (October 20, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/20/boris-sends-eu-letters-one-asking-for-brexit-delay-one-saying-he-doesnt-want-one/ Boris Sends EU Letters: One Asking for Brexit Delay, One Saying He Doesn’t Want One]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
*Bowden, John (October 19, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/466599-uks-boris-johnson-reverses-requests-extension-of-brexit-deadline U.K.'s Boris Johnson reverses, requests extension of Brexit deadline]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Colchester, Max (October 19, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-parliament-poised-to-force-delay-on-critical-brexit-vote-11571484241 British Government Asks for EU Delay Amid Johnson Resistance]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Casert, Raf (October 19, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/1e0eeb157ec143b48cdcc1d6860ae493 UK’s Johnson asks for Brexit delay, but argues against it]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth (October 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu/uk-pm-sends-unsigned-letter-to-eu-asking-for-brexit-delay-idUSKBN1WY0Q9 UK PM sends unsigned letter to EU asking for Brexit delay]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
*Corder, Mike; Katz, Gregory (October 20, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/42d3b01c903b4427940edfebd51299e0 UK’s Johnson asks for a Brexit delay that he doesn’t want]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
See also:
*MacLellan, Kylie; Sandle, Paul (October 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/brexit-will-happen-on-october-31-despite-pms-unsigned-delay-request-uk-says-idUSKBN1WY0Q6 Brexit will happen on October 31 despite PM's unsigned delay request, UK says]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 20, 2019.</ref> On October 22, 2019, Parliament voted in favor of the Brexit deal but voted against Johnson's three-day schedule for giving the final approval of the deal.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (October 22, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/22/boris-johnsons-brexit-plan-delayed-as-parliament-votes-against-october-31st-timetable/ Boris Johnson’s Brexit Plan Delayed as Parliament Votes Against October 31st Timetable]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 22, 2019.
*Colchester, Max; Douglas, Jason (October 22, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/boris-johnsons-brexit-deal-clears-vital-hurdle-in-parliament-11571768188 Johnson’s Brexit Deal Clears Hurdle in Parliament but His Timetable Is Rejected]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 22, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (October 22, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/fa378c6a8b5e43c8812115fc8cee3974 Boris Johnson inches toward securing Brexit but delay likely]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 22, 2019.</ref> The EU subsequently granted yet another extension until January 31, 2020.<ref>Multple references:
*[https://www.foxnews.com/world/eu-allows-new-brexit-extension-uk-gets-more-time-to-negotiate-divorce EU allows new Brexit extension, UK gets more time to negotiate divorce]. ''Fox News''. October 28, 2019. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
*Norman, Laurence (October 28, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/eu-extends-brexit-deadline-until-jan-31-11572255175 EU Extends Brexit Deadline Until Jan. 31]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
*Petrequin, Samuel (October 28, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/dd63f54bee064ddda7435778490f4a45 EU grants Brexit delay to Jan. 31; UK ponders new election]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
*Baczynska, Gabriela; James, William (October 28, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/eu-nations-agree-brexit-delay-until-january-31-as-pm-johnson-seeks-election-idUSKBN1X70NT EU nations agree Brexit delay until January 31 as PM Johnson seeks election]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
*Gstalter, Morgan (October 28, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/467686-eu-pushes-brexit-deadline-back-to-jan-31 EU pushes Brexit deadline back to Jan. 31]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
See also:
*Montgomery, Jack (October 28, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/28/bojo-formally-accepts-brexit-delay-begs-eu-not-delay-again-2020/ Boris Formally Accepts Brexit Delay, Begs EU Not to Delay AGAIN in 2020]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 28, 2019.</ref>

On October 29, 2019, on its fourth attempt to do so in two months, the UK Parliament voted to hold an election on December 12.<ref>Multiple references:
*Lane, Oliver JJ (October 29, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/10/29/general-election-2019-parliament-approves-snap-vote-on-fourth-attempt/ General Election 2019: Parliament Approves Snap Vote on Fourth Attempt]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Phillips, Morgan; Shaw, Adam (October 29, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/uk-parliament-agrees-to-dec-12-election-ahead-of-eus-new-brexit-deadline UK Parliament agrees to Dec. 12 election, ahead of EU's new Brexit deadline]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Colchester, Max (October 29, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-opposition-to-back-boris-johnsons-call-for-election-11572347134 U.K. Parliament Authorizes December General Election]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Lawless, Jill; Kirka, Danica (October 29, 2019). [https://apnews.com/5ff4178638ac407c8dfe5597f81b6c36 Brexit ballot: UK lawmakers back December 12 election]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Faulconbridge, Guy; Piper, Elizabeth; James, William (October 29, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/britain-set-for-december-12-election-to-break-the-brexit-deadlock-idUSKBN1X80QN Britain set for December 12 election to break the Brexit deadlock]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.</ref> Johnson rejected the possibility of a "no-deal" in his election manifesto.<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (November 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/11/02/tory-manifesto-drop-no-deal-brexit-boris-blocks-farage-pact/ Conservative Election Manifesto Will Drop ‘Threat’ of No-Deal Brexit, Boris Blocks Farage Pact]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
*Smout, Alistair; Melville, Toby (November 2, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-election/pm-johnson-rejects-calls-for-no-deal-brexit-in-election-pitch-idUSKBN1XC050 UK PM Johnson rejects calls for no-deal Brexit in election pitch]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (November 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/11/02/brexit-party-tories-deliberately-misrepresenting-our-peace-offering/ Brexit Party: Tories ‘Deliberately Misrepresenting’ Our Peace Offering]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
*Davies, Andrew (November 19, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/nov/19/the-conservatives-plan-to-wreck-brexit-again/ The Conservatives' plan to wreck Brexit again]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved November 19, 2019.</ref> He also apologized for failing to deliver Brexit on time.<ref>Multiple references:
*Katz, Gregory (November 3, 2019). [https://apnews.com/f86ca911ae414f339d344471158da20a UK’s Boris Johnson apologizes for missing Brexit deadline]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
*Coleman, Justin (November 3, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/468741-uk-pm-apologizes-to-tory-party-for-missing-brexit-deadline UK PM apologizes to Tory party for missing Brexit deadline]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved November 3, 2019.</ref>

On December 20, 2019, after winning a significant majority in the House of Commons, Johnson's Brexit agreement passed initial approval by the body.<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (December 20, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/20/boriss-brexit-bill-reportedly-gina-miller-proofed-set-pass-commons/ Boris’s Brexit Bill Reportedly ‘Gina Miller-Proofed’, Clears First Hurdle in Commons]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Colchester, Max (December 20, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/british-parliament-votes-to-support-boris-johnsons-brexit-deal-11576852565 U.K. Parliament Backs Boris Johnson’s Brexit Deal, Clearing Major Hurdle]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*[https://www.theepochtimes.com/uk-on-track-for-jan-31-brexit-as-pm-johnson-wins-vote-on-deal_3180738.html UK on Track for Jan. 31 Brexit as PM Johnson Wins Vote on Deal]. ''The Epoch Times''. December 20, 2019. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth; MacLellan, Kylie (December 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu/uk-on-track-for-january-31-brexit-as-pm-johnson-wins-vote-on-deal-idUSKBN1YN2SS UK on track for January 31 Brexit as PM Johnson wins vote on deal]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Piper, Elizabeth; MacLellan, Kylie (December 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/uk-on-track-for-jan-31-brexit-as-pm-johnson-wins-vote-on-deal-idUSKBN1YN2T5 UK on track for Jan. 31 Brexit as PM Johnson wins vote on deal]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 4, 2020.
*Lawless, Jill (December 20, 2019). [https://apnews.com/bdc908fb0074aaa27443a068cc219724 UK lawmakers OK Johnson’s Brexit bill, pave way to exit EU]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (December 20, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/20/world/europe/brexit-parliament.html U.K. Parliament Advances Brexit Bill in Lopsided Vote, All but Assuring January Exit]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
See also:
*Friedman, Victoria (December 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/25/12-months-brexmas-1-election-2-prime-ministers-3-brexit-delays/ 12 Months of Brexmas: 1 Election, 2 Prime Ministers, 3 Brexit Delays…] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 25, 2019.
*Delingpole, James (December 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/25/delingpole-boris-johnson-and-donald-trump-have-made-christmas-great-again/ Delingpole: Boris Johnson and Donald Trump Have Made Christmas Great Again]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 25, 2019.</ref> On January 9, 2020, the House of Commons gave final approval of the agreement.<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (January 10, 2020). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/34592-brexit-deal-finally-passes-house-of-commons-uk-set-to-leave-the-eu-in-three-weeks Brexit Deal Finally Passes House of Commons; UK Set to Leave the EU in Three Weeks]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 10, 2020.
*Colchester, Max (January 9, 2020). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-lawmakers-approve-brexit-bill-11578591123 U.K. Lawmakers Approve Brexit Bill]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
*Betz, Bradford (January 9, 2020). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/british-lawmakers-approve-brexit-bill British lawmakers approve Johnson's Brexit bill, clearing path for Jan. 31 EU departure]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
*Sheridan, Danielle; Yorke, Harry (January 9, 2020). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2020/01/09/brexit-news-latest-boris-johnson-labour-leadership-keir-starmer/ Brexit news latest: Boris Johnson's Withdrawal Agreement Bill passes final stage in Commons]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
*Coleman, Justine (January 9, 2020). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/477581-uk-lawmakers-agree-on-legislation-to-leave-the-eu-at-the-end-of UK lawmakers agree on legislation to leave EU at end of month]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (January 9, 2020). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2020/01/09/just-1295-days-after-the-referendum-brexit-deal-finally-passes-house-of-commons/ Just 1,295 Days After the Referendum, Brexit Deal Finally Passes House of Commons]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu/uk-lawmakers-back-eu-exit-deal-turning-page-on-brexit-crisis-idUSKBN1Z81EO UK lawmakers back EU exit deal, turning page on Brexit crisis]. ''Reuters''. January 9, 2020. Retrieved January 9, 2020.</ref> The discussion then shifted to post-Brexit trade deal negotiations with the EU.<ref>Norman, Laurence; Fidler, Stephen (January 7, 2020). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/britain-moves-toward-brexit-as-clock-ticks-on-trade-deal-11578402004 Britain Moves Toward Brexit as Clock Ticks on Trade Deal]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 7, 2020.</ref>

===Other issues===
Upon becoming Prime Minister, Johnson advanced tough-on-crime policies, including hiring 20,000 new police officers.<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (July 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/25/johnson-pledges-more-police-stop-search-punishments/ Johnson Pledges More Police, Increased Stop and Search, Harsher Punishments for Violent and Sex Crimes]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-crime/new-uk-pm-johnson-to-begin-hiring-20000-extra-police-officers-idUSKCN1UK34J New UK PM Johnson to begin hiring 20,000 extra police officers]. ''Reuters''. July 25, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
See also:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-johnson-security/uk-pm-backs-stop-and-search-power-says-will-create-10000-more-spaces-in-prisons-idUSKCN1V100W UK PM backs 'stop-and-search' power, says will create 10,000 more spaces in prisons]. ''Reuters''. August 10, 2019. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
*Markham, Joe (August 11, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/08/11/johnson-announces-new-stop-search-powers-police/ Johnson Announces Expanded Police Stop and Search, 20,000 New Officers, 10,000 Extra Prison Places]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
*[https://www.apnews.com/74fd5615a1e642fe80a0912080987417 UK govt boosts prisons, police powers in crime clampdown]. ''Associated Press''. August 11, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-johnson/uk-pm-johnson-orders-sentencing-review-for-dangerous-offenders-idUSKCN1V10LW UK PM Johnson orders sentencing review for dangerous offenders]. ''Reuters''. August 11, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.</ref> However, he also advocated for a liberal immigration policy, including amnesty for illegal aliens,<ref>Lane, Oliver JJ (July 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/25/make-britain-great-again-boris-talks-up-illegals-amnesty-new-golden-age-for-united-kingdom/ Make Britain Great Again? Boris Talks up Illegals Amnesty, New ‘Golden Age’ For United Kingdom]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2019. See also:
*Montgomery, Jack (July 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/26/migration-watch-launches-petition-against-bojos-illegal-alien-amnesty/ Migration Watch Launches Petition Against BoJo’s Illegal Migrant Amnesty Proposal]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (July 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/26/lane-boris-johnson-cant-win-the-love-of-the-bbc-by-giving-out-a-million-british-passports/ Lane: Boris Johnson Can’t Win the Love of the BBC By Giving Out a Million British Passports]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2019.</ref> and he abandoned a pledge to significantly reduce migration to the UK.<ref>Montgomery, Jack (July 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/25/red-flag-boris-drops-pledge-reduce-migration-from-hundreds-thousands-tens-thousands/ Red Flag: Boris SCRAPS Pledge to Reduce Migration ‘From Hundreds of Thousands to Tens of Thousands’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref> However, Johnson promised to deport illegal migrants in the UK.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-migrants/uk-pm-johnson-says-britain-will-send-back-migrants-who-cross-channel-illegally-idUSKCN1VD1J7 UK PM Johnson says Britain will send back migrants who cross channel illegally]. ''Reuters''. August 23, 2019. Retrieved August 23, 2019.</ref> In September 2019, Johnson relaxed rules for foreign students in the UK.<ref>https://www.ft.com/content/2f9deebe-d3e9-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77</ref> During the 2019 election campaign, Johnson did not commit to capping immigration levels and labeled himself "pro-immigration."<ref>Montgomery, Jack (November 15, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/11/15/boris-declares-pro-immigration-will-not-commit-capping-it/ Boris Declares He Is ‘Pro-Immigration’, Will Not Commit to Capping It]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 15, 2019.</ref>

In September 2019, Johnson's government announced it would spend £600 million on promoting abortion and contraception internationally.<ref>Freiburger, Calvin (September 25, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/uk-announces-plan-to-spend-millions-promoting-abortion-contraception-abroad UK announces plan to spend millions promoting abortion, contraception abroad]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved September 25, 2019.</ref>

On November 2, 2019, Johnson's government imposed a moratorium on [[fracking]].<ref>Addison, Stephen; Smout, Alistair (November 1, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-fracking/in-seismic-shift-britain-orders-immediate-moratorium-on-fracking-idUSKBN1XC001 In seismic shift, Britain orders immediate moratorium on fracking]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 2, 2019. See also:
*Delingpole, James (November 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/11/03/delingpole-boris-caves-to-the-greenies-fracking-stupid/ Delingpole: Boris’s Surrender to the Greenies Is Fracking Stupid]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 3, 2019.</ref> His government also caved to the left-wing organization [[Extinction Rebellion]] and created a "climate change citizens' assembly."<ref>Friedman, Victoria (November 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/11/02/govt-forms-climate-assembly-uk-after-pressure-from-eco-extremist-group-extinction-rebellion/ Govt Forms ‘Climate Assembly UK’ After Pressure from Eco-Extremist Group Extinction Rebellion]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 2, 2019.</ref>

Johnson has voiced support to persecuted Christians in third-world countries.<ref>Multiple references:
*Friedman, Victoria (December 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/24/boris-johnson-corbyn-christmas-speeches-persecuted-christians-election-loss/ Boris’s Christmas Message Pays Tribute to Military, Corbyn Ruminates on Election Loss, ‘Inequality’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 24, 2019.
*Halon, Yael (December 25, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/boris-johnson-christmas-persecuted-christians Boris Johnson's Christmas message urges world to remember plight of persecuted Christians]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved December 25, 2019.
See also:
*Klein, Philip (December 23, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/boris-johnson-nails-the-hanukkah-message-now-he-has-to-follow-through-on-combating-uk-anti-semitism Boris Johnson nails his Hanukkah message. Now he has to follow through on combating UK anti-Semitism]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved December 27, 2019.</ref>

In January 2020, Johnson announced the UK would raise its minimum wage.<ref>Zindulka, Kurt (January 2, 2020). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2020/01/02/biggest-cash-increase-ever-government-raise-minimum-wage-april/ ‘Biggest Cash Increase Ever’ as Government Set to Raise Minimum Wage in April]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 2, 2020.</ref>

Boris Johnson's lockdown policies have been notoriously strict, and he has proposed authoritarian environmental policies.

==Political views==
Johnson holds a mix of conservative and liberal views,<ref>Lane, Oliver JJ (December 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/12/17/big-spending-pro-amnesty-boris-what-kind-conservative-pm-johnson/ Big Spending, Pro-Amnesty Boris: Brexit Aside, What Kind of ‘Conservative’ Will PM Johnson Be?] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 17, 2019.</ref> and he has also changed positions on important issues.<ref>Friedman, Victoria (July 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/24/five-times-boris-johnson-flip-flopped-brexit-trump-immigration/ ‘Flip-Flop’ Johnson: Five Times Boris U-Turned on Brexit, the EU, and Trump]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.</ref> For example, he has been described as the "British [[Trump]]", though the several liberal positions he takes undermines such a comparison.<ref>Montgomery, Jack (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/23/boris-british-trump-not-so-fast/ Boris the British Trump? Not So Fast…] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref> He has made statements both supporting and opposing the EU during his career,<ref>Multiple references:
*MacAskill, Andrew (June 11, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-johnson-views-factbox/factbox-die-hard-eurosceptic-or-opportunist-boris-johnsons-views-on-the-eu-idUSKCN1TC1XK Factbox: Die-hard eurosceptic or opportunist? Boris Johnson's views on the EU]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 11, 2019.
*MacAskill, Andrew (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-johnson-europe-fact/factbox-die-hard-eurosceptic-or-opportunist-boris-johnsons-views-on-the-eu-idUSKCN1UI19E Factbox: Die-hard eurosceptic or opportunist? Boris Johnson's views on the EU]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref> though he strongly supported [[Brexit]] and the restoration of UK [[sovereignty]] in the 2016 referendum.

Johnson has taken [[open borders]] positions on immigration in the past.<ref>Friedman, Victoria (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/23/flashback-amnesty-johnson-illegals-open-borders-turkey-migration-caps/ Flashback: ‘Amnesty Boris’ on Illegals, Open Borders to Turkey, Migration Caps]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref> However, he generally supports lower taxes.<ref>MacLellan, Kylie (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-leader-johnson-policies-fa/factbox-incoming-uk-pm-johnsons-stance-on-iran-trump-huawei-and-the-economy-idUSKCN1UI19G Factbox: Incoming UK PM Johnson's stance on Iran, Trump, Huawei and the economy]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref>

Johnson announced during the 2008 US presidential campaign that he favored an [[Obama]] victory.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2008/10/21/do2101.xml]</ref> He has relatively good relations with [[Donald Trump]],<ref>Multiple references:
*Spiering, Charlie (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/07/23/donald-trump-congratulates-boris-johnson-for-prime-minister-victory/ Donald Trump Congratulates Boris Johnson for Prime Minister Victory]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Lane, Oliver JJ (July 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/07/23/trump-welcomes-prime-minister-boris-johnson-he-will-be-great/ Trump Welcomes Prime Minister Boris Johnson: ‘He Will Be Great!’] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Pitofsky, Marina (July 23, 2019). [https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/454336-trump-calls-boris-johnson-britain-trump-they-like-me-over-there Trump calls Boris Johnson 'Britain Trump': 'They like me over there']. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Frazin, Rachel (July 23, 2019). [https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/454260-trump-congratulates-boris-johnson-on-election-to-be-prime-minister Trump congratulates Boris Johnson: 'He will be great' prime minister]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
*Holland, Steve (July 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-usa-trump-johnson/different-kind-of-guy-trump-sees-kindred-spirit-in-boris-johnson-idUSKCN1UI2EM 'Different kind of guy': Trump sees kindred spirit in Boris Johnson]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 23, 2019.</ref> though he also criticized President Trump in the past.<ref>Robert Mackey. June 6, 2017. [https://theintercept.com/2017/06/06/two-london-mayors-called-trumps-muslim-ban-ignorant-attacking-one/ "Two London Mayors Called Trump's Muslim Ban Wrong. Why Is He Only Attacking One?"]. ''The Intercept''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</ref> He may have participated in world leaders' gossiping about President Trump behind his back at a 2019 NATO conference,<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/gutfeld-world-leaders-gossiping-trump</ref> though [[Gavin McInnes]] doubts the extent to which he participated.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlDqL3jdVnA</ref>

Johnson is highly critical of [[Russia]]n president [[Vladimir Putin]]. When in March 2018 former Russian agent [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter Yulia were poisoned in [[Salisbury]], Johnson compared Russia's hosting of the [[World Cup]] to [[Adolf Hitler]]'s hosting of the [[Olympic Games]] in 1936.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2018/mar/21/boris-johnson-compares-russian-world-cup-to-hitlers-1936-olympics|title=Boris Johnson compares Russian World Cup to Hitler's 1936 Olympics|last=Wintour|first=Patrick|date=21 March 2018|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref>

Johnson takes left-wing positions on social issues, including abortion and same-sex "marriage."<ref>Multiple references:
*Van Maren, Jonathon (July 29, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/blogs/boris-johnson-new-uk-prime-minister-is-no-pro-life-or-conservative-hero Boris Johnson, new UK prime minister, is no pro-life or conservative hero]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved July 29, 2019.
*Smeaton, Paul (December 19, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/the-uk-has-elected-the-gayest-parliament-in-the-world-8-say-theyre-gay-or-bisexual The UK has elected the ‘gayest parliament in the world’: 8% say they’re gay or bisexual]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved December 19, 2019.</ref>

== Criticism ==
He and his government, with [[Dominic Cummings]] (until November 23rd 2020) has been called incompetent by some people.
== References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{{UKPrimeMinisters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Johnson, Boris}}
[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]
[[Category:British Politicians]]
[[Category:Liberal Conservatism]]
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