Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Messianic Judaism

2008-10-15T00:41:43Z

NathanG: wikify

[[Image:Olive tree.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The olive tree has long been used as a symbol in Messianic Judaism: "''Thou, being a wild olive tree, were grafted in among them''" (Romans 11:17)]]
'''Messianic Judaism''' is a religious movement which:<ref>Robinson, B. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/mess_jud.htm ''Messianic Judaism''] Religious Tolerance. Accessed 21 February 2008</ref><ref>''There is no '''contemporary''' founder or leader and no single group or individual speaks for all Messianics. However, most Messianics would generally accept these points.''</ref>

*regards its members to be committed [[Jew]]s.
*believes that [[Yeshua]] of Nazareth ([[Jesus Christ]]) is the [[Messiah]] spoken of in the [[Tanakh]] ([[Old Testament]]).
*believes that it is following the practices and beliefs of the very early church.
*follows an [[Evangelical Christian]] [[theology]].

They differ from other Jews over their beliefs about the Messiah. Messianic Congregations are made up of people of Jewish and non-Jewish backgrounds, and are distinctly Jewish in [[culture]]. All celebrate Jewish [[Holy Days]] and support the State of [[Israel]], and most have their main service on the seventh day [[Sabbath]]. They believe that all of the [[Bible]], both the Tanakh and the [[New Testament]], is inspired by [[God]], and that the New Testament was written by Jewish writers to announce to the world the arrival of the long awaited Jewish Messiah.

Virtually all other Jewish [[denomination]]s reject Messianic Judaism on the principle that belief in Yeshua automatically makes them Christian, and therefore outside of the Jewish community. Many view Messianic Judaism as a dangerous and subversive form of [[apostasy]]. However, Reform [[rabbi]] Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Professor of Jewish Theology at the University of Wales, has pointed out that the Jewish community, and Judaism itself, no longer holds to a single authority to determine correct belief and practice, and as such Messianic Judaism is as valid a form of Judaism as any other.<ref>Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. "Messianic Judaism" (Continuum International, 2000)</ref> David M. Hargis stated: ''"Since the first Jewish followers of Yeshua never left the faith of the God of Israel, [[YHWH]], but rather came into a more personal covenant with Him through trust in Messiah Yeshua, their faith was and is the only complete Biblical Judaism and thus a superior Judaism."''<ref>Hargis, David M. [http://www.messianic.com/articles/basics.htm ''Basics of Messianic Judaism''] Messianic Bureau International. Accessed 21 February 2008</ref>

==Early history of Messianic Judaism==
Many people wrongly assume that Messianic Judaism originated from Christianity, or that it is a hybrid religion formed comparatively recently by combining Jewish and Christian beliefs and practices. However, Messianic Judaism predates Christianity by several decades, and Christianity evolved from the Messianic Judaism of the first century. Yeshua and his [[disciple]]s (''talmidim'') were all Jews, and did not convert to another religion; furthermore, as the Bible clearly states He came to earth to be the prophesied Messiah of Judaism, not to form a new religion.

The first people to be known as Christians were the Gentiles in [[Antioch]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2011:20,21,26;&version=9; Acts 11:20,21,26]) but Christianity was still widely considered to be a sect of Judaism. In 70 AD, the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general [[Titus]] sacked the city of [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Second Temple]] was burned down. It is estimated that as many as one million Jews died during the revolt.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/revolt.html ''The Great Revolt''] Jewish Virtual Library. Accessed 18 February 2008</ref> Many Jews were taken captive and deported to [[Italy]] where they were forced to build the [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]]. The emperor [[Vespasian]] then introduced a tax (the "Fiscus Judaicus") to be paid by all Jews to finance the reconstruction of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Even after construction was completed, the tax was still levied, and was used as a measure to deter people from converting to Judaism.<ref>Lendering, Jona [http://www.livius.org/fa-fn/fiscus/judaicus.html ''Fiscus Judaicus''] "Articles on Ancient History" Livius. Accessed 18 February 2008</ref> Well into the second century, Gentile Christians were also required to pay the ''fiscus judaicus'' and persecuted as a sect of Judaism. To escape this persecution, Gentile Christians sought to widen the division between themselves and the Jews, and their practices became less and less Jewish.

==The wild olive branch==
The church in Rome was begun as a Jewish fellowship, started by those who returned from Pentecost in Jerusalem,<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%202%20;&version=9; Acts 2]</ref> not by an [[apostle]]. As these Jewish believers evangelized, many Gentile believers joined them. Around 50 AD [[Claudius]] banished many Jews from Rome,<ref>Barclay, John M. G.; Hooker, Morna Dorothy and McMurdo, John Philip (ed.) "Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context" (Cambridge University Press; 2007) ISBN 0-5210-4412-X</ref> leaving the church entirely Gentile. Twelve years later [[Nero]] invited the Jews back to stimulate trade. However the Gentiles refused to allow the Messianic Jewish believers back into the church, having concluded that Claudius' rejection signified God's rejection, which is probably the first appearance of [[Replacement Theology]].<ref>[http://fp.thebeers.f9.co.uk/olive.htm ''The Olive Tree and the wild olive branch''] "The Wild Olive Branch" Accessed 18 February 2008</ref>

[[Paul]]'s [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%209-11;&version=9; letter to the Roman church] addresses this matter, and he urges them to remember that they are like a "wild olive tree, grafted in" among the Jews, and warns them against "conceit", particularly as it is the Jewish root which supported their Christian branch. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%2011:17,18,25;&version=9; Romans 11:17,18,25])

However, by the time of the [[Council of Nicaea]] in 325, Christianity was both anti-Judaic and [[anti-Semitic]].<ref>As [[Constantine]] said at the Council: "''Let us then have nothing in common with the most hostile rabble of the Jews.''" Boyle, Isaac "A Historical View of The Council of Nicea" (T Mason and G Lane, New York; 1839)</ref> Messianic Judaism was presumed by many to have died out after the Council of Nicea. However, in the records of the [[Inquisition]] there are accounts of Jewish believers in Yeshua who were persecuted by the inquisitors well into the 12th and 13th centuries, but as persecution from the Roman church became stronger, Messianic Judaism became almost invisible to history.<ref>Chaimberlin, Richard Aharon [http://www.petahtikvah.com/Articles/MessianicForDummies.htm ''Messianic Judaism For Dummies''] Petah Tikvah. Accessed 18 February 2008</ref>

==Messianic Judaism in the 19th century==

==Criticism of Messianic Judaism==
Converts to Messianic Judaism are usually shunned by their Jewish families of origin and are excluded from the local Jewish community. The Central Conference of American Rabbis has stated: ''"For us in the Jewish community, anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate. Through that belief she has placed herself outside the Jewish community. Whether she cares to define herself as a Christian or as a 'fulfilled Jew,' 'Messianic Jew,' or any other designation is irrelevant; to us, she is clearly a Christian."''<ref>Robinson, B. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/mess_jud4.htm ''Opposition to Messianic Judaism''] Religious Tolerance. Accessed 21 February 2008</ref>

The Jewish community often perceives Messianic Judaism as Christianity hijacking Judaism in order to convert Jews and misrepresenting Judaism to gain converts. They believe that Messianic Judaism is a corruption of the most deeply spiritual rituals and customs that honor Judaism's connection to God through Torah. Unfortunately, when Messianic Jews defend themselves against such claims, it often results in the Jewish community being perceived as attacking Christianity rather than defending Judaism, which intensifies the distrust between all parties.

Dr. David A. Rausch, associate professor of church history and Judaic studies at Ashland Theological Seminary, [[Ohio]], summed up the attitude of many Jewish people in the comment he was given by a member of the Jewish Defense League: ''"These Messianics are the [[Nazi]]s - the spiritual Nazis. They pretend to be Jews and use traditional Jewish symbols to trap children and the unsuspecting."''<ref>Rausch, David A. [http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1339 ''The Messianic Jewish Congregational Movement''] Religion Online. Accessed 21 February 2008</ref> The sentiments are not confined entirely to Judaism; the same author was told by a Christian missionary: ''"To these "Messianic Jews" Jewishness means Judaism, a rabbinic Judaism of the Ashkenazic flavor. They neither have a real knowledge of Jewish history or of Jewish-Christian history, nor do they possess a good handle on biblical [[exegesis]]. Like the Ebionites of old they will finally blend into Judaism and deny the Messiah."''<ref>''ibid''</ref>

The Israeli Supreme Court decreed on 25 December 1989 that Messianic Jews were not eligible to immigrate to Israel under the [[Law of Return]]. Because of their belief in Yeshua, they are viewed as belonging to another religion. In contrast Jews who are [[atheists]] and [[humanist]]s can return.<ref>Robinson, B. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/mess_jud4.htm ''Opposition to Messianic Judaism''] Religious Tolerance. Accessed 21 February 2008</ref> In 2008, the Israeli Minister of Interior began moves to revoke the citizenship of Messianic Jewish believers who immigrated into Israel in accordance with the Law of Return. Many well known Israeli Messianic leaders received notices from the Ministry of Interior that their citizenship is under review for this procedure. <ref>Decker, Michael [http://www.mjaa.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5417 ''Jerusalem Institute of Justice News''] Messianic Jewish Alliance of America. Accessed 22 February 2008</ref>

==See also==
*[[Philosophy]]
*[[Jewish philosophy]]

==External links==
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2q_3sktQBY&feature=related ''Yeshua: High Star - Messianic Jewish believers in Israel''] - Israel's ''Channel 2'' news carried this report on the Messianic Jewish movement on 23 February 2007. It gives great insight into the movement, and some of the difficulties faced by its followers. (9 minutes; streaming video at YouTube.)
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9111302178737676457&pr=goog-sl ''What would you say about a country that persecutes a group of citizens only because of their religious beliefs?''] - Israel's ''Channel 10'' news carried this report on the State-sanctioned persecution of Messianic Jews. (12 minutes; streaming video at Google.)
*[http://www.messianicassociation.org/profiles.htm Notable Messianic Jews]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Messianic Judaism]]

Apostacy

2008-10-15T00:39:28Z

NathanG: redir

#REDIRECT [[apostasy]]

Epistle to the Hebrews

2008-10-15T00:39:18Z

NathanG: wikify

[[Image:KJV 1611 Hebrews.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The 1611 edition of the [[King James Bible]] showing the opening of the Epistle to the Hebrews.]]
The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is the nineteenth book of the [[New Testament]]. In contrast with the other epistles, it is distinctly unlike a letter, and has a "symbolic style and sustained argument that mark it as a [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] work based on the [[Jewish]] tradition."<ref>Saldarini, Anthony J. [http://mb-soft.com/believe/txs/hebrews.htm ''Epistle to the Hebrews''] Believe. Accessed 15 March 2008</ref> Overall, the tone is very Jewish, and a proper understanding of the epistle requires a familiarity with the [[Old Testament]] scriptures, particularly [[Leviticus]].<ref>Pawson, J. David ''Unlocking The Bible'' p.1113 (London, Collins; 2003) ISBN 978 0 00 716666 4</ref> It is the only New Testament letter not introduced by the name of its author.

==Language==
The [[Greek]] of the epistle is particularly sophisticated, and widely regarded as the best example in the New Testament,<ref>Pawson, J. David op cit</ref> noted for its "striking purity and elegance".<ref>"Language and style" [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07181a.htm ''Epistle to the Hebrews''] Catholic Encyclopedia. Accessed 15 March 2008</ref> Not only does the author show "great familiarity with the rules of the Greek literary language" but also "of all the New Testament authors he has the best style. His writing may even be included among those examples of artistic Greek [[prose]] whose rhythm recalls the parallelism of [[Hebrew]] poetry."<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia op cit</ref> Even in the English translation, the language is refined and sophisticated. It uses 168 terms which appear in no other part of the New Testament, including ten words found neither in [[koine]] or classical Greek, and a further forty words which do not appear in the [[Septuagint]].

==Author==
The identity of the author of the epistle has been called "the riddle of the New Testament"<ref>Scott, E. F. [http://www.archive.org/stream/MN41537ucmf_9/MN41537ucmf_9_djvu.txt ''The Epistle of the Hebrews: Its Doctrine and Significance''] (Edinburgh; T and T Clarke; 1922) full text online. Accessed 15 March 2008</ref> It remains the only New Testament book whose authorship is definitely unknown. The earliest translations of the [[King James Bible]] call it "the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews", but this is conjecture, and also a position that was not adopted by the church until the [[Middle Ages]]. By the time of the [[Reformation]], this authorship was being questioned. While commonly attributed to [[Paul]], a comparison of the language and style with his other writings seems to indicate that he was not the author, although the ideas expressed within it certainly follow Pauline thought, suggesting that the author had been a pupil of his.

Attridge<ref>Attridge, Harold W. ''Epistle to the Hebrews'' Anchor Bible Dictionary</ref> writes: "Although Hebrews is included in the Pauline corpus and was part of that corpus in its earliest attested form ([eg papyrus] ''P46''), it is certainly not a work of the apostle. This fact was recognized, largely on stylistic grounds, even in antiquity. Some patristic authors defended the traditional Pauline attribution with theories of scribal assistants such as [[Clement]] of Rome or Luke, but such hypotheses do not do justice to the very un-Pauline treatment of key themes, particularly those of law and faith. Numerous alternative candidates for authorship have been proposed. The most prominent have been [[Barnabas]], to whom [[Tertullian]] assigned the work; [[Apollos]], defended by [[Martin Luther|Luther]] and many moderns; [[Priscilla]], suggested by von Harnack; [[Epaphras]]; and [[Silas]]. Arguments for none are decisive, and [[Origen|Origen's]] judgment that "''God only knows''" who composed the work is sound."

==Provenance==
The earliest copy in existence is part of a [[papyrus]] [[codex]] in Greek of the Letters of Saint Paul, dating from around AD 200. The codex, referred to as ''P46'' was discovered in 1931, and provided a text at least a century older than the [[Vatican]] and [[Sinaitic]] codices, the oldest authorities on which the text had previously rested.<ref>[http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/papyri_james/1_2.html ''From Papyri to King James: The Transmission of the English Bible''] University of Michigan. Accessed 15 March 2008</ref> The epistle can be dated with some certainty by its content: the use of "''Remember your leaders, who spoke the word of God to you. Consider the outcome of their way of life and imitate their faith''" (Heb 13:7) is consistent with a period after the death of the first leaders of the church in [[Rome]]. The epistle also discusses the temple and its sacrifices in the present tense: this places its writing between Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]] in AD 55 and the destruction of the temple in AD 70.
[[Image:Papyrus P46.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Papyrus ''P46'', showing the opening paragraphs of the Epistle to the Hebrews.]]

==To whom written==
It is uncertain to whom the letter was sent, bearing only the words "to the Hebrews", and it has been variously suggested that it was sent to the church at [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]], [[Jerusalem]] or [[Ephesus]]. Pawson<ref>Pawson, J. David op cit p.1115</ref> points to the end of the letter: "''Those ''from'' Italy send you their greetings''" (Heb 13:24) as indicating the letter was written ''to'' Italy, most likely the church in Rome. In light of its title, it would seem that it was specifically meant for that portion of the church that was Jewish. This becomes even more apparent, given the date of the letter, when one considers the events that were taking place in Rome at this time. Under [[Claudius]], many Jews had been banished from Rome, including Priscilla and Aquila who had escaped to [[Corinth]]. The church in Rome became largely made up of [[Gentile]]s, and as a result, when the Jews began to return in AD 54 after Claudius' death, there was a significant tension between Jewish and Gentile believers. (''See [[Messianic Judaism]]''.) [[Nero]] ascended to the imperial throne after Claudius, and it was under his rule that the church entered a great period of suffering. The early Christians in particular were singled out for persecution, and many were executed during this time.

While Paul's Epistle to the Romans makes no mention of this, the epistle to the Hebrews ''does'' discuss the persecution, including the vandalism of their homes and even imprisonment, and [[Timothy]] is mentioned as one of the believers who has been imprisoned. However, there is no mention of [[martyr]]s at this time, which further cements the epistle to a definite time around the middle of Nero's reign. The treatment being endured by the church explains the point of the epistle: those members who were Jews could easily escape from the persecution by publicly denying faith in [[Jesus Christ]] and returning to [[Judaism]], which at this time was still legal, while Christianity was not. The letter, then, seems to have been written ''from'' Jerusalem, probably by a Jewish believer who was a pupil of Paul, addressed specifically ''to'' the Jewish members of the church in Rome, as an exhortation to remain firm within the church.

==Structure and content==
The epistle is both letter ''and'' sermon and seems to have been intended to be read in Christian meetings as a sermon. Read as such, it would take around 45 minutes. Chapters 1-10 of the epistle quite clearly emphasize the contrast between the Old and New Testaments and between Judaism and Christianity, and the superior position that the believers are in through having the "Son of God" as their mediator rather than [[angel]]s, the mere ''servants'' of God. The opening of chapter 1 is regarded by most scholars as the finest Greek in the New Testament in terms of its construction, rhythm and sheer beauty, more so even than the more famous passages of Genesis 1:1 and John 1:1:{{quotebox|God, who at sundry times and in divers manners spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets, Hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he hath appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds; Who being the brightness of his glory, and the express image of his person, and upholding all things by the word of his power, when he had by himself purged our sins, sat down on the right hand of the Majesty on high:
Being made so much better than the angels, as he hath by inheritance obtained a more excellent name than they. (''Heb 1:1-4'')}}
[[Image:Crucifixion of Peter.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[apostle]] Simon-Peter was executed by inverted-crucifixion on the orders of Nero soon after the epistle was written]]
The epistle deals significantly with how the Old and New Testaments relate to each other, and meet at the death - the sacrifice - of Jesus. Because of this, it has provided the basis for most interpretative models for Christian understanding of the Old Testament. From the epistle come the concepts:
*the "old" sacrifices had to be repeated - the sacrifice of Jesus is once and everlasting
*the old priests are now no longer required - Jesus as the one High Priest of the order of [[Melchizedek]] has replaced them all
*the old sanctuary had its closed [[tabernacle]] - the new sanctuary has its open throne: all are able to enter the Holy of Holies through Jesus as mediator between man and God.

The writer uses the allusion of "substance and shadows" - while the ''shadow'' of Jesus is written throughout<ref>Hodgkin, A. M. [http://www.thebookwurm.com/amh_tc.htm ''Christ in All the Scriptures''] (Westwood, NJ; Barbour and Co. Inc; 1989) full text online. Accessed 16 March 2008</ref> the Old Testament, now the ''substance'' has been shown to the people. The epistle is supremely Christ-centered, and it is the only book of the Bible which focuses on his priesthood and his "present" work as intercessor - leading to some scholars to describe it as the "Fifth Gospel" because of its emphasis on His work in the present.<ref>Pawson, J. David, op cit p.1142</ref>

Chapter 11 of the epistle concentrates on [[faith]], and looks back to the great heroes of faith in the Old Testament, using them to inspire and to act as models. Also, there are warnings about losing faith and "backsliding". The warnings are severe, and describe two stages: drifting away, neglecting fellowship with other believers and neglecting faith; and willful, deliberate [[apostasy]] and the denial of Jesus. Fellowship is rightly magnified by the epistle, given the circumstances in which it was written and first meant to be read. It emphasizes that there is safety in fellowship, and that the devil will pick off Christians on their own. When being persecuted, it is important to focus on Jesus, and look to the church "family" for comfort - this message remains as valid for Christians today as it was for the early church under the persecution of Nero.

==See also==
*[[Gospel of the Hebrews]]

==External links==
*[http://www.westarkchurchofchrist.org/wings/hebrewsstudy.htm ''Hebrews - A Defense of Christian Faith''] - The Study of Hebrews: Ladies Bible Class, 2 January - 27 March 2001. West-Ark Church of Christ, Fort Smith, Arkansas/Women In God's Service
*[http://www.aquinas.avemaria.edu/Aquinas-Hebrews.pdf ''Commentary By Saint Thomas Aquinas On the Epistle to the Hebrews''] - full text online
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/ipb-e/epl-cvhebrews.html ''John Calvin: Commentary on Hebrews''] - full text online

==References==
{{reflist|small}}

[[Category:New Testament Books]]
[[Category:Biblical Books]]
[[Category:Christianity]]

Desegregation of Central High School (1957)

2008-10-15T00:34:20Z

NathanG:

On May 17, 1954, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in [[Brown v. Board of Education]] that segregated schools were "inherently unequal" and ordered that U.S. public schools be desegregated "with all deliberate speed." Within a week of the 1954 decision, [[Arkansas]] was one of two Southern states to announce it would begin immediately to take steps to comply with the Brown decision. Arkansas's law school had been integrated since 1949, and seven of its eight state universities had desegregated. Blacks had been appointed to state boards and elected to local offices. It had already desegregated its public buses as well as its zoo, library, and parks system. In the summer of 1957, the city of [[Little Rock]] made plans to desegregate its public schools. Little Rock’s school board had voted unanimously for a plan that started with the desegregation of the high school in 1957, followed by junior high schools the next year and elementary schools following. In September 1957, nine African American students enrolled at Central High School in Little Rock. The ensuing struggle between segregationists and integrationists, the Governor of the State of Arkansas and the Federal Government, President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and Arkansas Democratic Governor [[Orval Faubus]] became known as the "Little Rock Crisis."

On September 2, the night before school was to start, Governor Faubus called out the state's National Guard to surround Little Rock Central High School and prevent any black students from entering. The Governor explained that his action was taken to protect citizens and property from possible violence by protesters he claimed were headed in caravans toward Little Rock. President Eisenhower, who was vacationing in Newport, RI, arranged to meet Governor Faubus to discuss the tense situation. In their brief meeting in Newport, Eisenhower thought Faubus had agreed to enroll the African American students, so he told Faubus that his National Guard troops could stay at Central High and enforce order. However, once back in Little Rock, Governor Faubus withdrew the National Guard.

A few days later, when nine African American students slipped into the school to enroll, a full-scale riot erupted. The situation was quickly out of control, as Governor Faubus failed to stop the violence. Finally, Congressman Brooks Hays and Little Rock Mayor Woodrow Mann asked the Federal Government for help, first in the form of U.S. marshals. President Eisenhower, as the chief law enforcement officer of the United States, was presented with a difficult problem. He was required to uphold the [[Constitution]] and the laws, but he also wanted to avoid a bloody confrontation in Arkansas. With Executive Order 10730, the President placed the Arkansas National Guard under Federal control and sent 1,000 [[U.S. Army]] paratroopers from the [[101st Airborne Division]] to assist them in restoring order in Little Rock.

==Transcript of Executive Order 10730: Desegregation of Central High School (1957)==
'''EXECUTIVE ORDER 10730'''

'''PROVIDING ASSISTANCE FOR THE REMOVAL OF AN OBSTRUCTION OF JUSTICE WITHIN THE STATE OF ARKANSAS'''

'''WHEREAS''' on September 23, 1957, I issued Proclamation No.3204 reading in part as follows:

'''"WHEREAS''' certain persons in the state of Arkansas, individually and in unlawful assemblages, combinations, and conspiracies, have willfully obstructed the enforcement of orders of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas with respect to matters relating to enrollment and attendance at public schools, particularly at Central High School, located in Little Rock School District, Little Rock, Arkansas; and

'''"WHEREAS''' such willful obstruction of d justice hinders the execution of the laws of that State and of the United States, and makes it impracticable to enforce such laws by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings; and

'''"WHEREAS''' such obstruction of justice constitutes a denial of the equal protection of the laws secured by the Constitution of the United States and impedes the course of justice under those laws:

'''"NOW, THEREFORE, I, DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER''', President of the United States, under and by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and Statutes of the United States, including Chapter 15 of Title 10 of the United States Code, particularly sections 332, 333 and 334 thereof, do command all persons engaged in such obstruction of justice to cease and desist therefrom, and to disperse forthwith;" and

'''WHEREAS''' the command contained in that Proclamation has not been obeyed and willful obstruction of enforcement of said court orders still exists and threatens to continue:

'''NOW, THEREFORE''', by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and Statutes of the United States, including Chapter 15 of Title 10, particularly sections 332, 333 and 334 thereof, and section 301 of Title 3 of the United States Code, It is hereby ordered as follows:

'''SECTION 1.''' I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of Defense to order into the active military service of the United States as he may deem appropriate to carry out the purposes of this Order, any or all of the units of the National Guard of the United States and of the Air National Guard of the United States within the State of Arkansas to serve in the active military service of the United States for an indefinite period and until relieved by appropriate orders.

'''SEC. 2.''' The Secretary of Defense is authorized and directed to take all appropriate steps to enforce any orders of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas for the removal of obstruction of justice in the State of Arkansas with respect to matters relating to enrollment and attendance at public schools in the Little Rock School District, Little Rock, Arkansas. In carrying out the provisions of this section, the Secretary of Defense is authorized to use the units, and members thereof, ordered into the active military service of the United States pursuant to Section 1 of this Order.

'''SEC. 3.''' In furtherance of the enforcement of the aforementioned orders of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas, the Secretary of Defense is authorized to use such of the armed forces of the United States as he may deem necessary.

'''SEC. 4.''' The Secretary of Defense is authorized to delegate to the Secretary of the Army or the Secretary of the Air Force, or both, any of the authority conferred upon him by this Order.

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER

THE WHITE HOUSE,

September 24, 1957.

----
{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=89]}}

[[Category: Civil Rights]]
[[Category:United States Constitution]]
[[Category:Arkansas]]
[[Category:United States History]]

Schenck v. United States

2008-10-15T00:33:34Z

NathanG: br

'''''Schenck v. United States''''', (1919) was a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] decision concerning the question of whether the defendant possessed a [[First Amendment]] right to free speech against the draft during [[World War I]]. The case served as the founding of the "[[clear and present danger]]" rule.

The thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution allows for men to assert opposition to the draft through the "[[involuntary servitude]]" clause.

==Text of ''Schenck v. United States''==

'''SCHENCK v. U.S. , 249 U.S. 47 (1919)'''
249 U.S. 47

::'''SCHENCK'''
:::v.
::'''UNITED STATES.'''

::'''BAER'''
:::v.
::'''SAME.'''

Nos. 437, 438.
Argued Jan. 9 and 10, 1919.
Decided March 3, 1919.

[249 U.S. 47, 48] Messrs. Henry John Nelson and Henry Johns Gibbons, both of Philadelphia, Pa., for plaintiffs in error.

Mr. John Lord O'Brian, of Buffalo, N. Y., for the United States.

Mr. Justice HOLMES delivered the opinion of the Court.

This is an indictment in three counts. The first charges a conspiracy to violate the Espionage Act of June 15, 1917, c. 30, tit. 1, 3, 40 Stat. 217, 219 (Comp. St. 1918, 10212c), by causing and attempting [249 U.S. 47, 49] to cause insubordination, &c., in the military and naval forces of the United States, and to obstruct the recruiting and enlistment service of the United States, when the United States was at war with the German Empire, to-wit, that the defendant willfully conspired to have printed and circulated to men who had been called and accepted for military service under the Act of May 18, 1917, c. 15, 40 Stat. 76 (Comp. St. 1918, 2044a-2044k), a document set forth and alleged to be calculated to cause such insubordination and obstruction. The count alleges overt acts in pursuance of the conspiracy, ending in the distribution of the document set forth. The second count alleges a conspiracy to commit an offense against the United States, to-wit, to use the mails for the transmission of matter declared to be non-mailable by title 12, 2, of the Act of June 15, 1917 (Comp. St. 1918, 10401b), to-wit, the above mentioned document, with an averment of the same overt acts. The third count charges an unlawful use of the mails for the transmission of the same matter and otherwise as above. The defendants were found guilty on all the counts. They set up the First Amendment to the Constitution forbidding Congress to make any law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, and bringing the case here on that ground have argued some other points also of which we must dispose.

It is argued that the evidence, if admissible, was not sufficient to prove that the defendant Schenck was concerned in sending the documents. According to the testimony Schenck said he was general secretary of the Socialist party and had charge of the Socialist headquarters from which the documents were sent. He identified a book found there as the minutes of the Executive Committee of the party. The book showed a resolution of August 13, 1917, that 15,000 leaflets should be printed on the other side of one of them in use, to be mailed to men who had passed exemption boards, and for distribution. Schenck personally attended to the printing. On [249 U.S. 47, 50] August 20 the general secretary's report said 'Obtained new leaflets from printer and started work addressing envelopes' &c.; and there was a resolve that Comrade Schenck be allowed $125 for sending leaflets through the mail. He said that he had about fifteen or sixteen thousand printed. There were files of the circular in question in the inner office which he said were printed on the other side of the one sided circular and were there for distribution. Other copies were proved to have been sent through the mails to drafted men. Without going into confirmatory details that were proved, no reasonable man could doubt that the defendant Schenck was largely instrumental in sending the circulars about. As to the defendant Baer there was evidence that she was a member of the Executive Board and that the minutes of its transactions were hers. The argument as to the sufficiency of the evidence that the defendants conspired to send the documents only impairs the seriousness of the real defense.

It is objected that the documentary evidence was not admissible because obtained upon a search warrant, valid so far as appears. The contrary is established. Adams v. New York, 192 U.S. 585 , 24 Sup. Ct. 372; Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 395 , 396 S., 34 Sup. Ct. 341, L. R. A. 1915B, 834, Ann. Cas. 1915C, 1177. The search warrant did not issue against the defendant but against the Socialist headquarters at 1326 Arch street and it would seem that the documents technically were not even in the defendants' possession. See Johnson v. United States, 228 U.S. 457 , 33 Sup. Ct. 572, 47 L. R. A. ( N. S.) 263. Notwithstanding some protest in argument the notion that evidence even directly proceeding from the defendant in a criminal proceeding is excluded in all cases by the Fifth Amendment is plainly unsound. Holt v. United States, 218 U.S. 245, 252 , 253 S., 31 Sup. Ct. 2

The document in question upon its first printed side recited the first section of the Thirteenth Amendment, said that the idea embodied in it was violated by the conscription act and that a conscript is little better than a [249 U.S. 47, 51] convict. In impassioned language it intimated that conscription was despotism in its worst form and a monstrous wrong against humanity in the interest of Wall Street's chosen few. It said, 'Do not submit to intimidation,' but in form at least confined itself to peaceful measures such as a petition for the repeal of the act. The other and later printed side of the sheet was headed 'Assert Your Rights.' It stated reasons for alleging that any one violated the Constitution when he refused to recognize 'your right to assert your opposition to the draft,' and went on, 'If you do not assert and support your rights, you are helping to deny or disparage rights which it is the solemn duty of all citizens and residents of the United States to retain.' It described the arguments on the other side as coming from cunning politicians and a mercenary capitalist press, and even silent consent to the conscription law as helping to support an infamous conspiracy. It denied the power to send our citizens away to foreign shores to shoot up the people of other lands, and added that words could not express the condemnation such cold-blooded ruthlessness deserves , &c., &c., winding up, 'You must do your share to maintain, support and uphold the rights of the people of this country.' Of course the document would not have been sent unless it had been intended to have some effect, and we do not see what effect it could be expected to have upon persons subject to the draft except to influence them to obstruct the carrying of it out. The defendants do not deny that the jury might find against them on this point.

But it is said, suppose that that was the tendency of this circular, it is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution. Two of the strongest expressions are said to be quoted respectively from well-known public men. It well may be that the prohibition of laws abridging the freedom of speech is not confined to previous restraints, although to prevent them may have been the [249 U.S. 47, 52] main purpose, as intimated in Patterson v. Colorado, 205 U.S. 454, 462 , 27 S. Sup. Ct. 556, 51 L. ed. 879, 10 Ann. Cas. 689. We admit that in many places and in ordinary times the defendants in saying all that was said in the circular would have been within their constitutional rights. But the character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it is done. Aikens v. Wisconsin, 195 U.S. 194, 205 , 206 S., 25 Sup. Ct. 3. The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic. It does not even protect a man from an injunction against uttering words that may have all the effect of force. Gompers v. Buck's Stove & Range Co., 221 U.S. 418, 439 , 31 S. Sup. Ct. 492, 55 L. ed. 797, 34 L. R. A. (N. S.) 874. The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. It is a question of proximity and degree. When a nation is at war many things that might be said in time of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured so long as men fight and that no Court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right. It seems to be admitted that if an actual obstruction of the recruiting service were proved, liability for words that produced that effect might be enforced. The statute of 1917 in section 4 (Comp. St. 1918 , 10212d) punishes conspiracies to obstruct as well as actual obstruction. If the act, (speaking, or circulating a paper,) its tendency and the intent with which it is done are the same, we perceive no ground for saying that success alone warrants making the act a crime. Goldman v. United States, 245 U.S. 474 , 477 38 Sup. Ct. 166, 62 L. ed. 410. Indeed that case might be said to dispose of the present contention if the precedent covers all media concludendi. But as the right to free speech was not referred to specially, we have thought fit to add a few words.

It was not argued that a conspiracy to obstruct the draft was not within the words of the Act of 1917. The [249 U.S. 47, 53] words are 'obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service,' and it might be suggested that they refer only to making it hard to get volunteers. Recruiting heretofore usually having been accomplished by getting volunteers the word is apt to call up that method only in our minds. But recruiting is gaining fresh supplies for the forces, as well by draft as otherwise. It is put as an alternative to enlistment or voluntary enrollment in this act. The fact that the Act of 1917 was enlarged by the amending Act of May 16, 1918, c. 75, 40 Stat. 553, of course, does not affect the present indictment and would not, even if the former act had been repealed. Rev. St. 13 (Comp. St. 14).

Judgments affirmed.

==Links==
*[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=249&invol=47 Text of the decision on FindLaw.com]

[[Category:United States Law]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]

Ich bin ein Berliner

2008-10-15T00:32:03Z

NathanG: /* See also */

'''"Ich bin ein Berliner"''' was [[John F. Kennedy]]'s famous statement on June 26, 1963, to the beleaguered citizens of West [[Berlin]] during the height of the [[Cold War]].

There is an urban legend stating that "Ich bin ein Berliner" can be willfully mistaken to mean "I am a [[Berliner|donut]]", and that this mistake caused some ridicule among his audience. This is incorrect, since a Berliner is not known as such in Berlin, but as a ''Pfannkuchen''. It is also quite clear from recordings that the audience responded with cheering rather than laughter.

It is also said that the grammatically correct thing for Kennedy to have said would actually have been "Ich bin Berliner" meaning "I am a person from Berlin". This is also incorrect, since "Ich bin Berliner" indicates specifically that the person is from or living in Berlin. By adding the indefinite article ''ein'', the speaker instead indicates a figurative relationship or that he only shares some characteristics with the group indicated. It is clear that this was in fact Kennedy's intended meaning at the time.<ref>Eichhoff, Jürgen: '"Ich bin ein Berliner": a History and a Linguistic Clarification', ''Monatshefte'' 85 (1993), 71-80</ref>

==See also==
*[[Iron Curtain]]
*[[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Cold War]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Cold War]]

Ich bin ein Berliner

2008-10-15T00:31:46Z

NathanG: br

Talk:Internet

2008-10-15T00:02:56Z

NathanG:

Erm, Controversy is the biggest page here... Anyone see anything wrong with that?

==Caps?==
Is it correct to use "Internet" over "internet". Firefox thinks as much. I wouldn't mind going through all the articles and 'capping' all the instances of "internet". o.O [[Special:Userrights|Make me a sysop!]] [[User:NathanG|Nate]] [[User_talk:NathanG|my opinion matters?]] 20:02, 14 October 2008 (EDT)

Original sin

2008-10-14T23:58:03Z

NathanG:

According to Christian theology, '''Original sin''' is the state of being sinful into which all people are born<ref>Psalm 51:5</ref>. Original sin refers to the very first [[sin]], committed by [[Adam]] and [[Eve]]. Original sin is sometimes referred to as "the Fall". [[St. Augustine]] introduced original sin to Christians.

For Christians, [[Paul]]'s discussion in Romans Chapter 5, v. 12 ''ff'' is operative:

<blockquote>Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned: (For until the law sin was in the world: but sin is not imputed when there is no law. Nevertheless death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's transgression, who is the figure of him that was to come.</blockquote>

Elsewhere, Paul discusses the idea that Adam and Eve, as sinless creatures of God, were immortal in the flesh. The consequence of their sin was death, mortality, a sentence they passed onto all their progeny. Jesus, as the [[New Adam]] was a new, sinless creation of man; while capable of sin, Jesus never sinned, and was therefore exempt from the death penalty. But he died, and quite horribly in fact. The why of the death of Christ is wrapped up in the doctrine of the [[Atonement]]; suffice to say Christ (in his human nature) chose to suffer the penalty of human sin as an atonement for it.

An alternative interpretation is that the entire story of original sin and the 'fall' of humanity as a result of the actions of Adam and Eve is a spiritually significant religious myth rather than a literal account of events. It can be seen as describing the growth of humanity from the status of animals with no moral sense or sense of their own mortality. Alternatively, it can be seen as a description of the process of human maturation, which starts with a helpless and innocent child who goes through the process of individuation and separation from the family and become independent.

Members of the [[Unification Church]] believe that Original Sin came about as a result of a sexual relationship between [[Eve]] and [[Lucifer]].
* According to Unification Church teachings, Rev. and Mrs. Moon were the first couple to conceive children without original sin. <ref>http://www.religionfacts.com/unification_church/index.htm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Christian Theology]]

Electronic Frontier Foundation

2008-10-14T23:57:47Z

NathanG:

The '''Electronic Frontier Foundation''' ('''EFF''') is a [[liberal]] and [[libertarian]] organization which promotes the protection of personal rights on the [[internet]], particularly privacy and free speech.<ref>http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.summary&orgid=7576</ref> The organization was founded by [[John Gilmore]], [[Mitch Kapor]], and [[John Perry Barlow]] in response to the illegal raid of [[Steve Jackson Games]] by the [[US Secret Service]].<ref>http://www.sjgames.com/SS/</ref><ref>http://w2.eff.org/legal/cases/SJG/?f=eff_creation.html</ref> [[Michael Godwin]] worked for the organization before his current job as the counsel for [[Wikipedia]].

The EFF often comes into conflict with conservative views about privacy and security. For example, in ''[[American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft]]'' the EFF filed an [[amicus brief]] which argued against the FBI examining the records of ISP customers. The EFF was also involved in fighting against anti-pornography provisions in the [[Communications Decency Act]].

The EFF is currently involved in preventing [[United States Congress|Congress]] from broadening the President's use of wiretaps, and is suing companies such as [[AT&T]] that have cooperated with such wiretap investigations.<ref>http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/12/12/MN1FTSBTV.DTL</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Liberal Organizations]]

Sentencing guidelines

2008-10-14T23:57:21Z

NathanG: br

{{move|Sentencing guidelines}}
'''Sentencing guidelines''' are recommended ranges of punishment for criminal [[defendant]]s after they have been convicted of a [[crime]]. [[Judge]]s use official (generally legislative) guidelines in many jurisdictions in deciding the severity of punishment for a convicted defendant. Guidelines exist for jail time, monetary compensation, community service, and in some cases such as DUIs, even appropriate "classes" a convicted defendant must take. The federal government, several states, and some nations in Europe utilize sentencing guidelines.<ref>http://www.scottishsentencingcommission.gov.uk/docs/consistency/Sentencing Guidelines Around the World.pdf</ref>

The United States Sentencing Guidelines establish a base level offense number range for each crime, which amounts to a recommendation to the judge to sentence the defendant somewhere in the range depending on particular circumstances and degree of wrongdoing. Then the base level offense number is combined with the defendant's prior criminal history, if any, to calculate the total number of months in jail for the defendant.

Examples of the base level offense range are bribery (seven to twelve), insider trading (eight), and blackmail (nine), money laundering (17 to 23) and serious drug trafficking charges (26 to 38). At lower levels each point corresponds to roughly a half-year in jail, and slightly longer in higher point ranges. For example, a base level offense of 38 for drug trafficking, with no prior criminal history (category I), corresponds to a range of 235 to 293 months in jail.

For drug offenses, the quantity of drugs (real and fake) determines the base level offense. A large amount of drugs, such as 50 kilograms, would be at the highest base offense level of 38, or about 20 years in jail.<ref>http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=5th&navby=case&no=9830759cr0</ref> If someone died as a result of the drugs, then the prison sentence can be longer. Note that the defendant himself need not be caught with the drugs; if he is associated with a group that is accused of drug trafficking, then he will often be held responsible for the actions of any other member of the group as a [[conspiracy]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Legal Terms]]

Garden

2008-10-14T23:56:33Z

NathanG: br

A '''garden''' is a plot of land set aside for the growing of [[plant]]s. Gardens differ from [[farm]]s in that gardens tend to be smaller in size, generally only approaching a few hundred square feet at their largest. Gardens generally fall into one of two categories:
*Vegetable gardens, which are usually maintained by a small amount of people (such as an individual or a family) for the purpose of providing food. Many of these are simple, backyard gardens, although the practice of [[community gardening]] is growing in urban areas. These gardens generally only contain edible plants and plants with edible parts.
*Decorative gardens, which are usually very landscaped and are used to enhance the aesthetic value of a building or plot of land. The plants in decorative gardens rarely have the primary purpose of providing food, and instead are chosen for their visual qualities. Flowering plants are common in many decorative gardens. Decorative gardens may include other items with pleasing visual qualities, such as fountains or ponds.

In desert areas, a landscaped collection of rocks is often referred to as a '''rock garden'''.

[[Category:Hobbies]][[Category:Agriculture]]

University of Arkansas

2008-10-14T22:01:38Z

NathanG: ref

{{University
|name=University of Arkansas
|image=
|text=rgb(207,15,64)
|background=
|type=Public
|city=Fayetteville, Arkansas
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, track, tennis<ref>http://www.hogwired.com/</ref>
|colors=Cardinal and White
|mascot=Razorbacks
|website=http://www.uark.edu/home/
}}
Established in 1871, '''The University of Arkansas''' is home to over 18, 647 students, and a staff of 858. It is located in Fayetteville, [[Arkansas]] on over 345 acres. The university was ranked number 124 in the National Universities category for [[U.S.]] News America’s Best Colleges in 2008.

== Fast Facts ==
'''Motto:''' Veritate Duce Progredi
(Latin, "To Advance with Truth as our Guide")

'''Established:''' 1871

'''Faculty:''' 858

'''Students:''' 18,647

'''President:''' Dr. B. Alan Sugg
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== References ==
*http://admissions.uark.edu/
*[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/directory/brief/drglance_1108_brief.php USNews Ranking/Review]

{{Nb_US_universities}}

Wei v. Bodner

2008-10-14T22:00:33Z

NathanG:

In '''''Wei v. Bodner''''', 127 F.R.D. 91 (D.N.J. 1989), a federal district court rejected a claim of privilege under [[New Jersey]] law and ordered disclosure pursuant to federal rules of procedure:

:The defendants contend that the documents sought are protected by a peer review privilege. This privilege is a matter of both New Jersey and federal statutory law. Both the state and the federal laws protect certain hospital peer review committees and their members from liability, provided that certain requirements have been met. The statutes also provide a limited privilege for the committee's activities.

:The New Jersey privilege, N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-22.8 (Supp. 1988), states that, with some exceptions, information and data obtained by utilization review committees cannot be disclosed. The privilege this statute creates is very limited. It applies only to utilization review committees, a term defined in the statute. See Young v. King, 136 N.J. Super. 127, 344 A.2d 792 (N.J. Super.L. 1975). This privilege was created to encourage participation on these committees and to further the implementation of Medicare. Id.

:Many other states have qualified peer review privileges as well. In Memorial Hospital for McHenry County v. Shadur, 664 F.2d 1058 (7th Cir. 1981), the court stated that the Illinois peer review privilege was enacted to encourage hospitals to quickly take corrective action in response to inadequate medical care. By creating a limited privilege, the act enables people to speak more freely before the committee. Id. The Robinson court notes that the Pennsylvania statutory peer review privilege also encourages open discussion in an effort to improve medical care.

:Despite the advantages gained by statutory peer review privileges, courts have consistently held these policies to be outweighed by the policies behind federal antitrust laws. See, e.g., Memorial Hospital, Quinn v. Kent General Hospital, Inc., 617 F. Supp. 1226 (D.Del. 1985), Robinson, Jiricko and Dorsten v. Lapeer County General Hospital, 88 F.R.D. 583 (E.D. Mich. 1980). Since the discovery sought goes directly to the substance of the antitrust claims and since the peer review committees can be used for anticompetitive purposes, the need for confidentiality is outweighed by the need for disclosure. See Robinson.

''Id.'' at 98-99.

The court added that "[t]he same result is generally, although less consistently, reached in other federal question cases. See, e.g., Ott v. St. Luke Hospital of Campbell County, Inc., 522 F. Supp. 706 (E.D.Ky. 1981) and Schafer v. Parkview Memorial Hospital, Inc., 593 F. Supp. 61 (N.D. Ind. 1984). But see, Doe v. St. Joseph's Hospital of Fort Wayne, 113 F.R.D. 677 (N.D.Ind. 1987)." ''Id.'' at 99 n.5.
[[Category:discovery]]
[[Category:peer review]]
[[Category:District Court Cases]]

Hazleton

2008-10-14T21:59:33Z

NathanG: formatting

'''Hazleton''' is a small town of about 30,000 people in [[Pennsylvania]], which received national attention in 2006 for passing ordinances that:

* would have imposed fines on landlords who rent to illegal immigrants
* would have required tenants to register with City Hall and buy a rental permit
* would have denied business permits to companies that hire illegal immigrants

The ordinances never took effect. Immigrants and immigrant groups sued to enjoin the ordinances and the district court struck down the ordinances in ''[[Lozano v. City of Hazleton]]'' (2007).

Less harsh community resolutions have since been upheld against legal challenge in ''[[Roe 1 v. Prince William County]]'' (2007).

[[category:Pennsylvania Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:immigration]]

Pat Roberts

2008-10-14T21:58:40Z

NathanG:

[[Image:Robertsofficialphoto.jpg|150px|right]]
'''Pat Roberts''' (born 1936) is a [[Republican]] Senator from [[Kansas]]. He graduated from [[Kansas State University]] in 1958 with a degree in Journalism, and pursued careers in both the military and in journalism before beginning his political career in 1967 by working on the staff of then-Kansas governor Frank Carlson. He served eight terms in the [[House of Representatives]] before being elected to the Senate in 1996. He was the Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee until the [[Democratic Party]] took over the Senate following the 2006 elections.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Roberts, Pat}}
[[Category:United States Senators]]

[[Category:Republican Party]]
[[Category: 110th United States Congress]]

Grant Wood

2008-10-14T21:42:42Z

NathanG: br

[[Image:Grant Wood American Gothic.jpg|thumb|American Gothic]]
'''Grant Wood''' ( born on February 13, 1891 - d. February 12, 1942) American [[painter]]. He is best known for his paintings depicting the American Midwest.

<blockquote>
He was hailed as an Iowa Moses who had come to lead American art into the Promised Land. [http://www.trivia-library.com/a/biography-of-famous-american-painter-and-artist-grant-wood.htm]
</blockquote>

==See also==
*[[American Painting]]
*[[Gallery of American Masterpieces]]

==External links==
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4748148 The Story Behind Grant Wood's 'American Gothic']
*[http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/6aa/6aa56.htm Grant Wood At 5 Turner Alley]
*[http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/wood_grant.html Grant Wood] ARTCYCLOPEDIA.

[[Image:Wood Spring in the Country.jpg|200px]]

'''Spring in the Country'''

[[Category:Painters]]

Christian apologetics of C.S. Lewis

2008-10-14T20:49:00Z

NathanG: /* cleaning */ template "expand" redirects finished

{{merge|C.S. Lewis}}
{{stub}}

'''C. S. Lewis''''s genius, his breadth of scholarship, his adult conversion from [[atheism]] to [[Christianity]], his love of argument in the context of true friendship, his gift as a powerful communicator, all establish Lewis's methods as an [[Christian apologetics|apologetical]] model second to none.<ref>'''Lindsley, Art''', ''C.S. Lewis's Case for Christ: Insights from Reason, Imagination and Faith'' InterVarsity Press (2005) ISBN 0-8308-3285-8</ref> ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' was voted the best book of the twentieth century by ''[[Christianity Today]]'' magazine in 2000. Over fifty books have been published to his credit, and annual book sales remain over two million, with more than 200 million copies of his books sold worldwide. All have never been out of print, and there are more than 200 individual fan clubs, readers groups and C.S. Lewis societies around the world.<ref>''A portrait of C.S. Lewis'' [http://www.intouch.org/myintouch/mighty/portraits/cs_lewis_159765.html In Touch Ministries] (2006)</ref><ref>'''Duncan, John Ryan''', ''The Magic Never Ends: The Life & Work of C.S. Lewis'', London: Thomas Nelson (2001) ISBN 0-8499-1718-2</ref>

==References==
<references/>

Evita (musical)

2008-10-14T20:47:46Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Evita''' is a musical based on the life of [[Eva Peron]], written by [[Tim Rice]] and [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]] and first produced (as an album) in 1976. The first stage production was in 1978 and a film of the musical starring Madonna in the title role was released in 1996.

[[category:musicals]]
[[category:movies]]

Jamestown Massacre

2008-10-14T20:47:11Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''Jamestown Massacre''' of 1622 was the massacre of over 300 white settlers of [[Jamestown]] by the Powhatan Confederacy.

[[category:United States History]]

William Cavendish

2008-10-14T20:47:04Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''William Cavendish''', 4th Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (1720 - October 2 1764), Lord Cavendish of Hardwick (prior to 1729), Marquess of Hartington (1729 - 1755) was the [[Prime Minister]] of [[Great Britain]] from 1756 until 1757.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Cavendish, William}}
[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]

Thomas Pelham-Holles

2008-10-14T20:46:55Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Thomas Pelham-Holles''', 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and 1st Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme, KG, PC (July 21 1693 - November 17 1768) was the [[Prime Minister]] of [[Great Britain]] from 1754 until 1756, and again from 1757 until 1762.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pelham-Holles, Thomas }}
[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]

Henry Pelham

2008-10-14T20:46:45Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Henry Pelham''' (September 25 1694 - March 6 1754) was the [[Prime Minister]] of [[Great Britain]] from 1743 until his death in 1754.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Pelham, Henry}}

[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]

Spencer Compton

2008-10-14T20:46:36Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Spencer Compton''', 1st Earl of Wilmington, KG, KB, PC (1673 - July 2 1743) was the [[Prime Minister]] of [[Great Britain]] from 1742 until his death in 1743.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Compton, Spencer}}
[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]

Robert Walpole

2008-10-14T20:46:27Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Sir Robert Walpole''' 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC (August 26 1676 - March 18 1745) was the first [[Prime Minister]] of [[Great Britain]], although the term title was not officially used at this time. He took office in 1721 and held it until he resigned in 1742, making his administration the longest in British history.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Walpole, Robert }}
[[Category:United Kingdom Prime Ministers]]

James Strang

2008-10-14T20:46:17Z

NathanG:

'''James J. Strang''' was a [[Mormon]] leader considered a Mormon Prophet by his supporters, who led a breakaway group of Mormons to Old Voree near Burlington, [[Wisconsin]] following the assassination of [[Joseph Smith]]. Strang's church was known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and was led by Strang from 1844 to 1856. After Joseph Smith was assassinated there was a dispute over who was Smith's successor, with [[Brigham Young]], Strang, and a few others each claiming the title and Strang and Young mutually excommunicating each other from the church. Brigham Young led the largest group of followers to [[Utah]], while Strang led his followers to Wisconsin. Strang claimed to find an additional book of scripture called the ''Book of the Law of the Lord''. Strang was himself assassinated in 1856 and many of his former followers went back to [[Missouri]], with many of them eventually joining the [[Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]].

There are approximately 400 Strangite Mormons still residing in the proximity of the original settlement.

{{stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Strang, James}}
[[Category:LDS Church]]

Librarian

2008-10-14T20:45:58Z

NathanG:

A '''librarian''' is an information professional trained in [[library]] science.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Libraries]]

Lipizzan

2008-10-14T20:45:51Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''Lipizzan''', or '''Lipizzaner''' ([[Slovene]] ''Lipicanec''), is a breed of horse associated with [[Vienna|Vienna's]] [[Spanish Riding School]], where the white horses are trained to perform the elegant movements of classical [[dressage]]. The breed dates back to the 16th century, when it was developed for the [[Habsburg]] emperors.

==External links==
*[http://www.srs.at/index.php?id=265 Spanische Hofreitschule] Spanish Riding School official website

Futuroscope

2008-10-14T20:45:41Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''Parc du Futuroscope''' is a [[France|French]] theme park and high-tech [[college]] near [[Poitiers]].

==External links==
*[http://www.futuroscope.com/ Futuroscope.com]

Renfrewshire

2008-10-14T20:45:27Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}

'''Renfrewshire''' is a [[Scottish]] [[County]].

[[Category:Scottish Counties and Regions]]

Scientific Classification

2008-10-14T20:45:11Z

NathanG: ...

{{merge with|Linnaean taxonomy}}
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[[Image:Biological classification.png|right|thumb|150px|Classification chart]]
'''Scientific Classification''' is the method by which [[Biology|biologists]] group and categorize species of organisms. All species of life are classified in a ranked hierarchy, starting with [[Domain]]s, which are then divided into [[kingdom (biology)|Kingdoms]]. Kingdoms are divided into [[Phylum|Phyla]] (singular: ''phylum''), which are further divided into [[Class (Taxonomy)|Classes]], and they, in turn, into [[Order (Taxonomy)|Orders]], [[Family (Taxonomy)|Families]], [[Genus|Genera]] (singular: ''genus''), and [[Species]]. The ranks below species are, in [[zoology]], [[Subspecies]] and [[Morph]], and in [[botany]], [[Variety]] (''varietas'') and [[Form]] (''forma'').

With advances in knowledge and the discovery of more varied species, the ranks have been further subdivided to allow the precise classification of the relationships of similar species to each other.

Scientific Classification

2008-10-14T20:45:03Z

NathanG: br

Scientific Classification

2008-10-14T20:44:46Z

NathanG:

{{merge with|Linnaean taxonomy}}
[[Image:Biological classification.png|right|thumb|150px|Classification chart]]
'''Scientific Classification''' is the method by which [[Biology|biologists]] group and categorize species of organisms. All species of life are classified in a ranked hierarchy, starting with [[Domain]]s, which are then divided into [[kingdom (biology)|Kingdoms]]. Kingdoms are divided into [[Phylum|Phyla]] (singular: ''phylum''), which are further divided into [[Class (Taxonomy)|Classes]], and they, in turn, into [[Order (Taxonomy)|Orders]], [[Family (Taxonomy)|Families]], [[Genus|Genera]] (singular: ''genus''), and [[Species]]. The ranks below species are, in [[zoology]], [[Subspecies]] and [[Morph]], and in [[botany]], [[Variety]] (''varietas'') and [[Form]] (''forma'').

With advances in knowledge and the discovery of more varied species, the ranks have been further subdivided to allow the precise classification of the relationships of similar species to each other.
{{stub}}

Young Americans for Freedom

2008-10-14T20:44:38Z

NathanG:

'''Young Americans for Freedom''' was founded in 1960 as a [[conservative]] student group on college campuses. Chapters of YAF still exist on some campuses today.

{{stub}}

Fox

2008-10-14T20:44:31Z

NathanG:

{{Taxonomy|image = Vulpes vulpes.jpg|kingdom = Animalia|phylum = Chordata|subphylum = Vertebrata|class = Mammalia|order = Carnivora|suborder = Caniformia |family = Canidae|subfamily = caninae|genus = Vulpes|species = V. vulpes (Red Fox) V. velox (Swift Fox) V. macrotis (Kit Fox) V. corsac (Steppe Fox) V. chama (Cape Fox) V. pallida (Pale Fox) V. bengalensis (Bengal Fox) V. ferrilata (Tibetan Fox) V. cana (Blanford's Fox) V. rueppelli (Rueppell's Fox) V. zerda ([[Fennec fox|Fennec Fox]])|footnotes = <center>'''''Genus: Alopex''' A. lagopus ([[Arctic Fox]])'' '''''Genus: Urocyon''' U. cinereoargenteus (Gray Fox)'' ''U. littoralis (Island Fox) ''</center>}}

''For the TV network, click [[Fox Network|here]]''

The '''fox''' is a [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[mammal]] of the [[dog|canine]] family. It has a bushy tail and red fur, although there are different kinds, like the white [[Arctic fox]] which lives in the [[snow]]y [[Arctic]]. Foxes are known for their intelligence, leading to phrases such as "cunning like a fox".

As foxes live on land, the [[Bible|biblical account]] records that they were created by [[God]] on [[Genesis#The_Creation|the sixth day of creation]].

[[Category:Canines]]

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Cranium

2008-10-14T20:43:51Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''cranium''' is the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]] which contain the [[brain]].

Dermis

2008-10-14T20:43:39Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''dermis''' is a layer of skin beneath the [[epidermis]] consisting of connective tissue.
[[Category:Anatomy]]

Kantianism

2008-10-14T20:43:24Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Kantianism''' is a [[rationalism|rationalistic]] [[deontology]] first created by the philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]]. It is based upon the idea known as the [[Categorical Imperative]], which states that one should not act in accordance with a maxim unless one would be willing for it to also be a universal law.

[[Category:Philosophical systems]]

Charles Comiskey

2008-10-14T20:43:10Z

NathanG:

'''Charles Comiskey''' was a [[Major League Baseball]] player, manager, and team owner. He played and managed the [[St.Louis Brown Stockings]] from 1882-1887. He then owned several other non-Major League teams and finally bought the [[Chicago White Sox]] in 1900. He died in 1931 and was inducted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] in 1939.

{{stub}}

Nashville, Tennessee

2008-10-14T20:43:00Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Nashville''' is the capital city of [[Tennessee]]. Nashville is the second largest city in Tennessee by population ([[Memphis]] being the first). Nashville was originally founded as Fort Nashborough named after [[Francis Nash]] a general killed in the [[Revolutionary War]].

[[Category:United States Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:US State Capitals]]
[[Category:Tennessee]]

Monte Cassino

2008-10-14T20:42:46Z

NathanG:

[[Image:MontecasinoAbbey1.jpg‎|right|thumb|Ancient Abbey Montecassino]]
'''Monte Cassino''' is a small hilltop in [[Italy]], about 80 miles south of [[Rome]], Italy, a mile to the west of the town of Cassino, for which it is named. This unlikely hill has been thrust to prominence several times in past centuries.

The Montecassino Monastery, was founded by St. Benedict about 529 of the Christian Era on the remnants of a preexisting Roman fortification of the municipium Casinum. The heathen cult was still practised on this mountain site in the temple of Apollo and in a nearby holy grove next to a sacrifice area adjoining it.

Montecassino became famous for the prodigious life and the Sepulchre of its Founder. Throughout the ages, the abbey has looked upon as a place of holiness, culture and art for which it became renowned on world-wide.

== The Battle of Monte Cassino, World War II ==
[[Image:Montecassino2_map.gif‎ ‎|right|350px|thumb|Battle of Monte Cassino]]

The Battle of Monte Cassino consisted of four separate battles fought over the course of five months. Forces from the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Poland]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], [[Free France]], [[India]], and others were involved among the [[Allies]].

The key significance of these battles was it led to the eventual linkup between the Anzio pocket in the south and Allied troops trapped farther north. The linkup of forces led to the eventual capture of Rome, the first Axis capital to fall in the war.

The Allies had two main objectives: (1) To draw the Germans away from the Anzio beach-head, and then (2) To drive quickly towards Rome.

The Allies had twenty-one divisions and eleven brigades opposing fourteen German divisions and three brigades.

German casualties, caused by the attack on March 15th and the heavy artillery fire, was severe. A March 23rd diary entry of a high ranking XIV Corps officer states that the post-battle strength of the battalions engaged varied from 40 to 120 men.

The fourth and final assault on Monte Cassino resulted in an Allied victory, but only because the Allies decided to overwhelm the Germans through sheer weight of numbers. Simultaneously, the Germans had weakened their positions prior to the battle by withdrawing some troops to France.

The breakthrough at Cassino meant that the Allies were able (within a week's time) to join up with the Anzio beach head and then to capture Rome. The loss did considerable damage to Axis morale.

==The Monte Cassino Cross==

Initial allied assaults led by American and British forces were unable to take Monte Cassino Abbey from the Germans. For the final assault on the Abbey the Polish 2nd Corps took their place and were successful in taking Monte Cassino after three weeks of fierce fighting and exposure to heavy enemy fire from the mountainous terrain around the Abbey.

Upon taking the Abbey, the Poles raised the flag of Poland over the ruins of the monastery.

To commemorate the victory and the gallantry of their soldiers, the Polish government (then in exile) created the Monte Cassino Cross to honor those who fought in the campaign. A total of 48,498 crosses were awarded to Polish soldiers who took part in the battle.

==Rebuilding of the Abbey==
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[[Image:Monstry.gif|left|2000px|thumb|Abbey Montecassino in 1944.]]The ancient monastery had been reduced to cinders and rubble. The Abbey was rebuilt in the following decade according to the ancient architectural pattern.
[[Image:AbbeyMontecassino.jpg‎ |right|250px|thumb|Modern Abbey Montecassino]]

==References==
*http://www.polishnews.com/fulltext/history/2002/history17.shtml

[[Category:World War II Battles]]
[[Category:Italy]]

Samaria

2008-10-14T20:42:22Z

NathanG:

[[Image:Samaria map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Click map to enlarge]]
'''Samaria''', also known as the '''Shomron''' ([[Hebrew]]: '''שֹׁמְרוֹן ''') refers to the region between [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]].

The name is derived from the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Israel, the city of Samaria, which was located near the center of modern Samaria. It is also referred to as the [[West Bank]].

==External Links==
http://scriptures.lds.org/en/biblephotos/18 Photographs of Scriptural Sites: Dothan in Samaria, scriptures.lds.org

{{stub}}

[[category:Israel]][[category:Judaism]]

Boyar

2008-10-14T20:42:15Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
A '''Boyar''' ([[Russian]]: боярин) was a rank of the social aristocracy of the eastern [[Slavs]]. In [[Russia]], it was the second highest behind only the princes. The Boyars played a very important role in Russian history.

Grey Wagtail

2008-10-14T20:42:08Z

NathanG:

{{Taxonomy|image = Grey Wagtail.jpg|kingdom = Animalia|phylum = Chordata|subphylum = Vertebrata|class = Aves|order = Passeriformes|suborder = Passeri |family = Motacillidae|genus = Motacilla|species = cinerea}}
{{stub}}

[[Category:Birds]]

Yevstafiy Dashkevych

2008-10-14T20:40:10Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
'''Yevstafiy Dashkevych''' was a [[hetman]] of the [[Ukrainian Kozak]]s.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dashkevych, Yevstafiy }}

[[Category:Hetmans of Ukrainian Kozaks]]

Bohdan Khmelnytsky

2008-10-14T20:39:50Z

NathanG:

[[Image:Khmelnytsky.jpg|right|thumb|Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
[[image:166px-BChmielnicki.jpg|thumb|right| ''Bohdan Khmelnytsky'']]
'''Bohdan Zynovi Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky''' ([[Ukrainian]]: Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький, [[Polish]]: ''Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki'') (1595-August 6, 1657) was the [[hetman]] of the [[Ukrainian Kozak]]s. He led the famous revolt against the [[Polish Commonwealth]] in 1648-1654.

==Background==
Khmelnytsky was born into a family of [[Ukrainian]] lesser nobility. His father, [[Mykhailo Khmelnytsky]], served in the [[Polish]] [[military]], and his mother was a descendent of [[Ukrainian Kozak|kozaks]]. His birth place is unknown. He was schooled in [[Ukrainian]] and later in [[Polish]] by the [[Jesuit]]s. Khmelnytsky was an [[Orthodox Christian]]. He was married to Hanna Somko and they settled on his estate near [[Chyhyryn]].

There is little known of his earliest military activities. His first action was at the [[Battle of Cecora]] in 1620. He was captured and held in [[Turkey]] for two years until his mother ransomed him. He rose through the [[military]] ranks, becoming a military chancellor in 1637. Khmelnytsky's reputation gradually rose, and in 1638 he visited [[Warsaw]] as part of a [[Ukrainian Kozak|Kozak]] emissary delegation to petition the [[Polish]] King [[Władysław IV Vasa]] to grant the [[Ukrainian Kozak|Kozaks]] their ancient rights. In 1645, he took part in the siege of [[Dunkirk]], [[France]].

Khmelnytsky began to come in conflict with the other [[Polish]] landowners in [[Ukraine]]. In 1651, while Khmelnytsky was on campaign, [[Daniel Czapliński]], who had a personal grudge against him, raided his estate causing property damage, killing his wife, and severely beating his young son. [[Aleksander Koniecpolski]], another Polish noble, put out a warrant for Khmelnytsky's arrest and execution. Khmelnytsky hid out with other Kozaks, then fled to the [[Zaporozhian Sich]] were he was elected [[hetman]] in 1647.

==Uprising==
{{stub}}

==Legacy==
[[Image:Banknote.gif|thumb|right|Khmelnytsky on a 5 Hryvnia Banknote]]
In [[Ukraine]], Khmelnytsky is viewed as a national hero. He appears on the five [[Hryvnia]] banknote, and a city is named after him. Some Ukrainians are critical of his decision to ally himself with [[Russia]], knowing the disastrous effects that this had on Ukraine. Others say that he did what he thought was best for Ukraine at the time. In [[Poland]], Khmelnytsky is viewed as a villain. Many blame him for Poland's weakness following his rebellion and the countries subsequent disappearance via the partitions. Khmelnytsky is also viewed as a villain by the [[Jew]]s. Khmelnytsky and his [[Ukrainian Kozak|Kozaks]] needlessly slaughtered thousands of Jews during their rebellion. The reason for this was [[anti-Semitism]] and the belief that the Jews "exploited" them.

===In Literature===
[[Image:BkMykolaIvansiuk.jpg|thumb|right|Mykola Ivasiuk's ''"Bohdan Khmelnytsky Entering [[Kyiv]]"'']]
Khmelnytsky is one of the main characters in the [[Polish]] novel ''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' (Polish: ''Ogniem i mieczem'') by [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]. The book is about his uprising and was written from the Polish perspective, thus it portrays him and the [[Ukrainian Kozak|kozaks]] in a bad light. The book was also made into a movie, that was more balanced and fair that the book.

==References==
Orest Subtelny. ''Ukraine. A history.'' University of Toronto press. 1993.

Lukowski, Jerzy. ''A Concise History of Poland''. Cambridge: University Press, 2001.

Ivan Krypyakevych. ''History of Ukraine.'' New York: Shkilnoyi Rady, 1961.

Dimont, Max I. ''Jews, God, and History''. New York: Signet, 1962.

==Links==
[http://www.lvivbest.com/Sections+index-req-viewarticle-artid-144-page-1.html Biography]

http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\K\H\KhmelnytskyBohdan.htm Encyclopedia of Ukraine Entry

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khmelnytsky, Bohdan}}
[[category:Ukraine]]
[[category:Hetmans of Ukrainian Kozaks]]

Salary Grab Act

2008-10-14T20:38:08Z

NathanG:

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The '''Salary Grab Act''' was passed in 1873, and it served to enact a retroactive 100% pay raise for the [[president]] and 50% pay raise for [[Congress]]. Due to public outcry, the act was later repealed.

[[category:United States History]]

Continental Army

2008-10-14T20:38:00Z

NathanG: /* cleaning */ template redirects

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The '''Continental Army''' was the army of the unified 13 [[American]] [[colony|colonies]] during the [[Revolutionary War]].

It was established by the [[Continental Congress]] in 1775, and disbanded when the [[United States Congress]] created the [[United States Army]] in 1784.

[[category:American Revolutionary War]]

Nicaraguan Revolution

2008-10-14T20:37:34Z

NathanG:

{{stub}}
The '''Nicaraguan Revolution''' was a revolution that happened in [[Nicaragua]] which brought [[Marxist]] [[Daniel Ortega]] into power. This revolution was funded with [[Cuba]]n money and weapons.

John W. Hinckley

2008-10-14T20:37:26Z

NathanG: br

'''John W. Hinckley''' was the attempted assassin of [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]].

On 30 March 1981, he fired six times at the President, who was leaving the [[Washington D.C.]] Hilton Hotel. Reagan suffered a serious chest wound. Also shot were Press Secretary [[James Brady]], a police officer, and a [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] agent. All of them survived. After his recovery, Reagan's popularity increased.

Hinckley purchased the gun outside the District of Columbia, which has some of the most restrictive [[gun control]] ordinances in the nation.

Hinckley was tried in 1982, and found not guilty by reason of insanity. To this day he is held in a psychiatric hospital, but there is a push for his release.{{fact}}

The Democrat-controlled [[House of Representatives]] and [[gun control]] [[activist]]s used the incident to press for new [[federal]] legislation. The variance of state and local laws, and lack of information sharing that allowed a man with a history of mental illness to purchase a gun, became the pretext for [[regulating]] purchasers and sellers of guns, many who were also [[NRA]] members and enthusiastically supported President Reagan in 1980. Sarah and Jim Brady were invited to testify.

Timothy McCarty, the secret service agent shot by Hinkley, campaigned against the availability of cheap handguns available to criminals. President [[Bill Clinton]] signed the [[Brady Bill]] into law. The bill included a federal mandatory waiting period before purchasing a handgun.<ref>[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/usr/wbardwel/public/nfalist/brady_act.txt Text of the Brady Bill]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.saf.org/LawReviews/Aborn1.html The Battle over the Brady Bill]</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[category:United States History]]
[[Category:Criminals]]