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Xesibeland

2019-03-20T13:29:33Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>'''Xesibeland''' is a region in [[South Africa]] lying between Griqualand East and Pondoland; which was annexed to Cape Colony in [[1886]].<ref>{{nuttall|Xesibeland}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:South Africa]]

Agricultural Adjustment Administration

2019-03-20T13:29:32Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>[[File:Farm-bill.jpg|thumb|350px|Would FDR steamroller over traditional American values?]]
The '''Agricultural Adjustment Administration''' (AAA) was the largest of many farm programs under the [[New Deal]]. The goal was to increase the flow of income to farmers so they could reach "[[Parity]]" with urban America. The first AAA lasted 1933-35; the second one 1938-41.

The AAA was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] (and future [[Vice president|Vice President]]),<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 WALLACE, Henry Agard, (1888 - 1965)], Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</ref> so-called "farm dictator"<ref>"[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 ROOSEVELT IS URGED TO ASK WIDE POWER AS 'FARM DICTATOR'; Leaders Visit the White House to Propose He Act as He Did in Bank Case. PRICE FIXING IS INCLUDED Wallace Conference Agrees on Plan for Land Leasing and Market Supervision. FARM DICTATOR' IS NOW PROPOSED]," ''The New York Times'', March 12, 1933, p. 1. Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms." Soviet intelligence source ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow], 9 September 1944, Venona, Central Security Service [National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive]) Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, "The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]"; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of "'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it—[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline "[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY]." In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote "I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help." (Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' [New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007] ISBN 0743246012, p. 185)</ref> [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly "most impressed" with [[USSR|Soviet]] collective farming.<ref>[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Henry Agard Wallace, 33rd Vice President (1941-1945)], Art & History, United States Senate</ref> Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948, as the candidate of the Progressive Party—a creation of the [[CPUSA|Communist Party]],<ref>Barry Loberfeld, "[http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 The Real Meaning of 'Progressive' Politics]," FrontPageMagazine.com, September 28, 2004</ref> originating in [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party."<ref>Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291)</ref> The Progressive Party would dissolve in 1955, after the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited it on its list of subversive organizations, identified as a Communist front.<ref>[http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Independent Progressive], joincalifornia.com</ref> Wallace said if he were to become President, he would appoint Soviet agent<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow], 19 November 1944, Venona, Central Security Service (National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive)</ref> Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State;<ref>Ethan Bronner, "[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy]," ''New York Times'', October 18, 1998</ref> had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President. Wallace would finally recant his support for the [[Soviet Union]]<ref>Linda Rodriguez, "[https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html A celebration of almost-great men]," CNN, May 9, 2008</ref> in 1952.<ref>Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952</ref>

At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million<ref>Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807, p. 306</ref> people through collectivization of agriculture),<ref>Peter Finn, "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html Aftermath of a Soviet Famine]," ''Washington Post'', April 27, 2008</ref> the AAA curtailed U.S. farm production<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration Agricultural Adjustment Administration], ''Encyclopedia Britannica''</ref> in order to drive up food prices<ref>James D. Hamilton, [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html The New Deal and the Great Depression], Econbrowser.com, January 10, 2007</ref> in the depths of the [[Great Depression]]. According to ex-Marxist<ref>Ray Sawhill, "[http://www.salon.com/books/int/1999/11/10/sowell Black and right]," Salon.com, November 10, 1999</ref> economist Thomas Sowell:
{{cquote|During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.<ref>Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56</ref>}}
As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'': "Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices."<ref>Gene Smiley, [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html Great Depression], The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (econlib.org)</ref> One study found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about seven years.<ref>Meg Sullivan, [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx FDR's policies prolonged Depression by 7 years, UCLA economists calculate], ''UCLA Newsroom'', August 10, 2004. Cf. Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian, "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/421169 New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis]," ''The Journal of Political Economy'', Vol. 112, No. 4 (August 2004), pp. 779-816; Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian, [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis] (Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staﬀ Report XXX), February 2003 (Archived copy [http://web.archive.org/web/20110722041438/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf here])</ref>

By reducing farm production, according to Cornell University agricultural economist James E. Boyle, the AAA was responsible for throwing some two million American farm workers out of work.<ref>James E. Boyle, "The AAA: An Epitaph," ''The Atlantic Monthly'', Vol. 157, No. 2 (February 1936), pp. 217-225. In the case of cotton, "the 1933 plow-up of the crop would aid many Arkansas cotton growers but slighted and ultimately displaced large numbers of the state's tenant farmers and sharecroppers." Keith J. Volanto, "[http://www.pccua.edu/keough/aaa_cotton_plow_up.htm The AAA cotton plow-up campaign in Arkansas]," ''Arkansas Historical Quarterly'' (Fayetteville: Arkansas Historical Association, Department of History, University of Arkansas) Vol. 59, Iss. 4 (Winter 2000), pp. 388</ref> While the AAA raised the prices farmers could charge for food, the [[National Recovery Administration]] raised the price farmers had to pay for manufactured goods even more; as a result, farmers actually lost ground under these New Deal programs, becoming on net worse off.<ref>For farmers, "the net loss from the pre-recession level was greater among prices received than among prices paid." (Frederick C. Mills, ''[http://www.nber.org/books/mill36-1 Prices in Recession and Recovery: A Survey of Recent Changes]'' [National Bureau of Economic Research, 1936] ISBN 0-87014-030-2, p. 239) Cf. "Although overall farm incomes increased, farmers actually found themselves worse off because FDR’s NRA had been even more successful in forcing up the prices that consumers, including farmers, had to pay for manufactured goods." (Jim Powell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HDLgbQ38v_wC FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression]'' (Random House Digital, Inc., 2004) ISBN 140005477X, pp. 136-137)</ref>

==Rationale==
Both versions of AAA were designed primarily to solve the economic crisis in rural America—farmers had too little money because they produced too much and the prices they received were very low. Under President [[Herbert Hoover]], the Federal Farm Board in 1931-32 repeatedly urged farmers to cut production so that the abysmally low prices could be lifted; that was a good idea for everyone, but for each individual farmer it was better to grow as much as possible, thus resulting in more surplus and even lower prices. The farmers welcomed help from the New Deal, but instead of the crop-reduction plan those more on the left wanted a "cost of production" scheme that would have involved vast subsidies. They wanted prices set by the government (as happened in World War I), but the new Secretary of Agriculture [[Henry A. Wallace]], rejected price fixing, explaining it had worked during the war because demand was much higher than supply, but that exports had shru nk and supply was now much higher than demand.

The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) (P.L. 73-10 of May 12, 1933) restricted production by reducing crop acreage and animal production. The first AAA used the "domestic allotment" system to tell farmers how many acres to use. Producers of corn, cotton,<ref>In 1936 the Bureau of Agricultural Economics reported that in the case of cotton, farm income would have been at least as high, if not higher, in the absence of the AAA. (Leander D. Howell and John Sanderlain Burgess, ''Farm Prices of Cotton as related to its Grade and Staple Length in the United States, Seasons 1928-29 to 1932-33'' [U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin no. 493, 1936]). Cf. Thomas E. Woods, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ltSIOnW6XLsC The politically incorrect guide to American history]'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 0895260476, p. 147</ref> dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat would decide on production limits for their output. Every farmer was told how much of their land to use. Farmers rented their unused their land directly to the government and were paid for that. They were not allowed to grow crops on this rented land, and if any had started in spring 1933 they had to be plowed over. A farmer could refuse to participate, but then would have a 50% tax on his sales. They all participated. Processors had to pay a new tax to the federal government, which was used for the rental payments to farmers. The rental income was new cash into rural America. More important, the farm output was lower so the prices of crops and animals increased, thus solving the problem of very low crop prices.

The AAA was led by George Peek and Chester Davis, under the general supervision of Agriculture Secretary [[Henry A. Wallace]]. When left-wing elements in the AAA tried to slip through provisions to build a political base among sharecroppers, they were immediately fired by Davis, with the explicit approval of Wallace and President Roosevelt.

The goal was to increase farm prices up to the point of "parity." "Parity" was the relationship between urban and rural costs that prevailed in 1910-14, in the "golden age" of farming.

Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal. Consumers paid higher prices than in 1932-33, but food was still 25% lower in price than in the 1920-31 period.<ref>For detailed price data see [http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1938-06.pdf ''Statistical Abstract: 1938'' (1939) ch 13 pp 306ff]; for farm income see ''ibid.'' ch 25 pp. 616ff</ref> A Gallup Poll revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA, but the majorities existed in Congress to pass it. The AAA established an important and long-lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy.
[[Image:Food$21-40.jpg|right]]

===Sharecroppers and the 1935 purge of the far left===
One criticism from the left was that in the cotton belt South the AAA favored rich landowners over the impoverished tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The allegation was false but was widely spread in history books. (The AAA required land owners to maintain the same number of tenants and croppers as before.)

In 1933-35 a group of leftist lawyers had moved into the Agriculture department, led by Jerome Frank. They were big city people who were on the [[far left]]; several were secret Communists or fellow travelers.<ref>One who later became infamous as a Soviet spy was [[Alger Hiss]]. Jess Gilbert, "Eastern Urban Liberals and Midwestern Agrarian Intellectuals: Two Group Portraits of Progressives in the New Deal Department of Agriculture," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 74, No. 2 (Spring, 2000), pp. 162-180 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3744845 in JSTOR]</ref> They wanted to use the New Deal farm program to redistribute income and power AMONG farmers—they favored the tenant farmers and sharecroppers as opposed to the farm owners. (The "conservatives" wanted to raise farm incomes so that farmers would regain their historic [[parity]] with urbanites.)

The AAA head was Chester Davis, an "agrarian" who belonged to the more "conservative" faction that deeply distrusted the leftists as un-American. The agrarians issued the rule that (in cotton) a landowner had to keep the ''same number'' of croppers. The red position was the landowner had to keep the same number ''and the same people'' as croppers. The radical solution would have the effect of locking the croppers to a piece of land—something like serfdom did in old regime Europe. The radicals wanted that so they could eventually build a stable base of voters among the croppers (who otherwise moved so often they seldom could be mobilized.)

One day in early 1935 Davis was on a trip and the legal office got the acting head to send out a ruling (written by Hiss) that froze tenant farmers on the land they rented. Davis was outraged as were southern farm owners, the [[Farm Bureau]] (the main national organization of farmers) and nearly all politicians. Davis got approval from Wallace and in Feb. 1935 fired the main leaders. The leftists appealed to Wallace and FDR but they approved the purge and the urban liberals lost their voice in the AAA.<ref>Lawrence J. Nelson, "The Art of the Possible: Another Look at the 'Purge' of the AAA Liberals in 1935.' ''Agricultural History'' 1983 57(4): 416-435. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3742633 in JSTOR]</ref>

The radical plan failed in the AAA because of the 1935 purge, but then [[Rex Tugwell]], forced out of the AAA, and other leftists tried to mobilize the sharecroppers and tenants through two new agencies, the "Resettlement Administration" (RA) and the "[[Farm Security Administration]]" (FSA). Their efforts failed because the tenants wanted money to buy land and become landowners and the reds saw that meant losing the proletariat. During World War II most of the sharecroppers and tenants (white and black) left farming and moved to town for much better paying jobs.

==Goals==
The idea of raising farm prices by cutting production was developed in the 1920s by Professor M. L. Wilson of Montana State University. The idea was a) it would raise city prices a little and farm income a lot; and 2) it was assumed that farmers (not city folk) are the best citizens and they deserve special protection and support.

<TABLE BORDER>
<TR> <TD>
Parity</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1910-14</TD><TD>
100</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1915-19</TD><TD>
109</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1920-24</TD><TD>
89</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1925-29</TD><TD>
91</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1930-34</TD><TD>
69</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1935-39</TD><TD>
86</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1940-44</TD><TD>
100</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1945-49</TD><TD>
109</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
1950-54</TD><TD>
98</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Source: Don Paarlberg, ''The Agricultural Revolution of the 20th Century (2001)'' p 183 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7xYewA8coD4C&pg=PA128&dq=parity+1910-1914&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=parity%201910-1914&f=false online]</TD> </TR>
</TABLE>

==100 Days==

In President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]’s Inaugural Address, Roosevelt spoke of redressing “the overbalance of population in our industrial centers” by an unspecified “redistribution” of the population to the countryside. This would somehow make farmers out of the unemployed. At the same time, though, there would be efforts “to raise the values of agricultural products.” Roosevelt referred to the need for “[[Economic planning|national planning]]”.<ref>[http://www.independent.org/publications/article.asp?id=1468 ''FDR: The Man, the Leader, the Legacy''], Ralph Raico, Future of Freedom Foundation, April 1, 2001. Retrieved from The Independent Institute.org 06/17/07.</ref>

In May when the AAA began its operations, the agricultural season was already under way. In effect, the agency oversaw a large-scale destruction of existing crops and livestock in an attempt to reduce surpluses. For example, 6,200,000 pigs and 220,000 mother sows were slaughtered in the AAA's effort to raise prices at a cost of over $30,000,000.

The conservative [[American Liberty League]] referred to the economic planning of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration as "a trend toward fascist control of agriculture."

==Cattle==
At first cattlemen refused with pride the early efforts of New Deal government supervision in 1933. As drought and depression swept the range, however, there was a reluctant reversal of their earlier position, especially in Texas. The AAA launched a massive emergency beef purchasing to reduce the number of cattle on the drought-blighted ranges. After some two million head of cattle were slaughtered from the Texas herds alone, the emergency program was halted, over the protests of the cattlemen. The AAA urged them to join the New Deal controls program, but they refused. Eventually, as cattle prices began to climb again, Texas cattlemen felt vindicated in their independent stance and untainted by participation in a government-controlled economy. The ranchers remained outside the government programs.<ref>C. Roger Lambert, "Texas Cattlemen and the AAA, 1933-1935." ''Arizona & the West'' 1972 14(2): 137-154; Lambert, "The Drought Cattle Purchase, 1934-1935: Problems and Complaints," ''Agricultural History'' 1971 45(2): 85-93 [ http://www.jstor.org/stable/3742072 in JSTOR]</ref>
==Prosperity returns==
By 1936 conditions had dramatically improved in agriculture. Although the holy grail of 100% parity was not reached until 1943, incomes were much higher rising from $4.7 billion in 1932 to $8.7 billion in 1936. The heavy burden of debt that had soured the 1920s was mostly paid off or refinanced. The chimerical vision of escaping to the rich cities no longer enthralled the farm youth.

The main causes of the return to prosperity include the overall improved national economy, the severe draught of 1934 that reduced output and caused prices to rise. The AAA payments to farmers were a help. The acreage reduction program had little effect except in cotton and tobacco. In other crops the farmers improved their efficiency on the remaining acreage and output stayed level. In cotton and tobacco, however, prices were much higher and since the great majority of Southerners lived in rural areas and depended on these crops, the New Deal was very well regarded.<ref>Benedict, ''Farm Policies,'' p 353</ref>

==Unconstitutional and 2nd AAA==
In the two years of the first AAA's existence it distributed some $700 million to farmers to restrict production and keep farm prices high.

The first AAA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the case [[United States v. Butler]] because it gave too much power to the Executive branch. In 1937 Congress then rewrote the law, creating a '''second AAA''' that achieved part of the original Act's goals with the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 until the enactment of a second AAA (P.L. 75-430) on February 16, 1938. This second AAA was funded from general taxation, and therefore acceptable to the Supreme Court. It represented a bipartisan approach, as did the addition of an "ever normal granary" program in 1938. By 1940 Republicans and Democrats were in general agreement on farm policy. During World War II, all restrictions were ended and farmers were encouraged to plant as much as possible. However, there was a price cap—100% parity—which angered farmers who saw a bonanza if their prices had been allowed to skyrocket.

Under the 1938 iteration of the AAA, the government in 1940 ordered an Ohio farmer, Roscoe Filburn, to destroy his crop and pay a large fine to the federal government, as Filburn's wheat output had exceeded his government "allotment." Filburn appealed to the [[Supreme Court]] in the case known as ''[[Wickard v. Filburn]]'', but under threat of Roosevelt's "court packing" scheme, the court buckled, ruling in 1942 that growing crops on one's own land, to feed one's own chickens, was "interstate commerce"—though it was neither "commerce" nor "interstate." Nevertheless, this ruling established that the Interstate Commerce Clause of the Constitution empowered the government to dictate how much an American citizen could produce on his own property, for his own use. Richard Epstein, Laurence A. Tisch Professor of Law at New York University, comments:
{{cquote|Wickard does not pass the laugh test if the issue is whether it bears any fidelity to the original constitutional design. It was put into place for the rather ignoble purpose to make sure that the federally sponsored cartel arrangements for agriculture could be properly administered.<ref>Richard Epstein, "[http://ricochet.com/main-feed/ObamaCare-is-Now-on-the-Ropes ObamaCare Is Now On The Ropes]," Rocochet.com, December 13, 2010</ref>}}

==Impact==
The acreage cutbacks of the first AAA led many farmers to be more efficient in their use of the remaining acres. Except for cotton, where output fell 17%, the total output did not change much. The move to efficiency was a gain, but there was inefficiency as farmers became protective of their allotments and mismanaged their resources to getter larger payments. For example, cotton farmers in the east held on to cotton too long, to protect their allotments and subsidies.<ref>Theodore W. Schultz, ''Agriculture in an Unstable Economy'' (1945) p. 174.</ref>

==Communist influence==
One AAA official, [[Harold Ware]], was a [[Communist]],<ref>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384, p. 94; Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, "[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales]," ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007</ref> and the son of [[Ella Reeve Bloor|"Mother" Bloor]], a founder of the [[CPUSA|American Communist Party]].<ref>[http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html Biographical Note], Ella Reeve Bloor Papers, 1890-197, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College (Five College Archives and Manuscript Collections)</ref> But Ware was also the organizer of a secret cell of the Communist underground within the federal government,<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [http://ia700409.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government—Part 2], (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1950), p. 2850 (PDF p. 16)</ref> the most infamous member of which was [[Alger Hiss]].

Ware had spent many years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he was instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].<ref>James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201.</ref> Ware and his wife, [[Jessica Smith]], editor of ''Soviet Russia Today'', tried to establish a “model” collective farm in the Ural mountains using American tractors. They reportedly "tricked" Soviet peasants into collective farms.<ref>Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161</ref> "As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and Smith lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a brutal fashion."<ref>Stephen Schwartz, "[http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 Lenin's Loudspeaker]," ''New York Sun'', February 11, 2004</ref> For this Ware received a commendation from [[Lenin]],<ref>V.I. Lenin, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm To the Society of Friends of Soviet Russia], ''Pravda'', No. 240 (October 24, 1922), reprinted in Lenin, ''Collected Works'' (Tr: David Skvirsky and George Hanna), 2nd English Ed., (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965) Vol. 33, p. 380</ref> praise repeated by [[Stalin]].<ref>J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196</ref>

In Moscow, Ware had attended the Lenin School, an institute for the study of sabotoge, revolutionary organization, and espionage. Following the election of [[Franklin Roosevelt]], back in the U.S., he founded the [[Communist-front]]<ref>John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers], johnearlhaynes.org</ref> Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department.<ref>Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House, 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9, pp. 92-93</ref> Ware became an official of the federal government, serving as a consultant to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA).

Beginning within AAA, Ware organized a secret cell of the Communist Party underground "apparatus" (covert arm) known as the [[Ware group]].<ref>Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96</ref> Into this cell, Ware recruited [[Alger Hiss]].<ref>G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553, p. 30</ref> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [http://ia700409.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government—Part 2], (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1950), p. 2850 (PDF p. 16)</ref> as well as [[Nathan Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),<ref>Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896, p. 612</ref> secret Communist<ref>Joan Cook, "[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87]," August 13, 1991</ref> [[John Abt]]<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 643 (PDF 153)</ref> and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy<ref>John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0300123906, 279-282</ref> [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],<ref>John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41.</ref> as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to "achieve promotion—a primary goal," or whether to "try to influence policy," as well as "secret directives—for purloining official documents," etc.;<ref>Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103, p. 41.</ref> According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”<ref>Eric Jacobs et al., "Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case," [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87</ref>

Abt would later become chief counsel for the Communist Party.<ref>Joan Cook, "[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87]," August 13, 1991</ref> In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power;<ref>83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953), pp. 1, 132 (PDF pp. 9, 140)</ref> he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[McCarran Act]].<ref>Joan Cook, "[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87]," August 13, 1991</ref> Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed "Marxist"] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney.<ref>Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606</ref>

The Soviet espionage ring commonly referred to as the [[Harold Ware|Ware group]] originated among government employees in the AAA. Alger Hiss began his government career with the AAA. [[Charles Kramer]] worked the AAA consumer council. Leonora Fuller, an associate of Hiss from 1933 to 1935 stated that Hiss, [[Lee Pressman]], Gardner Jackson, Frank Shea and others interpreted the Agricultural Adjustment Act not in the spirit of the law but in manner which would suit their own beliefs and private purposes. Hiss and the others brought into the government employees of their choosing who they intended to fall in line with their social and economic agenda. Fuller stated it was the definite purpose of this group to change the form of government of the United States, regardless of its democratic and constitutional underpinnings, and to use the instrumentality of the offices of the Department of Agriculture to further their purpose. Instead of administering the law as it was intended, they deliberately used the government's time and money for unionization efforts.

In 1933, Brain truster [[Felix Frankfurter]] sent Alger Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-5testimony.html urging him] to join President's Roosevelt's administration <ref>Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms." [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf Soviet intelligence source] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, "The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]"; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of "'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it—[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the Inauguration with the headline "[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY]." In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote that he thought the film “would help the country.”</ref> as assistant general counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[Soviets]] killed some 14 million<ref>Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807) p. 306</ref> people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].<ref>“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': "Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices." [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the Great Depression by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].</ref>

The agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]" [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly "most impressed" with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired<ref>The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of CPUSA General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party." Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456. In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].</ref> [[Progressive]] Party ticket, finally recanting [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]<ref>Had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, [[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] would have become President; Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf Soviet agent] [https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]</ref> in 1952.<ref>Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952</ref>

In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman]], a [[Soviet]] operative already serving as Wallace's assistant general counsel at the agency, wrote, "I have talked to Alger Hiss and [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering" taking posts at AAA (Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman).<ref>Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), ISBN 0394495462, p. 133</ref>

At AAA, Hiss reunited with [[Henry Collins]], a Soviet operative, as well as International Juridical Association (IJA)<ref>The International Juridical Association (IJA) was a [[Communist front]] organization which "consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line." [http://ia360638.us.archive.org/2/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party]," Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12</ref> colleague Pressman,<ref>Pressman joined the Communist Party [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/pressmanx.html about this time]</ref> and [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow Communist by Pressman),<ref>Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' [Washington: Regnery, 1952] ISBN 0895267896, p. 612</ref> and [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-5testimony.html became acquainted] with [https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html secret Communist] [[John Abt]] and [http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/3/ the Communist]<ref>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006) ISBN 0521857384, p. 94</ref> [[Harold Ware]]—recently returned from several years in the Soviet Union, where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/WarCom.html collective farms].<ref>Ware, the son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|"Mother" Bloor]], reportedly "tricked" Soviet peasants into collective farms (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161), for which he was [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm praised by Lenin], that praise repeated by Stalin (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.)</ref>

Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss' colleagues at the AAA would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> In February 1935, the "[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html radicals]" [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were "purged"] from AAA. According to New Dealer [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:
{{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank<ref>"....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty...." Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97</ref> and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as "the best fighters in a good cause" he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}

As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired—but [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html Hiss was not]. "Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming," said Jackson. "He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline."<ref>Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf Seeds of Treason]'' (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1950) ASIN B0007DS43A, p. 60</ref>

Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.<ref>Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), ISBN 0394495462, p. 43</ref> According to reporters Ralph de Toledano (who covered the Hiss trials for ''Newsweek'') and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for the ''New York World-Telegram''): "When Hiss' lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character—Mr. Hiss has no character.'"<ref>Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf Seeds of Treason]'' (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1950) ASIN B0007DS43A, p. 60</ref>

[[Henry Collins|Collins]] would [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html refuse to testify] on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]], but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan/5 Communist cell meetings with Hiss]<ref>
:Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?
:Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.
:Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?
:Mr. WEYL. That is correct.
…
:Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.
:[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/mccarthy/83869.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)</ref> and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890230,00.html saw him pay his party dues],<ref>Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953</ref> testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.<ref>Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004), cited in John Earl Haynes, "[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?]" johnearlhaynes.org, June 7, 2007</ref> Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at Communist Party meetings.<ref>Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), ISBN 0394495462, p. 360</ref> [https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html Communist lawyer] [[John Abt]] would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],<ref>John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/assassins/jfk/7.html the communist] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. Pamela J. Ray with James E. Files,''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MvyLBI6yZ4sC Interview with History: The JFK Assassination]'' (AuthorHouse, 2007) ISBN 142595992X, p. 64</ref> as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to "achieve promotion—a primary goal," or whether to "try to influence policy," as well as "secret directives—for purloining official documents," etc.;<ref>Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (SUNY Press, 1999) ISBN 0791441032, p. 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, to my knowledge, for [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html stealing documents from government agencies].” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”
</ref> a former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a source of agent information for a [[Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].<ref>Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lt8FHQAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (New York: Back Bay Books, 1995) ISBN 0316821152, p. 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the Ware group ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].</ref>

==See also==
* [[Agricultural history of the U.S.]]
* [[Henry C. Wallace]]
* [[McNary-Haugen Bill]]

==Further reading==
* Fite, Gilbert C. "Farmer Opinion and the Agricultural Adjustment Act, 1933," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 48, No. 4 (Mar., 1962), pp. 656–673 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1893147 in JSTOR]
* Nourse, Edwin Griswold. ''Three years of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration'' (1937) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2758781 online edition], valuable overview
* Perkins, Van L. ''Crisis in agriculture: the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the New Deal, 1933'' (1969), a standard scholarly history
* Saloutos, Theodore. ''The American Farmer and the New Deal.'' (1982). 327 pp.
* Schultz, Theodore W. '' Agriculture in an Unstable Economy.'' (1945) by Nobel-prize winning conservative [http://www.questia.com/read/9105343?title=Agriculture%20in%20an%20Unstable%20Economy online edition]
* Wilcox, Walter W. ''The farmer in the second world war'' (1947) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2944025 online edition]
==See also==
* [[Farm Bureau]]
* [[Grange]]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.asu.edu/caed/proceedings01/HEMMENS/hemmens.htm Roosevelt and Tugwell in the New Deal]

[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Great Depression]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Economic History]]
[[Category:Farmers]]

Food Code

2019-03-20T13:29:23Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>The '''Food Code''', published by the Food and Drug Administration, consists of model requirements for safeguarding public health that may be adopted and used by various parts of local, state, and [[federal]] governments, if desired. It is used by officials who have compliance responsibilities for [[food]] service, retail food stores, or food vending operations.
==References==
*[http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Help/A-Z_Index/index.asp USDA Index]
[[Category:United States Government Word Definitions]]

Demoralization (warfare)

2019-03-20T13:29:20Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>[[File:Sun Tzu portrait.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|The [[China|Chinese]] military strategist [[Sun Tzu]] wrote: "For to win one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the acme of skill. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill."]]
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines morale as "the mental and emotional condition (as of enthusiasm, confidence, or loyalty) of an individual or group with regard to the function or tasks at hand)".<ref>[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morale Definition of morale, Merriam-Webster dictionary]</ref>

The Changing Minds website declares:
{{Cquote|Morale in warfare is a remarkably important thing. An impassioned small force can and has, many times, defeated a much larger force that has been carefully demoralized beforehand.

Soldiers who lose the will to fight either fight poorly or throw down their weapons with relatively little encouragement. Commanders who are demoralized will likewise avoid battle and more readily sue for peace.

Demoralization also works with the people back in the home nation. If the population supports the war, then there will be many more volunteers and a broad support for a bellicose government. If, on the other hand, the population believes the war is unwinnable and unjust, then any political party supporting the war will be seen as arrogant and out of touch with its electorate.<ref>[http://changingminds.org/disciplines/warfare/principles/demoralization.htm Demoralization - Changing Minds website]</ref>}}

The [[China|Chinese]] military strategist [[Sun Tzu]] wrote: "For to win one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the acme of skill. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill (a variant translation is "Hence to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting.").<ref>[https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Sun_Tzu Sun Tzu - Wikiquote]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[List of military strategies and concepts]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

[[Category: Military]]

Philip Pullman

2019-03-20T13:29:18Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>'''Philip Pullman''' is an anti-[[Christian]] novelist. He has made public statements and written fictional works for children and young adults which were - admittedly - designed "to undermine the basis of Christian belief."

==Pullman's Life==
Philip Pullman was born in Norwich, [[England]], in 1946, to Audrey and Alfred Pullman. The early years of Pullman's life were spent travelling because his father was a member of [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF). His father died when he was age 7, and his family then travelled to [[London]] to find work. A year later, Pullman's mother remarried to another man working for the RAF. His family lived in [[Australia]] for much of those next two years. When Pullman was ten years old, his stepfather quit his job at the RAF to help his growing family. In 1965, Pullman won a scholarship to attend [[Exeter College]] in [[Oxford]]. He did so for four years.<ref>http://www.hisdarkmaterials.org/information/philip-pullman/biography</ref> At the age of 25, Pullman became a teacher at a middle school also in Oxford. From 1986 to 1994, he taught at Westminster College. Pullman wrote his first book ''[[Count Karlstein]]'' in 1982.<ref>http://www.philip-pullman.com</ref> Today, Pullman lives in Oxford with his wife Jude. Pullman is a father to two grown children and has two grandchildren.<ref>http://www.randomhouse.com/features/pullman/author/author.html</ref>

==Pullman's Works==

Novels aimed at children and young adults include the [[atheist]]ic ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' and ''Sally Lockhart'' series. His works have come under criticism for their subversively anti-religious nature. His books portray God as an evil being who ruled the world through the [[Magisterium]], an [[Inquisition]]-like institution which commits various heinous acts.

Philip Pullman has written almost 20 books. These include:
*''Count Karlstein''
*''I Was a Rat!''
*''The Scarecrow and His Servant''
*''The Firework-Maker's Daughter''
*''Clockwork/All Wound Up''
*The ''Sally Lockhart'' series
**''The Ruby in the Smoke''
**''The Shadow in the North''
**''The Tiger in the Well''
**''The Tin Princess''
*The ''His Dark Materials'' series
**''The Golden Compass'' (''Northern Lights'' in the UK)
**''The Subtle Knife''
**''The Amber Spyglass''
*''The Goodman Jesus and the scoundrel Christ''

==Awards==
Philip Pullman has been the recipient of many awards:<ref>http://www.philip-pullman.com/about_the_author.asp</ref>
*The Carnegie Medal (for the ''His Dark Materials'' series)
*The Guardian Children's Book Award (for the ''His Dark Materials'' series)
*The Whitebread Book of the Year Award (for the third book of the ''His Dark Materials'' series, the first time it was ever awarded to a children's book)
*The Eleanor Farjeon Award for children's literature

==Criticism of Pullman==

Frank Furedi wrote:
<blockquote>
... He is adept at public moralising. He has denounced [[Narnia]] as "morally loathsome," describing [[C.S. Lewis]]’s series of books as amongst the "most ugly and poisonous things" he has read. Indeed, Pullman directly counterpoises his "non-Christian" trilogy to the "Christian" Narnia.<ref>Phillip Pullman said this to the Washington Post in 2001, in an interview about his trilogy, His Dark Materials [http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/article/4169/]</ref>
</blockquote>

Blogger Joe Levi charged:

<blockquote>
Pullman is a [[militant]] [[atheist]] and [[secular humanist]] (who describes himself as both an [[agnostic]] and an atheist). He has said, "I don’t profess any [[religion]]; I don’t think it’s possible that there is a [[God]]; I have the greatest difficulty in understanding what is meant by the words 'spiritual' or '[[spirituality]]'" and despises [[C. S. Lewis]] and the [[Chronicles of Narnia]]. His motivation for writing this trilogy was specifically to counteract Lewis's symbolism of [[Christ]] that are portrayed in the Narnia series.<ref>http://www.joelevi.com/blog/index.php/2007/12/04/the-golden-compass-an-attack-on-god/</ref>
</blockquote>

Peter Hitchens calls Pullman:
<blockquote> The most dangerous author in Britain <ref>http://home.wlv.ac.uk/~bu1895/hitchens.htm</ref></blockquote>

Most of criticism of Pullman is based solely on the controversial ''His Dark Materials'' series, for which he became famous, in particular the killing of [[Yahweh]], the Judeo-Christian God as the climax of the novels.

==Pullman's Motives==

Pullman is quoted as saying:
* "I'm trying to undermine the basis of Christian belief."<ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1983916159/E20071118075122/index.html</ref>

==Odd quote about the Chronicles of Narnia==

"The highest virtue, we have on the authority of the New Testament itself, is love, and yet you find not a trace of that in the books," he said.

Considering the entire set of books is an allegory of Jesus' love, this statement is especially odd. There is a great deal of love among family members, love of country, and sacrificing to do the right thing. Indeed, it would be hard to read more than a few pages without coming across a strong concept of love. The comment has little to do with the works he is discussing.

==External links==
* [http://www.philip-pullman.com/|Philip Pullman's home page.]
* [http://www.randomhouse.com/features/pullman/author/author.html|A website about Philip Pullman and his writing.]
* [http://www.writing.com/main/view_item/item_id/1359866 http://www.writing.com/main/view_item/item_id/1359866|A negative review of the author.]

==References==

<References/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pullman, Philip}}

[[Category:British Authors]]
[[Category:Atheist Authors]]
[[Category:Liberal Authors]]

Saint Scholastica

2019-03-20T13:29:14Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly><small>''For the Catholic college see [[St. Scholastica]]''</small>

'''Saint Scholastica''' (480-543) was a [[Catholic]] [[saint]] born in [[Italy]] and the twin sister of [[Saint Benedict]]. She was a [[nun]] who found an Order near Monte Cassino. Her brother Benedict saw her soul ascended into [[heaven]] in the form of a [[dove]] upon her [[death]].

She is mentioned in [[Pope Gregory the Great]]'s ''Dialogues'', our only source of knowledge on her.<ref>Who’s Who in Christianity, Lavinia Coh-Sherbok, 1998</ref>

Saint Scholastica's feast date is February 10.

==Sources==
<References/>
:* http://www.osb.org/gen/scholastica.html

{{DEFAULTSORT:Scholastica, Saint}}

[[Category:Saints]]

BlackSeaFor

2019-03-20T13:29:12Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>'''Blackseafor''' or '''Black Sea Naval Task Force''' is a multinational maritime force created in 2001 for the tasks of search-and-rescue operations, humanitarian assistance, mine countermeasures, environmental protection and goodwill visits in the [[Black Sea]]. Members include [[Turkey]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Georgia]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]].

==History==

In 1998 former Turkish Navy Forces Commander, Salim Dervisoglu, purposed a maritime force of the Black Sea states.<ref name="photius">http://www.photius.com/blackseafor/</ref> Dervisoglu brought his idea before experts and diplomats from the Black Sea states. The countries agreed to hold meetings with Black Sea Naval Commanders to plan an prepare for the operation.<ref name="bsf">http://www.blackseafor.org/English/Establishment_Home.asp</ref> A total of ten meetings were held, and in 2000 the Black Sea states signed a letter of intent and sent it to the Turkish government( which gained authority of th region through the [[Montreux Convention]]). The Turkish government agreed to the force and in 2001 the initiative became official. In 2001, the operation's most important document,"The Blackseafor Establishment Agreement," was signed and the initiative began.<ref name="bsf" /> Russia called on other members to expand Blackseafor's current mandate to include counter [[terrorism]]in 2004.<ref name="jt">http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2368922</ref> Critics claim that this was in response to the [[United States]] interest in expanding [[NATO]]'s counter terrorism mission, [[Operation Active Endeavour]], to the Black Sea. Members continue to conduct regular training exercise and maritime missions through Blackseafor.<ref name="jt" /> In the future countries hope to expand Blackseafor to take over the Turkey's counter terrorism initiative, Black Sea Harmony.
<ref>[http://www.middleeastinfo.org/forum/index.php?showtopic=4183 The Black Sea Basin: A New Axis in Global Maritime Security ]</ref>

==Structure==

Blackseafor decisions are made by [[consensus]] of all members.<ref name="photius" /> The presidency of the alliance rotates in alphabetical order every year, Turkey was the first to have a president of Blackseafor. Like the presidency the headquarters also rotates. One maneuver, at least, most be carried out every year.<ref name="photius" /> The forces are specifically designed to cooperate with other international organizations such the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], or the OSCE.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Navy]]
[[Category:Military]]

Umbriel

2019-03-20T13:29:12Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>{{Planet
|image=Umbriel.jpg
|caption=Umbriel, taken by Voyager 2
|date=October 24, 1851<ref name=usgs>"[http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Body Names and Discoverers]." US Geological Survey, Jennifer Blue, ed. March 31, 2008. Accessed April 17, 2008.</ref><ref name=Lassell1>Lassell, W. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0002//0000070.000.html Letter to the Editor re Discovery of Two Satellites of Uranus]." ''Astron. J.'' 2:70, 1851. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref><ref name=Lassell2>Lassell, William. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0033//0000136.000.html Entdeckung von 2 neuen Uranus Trabanten]." ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', 33:259-260, 1852. Accessed June 13, 2008</ref>
|discname=William Lassell<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Lassell1/><ref name=Lassell2/><ref name=Hamilton>Hamilton, Calvin J. "[http://www.solarviews.com/eng/umbriel.htm Entry for Umbriel]." ''Views of the Solar System'', 2001. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|origname=Evil spirit in Alexander Pope's poem ''The Rape of the Lock''<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Lassell3>Lassell, William. "[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1852AN.....34..325./0000169.000.html Beobachtungen der Uranus-Satelliten]." ''Astronomische Nachrichten'' 34:325-328, 1852. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref><ref name=Arnett>Arnett, Bill. "[http://www.nineplanets.org/umbriel.html Entry for Umbriel]." ''The <s>Nine</s> 8 Planets'', December 11, 2004. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|primary=Uranus
|order=16
|periapsis=264,968 km<ref name=calc>Calculated</ref>
|apoapsis=267,362 km<ref name=calc/>
|semimajor=266,300 km<ref name=uranussatfact>Williams, David R. "[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/uraniansatfact.html Uranian Satellite Fact Sheet]." National Space Science Data Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], November 23, 2007. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|eccentricity=0.0050<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|sidereal=4.144177 da<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|orbitspeed=4.67 km/s<ref name=Hamilton/>
|inclination=0.36°<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|siderealday=4.144177 da<ref name=uranussatfact/><ref name=Britannica>Ingersoll, Andrew P. "[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074205 Umbriel]." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 June 2008.</ref>
|rotatespeed=0.08858 km/s<ref name=calc/>
|axialtilt=0°<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|mass=1.17 * 10<sup>21</sup> kg<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|density=1400 kg/m³<ref name=uranussatfact/><ref name=Britannica/>
|meanradius=584.7 km<ref name=Hamilton/><ref name=uranussatfact/>
|surfacegrav=0.2287 m/s²<ref name=calc/>
|escapespeed=0.517 km/s<ref name=calc/>
|surfacearea=4,296,117 km²<ref name=calc/>
|meantemp=61 K
|composition=Water ice and rock<ref name=Arnett/>
|color=Dark gray
|albedo=0.19<ref name=uranussatfact/>
}}'''Umbriel''' or '''Uranus II''' is the sixteenth [[moon]] of [[Uranus]] in order of distance and the fourth moon of Uranus to be discovered.

== Discovery and naming ==
[[William Lassell]] discovered Umbriel and its next companion, [[Ariel]], on October 24, 1851, and reported his findings after observing these two satellites on three more occasions.<ref name=Lassell1/><ref name=Lassell2/>

The name ''Umbriel'', suggested by Sir [[John Herschel]] at Lassell's request, is the name of an evil spirit in [[Alexander Pope]]'s poem ''The Rape of the Lock''.<ref name=Lassell3/><ref name=Arnett/> The name is especially appropriate. ''Umbriel'' derives from the [[Latin]] ''umbra'' shadow, and Umbriel happens to be the darkest of all of Uranus' major moons.

== Orbital characteristics ==
Umbriel is in a slightly eccentric orbit around Uranus at an average distance of 266,300 km. Its sidereal month is about 4.14 Earth days. The orbit of Umbriel is only slightly inclined from the equator of Uranus but is severely inclined to the ecliptic.

== Rotational characteristics ==
Umbriel is in [[tidal lock]] with Uranus.

== Physical characteristics ==
Umbriel is the fourth heaviest moon of Uranus, and slightly less dense than Ariel. Its density suggests that Umbriel is composed of [[water]] ice and rock.

=== Surface ===
The surface of Umbriel is covered with impact craters, most of which measure 100 to 200 km in diameter. Most astronomers believe that these craters formed early in the history of the [[solar system]], during a period of heavy bombardment of many solar system bodies. The distribution of craters is uniform.<ref name=Hamilton/>

Remarkably, the surface has no features suggesting any tectonic activity.<ref name=Arnett/><ref name=Britannica/> Moreover, Umbriel is the darkest and least reflective of all the major moons of Uranus.<ref name=Hamilton/><ref name=Arnett/><ref name=uranussatfact/><ref name=Overbye>Overbye, Roger. "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_v7/ai_5083814/pg_1 Voyager was on target again; in the latest unmanned triumph, Voyager 2 surveyed Uranus and sent back a real bull's-eye]." ''Discover'', April 1986. Accessed June 14, 2008.</ref> Many astronomers suspect that Umbriel is covered with a dark material similar to that which covers the Cassini Region of [[Iapetus (moon)|Iapetus]]. Some suspect that this material is [[methane]].<ref name=Britannica/>

The most surprising feature of the surface of Umbriel is the bright ring, or Wunda ring, near the north pole. The nature and composition of that ring are unknown. The favorite theory is that it is the floor of a crater 40 km in diameter.<ref name=Hamilton/><ref name=Britannica/>

== Problems for uniformitarian theories posed by Umbriel ==
The orbit of Umbriel is more eccentric than the orbit of [[Ariel]]. Yet Ariel shows signs of past tectonic activity, which some astronomers impute to [[tidal heating]].<ref name=Tittemore>Tittemore, William C. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990Icar...87..110T Tidal Heating of Ariel]." ''Icarus'' 87:110-139, September 1990. {{doi|10.1016/0019-1035(90)90024-4}} Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref> But Umbriel shows no such signs.

In addition, Umbriel poses the same problem for [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] astronomy as do all the other moons of Uranus: its orbit is inclined severely to the ecliptic, though not to Uranus' own equator. How the Uranian system came to have such an inclination has never been explained.

== Observation and Exploration ==
[[Voyager 2]] approached to within 325,000 km of Umbriel on January 24, 1986, and took a small number of images.<ref name=Voyager1>"[http://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/mission/#v2uenc Voyager Mission Description: Voyager 2 Uranus Encounter]." February 19, 1997. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref><ref name=Smith>Smith, B.A., Soderblom, L.A., Beebe, R., ''et al.'' "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Sci...233...43S Voyager 2 in the Uranian system - Imaging science results]." ''Science'' 233:43-64, July 4, 1986. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref> No other detailed images are available.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Solarsystem}}
[[Category:Astronomy]]

Svensmark hypothesis

2019-03-20T13:29:08Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>The '''Svensmark hypothesis''' posits that [[cosmic rays]] reaching the Earth's atmosphere create [[cloud condensation nuclei]] by knocking [[electron]]s out of gas molecules in the atmosphere.<ref>http://calderup.wordpress.com/category/3b-the-svensmark-hypothesis</ref>

* "According to the hypothesis, then, less cosmic radiation would mean less cloud formation and, ultimately, warmer temperatures – precisely what was observed during the 20th century."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,220341,00.html</ref>

* "The Svensmark hypothesis is that when the [[solar wind]] is weak, more cosmic rays penetrate to Earth. That creates more [[charged particles]] in the atmosphere, which in turn induces more clouds to form, cooling the climate."<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7327393.stm</ref>

* Coolings and warmings of around 2 deg. C have occurred repeatedly over the past 10,000 years, as the Sun’s activity and the cosmic ray influx have varied.<ref>http://calderup.wordpress.com/category/3b-the-svensmark-hypothesis</ref>

==See also==
*[[Henrik Svensmark]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Global Warming]]
[[Category:Meteorology]]

Debate:Define torture

2019-03-20T13:29:07Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>Torture needs defining because liberals have blurred the true meaning. Is torture to stand on one foot with a black hood over your head? Maybe it is when you cut a persons fingers off. Is torture a degrading naked pyramid of men? Or maybe it is hammering nails into someones skull. Is torture having a scary dog bark at your face? Maybe it is beating your face silly with brass knuckles. Is torture three square meals a day, tropical skies, a free Koran? Or maybe it is locked in a cold dungeon, no light, starving to death. Help, the issue is so distorted. [[User talk:Jpatt|Jpatt]]

Simply use the golden rule. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. (Commence booing as was done at the SC Republican Debate 2012) [[User:Bazman|Bazman]] 03:22, 22 March 2012 (CDT)

Torture is any cruel or unusual punishment, forbidden by the 8th Amendment of the Bill of Rights in the highest law of our Republic, assuming we still have a Republic. [[User:Teresita|Teresita]] 03:22, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

: So to call you a bad name, that is torture?--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 03:34, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

Thee square meals a day, tropical skies and a free Koran? You make prison sound like club med. Answer honestly, who was treated worse: enemy combatants and terrorists held by US forces in Abu Graib, or innocent British sailors captured by the Iranians?

There is no real line where you can say 'interregation stops here, then torture begins.' Horrible things go on in American prisons, but no one raises holy hell. The fact of the matter is that the US is supposed to be a moral nation, based on individual rights and liberty. When the world hears we stick people in jail without trial and use techniques like water boarding...well, how are we any better than those we are trying to fight in their eyes? [[User:Czolgolz|Czolgolz]] 08:53, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

: I am not comparing prison to club med. I am comparing torture situations. Another America basher comments, way to Golz.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 10:14, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:''Any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions.''[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cat.htm#part1]
:Well its a start...
:[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] 09:01, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

How do '''''you''''' suggest that we get information, Ask nicely?

::That might not work ... on the other hand there are aparrently people trained in non-torturous interrogation who do know how to get information out of people. Their success rate is quite high and the information is usually of good quality. Under torture people are likely to admit to anything. One never knows if the information acquired is any good or not. Then again ... if you just like being cruel to people...
::[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] 09:39, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
:::like what? truth serum?[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 09:45, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::::Never mind. Just carry on recruiting terrorists.
::::[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] 09:47, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::::Never mind, leave alone the terrorists so they can kill the innocent. Was there recruitment prior to 9/11?--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 23:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)

I think that only American citizens should be protected by the constitution (even the 8th amendment). We are better than the terrorists because they attacked us, and because we are the ones who will eventually win. I don't think that we should use anything that I personally would define as torture (sticking splinters up their fingernails, skining and salting them, etc.) but we could definitely be doing a lot better to persuade them to confess. I suggest that we:

# Regularly starve them for a week or so; nothing life-threatening but we don't want them to get comfortable.
# when we ''do'' feed them it should be nothing very good.
# Put them in solitary confinment; we might do this already but I wouldn't know.
# We can certainly ''pretend'' that we're going to do something cruel. I suggest we have somebody really good at special effects make a video to show them of some horrible torture method. --[[User:BenjaminS|BenjaminS]] 09:25, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:I am all for that benjamin, but to the left, everything you mention is cruel and unusual punishment, a.k.a torture. --[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 10:46, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

*my definition of torture: techniques that cause irreversible physical or psychological damage. [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 09:37, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:You know torure is not an effective means of getting accurate information, right? And you do know that the best way to get accurate information is, in fact, to be nice to them. It's like good cop bad cop, but they're already in prison so you don't even need a bad cop. Just the good cop.

:And Benjamin, while your ethnocentrism is to be applauded on this site, our various governmental documents don't make any allowance for all men to be created equal and certain unalienable rights... except then not so much for people that are different. And you say that "we are better than the terrorists because they attacked us." Well... how exactly do you know that the man you have in custody is a terrorist or was responsible for attacking us? So you're going to detain a man, deprive him of food on ''suspicion'' of being a terrorist? Well guess what: you can never let this man out because when you do, he's going to be a terrorist. And regardless of whether you let him out, his friends and brothers will be terrorists. And "they will be better than us because they wrongfully imprisoned my brother."

I thought we were discussing the ones that we ''know'' are terrorists. We obviously don't want to deprive them of food for information that they don't have or we will get a pack of lies. --[[User:BenjaminS|BenjaminS]] 10:56, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:Maybe we should abide by the laws we write and the treaties we sign, hm? [[User:Myk|Myk]] 09:56, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

I didn't know that we signed any treaties with radical Islam. --[[User:BenjaminS|BenjaminS]] 11:00, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

::that'll probably require one-on-one therapy session with a psychologist over a 2 year treatment, ha ha ha. [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 10:06, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:: maybe the terrorists will abide by international law, hmmm--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 10:14, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

Torture is also defined in the Geneva Convention. The fuzzy area is who the Convention covers, that's the real line that's been blurred.
And to Jpatt's original comment, the liberals didn't blur the line of what's torture, that's totally up to interpretation. Same as hazing laws in the US, they're vaguely worded to allow the legal system greater leeway in prosecuting and protecting rights. [[User:Jrssr5|Jrssr5]] 10:35, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

When liberals accuse the USA of torture, it is defintely been blurred because a slow painful death to me is torture, not inprisonment by America.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 10:50, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

: If countries like the UK and US practise torture, then haven't we given up a bit of what makes us better than terrorists? JPatt's comment is a perfect example of the childish view of international affairs that has caused this problem - 'cause they're breaking international law, we can too! Cheney, get me those thumbscrews now!' You can't fight fire with fire. Torture just recruits terrorists - as was shown when Aussaresses justified torture in Algeria. [[User:Wikinterpreter|Wikinterpreter]]

: To fight fire with fire or torture with torture, is just fubar. My point which is too complicated for Wiki, I was not asking for vague law interpretation, which one side doesn't adhere to and the other side blames it's leaders for breaking. It is a matter of treatment, suffering, unspeakable human behavior. Defining torture to seperate what is and what is not political fodder to accuse and point fingers. Calling you the name FAT, if overweight is cruel. Does it fit as torture? Black hooded standing on one foot, does it fit as torture? If you hate America, yes it does mean torture. I say hell no as I outlined what torture really is above.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 15:05, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

: One other point I forgot to respond to. Torture recruits terrorists? Who was the US torturing when the WTC was attacked? I guess they were recruited before 9/11, when we were so comfy safe at home. It's the same method of operation liberals use to discredit why we are in Iraq, just recruits terrorists. Except, they were attacking us well before we occupied Iraq and Afghanistan. Maybe they were attacking us because no response after the USS Cole was bombed embolden them to do more harm. 2000 plus days after taking the fight to them, the homeland hasn't suffered.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 15:24, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

::Masochistic Omnipotence Syndrome? [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 13:05, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::: Wuh? [[User:Wikinterpreter|Wikinterpreter]]
::::http://www.theaugeanstables.com/reflections-from-second-draft/self-criticism/ [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 13:12, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::::: 'Wow! Because we're us, anything we do must be right!' Sorry, doesn't cut it. [[User:Wikinterpreter|Wikinterpreter]]
::::::http://www.theaugeanstables.com/reflections-from-second-draft/moral-equivalence/ [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 13:22, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::::::: 'They're worse than us; they've got to be, because they're not us!' Kerching, next. We should really get closer to the topic, though this is fun. :) [[User:Wikinterpreter|Wikinterpreter]]
::::::::'They are not us, so they have no moral' Sorry, doesn't cut it. [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 17:41, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

My litmus test: if The Enemy did the given disputed action to an American, would we
call it torture? If yes, then it's torture, if no, not.--[[User:WJThomas|WJThomas]] 14:28, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

:1a. Infliction of severe physical pain as a means of punishment or coercion. b. An instrument or a method for inflicting such pain. 2. Excruciating physical or mental pain; agony: the torture of waiting in suspense. 3. Something causing severe pain or anguish.[http://www.bartleby.com/61/33/T0283300.html American Heritage]

:1 a : anguish of body or mind : AGONY b : something that causes agony or pain
:2 : the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing, or wounding) to punish, coerce, or afford sadistic pleasure
:3 : distortion or overrefinement of a meaning or an argument : STRAINING[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/torture Merriam-Webster]

:I'm waiting with considerable interest to see just what language Bush and Blair come up with to describe the treatment of the captured British sailors by the Iranians. I nominate [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10020629/site/newsweek/ "torture lite"] as the ugliest phrase to emerge in the last ten years. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 15:39, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
:::If you include "anguish of body or mind" in your definition of torture, then every criminal locked in jail in America is being tortured.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 17:45, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
::::'''My''' definition of torture? No, please, ''the dictionary's'' definition of torture. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 18:58, 6 April 2007 (EDT)
:::::doesn't matter, do you support freeing all criminals in jail? [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 15:45, 7 April 2007 (EDT)
::::::Do you support distortion of overrefinement of a meaning or an argument? [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 19:46, 7 April 2007 (EDT)
:::::::Even if I don't, lawyers will.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 20:48, 11 April 2007 (EDT)
"We are better than the terrorists because they attacked us, and '''because we are the ones who will eventually win.'''"
Benjamin, did you not criticize another user in the discussion on morality for allegedly saying that might makes right?--[[User:Άθεος|Άθεος]] 20:23, 11 April 2007 (EDT)

::Okay, now that we've settled that, how about [[Debate:Define terrorism]]? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 20:43, 11 April 2007 (EDT)

''I thought we were discussing the ones that we know are terrorists. We obviously don't want to deprive them of food for information that they don't have or we will get a pack of lies. --BenjaminS 10:56, 6 April 2007 (EDT)''
Ah, "Innocent 'til Proven Guilty" is for wusses, eh?
You _are_ aware that some of the prisoners in Guantanamo Bay have had to be released after several '''years''' of imprisonment, right? [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3501910.stm] Since the US Government generally (I hope) isn't in the habit of locking people up just for the fun of it, I think it's safe to assume that someone THOUGHT they 'knew' these guys were Terrorists, and turned out to be wrong.
It's hilarious to see members of the Small Government Party arguing for the infallibility and unwavering righteousness of a bunch of bureaucrats. Bureaucrats with GUNS, but bureaucrats nonetheless. --[[User:BDobbs|BDobbs]] 21:26, 11 April 2007 (EDT)

And for the 'definition of torture', why not break out the ol' Ouija board and ask some of the Suspected Terrorists who died under the tender care of Lynndie England, She-Wolf of the US? I suspect they'd have a few choice words on the subject. --[[User:BDobbs|BDobbs]] 21:34, 11 April 2007 (EDT)
:::Lynndie England wasn't so bad, she just mocked some guy's genital.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 22:27, 11 April 2007 (EDT)
::::I guess that one guy whose corpse she was photographed grinning over just died of embarrassment? --[[User:BDobbs|BDobbs]] 22:44, 11 April 2007 (EDT)
:::::Like you've never grinned during a funneral.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 00:41, 12 April 2007 (EDT)

::::::I can say without hesitation that I've never stood over the coffin at a funeral, grinned at the camera, and given a thumbs up. And I can say with even more certainty that I've never stood over the dead body of murder victim and done it. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 11:55, 12 April 2007 (EDT)

::::::: I don't believe any US Soldier has been convicted of murder of an inmate at Abu Griab. There has been an instance in Afganistan. No such thing as torture in Abu Griab, unless you are an American hater and site the black hood, naked pyramid and barkin dog as torture. What they did was wrong and hurt the credibility of our troops.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 21:46, 28 April 2007 (EDT)

"If The Enemy did the given disputed action to an American, would we call it torture? If yes, then it's torture, if no, not."
Wise words WJThomas, wise words.

[[User:Middle Man|Middle Man]]

Multiple definitions:
*Torture is painful or humiliating treatment used to punish or coerce.
*Torture (as defined in law or treaty): such treatment which the government agrees to refrain from doing

Shining bright lights in a suspect's eyes to make him talk can be considered "torture", but most people have in mind things like cutting a man's ears or nuts off. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 11:42, 19 April 2007 (EDT)

As a family member of a survivor of torture at the hands of the government of Argentina, I am saddened that Americans would even suggest some of the things you have been speaking of. Until you have looked first-hand at the results of prolonged torture sessions, do not be so hasty to condem another human being to it.

::What's sad is that at one time, "most people" understood that torture involves far more sophisticated methods than simply maiming someone. Bright lights, sleep deprivation, stress positions, sexual humiliation, all were methods of torture widely understood to be torture back in the 60s and 70s, when both living memories of the Second World War and the publication of THE GULAG ARCHIPELAGO were there to remind us. Ever read Solzhenitsyn's chapter on torture?

::Today there seems to be a concerted movement online to redefine the word "torture" to the point where it's meaningless. Apparently, if you want to countenance torture, but just can't get around that visceral reaction most decent people have to the word "torture," the next step is to just change common usage of the word -- right Ed? --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 13:15, 21 April 2007 (EDT)

==What is Torture==
I think when considering this discussion, one should accept that there are different thresholds, and different responses to pain.If any of you take the time to look at the Al Qaeda handbook, part of the evidence used in a trial in NY in 2003, I believe, you'll see they train their people to spill the beans at the first threat of physical abuse. The first fingernail you pull out, they are expected to scream bloody murder. In this way, we are led to believe we are getting true information. Sadly, this will almost always not be the case.

Further, remember that when you condemn these people to be tortured, you also condemn our soldiers to be tortured by them. So, at the risk of sounding like Bill O'Reilly, why do you hate the troops? [[User:Flippin|Flippin]] 21:41, 20 April 2007 (EDT)

:::most information from confession can be verified for authenticity, and Al Qaeda usually just cut off soldiers' head without bothring to torture them.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 03:43, 21 April 2007 (EDT)

Not resorting to torture is one of the things that separate free countries from dictatorships.
Torture is also very inefficient: untrained prisoners will confess to anything to make the pain go away while trained prisoners will simply lie, or not talk at all.

Also consider what this was originally about: a war on terror.
If one side wants to claim moral superiority it has to stick with the Geneva conventions, no matter how cruel their enemies are.
If both sides practice the same ethics, neither side can claim to be morally superior: the war would be nothing more than a struggle for territory and resources.

If the United States were one of these two sides, its government would have a hard time explaining why the war is necessary and why it's not imperialism, to its own citizens as well as potential allies.

[[User:Middle Man|Middle Man]]

:::Depends on your definition of torture. All free countries put some people in jail, which some people would consider torture.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 16:27, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

putting underwear on someones head is not torture. cutting someones head off w/ a dull, rusty blade is torture. So is slapping them with a wet codfish. or a wet cod PIECE. now THAT is torture. duh.
--[[User:The vigilante|The vigilante]] 14:33, 23 April 2007 (EDT)

::Putting underwear on someone's head while making them stand nude, taking their picture, and/or putting them in a stress position for several hours and not allowing to sleep for long periods of time can definitely be a part of torture. People who trivialize what happened at Abu Ghraib by concentrating on the "underwear on the head" thing as if that were all that happened keep leaving out those bits. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 15:04, 23 April 2007 (EDT)

::: It cannot be definetly defined as torture. Could be described as a means of gathering intelligence.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 21:52, 28 April 2007 (EDT)

::::In college, I knew some people who wear underwear on their head on purpose.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 16:24, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

So if captured US soldiers were piled up naked you'd say their treatment would be acceptable?

[[User:Middle Man|Middle Man]]

:::Sounds like a frat party.[[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 16:24, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

I am not excusing their actions MadMiddleMan. I am also not claiming it was torture.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 23:55, 15 May 2007 (EDT)

::::: Tell me, jpatt -- was sticking underwear on someone's head all that happened at Abu Ghraib? --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 14:36, 29 April 2007 (EDT)

This just hit the wires, torture now described as unscented soap, under inflated soccer balls and a noisy fan.--[[User:Jpatt|jp]] 23:48, 15 May 2007 (EDT)

::Cite please, Jpatt. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 14:26, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

::Note, folks, that Jpatt hasn't answered my question about whether or not sticking underwear on someone's head is all that happened at Abu Ghraib. JPatt doesn't answer because Jpatt knows that going into detail about what actually happened there reveals the moral bankruptcy behind Jpatt's attempts to trivialize torture. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 14:29, 17 May 2007 (EDT)
:::He's just being a [[moral relativity|moral relativist]]. [[User:Jaques|Jaques]] 16:25, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

::::I suggest everyone actually research's everything that occured there before typing. I think we should simply let those who have experienced torture establish the rules on torture, John McCain for example. [[User:ITfreq51|ITfreq51]] 19 April 2008

== Other ==
I am for the following:

Waterboarding

sleep deprevation

light or darkness deprevation

reduction in food and water

solitary confinement no visitors

hot and cold environments

deception(making them believe something is happening when its REALLY not)

deprive them of clothes

make them sleep on a cement floor

hoods and handcuffs are good

no reading material of any kind

UNTIL the first nuke/bio weapon goes off on American soil...then the gloves come off...
</pre>

--[[User:Wally|Wally]] 12:56, 26 June 2007 (EDT)

So you're claiming that if enemy combatants stripped American soldiers naked, starved them and waterboarded them, you wouldn't consider that torture?

So you're an admirer of the manner in which the inmates of Soviet gulags were treated. Interesting. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 09:24, 28 June 2007 (EDT)

yeah right...i noticed you forgot to mention that in the gulags they were beaten, raped, killed
given electric shock and had body parts cutoff, burned, medically experimented on and were forced
to do hard labor. one might note 50 million died in gulags VS what 2-3 in US custody? nothing like i described aboved. typical liberal response of more fantasy than fact.
--[[User:Wally|Wally]] 13:11, 28 June 2007 (EDT)

::Actually, Wally, Solzhenitsyn's famous chapter on torture in the gulags doesn't really describe much maiming, burning, medical experiements, etc. What he describes are all those things you think WE should be doing. --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 16:02, 28 June 2007 (EDT)

I believe this debate to be inflated far beyond the proportions it should be. The Amendment pertaining to cruel and unusual punishment was not protecting against bad food and sleep depravation. If it was, college would be unconstitutional. The laws were passed to protect United States citizens from being maimed and mutilated in ways reminisce of the medieval inquisitions. In England in colonial times you could be inprisoned for multiple years with horrible conditions on a cold stone floor with no medical treatment and minimal food for not paying taxes. Tortures such as ripping out teeth / nails, beating, blinding, boiling, bone breaking, branding and burning, castration, choking, cutting, disfigurement, dislocation, drowning, flagellation, whipping and beating, flaying, roasting, genital mutilation, limb/finger removal, starvation, and tongue removal, and quartering were used. Horrible devices like the catherine wheel, the rack, the iron maiden, thumbscrews, the heretic's fork, and many, many more were used to implement terror among political prisoners, heretics, and anyone who so much as stepped out of line. Christ himself was nailed to a tree and left to die because he spoke out against Rome. We are not treating the terrorists as enemy combatants, we are treating them to a resort hotel. I respect human life and dignity, but obviously anyone who would blow themselves up to kill as many "infidels" as possible doesn't. <small>previous unsigned comment added by [[User:CRD]] 10:39, 3 July 2007 (EDT)</small>

::So you figure soviet dissident Solzhenitysn was just a big ol' crybaby? And nobody who "respects human life and dignity" would mistake places like Abu Ghraib or Gitmo for a "resort hotel." --[[User:PF Fox|PF Fox]] 01:10, 4 July 2007 (EDT)

[[Category:Conservapedia Debates]]

People! Ann Coulter has already given us guidelines. It's not torture if:

* The same acts performed on a live stage have been favorably reviewed by Frank Rich of The New York Times;
* Andrew Sullivan has ever solicited it from total strangers on the Internet;
* You can pay someone in New York to do it to you;
* Karen Finley ever got a federal grant to do it;
* It's comparable to the treatment U.S. troops received in basic training;
* It's no worse than the way airlines treat little girls in pigtails flying to see Grandma.
citation: http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/article.cgi?article=62

==A More Specific Definition==
I propose that the reasonable definition of torture be ''"any situation in which a prisoner or captive has reason to fear for their life."'' Discuss. [[User:Underscoreb|Underscoreb]] 22:30, 11 November 2007 (EST)
:How about "any imposition of physical or psychological pain that would cause a reasonable person to falsely admit to crimes, just so they can make it stop".... for anyone who says sleep deprivation, starvation, and waterboarding are not torture, here's a test--let me try them on you for a few days, and see if I can't get you to "admit" to a crime.... [[User:Pandeism|Pandeism]] 12:44, 12 November 2007 (EST)
::Hmm, good point Pandeism. Although I would suggest that sleep deprivation does not qualify as torture unless there is reason to believe the prisoner's life is in danger, e.g. heart palpitations or seizures. While I could easily be described as a filthy commie liberal, I'm aware that detainment centres are not supposed to be a particularly pleasant experience. Of course, an equally important issue is the need to improve implementation of habeas corpus and provide clear grounds for detainment in the first place. [[User:Underscoreb|Underscoreb]] 17:06, 12 November 2007 (EST)
:::What people are overlooking though is that it is the ''combination'' of techniques.... let me put it this way, the prisoners who are being waterboarded are not getting eight hours of sleep on a downy mattress, they are ''also'' being deprived of sleep and nutrition, and it is the combination of activities that has the cumulative effect of being torture.... [[User:Pandeism|Pandeism]] 23:58, 12 November 2007 (EST)
::::I hadn't thought of that, but I see what you mean. Perhaps - and this is a wild suggestion - we could keep prisoners in a safe, hygienic environment and accord them some measure of dignity; even supplying religious texts on request. Perhaps real terrorists might reconsider their extremism when they encounter the Great Satan firsthand. [[User:Underscoreb|Underscoreb]] 00:21, 13 November 2007 (EST)
:::::I have to say I agree, though for different reasons. I seriously doubt that they would give up their Jihad, they're fundamentalists, they've substituted their beliefs for reality. The reason torture cannot be condoned is that to be the good guys, you have to be the good guys. You can't destroy a monster by becoming one, because then all that's left is another monster. People seem to think that torture has to leave physical scars or it isn't torture, when the truth is that you can cause monstrous amounts of pain without leaving a single mark.

Or you can cause no pain at all, extended bouts of complete sensory deprivation can lead to extreme anxiety and hallucinations, keep a person in long enough and their sense of self breaks down. But the question is what do all these things have in common? It isn't physical damage, it's the mental damage. A person who is raped can often heal the physical wounds in days, yet the mental damage can last a lifetime. Torture is an act that strips a human being of their status as a human being, and doing that lessens us. What is it to be safe if that safety means we must be monsters to attain it?

In the end, it's not about being safe. When I speak to my grandchildren, I don't want to tell them I bought my safety with the pain of others. I want to be able to tell them that I accepted greater danger because it meant doing the right thing.

The deliberate infliction of severe physical pain on a sentient being for a prolonged amount of time--[[User:TedM|TedM]] 23:21, 9 March 2009 (EDT)

Great Flood

2019-03-20T13:29:04Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>{{cquote|'''Genesis 6:13'''<br />...The end of all flesh has come before Me; for the earth is filled with violence because of them; and behold, I am about to destroy them with the earth.}}
[[Image:Schönfeld The Flood.jpg|thumb|320px|The Flood by Johann Heinrich Schönfeld.]]
The '''Great Flood''' refers to the most catastrophic geological event that has ever taken place in human history.

It was a unique, historical, and global catastrophe that lasted for about one year.<ref>Mortenson, Terry (July 2, 2018). [https://answersingenesis.org/the-flood/global/biblical-necessity-global-flood/ Noah’s Flood: a Unique, Historical, Yearlong, Global Catastrophe]. ''Answers in Genesis''. Retrieved July 4, 2018.</ref> Virtually nothing historical, from writings to civilization to long-living organisms like trees, has survived from before about 3000 or 3300 B.C., when the Great Flood occurred.<ref>''See, e.g.'', http://www.ohtm.org/strut99.pdf</ref> Today 43–60% of Americans accept as truth the Biblical account of the Great Flood,<ref>http://www.washtimes.com/national/20040216-113955-2061r.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gallup.com/poll/155003/hold-creationist-view-human-origins.aspx</ref> and many cultures record a world-destroying flood in their oral or written histories.

The ''Iceman'', an experienced hiker, was frozen by a massive surprise ice storm in the Italian Alps 5,300 years ago—when the Great Flood likely occurred.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/iceman-last-meal.html</ref>

"Among geologists, the concept of a catastrophic flood came to be universally accepted by the late 1950s," after a discovery in the American Northwest of "giant ripple marks, 50 feet high and 200–500 feet apart."<ref>[http://www.iafi.org/floods.html The Ice Age Flood Institute reports on the massive floods in the Northwest.]</ref> This evidence of a massive flood in the Northwest suggests that the Great Flood was not merely a local flood in the Middle East. All cultures, not merely [[Christian]] ones, have an account of a great flood. [[Jesus]] specifically mentioned the Great Flood.<ref>[[Matthew 20-28 (Translated)#24:37|Matthew 24:37-39]].</ref>

== Summary ==

This flood was the means of [[God]]'s judgment on mankind because of the evil in their heart and actions. God warned [[Noah]] that He was going to destroy the world with a flood, because of the wickedness of mankind. Noah was to build an [[Noah's Ark|ark]] and take his family and pairs of each [[baraminology|kind]] of air-breathing animal in it in order to be saved from the flood.

After Noah and his family and all the creatures were on board, God shut the door of the ark. The flood was brought on by the bursting open of the ''fountains of the great deep'' and the opening of ''the floodgates of the sky''. The rain lasted nearly six weeks (40 days and nights). The flood waters apparently continued to rise for 150 days, but it was just over a year before the waters had receded enough for the occupants of the ark to leave.

The ark came to rest on one of the mountains of [[Ararat]]. God used a [[rainbow]] in the clouds as a sign that he would never again destroy the world in a flood.<ref>Genesis does not say that this was the first ever rainbow.</ref>

== Flood accounts ==
[[Image:The Great Deluge - Gustave Dore.jpg|thumb|330px|''The Great Deluge'', by Gustave Doré.]]
One of the strong pieces of evidence in support of a worldwide flood are the many stories that exist among societies all over the world. These stories describe a world-destroying flood, and it seems unlikely that this similarity is accidental. Dr. [[John Morris]] wrote regarding the historicity of the biblical flood:
{{cquote|One of the strongest evidences for the global flood which annihilated all people on [[Earth]] except for [[Noah]] and his family, has been the ubiquitous presence of flood legends in the folklore of people groups from around the world. And the stories are all so similar.<ref>http://www.icr.org/article/570/</ref>}}

=== Gilgamesh Epic ===
The best known of the flood accounts is, firstly, the biblical account in [[Genesis]], and secondly, the one found in the [[Gilgamesh Epic]]. Here is a summary of the Gilgamesh Epic:
:''The council of the gods decided to destroy mankind with a flood, but Utnapishtim was warned by the god who had made man, Ea, to build a boat to take all living beings. The length, width, and height were each 120 cubits (about 180 feet). It had seven stories.
:''The gods got frightened by the flood and retreated to heaven where they cowered and wept.
:''The flood lasted six days and seven nights, and was accompanied by wind and storm.
:''Utnapishtim send out a dove followed by a swallow, but both returned, unable to find land. He then sent a raven, which didn't return.

Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] comments on the Gilgamesh Epic:
{{cquote|It is common to make legends out of historical events, but not history from legends. ... For instance, in Genesis, God’s judgment is just, he is patient with mankind for 120 years (Genesis 6:3), shows mercy to Noah, and is sovereign. Conversely, the gods in the Gilgamesh Epic are capricious and squabbling, cower at the Flood and are famished without humans to feed them sacrifices. That is, the human writers of the Gilgamesh Epic rewrote the true account, and made their gods in their own image.<ref Name="JS_GE" />}}

=== Common Themes in Flood Accounts ===
There are parallel themes going through most of the accounts of the [[Great Flood (cultural traditions)|Great Flood]]. Here are some of them.

==== Cause ====
Many of the accounts say that the flood was caused by God or some equivalent being.
In Genesis, it was Yahweh.<ref>Genesis 6:3</ref>
In the Gilgamesh Epic, it was the council of the gods.<ref Name="JS_GE">[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3107 Noah’s Flood and the Gilgamesh Epic] by Jonathan Sarfati, ''Creation'', vol. 28 No. 4 pp.12-17</ref>
In the Bundaba (Australian aboriginal) flood story, it was Ngowungu, the Great Father.<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1468 Australian Aboriginal Flood Stories], ''Creation'' Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 6-9.</ref>
The Greeks recorded it as being [[Zeus]].<ref name="Greek">[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Greek Greek], in ''Flood Stories from Around the World'' by Mark Isaak.</ref>

==== Purpose ====
When the cause of the flood is attributed to a god, the reason is frequently said to be for [[mankind]]'s wickedness.
Genesis adds that "every inclination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil all the time".<ref>Genesis 6:5 (NIV)</ref>
The Miao account from China says, in verse, "These did not God's will nor returned His affection. / But fought with each other defying the Godhead. / Their leaders shook fists in the face of the Mighty."<ref>[http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=341 Genesis According to the Miao People], by Edgar A. Truax, ''Impact'', April 1991</ref>
A Navajo account says that it was because of "their sins of adultery and constant quarreling".<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Navajo Navajo (Four Corners area)], in ''Flood Stories from Around the World'' by Mark Isaak</ref>

==== What saved the people ====

People were generally saved either by floating out the flood, or fleeing to the top of a mountain. In the former case, the vessel took a variety of forms.
A Hopi Indian story has them surviving in the hollow stems of giant reeds<ref name="Hopi">[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Hopi Hopi], in ''Flood Stories from Around the World'' by Mark Isaak.</ref>
The Greek story has them surviving in a chest.<ref name="Greek" />
In Genesis, [[Noah]] was instructed by God to build an ark to dimensions and other specifications included in the account.

==== Who was saved? ====
The survivors were often a single family.
An Australian aboriginal account has Ngadgja, the Supreme One, telling Gajara to take his wife, his sons, and his sons' wives.<ref name="Wunambal">[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1467 Aboriginal Flood Legend], by Howard Coates, ''Creation'' Vol. 4 No.3, pp.9-12</ref>
The Masai account from East Africa has Tumbainot taking his two wives, his six sons, and their wives.<ref name="Masai">[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Masai Masai (East Africa)], in ''Flood Stories from Around the World'' by Mark Isaak.</ref>
A Hawaiian story has Nuu taking his wife and three sons.<ref name="Hawaii">[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Hawaii Hawaii], in ''Flood Stories from Around the World'' by Mark Isaak.</ref>
Noah took his wife, his three sons, and their wives.<ref>Genesis 7:13</ref>

==== Birds sent out ====
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''The Flood'', by Michaelangelo, detail from the Sistine Chapel, 1509.]]
Genesis describes Noah sending out birds to see if there was yet dry land.<ref>Genesis 8:6-12</ref>
Initially this was unsuccessful, but a subsequent attempt was successful when a dove didn't return. In the Hopi account also, they unsuccessfully sent out birds to find land.<ref name="Hopi" />
An Australian aboriginal account has a cuckoo not returning because it found land.<ref name="Wunambal" />
The Masai account has Tumbainot sending out a dove, which returned because it had no place to rest.<ref name="Masai" />

==== A rainbow ====
The Masai account has four rainbows signifying that God's [[wrath]] was over.<ref name="Masai" />
A Hawaiian account has the god Kane leaving a rainbow as a perpetual sign of his forgiveness.<ref name="Hawaii" />
From an Australian aboriginal story comes this account:
:Ngadja, the Supreme Being, put the rainbow in the sky to keep the rain-clouds back. The rainbow lies bent across the sky; he ties up the clouds behind it and the rain does not come. The rainbow keeps the clouds back and protects us so that the rainfall does not rise too high. Our people understand the significance of it. When we see the rainbow we say, ‘There will not be any abnormally heavy rain.’<ref name="Wunambal" />

Genesis says that the rainbow would be a reminder that God would never again destroy the world with a flood.<ref>Genesis 9:12-17</ref>

==== Criticisms ====

:''See more criticisms in the article on [[Noah's Ark#Criticisms|Noah's Ark]] and [[Flood Geology#Controversy|Flood Geology]].''
Critics of the global flood suggest that the flood accounts are unrelated accounts of local floods, or stories influenced by the arrival of missionaries.

However, Nozomi Osanai responds that "''...the detailed nature of the widely spread statements has common elements to the Bible. In fact, even people who live far from the sea or in mountainous areas have flood traditions which are similar to the Genesis account.''"<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4089/ A comparative study of the flood accounts in the Gilgamesh Epic and Genesis, chapter 7], by Nozomi Osanai.</ref>

And Murray Adamthwaite responds regarding the missionary influence, "''...that explanation fails since in many cases secular anthropologists gathered the stories before missionaries reached these tribes with the Gospel. In other cases missionaries have related how they indeed told the story of Noah, only to find that the tribal folk already had a similar tale in their own legends.''"<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2538 Animals, a Deluge and Noah’s Ark]</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Other ancient references ==
The Great Flood has left a variety of traditions in many cultures worldwide. In most of them, the stories involve a few survivors and a number of animals in a boat or on a raft; the search for dry land involving a bird; a landing on a mountain, and a sacrifice to the gods after the flood was over.

{| border="1" align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" width="900" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="6"|
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|European traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Greece
| Deucalion and Pyrrha were warned by Prometheus about the flood and told to build a chest; they survived when the chest landed on a high mountain.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D7%3Asection%3D2 Apollodorus, ''The Library'', book 1]</ref>
| Deucalion
| Mt. Parnassus
| -
| Yes
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Asian traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Babylonia
| [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]; The god Ea warned Utnapishtim of the imminent destruction of the earth; the ark built was cube-shaped, and held his family, friends, and all animals
| Utnapishtim
| Mt. Nisir
| 8
| Yes; a raven and dove were used to search for dry land as well
|-
| Assyria
| King [[Ashurbanipal]], who lived in the seventh century B.C., recorded, "I have read intricate tablets inscribed with obscure [[Sumerian]] or [[Akkadian]]...inscriptions on stone from before the Flood."
| Utnapishtim; possibly used the same Gilgamesh tales of Babylonia
| Mt. Nisir
| 8
| Yes
|-
| Chaldean
| Xisuthrus was warned of a coming flood by the god Chronos, who ordered him to build a boat in which to carry family, friends, and two of every kind of animal.<ref>[http://rbedrosian.com/euseb2.htm Eusebius, ''Chronicle'', book 1]</ref>
| Xisuthrus
| -
| 8
| Yes; birds were used to find land.
|-
| China
| [[Hihking]]; The Chinese classic record details one family survived a great flood by gathering their sons and sons' wives together in a large boat, whereupon they repopulated the earth afterwards.
| Fuhi
| -
| 8
| Yes
|-
| Sumeria
| [[Eridu Genesis]]: the god [[Enki]] warns Ziudsura to build a large boat due to the coming destruction of the earth. After a flood lasting seven days, Ziudsura sacrifices to the gods.
| Ziudsura
| translation lost
| -
| translation lost
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Australian traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Wunambal
| Children tormented an owl, whom complained to the god Ngadja. Ngadja then sent a flood to punish them, but he helped one family escape. Ngadja then put a rainbow in the sky to hold back the rain-clouds.<ref name="Wunambal" />
| Gajara
| Numbuzare
| -
| Yes
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Oceanic Islanders traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Hawaiian
| A man built a boat to escape a great flood. He landed his vessel on top of Mauna Kea on the Big Island. The man accidentally attributed the cause of his safety to the moon god, and made sacrifices to the wrong god. Kane, the actual creator god descended to the man from a rainbow telling him of his error.<ref>http://www.enotes.com/wm-encyclopedia/nuu</ref><ref>"Nu'u" A Dictionary of World Mythology. Arthur Cotterell. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 30 September 2010 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t73.e525</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v2/n2/flood-legends</ref><ref>http://www.answers.com/topic/nu-u</ref><ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=FyIEpx1aLXEC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290&dq=nu'u+flood&source=bl&ots=BDjZOWOLI2&sig=y1I_kYruIhHJ6_UgsqiE5N1oTh8&hl=en&ei=zM0oTpbiC8L50gH6wdCACw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CGEQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=nu'u%20flood&f=false</ref>
| Nu'u
| Mauna Kea
| Unknown
| Unknown
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|African traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Masai
| God resolved to destroy mankind, as the people were sinful. God commanded Tumbainot, the only righteous man, to build an ark and enter it with his two wives, six sons and their wives, and some of animals of every sort. God caused a great flood, and all other men and beasts drowned. When the water receded the ark grounded and its occupants disembarked.<ref>http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html#Masai</ref>
| Tumbainot
| -
| 9+
| Yes
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|North American traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Chippewa
| A war between Nanabozho and the Great Serpent who lived at the bottom of Lake Superior; the serpent, being wounded in the fight, vowed to destroy the tribe by a flood. The tribe quickly built rafts, gathered their animals, and escaped to the highest mountains, which were quickly covered over except the one on which stood Nanabozho.<ref>[http://www.indians.org/welker/greatflo.htm].</ref>
| Nanabozho
| unknown
| unknown
| Yes
|-
| Choctaw
| The Great Spirit destroyed a corrupt and wicked human race and all life on earth, except a prophet who went in vain to warn the people to repent or die. The prophet survived by building a raft of sassafras logs.<ref>[http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mboucher/mikebouchweb/choctaw/flood1.htm].</ref>
| known only as the prophet.
| unknown
| unknown
| Yes; the bird which led him to land he named "Puchi Yushuba" (lost pigeon)
|-
!colspan="6" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|South American traditions
|-
! width="100" | Culture or people
! width="500" | Details
! width="150" | Name of Noah
! width="150" | Name of mountain
! width="80" | Number of survivors
! width="80" | Animals involved
|-
| Tamanakis (Carib tribe, Orinoco River basin)
| A man and woman escaped to the highest peak after being warned of a flood. Afterward, the tossed coconuts behind them, which became the next race of man.
| -
| Mt Tapanacu
| -
| -
|-
|}

== Effects of ''the Flood'' ==
=== Natural Effects ===
==== Flood Geology ====
{{Main|Flood Geology}}
Flood geology is the study of the Earth's geology in the search of evidence for the Flood in the [[geology]] of the Earth.

=== Separation of Continents===
Some [[Young Earth Creationists]] point to the flood as the reason for the separation of [[Pangea]], rather than the secular view that the separation was caused by [[plate tectonics]] over millions or even billions of years.

=== Ice Age ===

Some scientists think that the Great Flood caused the Ice Age. Meteorologist Michael J. Oard
states in ''Frozen in Time'' that:

<blockquote>
''The Flood and its aftershocks provide the volcanic dust and gases that bring the summer cooling indispensable for the Ice Age. Water from the “fountains of the great deep” and mixing during the Flood provides a warm ocean. In the mid and high latitudes the warm ocean would cause copious evaporation and produce massive amounts of snow. The two ingredients required for an Ice Age, cool temperatures and tons of snow, were dramatically fulfilled immediately after the Genesis flood. This unique climate would persist for hundreds of years after the Flood as the intensity of the two mechanisms slowly decreased.'' <ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/fit/chapter7.asp The Genesis flood caused the Ice Age]</ref><ref>Oard, M.J., 1990. An ice age caused by the Genesis Flood, Institute for Creation Research, El Cajón, California.</ref>
</blockquote>

=== Spiritual Effects ===

Interpreting the way Noah obeyed God (Genesis 6:22):

<blockquote>
Noah was faithful for 120 long hard disappointing years. You can be sure, however, he was a happy man the day the rains came and he was safe and dry inside the ark that was the product of his faith and obedience to God...

Noah submitted himself and worshiped God... His strength to live for God was that he chose to walk daily with the Lord. The same power is available to us to believe in God and let God direct our lives.
<ref>[http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN6.HTM THE GREAT WORLD WIDE FLOOD]</ref>
</blockquote>

Consequently, at present we should ask ourselves: What kind of faith do we have?, Does my faith guide me always in my daily decision? ([[Ibidem]])

== Evolutionary explanations ==
[[Image:The building of the ark.jpg|thumb|260px|left|The building of the ark by Bertram of Minden.]]

=== Black Sea theory ===
In 2000, explorers discovered evidence that humans lived where the [[Black Sea]] now is and speculated the sea was created during a great flood.<ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/09/13/great.flood.finds.ap/</ref> Dr. Robert Ballard expanded on this theory, postulating that the Black Sea was much lower during the [[Ice Age]] (including the finding of a beach thousands of feet underwater), and when the walls holding back the [[Mediterranean Sea]] at the Bosporus broke, the sea rushed in and drowned the inhabitants; those who survived told the tale orally, and according to Ballard this became the basis for the flood accounts of Genesis and Gilgamesh.<ref>http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html</ref> This theory is for a local flood, and not the worldwide flood as recorded in Genesis and many other cultural traditions. It also doesn't fit with many other details of the Genesis account.<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3392 Proof of Noah's Flood at the Black Sea?] by Creation Ministries International.</ref>

=== Crustal Displacement Theory ===
In ''When the sky fell: In search of Atlantis'' (1996), Rand Flem Ath<ref>http://www.flem-ath.com</ref> expanded on Professor [[Charles Hapgood]]'s theory of crustal displacement whereby the entire earth's crust moved with respect to the core. The suggested date for this was about 10,000 years BC. If a displacement had occurred then it would have caused enormous disruption to the earth's oceans with massive tsunamis and heavy rain. Although the book was nominally about the disappearance of [[Atlantis]], the theory of crustal displacement not only explains the discrepancies in ice thickness in [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]] but also the sudden demise of the [[mammoth]]s. This theory could also potentially explain the widespread existence of flood accounts throughout different cultures.

==See also==
*[[Causes of the Great Flood]]
*[[Flood geology]]

==External links==

*[http://creation.com/noahs-flood-questions-and-answers Noah's flood - Questions and answers] by [[Creation Ministries International]]
*[http://www.maicar.com/GML/Flood.html Greek Myths: Deucalion and the Flood]
*[http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab11.htm Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet 11 (Flood Story)]
*[http://www.nwcreation.net/geologycolumn.html Geological evidence from Northwest Creation]
*[http://www.searchgodsword.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T2631 DELUGE OF NOAH]
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/Home/Area/AnswersBook/global10.asp Was the Flood Global? Answers in Genesis article]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html Black Sea theory, from Dr. Robert Ballard and National Geographic]
*[http://www.ilhawaii.net/~stony/lore64.html Native American flood story]
*[http://wovoca.com/myths-flood-1.htm Collection of Flood myths]
*[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3107 A table comparing specific details in a number of different flood accounts]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Bible/OT/Law/Genesis/timeline_of_the_flood.htm Timeline of the flood]
*[http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/Bible/Bible/OT/Law/Genesis/NoahsArk/Quotes%20of%20Seeing%20Noah%27s%20Ark.htm Quotes of Seeing Noah's Ark on Mt. Ararat]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Natural Disasters]]
[[Category:Disasters]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Ancient History]]
[[Category:Book of Genesis]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Water]]

Aplastic Anemia

2019-03-20T13:29:02Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>According to the [[National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute]], '''Aplastic Anemia''' (a-PLAS-tik uh-NEE-me-uh) is "a rare and serious blood disorder in which bone marrow stops making enough new blood cells. Bone marrow––the spongy material inside bones—makes new blood cells called stem cells. Stem cells normally develop into three main types of blood cells: [[red blood cell]]s, [[white blood cell]]s, and [[platelet]]s. Each type of blood cell has its own functions in the body."

"It is normal for blood cells to die. The lifespan of red blood cells is about 120 days. White blood cells live less than 1 day. Platelets live about 6 days. As a result, bone marrow must constantly make new blood cells. The term "anemia" is most often used to mean a condition in which a person’s number of red blood cells is too low or their red blood cells do not carry enough hemoglobin (HEE-muh-glow-bin). However, in aplastic anemia, normal production of all blood cells—red cells, white cells, and platelets—slows or stops. This is because the stem cells have been damaged. The cause of this damage is often unknown."

== Effects of Aplastic Anemia on the Body ==

"A shortage of any one of the three main types of blood cells will have an effect on the body. In aplastic anemia, however, the body must cope with a shortage of all three types of blood cells. Severe aplastic anemia that is not treated promptly can be fatal."

"The effect on the body of a shortage of each type of blood cell is described below:"

"* Too few red blood cells. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which is an iron-rich protein that gives blood its red color. Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide (a waste product) from cells and carry it to the lungs to be exhaled. If there are not enough red blood cells, too little oxygen is carried to the body and too little carbon dioxide is carried away. People who have a low red blood cell count often feel tired because the body is not getting enough oxygen. An untreated or severely low red blood cell count can lead to many problems. The heart has to work harder to pump blood to get enough oxygen to the body’s organs and tissues. Over time, this stress on the heart can cause fast or irregular heartbeats, an enlarged heart, or even heart failure.
* Too few white blood cells. White blood cells fight infection and are an important part of the body’s defense system. When the number of white blood cells in the blood is lower than normal, the body is less able to fight infections. A person may become ill more often, and the illness may be very severe or last a long time.
* Too few platelets. Platelets are needed to help blood clot. If the platelet count is low, blood cannot clot normally. A person with a low platelet count may bruise or bleed easily, and the bleeding may be hard to stop."

== General Information ==

"Aplastic anemia is a rare condition. In the United States, about 500–1,000 people develop this type of anemia each year. It is two to three times more common in Asian countries."

"The two main types of aplastic anemia are acquired and hereditary. Acquired means a person develops the condition during his or her lifetime. Hereditary means a person is born with the condition. Acquired aplastic anemia is the most common type, and it is sometimes a temporary condition. It can be triggered by exposure to:"

* Toxic chemicals
* Chemotherapy drugs
* Radiation
* Virus infections

"However, the cause of acquired aplastic anemia is often not known."

"Hereditary aplastic anemia is rare. It occurs with some inherited conditions, such as [[Fanconi Anemia|Fanconi anemia]]."

== Severity of Aplastic Anemia ==

"Aplastic anemia can begin suddenly or develop slowly. It tends to get worse over time, except when a cause can be found and removed. Its severity ranges from mild to very severe."

"* People with mild or moderate aplastic anemia have low blood counts that the doctor will check often. If the blood counts do not get worse, treatment may not be needed.
* People with severe aplastic anemia have very low blood counts. The condition can become life threatening if it is not treated.
* People with very severe aplastic anemia have extremely low blood counts. This condition is life threatening. It needs emergency hospital treatment."

"Although aplastic anemia is not cancer, the treatments for it are similar to those used for some types of cancer. Treatments include blood transfusions and bone marrow transplants. Treatments also include medicines to suppress the immune system, stimulate the bone marrow, and treat infections."

== Outlook ==

"Many people with aplastic anemia can be treated successfully if they have prompt and appropriate treatment. Some people with aplastic anemia can be cured with a bone marrow transplant."<ref>http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/aplastic/aplastic_whatis.html</ref>

== Source of this article ==
<references/>

[[Category:Medicine]]

Azariah

2019-03-20T13:28:58Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>'''Azariah''', which means "whom [[Jehovah]] helps," has numerous meanings in the [[Old Testament]], including many priests and [[Levites]] mentioned. Some of the specific examples are:

* the son of Ethan in the [[Judah (tribe)|Judah]] tribe

* the son of Johanan, who was a high priest during the reign of [[Abijah]] and [[Asa]]

* the son of Ahimaaz, the high priest who succeeded his grandfather Zadok in the days of [[Solomon]] and officiated over the consecration of the temple

* a high priest in the reign of [[Uzziah]], who was the king of Judah

* a high priest during the time of [[Hezekiah]]

* the name originally given to [[Abednego]]

* a prophet who was the son of [[Oded]] during the time of Asa, and who led a national reformation.

== See also ==
* [[Azaria Chamberlain]]

[[Category:Biblical Persons]]

Hampshire

2019-03-20T13:28:57Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>[[Image:North Wessex Downs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The North Wessex Downs, Hampshire]]
'''Hampshire''' is a [[county]] in southern [[England]].

Its main cities are the ports of [[Southampton]], and [[Portsmouth]], and the historical city of [[Winchester]].

Much of England's newest [[National Park]], the [[New Forest]], lies within the West of the County and is an important site for [[biodiversity]], being one of England's last remaining areas of extensive heath and oak forest. Wild horses, called New Forest Ponies, are found in this area.

Hampshire lies to the south-west of London and is situated centrally on England's south coast. It borders the counties of [[Dorset]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Surrey]] and [[Sussex]]. The [[Isle of Wight]] lies a few miles offshore and was once administratively considered part of Hampshire; however, today the island is officially a county in its own right.

The state of [[New Hampshire]] was named after this English county.

[[Category:United Kingdom Counties]]

Arlen Specter

2019-03-20T13:28:55Z

Nadelik:

<includeonly>{{Officeholder
|name=Arlen Specter
|image=Specter-0.jpg
|party=[[Democrat]]
|spouse=Joan Specter
|religion=[[Judaism]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Pennsylvania
|terms=January 5, 1981 – January 5, 2011
|preceded=Richard Schweiker
|former=n
|succeeded=[[Pat Toomey]]
}}
}}

'''Arlen Specter''' (February 12, 1930 – October 14, 2012) was the former Democratic senior [[United States]] Senator from [[Pennsylvania]]. He was first elected in 1980, and was subsequently reelected five times since then. He had moderate to liberal viewpoints - particularly when it came to economic and social issues. He supported Obama's massive stimulus bill in 2009 and opposed attempts to overturn Roe v. Wade.

Before defecting to the [[Democratic Party]] (see below), Senator Specter was a [[RINO]], disagreeing with the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] Administration on numerous issues. He was one of three Republicans who supported Obama's stimulus bill in 2009. Threatened with a [[conservative]] [[primary]] challenger for his seat in 2010, on April 28, 2009, he announced he was switching to the Democratic party. Once [[Al Franken]] was declared the victor in the [[Minnesota]] Senate race, Specter's vote provided the crucial 60th vote needed for the Democrats (and the two independents) to stop GOP [[filibusters]]. However, that filibuster-proof majority ended when [[Republican Party|Republican]] [[Scott Brown]] won the [[Massachusetts]] special Senate election in January 2010.

Specter was defeated in the Democratic primary by Joe Sestak for his reelection in the [[2010 Midterm Elections]].
==Career==
He was a [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] veteran, serving within the U.S. as an officer within the Air Force Office of Special Investigations during the [[Korean War]].

==Political career==
Specter's first foray into politics was his election as [[Philadelphia]]'s District Attorney in 1965. He mounted an unsuccessful campaign for mayor of Philadelphia in 1967 and was defeated for reelection to a third term as District Attorney in 1973. He was defeated in the 1976 Republican Primary for U.S. Senate by John Heinz and in the 1978 primary for Governor of Pennsylvania by Dick Thornburgh. Arlen Specter was elected to the Senate in 1980 and is currently serving his fifth term. In 2005, Senator Specter became Pennsylvania's longest-serving U.S. Senator. He was formerly Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, and was a senior member of the Appropriations and Veterans Affairs committees. However, after defecting from the Republican Party and joining the Democrat caucus, Specter lost all of his seniority. Specter went from serving as the most powerful Republican on the Judiciary Committee to the lowest-ranking Democrat in four out of his five committee assignments.<ref>https://www.newsmax.com/headlines/arlen_specter_stripped/2009/05/06/211368.html</ref>

Arlen Specter made an unsuccessful run for the presidency in 1996 and ended up supporting Republican nominee [[Robert Dole]].

====The "Unicorn" murder====
[[File:The Unicorn Killer.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Ira Einhorn]]
Specter has a knack for notoriety; in one such case he was a member of the Warren Commission investigating the death of President [[John F. Kennedy]] when he was credited with creating the "magic bullet" theory, which in essence was a single bullet that wounded Kennedy and Texas governor John Connoly, but not before it went through a pair of right-angle turns in mid-air before hitting Connoly.

But his most notorious case - and one which he rarely talks about - is his getting the release on bail of [[Ira Einhorn]], a celebrated Philadelphia liberal and leftist who had strong ties to the elite in the city, and who was scheduled to go to trial for the murder of his former girlfriend, Holly Maddux, who was two-years dead when her mummified body was found stuffed in a trunk in Einhorn's closet in 1979. Specter - who also shared the same elite ties with Einhorn, convinced the judge to have his bail reduced from an "excessive" $100,000 to $40,000, with Einhorn putting up a mere 10% to be released. Judge William Marutani had initially thought that Einhorn might flee to Norway; "I have to disagree with your last statement," replied Specter. "Anybody is as likely to go to Norway as anybody else." Einhorn did flee the country before his trial started in 1981, to Sweden. He remained a fugitive until 1997, when he was extradited from France, convicted in a new trial, and sentenced to life in prison. [http://www.nationalreview.com/miller/miller200404080822.asp][http://newsbusters.org/blogs/tom-blumer/2009/04/29/specter-switches-ira-einhorn-saga-deserves-wider-mention]

==Political Views==
Specter's moderate to liberal views have affected his political career as a Republican. Many considered him a RINO (Republican in Name Only) while he was in that party. For example, his status as the Chairman of the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] (a position he held from January, 2005 through January, 2007) was in question when he made comments hinting that he would oppose candidates who would overturn [[Roe v. Wade]]. In addition, in the 2004 Republican Senate Primary Election, he only received 51% of the vote when the conservative [[Patrick Toomey]] challenged him.

Arlen Specter was the only Republican in the Senate to vote for the [[Employee Free Choice Act]],<ref>http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jun/27/nation/na-union27</ref> legislation supported by big labor that would eliminate a private-ballot vote over whether workers would [[union]]ize. Specter was also one of only three Republicans in the United State Congress to vote for the 2009 economic stimulus bill. Additionally, Specter has announced he supports Single Payer [[Healthcare]].<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lb-6QfxqKnk&feature=channel</ref>

In the past, there were issues where Specter was considered marginally [[conservative]]. In 2002, he voted to authorize the use of military force in [[Iraq]], although many Democrats did so as well. A native of [[Kansas]], Specter supports [[Second Amendment]] rights, receiving an A rating from the National Rifle Association, and [[capital punishment]]. Specter also supported the confirmation of conservative Clarence Thomas when he was appointed by President Bush to the US Supreme Court in 1991 and aroused considerable controversy through his questioning of Anita Hill, a witness who accused Thomas of sexual harassment. Specter generally supported Republican nominees although he cast a crucial vote against conservative Robert Bork, who was nominated by President Reagan to the Supreme Court.

===Interest Group Ratings===

Prior to changing parties, political interest groups reflected Arlen Specter's moderate to liberal reputation.<ref>https://www.votesmart.org/issue_rating_category.php?can_id=53340&type=category&category=10&go.x=5&go.y=13</ref>

*Received a 100% rating from [[NARAL Pro-Choice America]]
*Received a 79% rating from [[Planned Parenthood]]
*Received a 14% rating from the [[National Right to Life Committee]]
*Rated '''D''' by the [[National Taxpayers Union]]
*Received a 43% rating from the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]
*Received a 42% rating from the [[American Conservative Union]]
*Received a 60% rating from the [[League of Conservation Voters]]
*Received a 43% rating from the [[American Family Association]]
*Received an A from the [[National Rifle Association]]
*Received a 100% rating from [[Gun Owners of America]]
*Received a '''D-''' from [[Americans for Better Immigration]]

==Health Problems==
On February 16, 2005, Specter announced that he had been diagnosed with an advanced form of Hodgkin's disease, a type of cancer. Despite the advanced form, Specter continued working during chemotherapy. He ended treatment on July 22. Senator John Sununu shaved his head to show solidarity with Specter when he was undergoing chemotherapy and was temporarily bald. On October 14, 2012, he passed away.

==2010 Reelection==

[[File:Specter graph.PNG|left|300px|thumb|Studies show Arlen Specter's 2010 reelection campaign has influenced his voting record.]]Specter barely won the 2004 Republican primary, which allows only registered Republicans to vote, by less than 2% against [[conservative]] challenger [[Pat Toomey]]. [[Rick Santorum]], himself a former Pennsylvania senator, described that "Specter's biggest problem ... may be that thousands of southeastern Pennsylvania Republicans who voted for him in 2004 can't vote for him in the (2010) primary. Why? Because they're no longer Republicans." In fact, the number of registered Republicans in Pennsylvania decreased by 162,000 between 2004 and 2008.<ref>http://www.philly.com/philly/blogs/americandebate/Arlen_Specter_tilting_rightward.html</ref> This is one of the main reasons why Specter switched parties; to get re-elected in 2010, he needed to rely on his left-leaning supporters. However, Specter was denied the 2010 Democratic senatorial nomination, and the more conservative Republican Pat Toomey, who lost the Republican primary to Specter six years earlier, narrowly won the general election for the seat in a strongly Republican year in Pennsylvania.

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Ira Einhorn]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Specter, Arlen}}
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]
[[Category:111th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:2010 Midterm Elections]]
[[Category:American Jews]]
[[Category:Abortion Advocates]]