Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Brazil

2014-06-07T17:06:25Z

MickeyD:

{{Country
|name =''República Federativa do Brasil''
|map =Brazil rel94.jpg
|map2 =Brazil1.png
|flag =Flag of Brazil.png
|arms =Arms of Brazil.png
|capital =Brasilia
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Dilma Rousseff
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,597 sq mi
|pop =203,429,000(2011)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$1.701 trillion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$9,488 (2006)
|currency =real
|idd =
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}}
Located in [[South America]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> '''Brazil''' has the third largest area among American countries and the second largest population, having a total of 184 million people as of July 2004.<ref>[http://www.brasil.gov.br/ingles/about_brazil Brazilian Government Web Portal]</ref> Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. About three quarters of all Brazilians belong to the Roman Catholic Church; most others are Protestant, members of a growing evangelical movement, or follow practices derived from African religions. [[São Paulo]] is its largest city, and the famous [[Rio de Janeiro]] is a major port city and former capital of Brazil. Brasilia is the present capital and became so in 1960 after it was planned and developed in 1956.

== The 2014 World Cup ==
[[File:Cathedral illumination for world cup 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cathedral]] of Brasília; illumination for world cup 2014.]]

The FIFA 2014 Liberal World Cup will be hosted in Brazil between 12 June and 13 July 2014. Twelve cities were selected for this tournament: Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasília, DF, São Paulo, SP, Porto Alegre, RS, Fortaleza, CE, Belo Horizonte, MG, Salvador, BA, Recife, PE, Cuiabá, MT Manaus, AM, Natal, RN, and Curitiba, PR. The United States team will have as base camp the city of São Paulo, São Paulo. The tournament starts with hosts Brazil facing Croatia on 12 June.

Teams and camps: Algeria (Sorocaba), Australia (Vitoria), Argentina (Vespasiano), Belgium (Mogi das Cruzes), Bosnia-Hercegovina (Guaruja), Brazil (Teresopolis), Cameroon (Vitoria), Chile (Belo Horizonte), Colombia (Cotia), Costa Rica (Santos), Croatia (Mata de Sao Joao), Ecuador (Viamao), England (Rio de Janeiro), France (Ribeirao Preto), Germany (Santa Cruz Cabralia), Ghana (Maceio), Greece (Aracaju), Honduras (Porto Feliz), Italy (Mangaratiba), Iran (Guarulhos), Ivory Coast (Aguas de Lindoia), Japan (Itu), South Korea (Foz do Iguacu), Mexico (Santos), Netherlands (Rio de Janeiro), Nigeria (Campinas), Portugal (Campinas), Russia (Itu), Spain (Curitiba), Switzerland (Porto Seguro), Uruguay (Sete Lagoas), United States (Sao Paulo). [http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25998576]

Brazilian Government website on the 2014 World Cup: [http://www.copa2014.gov.br/en Brazil and the World Cup.]

==Geography==
[[File:Rio de Janeiro Brasil.jpg|thumb|left|Rio de Janeiro.]]
Brazil's topography includes the world's largest rain forest, which occupies roughly two-thirds of country. Through this forest run the many tributaries of the Amazon, second-longest river (after the Nile) in the world.
*Area: 8,511,965 sq. km. (3,290,000 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than the U.S.
*Cities: Capital--Brasilia (pop. 2.5 million). Other cities--Sao Paulo (10.9 million), Rio de Janeiro (6.1 million), Belo Horizonte (2.4 million), Salvador (2.9 million), Fortaleza (2.4 million), Recife (1.5 million), Porto Alegre (1.4 million), Curitiba (1.8 million).
*Terrain: Dense forests in northern regions including Amazon Basin; semiarid along northeast coast; mountains, hills, and rolling plains in the southwest, including Mato Grosso; midwestern savannahs; the world's largest wetland area; and coastal lowland.
*Climate: Mostly tropical or semitropical with temperate zone in the south.

 
 

==People==
[[File:Brasileiros.JPG|180px|left]]
With its estimated 186 million inhabitants, Brazil has the largest population in Latin America and the fifth-largest in the world. The majority of its people live in the south-central area, which includes the industrial cities of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte. Urban growth has been rapid; by 2005, 81% of the total population was living in urban areas. This growth has aided economic development but also has created serious social, security, environmental, and political problems for major cities.

Six major groups make up the Brazilian population: the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil in the 16th century; Africans brought to Brazil as slaves; various other European, Middle Eastern, and Asian immigrant groups who have settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century; and indigenous peoples of Tupi and Guarani language stock. Intermarriage between the Portuguese and indigenous people or slaves was common. Although the major European ethnic stock of Brazil was originally Portuguese, subsequent waves of immigration have contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage.
[[File:Amistoso selecao.jpg|thumb|left|World Cup 2014.]]
[[File:Brasil 2.JPG|240px|right]]
From 1875 until 1960, about 5 million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Immigrants have come mainly from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and the Middle East. The largest Japanese community outside Japan is in Sao Paulo. Despite class distinctions, national identity is strong, and racial friction is a relatively new phenomenon. Indigenous full-blooded Indians, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin, constitute less than 1% of the population. Their numbers are declining as contact with the outside world and commercial expansion into the interior increase. Brazilian Government programs to establish reservations and to provide other forms of assistance have existed for years but are controversial and often ineffective.

Brazil prohibits [[abortion]] unless necessary to save the life of the mother. Sometimes courts have authorized [[abortion]] in specific cases of rape or fetal handicap.<ref>http://www.hli.org/brazil.html</ref>

== Government ==
[[Image:Lula da Silva.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Expresident [[Lula da Silva]] and wife Marisa Leticia.]]
Brazil is a federal republic with 26 states and a federal district. The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. There are 81 senators, three for each state and the Federal District, and 513 deputies. Senate terms are eight years, staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later. Chamber terms are four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states. Each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats; the largest state delegation (Sao Paulo's) is capped at 70 seats. This system is weighted in favor of geographically large but sparsely populated states.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The major political parties are:
*Workers' Party (PT-center-left)
*Liberal Front Party (PFL-right)
*Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center)
*Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB-center-left)
*Progressive Party (PP-right)
*Brazilian Labor Party (PTB-center-right)
*Liberal Party (PL-center-right)
*Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB-left)
*Popular Socialist Party (PPS-left)
*Democratic Labor Party (PDT-left)
*Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB-left)
*Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL-left)
President Lula was re-elected October 29, 2006 in a second round victory with over sixty percent of the vote, over Geraldo Alckmin of the PSDB. Lula’s PT party failed to win a majority in either the lower or upper houses in concurrent legislative elections and will be obliged to form a coalition with the centrist PMDB party -- which won the most seats in the lower house and may end up with the largest number in the Senate -- and a collection of minor parties. However, party loyalty is weak in Brazil, and it is common for politicians to switch parties, changing the balance of power in Congress. The PT won five of twenty-seven governorships, but the opposition PSDB remains in control of the critical states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. The PMDB, as in the legislative elections, won the most governorships of any one party, controlling seven states. Because of the mandatory revenue allocation to states and municipalities provided for in the 1988 constitution, Brazilian governors and mayors have exercised considerable power since 1989.

Lula’s electoral victory came despite a series of corruption scandals that resulted in the resignation of senior PT officials and the electoral defeat of several congressmen from parties allied to the PT. At least four congressional investigations are ongoing, though Lula has yet to be personally linked to any of the scandals.

===Chief of State and Cabinet Members===
[[File:Dilma and Lula.jpg|thumb|240px|Dilma Rousseff receiving the presidential sash from ex-president Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva.]]
*President -- Dilma Rousseff
*Vice President -- Michel Temer
*Minister of Defense -- Nelson Jobim
*Minister of Finance -- Guido Mantega
*Minister of Foreign Affairs -- Antonio Patriota
*Minister of Development, Industry & Foreign Trade -- Fernando Pimentel
*Minister of science and technology -- Aloizio Mercadante
*Chief of staff -- Giles Azevedo
*Ambassador to the United Nations

[[Image:Brasilia - Congress.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Brazilian Congress]]
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Clinton with Brazilian Foreign Minister Patriota.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Hillary Clinton]] and Foreign Minister Antonio Patriota at the U.S. Department of State.]]
Brazil has traditionally been a leader in the inter-American community and played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the Allies in both World Wars. During World War II, its expeditionary force in Italy played a key role in the Allied victory at Monte Castello. It is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and a party to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Community of South American Nations (CASN) and Mercosul, a customs union including Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela and Brazil, with Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador as associate members.

Along with Argentina, Chile, and the U.S., Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, East Timor, and most recently Haiti. Brazil is currently leading the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti. Brazil served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council from 2004-2005. Prior to this, it had been a member of the UN Security Council four times. Brazil is lobbying for a permanent position on the Council.

As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international economic and trade policy discussions. For example, Brazil has been a leader of the G-20 group of nations in the WTO Doha Round talks. The U.S., Western Europe, and Japan are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. China is a growing market for Brazilian exports. Brazil also has bolstered its commitment to nonproliferation through ratification of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signing a full-scale nuclear safeguard agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), acceding to the Treaty of Tlatelolco, and joining the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

== Economy ==
[[File:ChristredeemerRio.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''Christ the Redeemer'', overlooking Rio de Janeiro]]
Brazil's economy, aided by a benign international environment, grew approximately 2.9% in 2005 and 3.7% in 2006. (Note: In early 2007, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) revised its methodology for computing gross domestic product and announced revised figures for 2000-2006.) Sustained growth, coupled with booming exports, healthy external accounts, moderate inflation, decreasing unemployment, and reductions in the debt-to-GDP ratio. President Lula and his economic team have implemented prudent fiscal and monetary policies and have pursued necessary micro-economic reforms.

Brazil has made progress but significant vulnerabilities remain. Despite registering year-on-year declines from 2004 to 2006, Brazil's (largely domestic) government debt remains high, at 50% of GDP. Total foreign debt, while falling, is still large in relation to Brazil's export base. Over time this concern will be reduced by healthy export growth, which has anchored the positive trade and current accounts. Personal incomes improved since 2004 after a significant decline over the previous decade. Income and land distribution remains skewed.

Sustaining high growth rates in the longer term depends on the impact of President Lula's structural reform program and efforts to build a more welcoming climate for investment, both domestic and foreign. In its first year, the [[Lula da Silva]] administration passed key tax and pension reforms to improve the government fiscal accounts. Judicial reform and an overhaul of the bankruptcy law were passed in late 2004, along with tax measures to create incentives for long-term savings and investments.

Legislation promoting public private partnerships, a key effort to attract private investment to infrastructure, also passed in 2004. Labor reform and proposals to increase autonomy for the Central Bank are pending. In January 2007, the Lula administration announced a package of reforms to increase public investment and control spending growth. Despite this well-considered reform agenda, much remains to be done to improve the regulatory climate for investments, particularly in the energy sector; to simplify tax systems at the state and federal levels; and to further reform the pension system.

<blockquote>
Under Mr. da Silva, Brazil emerged as one of the world's major economies, along with Russia, India and China. It is estimated that 30 million people joined the middle class during his eight-year presidency. [http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Rousseff-Sworn-In-as-Brazils-First-Woman-President-112749864.html]
</blockquote>

===Trade Policy===
[[File:Ponte estaiada Octavio Frias - Sao Paulo.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The Octavio Frias de Oliveira bridge, Sao Paulo.]]
President Lula has made economic growth and poverty alleviation top priorities. Export promotion is a main component in plans to generate growth and reduce what is seen as a vulnerability to international financial market gyrations. To increase exports, the government is seeking access to foreign markets through trade negotiations and increased export promotion as well as government financing for exports.

To increase its international profile (both economically and politically), the Lula administration is seeking expanded trade ties with developing countries, as well as a strengthening of the Mercosul (Mercosur in Spanish) customs union with Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. In 2004, Mercosul concluded free trade agreements with Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru, adding to its existing agreements with Chile and Bolivia to establish a commercial base for the newly-launched South American Community of Nations. Mercosul is pursuing free trade negotiations with Mexico and Canada and has resumed trade negotiations with the EU. The trade bloc also plans to launch trilateral free trade negotiations with India and South Africa, building on partial trade liberalization agreements concluded with these countries in 2004. In July 2006, Venezuela was admitted to the trade bloc as a full member; China has increased its importance as an export market for Brazilian soy, iron ore and steel, becoming Brazil's fourth largest trading partner and a potential source of investment.

===Reform Agenda===
In 2003, Congress passed Lula's key reforms of the public sector pension system and the tax code. The 2004 legislative season was not very productive, in part because of a political scandal early in the year followed by campaigning for the October municipal elections. In December 2004, several key bills passed into law, including a reform of the judicial system, a modern bankruptcy law, and Public Private Partnerships to fund infrastructure projects. In March 2005, a law to legalize biotechnology crops and stem cell research passed. The domestic political scandal, which surfaced in June 2005 and led to multiple congressional investigations, sidetracked most reform legislation for the remainder of the 2005 and 2006 sessions.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Caracol Falls Brazil.jpg|thumb|Caracol Falls.]]
Agriculture is a major sector of the Brazilian economy, and is key for economic growth and foreign exchange. Agriculture accounts for 8% of GDP (30% when including agribusiness) and 40% of Brazilian exports. Brazil enjoyed a positive agricultural trade balance of $43 billion in 2006. Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugar cane, coffee, tropical fruits, frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), and has the world's largest commercial cattle herd (50% larger than the U.S.) at 170 million head. Brazil is also an important producer of soybeans (second to the United States), corn, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, and forest products. The remainder of agricultural output is in the livestock sector, mainly the production of beef and poultry (second to the United States), pork, milk, and seafood.

===Other Aspects===
Forests cover half of Brazil, with the largest rain forest in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and large-scale burning of forest areas have brought international attention. The government has reduced incentives for such activity and is implementing an ambitious environmental plan that includes an Environmental Crimes Law with serious penalties for infractions.

Brazil has one of the most advanced industrial sectors in Latin America. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles and parts, other machinery and equipment, steel, textiles, shoes, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, and petrochemicals, to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. Most major automobile producers have established production facilities in Brazil.
[[File:Cia de Dança Deborah Colker.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Cia. de Dança Deborah Colker.]]
Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. Mail and telecommunications are the largest, followed by banking, energy, commerce, and computing. During the 1990s, Brazil's financial services industry underwent a major overhaul and is relatively sound. The financial sector provides local firms a wide range of financial products. The largest financial firms are Brazilian (and the two largest banks are government-owned), but U.S. and other foreign firms have an important share of the market.

Privatization triggered a flood of investors after 1996. The yearly investment average in the telecommunications sector the 4 years prior to the start of privatization was R$5.8 billion, and the annual average for the four years following privatization was R$16.3 billion, nearly tripling. Investment in the electrical power sector increased from R$5.3 billion annually in the pre-privatization era to R$7.2 billion. U.S. companies provided a great deal of this influx of cash. After 2000, many of these investors suffered huge losses in the face of adverse regulatory decisions and especially the sharp depreciation of the real. The energy sector was especially hard hit.
[[File:Neimeyer Cathedrale de Brasilia.jpg|thumb|Cathedral of Brasilia by [[Oscar Niemeyer]].]]
In 2001, Brazil experienced an electricity crisis due to inadequate rainfall for its hydroelectric system and insufficient new investment in the sector. Mandatory rationing and price hikes were sufficient to prevent blackouts. The rationing system officially ended on March 1, 2002. Lula’s then-Energy Minister unveiled an energy plan in July 2003, which left many vital details undefined and most investors dissatisfied.

The Government of Brazil has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. In the mid-1980s, imports accounted for more than 70% of Brazil's oil and derivatives needs; the net figure is nearing zero. Brazil is expected to become a net exporter of oil in 2007 as output from the Campos Basin continues to increase. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power. Of its total installed electricity-generation capacity of 90,000 megawatts, hydrological power accounts for 66,000 megawatts (74%).

Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality, coking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.

==History==
[[File:Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.jpg|thumb|Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.]]
Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. The colony was ruled from Lisbon until 1808, when Dom Joao VI and the rest of the Portuguese royal family fled from Napoleon's army, and established its seat of government in Rio de Janeiro. Dom Joao VI returned to Portugal in 1821. His son declared Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822, and became emperor with the title of Dom Pedro I. His son, Dom Pedro II, ruled from 1831 to 1889, when a federal republic was established in a coup led by Deodoro da Fonseca, Marshal of the Army. Slavery had been abolished a year earlier by the Regent Princess Isabel while Dom Pedro II was in Europe.

From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional republic, with the presidency alternating between the dominant states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a military coup that placed Getulio Vargas, a civilian, in the presidency; Vargas remained as dictator until 1945. Between 1945 and 1961, Jose Linhares, Gaspar Dutra, Vargas himself, Café Filho, Carlos Luz, Nereu Ramos, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros were elected presidents. When Quadros resigned in 1961, Vice President Joao Goulart succeeded him.
[[Image:Pan de azucar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pan de Azucar (Sugarloaf Mountain) in Rio de Janeiro]]
Goulart's years in office were marked by high inflation, economic stagnation, and the increasing influence of radical political elements. The armed forces, alarmed by these developments, staged a coup on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose as president Humberto Castello Branco, followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967-69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1969-74), and Ernesto Geisel (1974-79), all of whom were senior army officers. Geisel began a democratic opening that was continued by his successor, Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979-85). Figueiredo not only permitted the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, but also allowed them to run for state and federal offices in 1982.
[[File:Brasil.JPG|240px|left]]
At the same time, an electoral college consisting of all members of congress and six delegates chosen from each state continued to choose the president. In January 1985, the electoral college voted Tancredo Neves from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) into office as President. However, Neves became ill in March and died a month later. His Vice President, former Senator Jose Sarney, became President upon Neves' death. Brazil completed its transition to a popularly elected government in 1989, when Fernando Collor de Mello won 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in 29 years. In 1992, a major corruption scandal led to his impeachment and ultimate resignation. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and governed for the remainder of Collor's term culminating in the October 3, 1994 presidential elections, when Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President with 54% of the vote. Cardoso took office January 1, 1995, and pursued a program of ambitious economic reform. He was re-elected in October 1998 for a second four-year term. Luiz Inacio da Silva, commonly known as Lula, was elected president in 2002, after his fourth campaign for the office.

President Lula, a former union leader, is Brazil's first working-class president. Since taking office he has taken a prudent fiscal path, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to maintain tight fiscal austerity policies. Economic growth in 2004 and the first half of 2005 was strong with increases in employment and real wages. Growth slowed somewhat in the second half of 2005, but rebounded modestly in 2006.

==See also==
[[File:Samba Brazil carnaval.jpg|right|Carnaval, 2011.]]
* [[Campinas Brazil Temple]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]
*[[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

 

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!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm]}}}.
|}

 

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Brazil]]

Soccer

2014-04-23T17:33:12Z

MickeyD: /* A note on terminology */

[[Image:2010 World Cup.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is [[Miroslav Klose]], a star Polish-born player competing for the highly ranked German team, during the 2010 World Cup]]
'''Soccer''' is a sport played with a round ball generally played using the player's feet.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a penalty area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner. If both teams at the end of two 45 minute periods are level on points, the result is a draw, or the teams may rematch or play a period of extra time and penalty kicks to force a result.
Outside the USA, it is generally called "football" (Spanish: ''fútbol'').

Soccer is a popular sport for children and adults alike:
*As Stephen H. Webb wrote at First Things last year, to contemporary American parents, "Baseball is too intimidating, football too brutal, and basketball takes too much time to develop the required skills ... Soccer is the perfect antidote to television and video games. It forces kids to run and run, and everyone can play their role, no matter how minor or irrelevant to the game."<ref name=media-goal />

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[Middle Ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalizations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century which came from the universities of England. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner. Infringements include playing the ball with any part of the body other than the feet or head; pushing or blocking an opposing player and stepping outside the playing area while the ball is in play.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal. In the United States soccer was associated with communism during the Thirties, as several communist organizations used soccer in an attempt to recruit recent European immigrants to their cause.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, traveling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behavior at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays and Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Alfredo di Stéfano]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder who played for [[Real Madrid]]. considered by Maradona to be the greatest.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever center halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].
* [[Lionel Messi]], [[Argentina]]n forward, currently plays for [[Barcelona]].

==Criticisms==

[[Matthew Philbin]] faults the media for using soccer to undercut [[American exceptionalism]] and muses:

* Soccer requires comparatively little from children but the ability to run after the ball - the risk of failure for anyone except maybe the goal keeper is zero. Even the strong chance that any given game will end in a tie makes it attractive for parents reluctant to impart life's difficult lessons to young kids.<ref name=media-goal> [http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-philbin/2010/06/09/media-make-selling-soccer-goal#ixzz2gO2g6g35 Media Make Selling Soccer a Goal] - Matthew Philbin - June 9, 2010</ref>

Another critic said:
*When played at the [[Olympics]], soccer is considered to be somewhat of a [[joke sport]]. This is so as the Olympic competition is held with players who must be under-23. Therefore, they are not the best players in the world.{{fact}}

==A note on terminology==

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport. Calcio is the term used in Italy, as it is the Italian word for ''football''

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Links==
*[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-philbin/2010/06/09/media-make-selling-soccer-goal Media Make Selling Soccer a Goal]

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Soccer

2012-08-17T11:47:34Z

MickeyD:

[[Image:2010 World Cup.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is [[Miroslav Klose]], a star Polish-born player competing for the highly ranked German team, during the 2010 World Cup]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular sport played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.
Outside the USA, it is generally called "football" (Spanish: ''fútbol'').

When played at the [[Olympics]], soccer is considered by a minority as a [[joke sport]].

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[Middle Ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalizations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner. Infringements include playing the ball with any part of the body other than the feet or head; pushing or blocking an opposing player and stepping outside the playing area while the ball is in play.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal. In the United States soccer was associated with communism during the Thirties, as several communist organizations used soccer in an attempt to recruit recent European immigrants to their cause.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, traveling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behavior at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays and Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Alfredo di Stéfano]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder who played for [[Real Madrid]]. considered by Maradona to be the greatest.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever center halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].
* [[Lionel Messi]], [[Argentina]]n forward, currently plays for [[Barcelona]].

==A note on terminology==

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Soccer

2012-08-11T22:56:27Z

MickeyD: Removed "joke sport"

[[Image:2010 World Cup.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is [[Miroslav Klose]], a star Polish-born player competing for the highly ranked German team, during the 2010 World Cup]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular sport played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.
Outside the USA, it is generally called "football" (Spanish: ''fútbol'').

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[Middle Ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalizations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner. Infringements include playing the ball with any part of the body other than the feet or head; pushing or blocking an opposing player and stepping outside the playing area while the ball is in play.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal. In the United States soccer was associated with communism during the Thirties, as several communist organizations used soccer in an attempt to recruit recent European immigrants to their cause.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, traveling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behavior at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays and Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Alfredo di Stéfano]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder who played for [[Real Madrid]]. considered by Maradona to be the greatest.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever center halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].
* [[Lionel Messi]], [[Argentina]]n forward, currently plays for [[Barcelona]].

==A note on terminology==

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Talk:Pat Robertson

2012-03-08T16:40:03Z

MickeyD: Ask first; Edit later.

This edit,
: ''ignoring the facts that the Nazis killed homosexuals as ruthlessly as they did Jews and that Satanim emerged with Anton Szandor LaVey''
(a) assuming the claim that 10% of the general population is gay (Kinsey), given the premise "killed homosexuals as ruthlessly as they did Jews " would amount to roughly slighly more than 1/3 of 10% of the population of Nazi occupied territories, including Germany proper; (b) Satanism did not begin with Anton LeVey. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 21:23, 15 March 2007 (EDT)

I know that statistic. Its sort of right, or at least was at the time. Kinsy didn't use the gay-bi-straight classification, but a continuous scale. When he said "10% of the population is gay" he actually meant "10% have some homosexual tendencies." That includes recuring fantasies, or past experiences. It includes bisexuals, too.

The Nazis really didn't like homosexuals, just the same - anyone caught in a homosexual act would end up in prison at the very least, and quite possibly shipped off to the same concentration camps as the jews. The first figure I found was an estimate of 5,000-15,000 homosexuals imprisoned in those camps, an estimate by by Joan Ringelheim of the US Holocaust museum. Their crime was indicated in the camp with a pink triangle, counterpart to the star-of-david worn by jews.

"A male who indulges in criminally indecent behavior with another male, or who allows himself to participate in such activity, will be punished with imprisonment. " - Paragraph 175 of the Reich Criminal Code. The full nazi policy was spread over many laws, but required imprisonment for all homosexuals. The concentration camps were the specified punishment for 'chronic' homosexuals, who were considered to be a minor threat to Germany as they did not contribute to the propagation of the master race. - Suricou. (Appologies for the lack of signing - I had signed, but mistakenly placed the signature on the previous paragraph.)

==Disproportionate?==

Is it just me, or is the fact that 95% of this article consists of a long list of controversial quotes probably not right? [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 01:39, 24 March 2007 (EDT)

He said them all, so they should be on here, but the biography could be made more detailed. I suggest someone fill it out. - Suricou

I have to question the use of extensive quotes. Robertson is flamboyant and speaks for hours a day over a period of decades. Under those circumstances anyone could have a list of quotes. I would rather see quotes for areas that he was asked about later and re-iterated. And filling out the biography would certainly be helpful. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 12:09, 18 May 2007 (EDT)

The man is over 70 years old. There must be more that can be added to his biography!!! {{unsigned|Creationist}}

== Liberal smear job ==

This article is nothing more than a liberal smear job. I suggest getting rid of the gossip and quotes taken out of context and instead providing some actual biographical information.--[[User:Conservateur|Conservateur]] 17:35, 9 April 2007 (EDT)

:There should be more biographical information. But I don't see how these quotes, even in context, could be any better. Never letting women learn from men? What are we, in the 14th century? --[[User:Pastafarian|Pastafarian]]

Robertson is really a laughing stock among liberals, but those quotes... some of them, I just dont see any possible context you could put them in that would make them acceptable. And he did say all of them, to the best of my knowledge. Personally, I think conservatives should stop following people as crazy as Robertson and find some new and more credible idols. - Suricou

I rather enjoy: [http://www.cbn.com/special/supremecourt/prayerpledge.asp Pray that additional vacancies occur within the Supreme Court.] --[[User:PerpetualAngst|PerpetualAngst]]

==Robertson is a nutjob==
Robertson is a first class nut, he's almost as crazy as [[Fred Phelps]]. He says he's against oppressive dictators but if he were in power, America would become a Christian theocracy.

==Fact Removal==

"He has called for the execution of the democratically elected President of Venezuela."

If I'm not mistaken(which I admit I could be), he did in fact call for the execution of the President of Venezuela. I just thought I'd point that out.[[User:NSmyth|NSmyth]] 03:08, 22 May 2007 (EDT)

I removed the line about Robertson running for President in 1992. He did not, as [[Pat Buchanan]] was the challenger to [[George Herbert Walker Bush]].

== Quote vs. Quotation ==

I'm a picky grammarian--but I would like to point out that if you want this encyclopedia taken seriously, then perhaps you should properly use language: quote is a verb, quotation is a noun. When you say quote in this article, for the most part it's a noun, and you should be using quotation.

I'll refrain from commenting further on the fact that everything on this site sounds like it was written by fourth graders. {{unsigned|Academichick}}

We would like it to be student friendly and want the student to understand about what he/she is reading. Thanks --[[User:BethanyS|Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk]] 10:30, 22 June 2007 (EDT)

:Clear, concise, and skilled prose can exist at a higher academic level. And if we want students to ever reach a higher academic level, perhaps we should demonstrate that higher level of writing rather than assuming that unskilled, simple, childish writing is the norm. (See Strunk and White's ''The Elements of Style'' for some pointers). --[[User:Academichick|Academichick]] 17:25, 25 June 2007 (EDT)

== Endorsing Giuliani ==

Could someone please add to the article the fact that Guiliani supports abortion and gay rights! Why did Robertson endorse a candidate that supports these views when a well known social conservative by the name of Huckabee was also running? Does anyone else find this hypocritical? {{unsigned|Creationist}}

I would say that during the time Giuliani was a viable candidate, Huckabee was not, and this was when Robertson endorsed the former. As for this article being called a smear job, I think it's very good as it is, with just simple, trustworthy ''quotations'' and no judgment on the opinions or thoughts behind those quotations. It seems a completely lost cause to defend this guy... [[User:Rockthecasbah|Rockthecasbah]] 07:50, 19 March 2008 (EDT)

== Marijuana ==

Anyone mind if I add a little bit about his current stance on marijuana? [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/us/pat-robertson-backs-legalizing-marijuana.html?_r=1&hp]

Homosexual Agenda

2011-10-02T20:56:59Z

MickeyD: Added an opponent to the homosexual agenda

{{Homosexuality}}
The '''Homosexual Agenda''', or [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] ideology, consists of a set of beliefs and objectives designed to promote and even mandate acceptance and approval of homosexuality, and the strategies used to implement such. This article notes that the goals and means of this movement include indoctrinating students in [[public school]], restricting the free speech of opposition, obtaining [[special rights|special treatment]] for homosexuals, distorting Biblical teaching and science, and interfering with freedom of association. Advocates of the homosexual agenda seek special rights for [[homosexuals]] that other people don't have, such as immunity from criticism (see [[hate speech]], [[hate crime]]s). Such special rights will necessarily come [[zero-sum game|at the expense]] of the rights of broader society.

Among all the [[liberal]] belief systems, the homosexual ideology is the most self-centered or selfish. Liberals generally give much less than conservatives to charity, but gay charity work in particular is virtually non-existent.

Supreme Court Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] referred to the "so-called homosexual agenda" in ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'', 539 U.S. 558 (2003) (dissenting opinion).

== The Homosexual Agenda ==

Joseph P. Gudel, in ''That Which is Unnatural''<ref>[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0108a.html "That Which is Unnatural" Homosexuality in Society, the Church, and Scripture] Part Two in a Two-Part Series on Homosexuality, from the Christian Research Journal, Winter 1993, page 8</ref> contended that the homosexual movement,

:has been militantly demanding not just the homosexuals' right to do whatever they wish to do behind closed doors, but, more importantly, that society fully accept their lifestyle as both healthy and normal, even demanding special rights and legislation as an "oppressed minority." Gudel quotes various sources evidencing this.

In a 1987 speech to the National Press Club in Washington, homosexual spokesperson Jeff Levi proclaimed,

:We are no longer seeking just a right to privacy and a protection from wrong. We also have a right — as heterosexual Americans already have — to see government and society affirm our lives. <ref>Jeff Levi, in William Dannemeyer, Shadow in the Land (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1989), 86.</ref>

In an article entitled "Gays on the March" in 1975, Time magazine quoted gay activist Barbara Gittings who stated:

:What the homosexual wants, and here he is neither willing to compromise nor morally required to compromise — is acceptance of homosexuality as a way of life fully on a par with heterosexuality." In response, Time opined, "It is one thing to remove legal discrimination against homosexuals. It is another to mandate approval....It is this goal of full acceptance, which no known society past or present has granted to homosexuals, that makes many Americans apprehensive.<ref>Gays on the March," Time, 8 Sept. 1975, 43</ref>

A primary goal of the homosexual agenda is to promote the lifestyle in [[public schools]]. This occurred quickly and intensely after gay marriage was imposed in Massachusetts, where homosexual relationships are taught to children as young as kindergartners, as recounted by the decision of ''[[Parker v. Hurley]]''.<ref>The ''Parker v. Hurley'' decision explained, "In January 2005, when Jacob Parker ("Jacob") was in kindergarten, he brought home a 'Diversity Book Bag.' This included a picture book, Who's in a Family?, which depicted different families, including single-parent families, an extended family, interracial families, animal families, a family without children, and — to the concern of the Parkers — a family with two dads and a family with two moms. The book concludes by answering the question, 'Who's in a family?': 'The people who love you the most!' The book says nothing about marriage."</ref>

In a 1992 report by John Leo in U.S. News and World Report, he notes some books which were part of New York City's public school curriculum.

The first-grade book, "Children of the Rainbow", stated on page 145, which states that teachers must "be aware of varied family structures, including...gay or lesbian parents," and "children must be taught to acknowledge the positive aspects of each type of household." Another children book is Heather Has Two Mommies, which is about a lesbian couple having a child through artificial insemination. Another book, Gloria Goes to Gay Pride, states, "Some women love women, some men love men, some women and men love each other. That's why we march in the parade, so everyone can have a choice."

Leo commented,

:A line is being crossed here; in fact, a brand new ethic is descending upon the city's public school system. The traditional civic virtue of tolerance (if gays want to live together, it's their own business) has been replaced with a new ethic requiring approval and endorsement (if gays want to live together, we must 'acknowledge the positive aspects' of their way of life).<ref>John Leo, "Heather Has a Message," U.S. News & World Report, 17 Aug. 1992, 16.</ref>

Dr. Judith A. Reisman in her extensive ''Crafting “Gay” Children'',<ref>http://www.defendthefamily.com/_docs/resources/6390601.pdf</ref> reports that Harvard homosexual Toby Morotta, PhD, stated that in the 1970s, members of the Gay Activists Alliance - who were trained in the “zapping" of any who rebuffed homosexuality.<ref> Toby Marotta: THE POLITICS OF HOMOSEXUALITY: HOW LESBIANS AND GAY MEN HAVE MADE THEMSELVES A POLITICAL AND SOCIAL FORCE IN MODERN AMERICA, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1981 at 319</ref> And that these formed the “Gay Academic Union,” (GAU) which was made up of faculty and students in major universities. She states that the GAU has long fought for domination of its worldview within the academic community, and professional journals commonly assigned GAU and other homosexual peer reviewers to research touching on homosexuality, generally resulting in a quick death to possible unfavorable findings. <ref>See extensive reports in regular NARTH Bulletins as well as Ray Johnson, “American Psychology: The Political Science, at 53-57.</ref>

This and the general agenda is seen to be overall implementing a marketing strategy explained in a book called ''After the Ball,'' by [[gay rights]] activists Marshall Kirk and Hunter Madsen in the late 1980s, in which a six-point plan was set forth as to how they could transform the beliefs of ordinary Americans with regard to homosexual behavior in a decade-long time frame:
:"The agenda of homosexual activists is basically to change America from what they perceive as looking down on homosexual behavior, to the affirmation of and societal acceptance of homosexual behavior." <ref name="Winn07252003">''After the Ball'' (1989), quoted from Winn, Pete (7-25-2003) [ ''Q&A: The Homosexual Agenda''] Citizenlink</ref> "Thus propagandistic advertising can depict all opponents of the gay movement as homophobic bigots who are 'not Christian' and the propaganda can further show them [homosexuals]] as being criticized, hated and shunned..."<ref>After the Ball: How America Will Conquer Its Fear and Hatred of Gays in the 90's, by Marshall Kirk and Hunter Madsen (Author) (p. 152-153)</ref>

[[Focus on the Family]] provides additional quotes from After the Ball, outlining key points of the homosexual agenda:<ref name="Winn07252003"/><ref>Kirk, Marshall K. and Erastes Pill (11-1987) ''The Overhauling of Straight America'' Available at [http://www.article8.org/docs/gay_strategies/overhauling.htm ''STRATEGIES OF THE HOMOSEXUAL MOVEMENT: "The Overhauling of Straight America"'']</ref>

#"Talk about gays and gayness as loudly and as often as possible." (They use late night air waves and special channels, as well as their right to peacfully assemble to do so.)
#"Portray gays as victims, not as aggressive challengers." (Although gay students are several times more likely to be bullied, subjegated, and the victins of hate crimes than their straight classmates)
#"Give homosexual protectors a just cause."
#"Make gays look good."
#"Make the victimizers look bad."
#"Get funds from corporate America."

[[United States Supreme Court]] Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] wrote:
{{cquote|Today's opinion is the product of a Court, which is the product of a law-profession culture, that has largely signed on to the so-called homosexual agenda, by which I mean the agenda promoted by some homosexual activists directed at eliminating the moral opprobrium that has traditionally attached to homosexual conduct.<ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=02-102#dissent1 ''LAWRENCE et al. v. TEXAS''] at findlaw.com</ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vic_Eliason Vic Eliason] of [http://www.crosstalkamerica.com Crosstalk America] rightly points out that if all Americans turned homosexual it would only take a few generations for the United States to lose most of the population of the country through lack of procreation. This would make the US more vulnerable to attack by our enemies.

== Specific goals ==

The goals of the homosexual movement include:

#Ignoring Christian morals and discouraging religously based laws.
#*Reminding the world that marraige is a legal term and standing the in US, not a spiritual one as believed by Christians.
#*Ignore the clear message of the [[Bible]] that [[homosexuality]] is a sin and an abomination unto [[God]]because their first ammendment rights allow them to.
#Remind conservatives that there cannot be a gay gene, just like like there cannot be a "Black Gene" because complex things like these are caused by complex interactions between genes.
#*Censoring evidence that the "gay gene" is a hoax. After all, it would have to be multiple genes interacting together.<ref>[http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/08a/born_gay_hoax/smith_0329/index.html ''Lesbian activists at Smith College riot, shut down Ryan Sorba speech on "The Born Gay Hoax" as police watch. See exclusive videos.''] Mass Resistance</ref>
#Censoring speech against homosexuality by branding it to possibly be "hate-speech"<ref>[http://www.silencingchristians.com Video:Silencing Christians]</ref><ref>[http://mu-warrior.blogspot.com/2009/06/homosexuality-its-crime-in-england-to.html Homosexuality: It’s a Crime in England to State Christian Views]</ref><ref>[http://www.ccfon.org/view.php?id=745 Bishops fight for right to criticise homosexual lifestyle, 25th May 2009]</ref>
#*Censoring biblical statements condemning homosexuality<ref>White, Hilary (04-21-2006) [http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2006/apr/06042105.html ''Court Upholds School Ban on "Homosexuality is Shameful" T-Shirt''] LifeSiteNews.com</ref>
#Lobbying for equal employment rights.<ref>The Crimson Staff (10-13-2006) [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=514950 ''A Box of Their Own?''] (opinion) The Crimson</ref><ref>www.afa.net, Homosexual Agenda Platforms from 1972 - 2000</ref>
#Expand hate crimes legislation to include sexual orientation, which would be equally wrong for heterosexuals to do.<ref>Pelosi, Nancy Office of (09-28-2004) [http://www.house.gov/pelosi/press/releases/Sept04/HateCrimes092804.html ''Pelosi: "Hate Crimes Prevention Legislation is Right Thing to Do, Long Overdue"''] From the office of Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi</ref>
#Ending the military's and Boy Scout's restrictions on homosexuality<ref>''Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale'', 530 U.S. 640 (2000) (Boy Scouts); "Matlovich v. Secretary of the Air Force (591 F.2d 852, DC Circ. 1 978) (military)</ref>
#Stopping children as young as 5 years old from attending therapy to repair their sexual preference<ref>[http://www.thetaskforce.org/reports_and_research/youth_in_the_crosshairs National Gay and Lesbian Task Force:Youth in the Crosshairs]</ref>
#Teach toleranceof homosexuals in schools.
#*In places like Massachusetts and California, where the gay lobby is the strongest, it starts as early as pre-school. They tell seven- or eight-year-old boys, "If you only like boys, there's a chance you may be homosexual," or "If you only like girls, maybe you are lesbian." Children at that age also do not have the hormones to experience sexual attraction, so they cannot understand this yet.
#Demands protections from job discrimination. <ref>[http://www.thetaskforce.org/issues/nondiscrimination/ENDA_main_page Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) | National Gay and Lesbian Task Force</ref>
#*Suing an online dating website for discrimination. This was because sexual orientation is a federally protected group, as such, this company was breaking the law. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,454904,00.html Fox News - eHarmony to Provide Gay Dating Service after Lawsuit]</ref>
#Undermining the [[Essay:Quantifying_Mental_Strength|resolve]] of [[Homosexuality_and_choice#Choice_and_Genetics|latent homosexuals]] so that their will becomes too weak to resist the temptations of homosexuality<ref>http://www.thetaskforce.org/activist_center/resources_and_tools/challenge_exgay</ref>
#Pushing for legalized adoption by gay individuals and couples<ref>http://www.thetaskforce.org/issues/parenting_and_family</ref>

The state-by-state push for same-sex marriage can be viewed as a means to the above goals, or a goal in itself.<ref>[[Lewis v. Harris]]</ref> An example of this would be the recent New Hampshire law that makes same-sex civil unions legal<ref>http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/06/01/new_hampshire_law_makes_same_sex_civil_unions_legal/</ref>

Although notable gains toward achieving its goals continue to be manifest, homosexual activists have recent been expressing a high level of and dissatisfaction against the Obama administration. Commenting on such, Massresistance.org, an organization which opposes the homosexual agenda in [[Massachusetts]], noted that the President has,

*signed an order extending federal benefits to same-sex partners;

*pushed an extreme hate crimes bill in Congress;

*declared his intention to repeal the Defense of Marriage,

*pushed a pro-homosexual and transgender version of the Employment Non-Discrimination Act.

*appointed homosexual activists to high level positions, including Harry Knox, of the homosexual lobby group Human Rights Campaign, and Kevin Jennings, founder of the Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network (GLSEN), which educates kids in the public schools.

*declared February to be "Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Pride Month."

*Demanded the State Department allow gay couples to use their married names (from marriages or civil unions) on US passports.<ref>update@massresistance.org 6/24/2009 11:56 PM</ref>

=== Strategies and psychological tactics ===

Homosexual activists are often seen as engaging in [[homosexual logic|specious argumentation]], such as attempts to controvert the consistent teaching of the Bible on homosexual relations, (see [[homosexuality and biblical interpretation]]) and using false analogies, in order to gain acceptance of homosexuality. One common argument used by homosexual activists seeks to compare their quest for equal rights to that of others.<ref>Miner, Homosexuality, Civil Rights, and the Church</ref> This argument is countered by the observation that blacks were able to peacefully argue that mankind should not be "judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character"<ref>[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm, Speech by Martin Luther King Jr.]</ref>, as the former yields no certain moral distinction. In contrast, homosexual activists are seen to seek acceptance of an immoral practice(s), and in addition, to overall engage in certain coercive and manipulative means to do so. This is evidenced to include the use of a demonstrative manner of protests, which appear to be designed to censure and intimidate those who oppose them in any way.<ref>http://www.leaderu.com/socialsciences/sellinghomosexuality.html</ref><ref>http://www.article8.org/docs/gay_strategies/after_the_ball.htm</ref><ref>http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=89526</ref><ref>http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/08c/Prop8/church_attacks.html</ref><ref>http://rebuildtheparty.ning.com/video/exodus-protest-park-street</ref><ref>http://theway2k.vox.com/library/post/homosexuals-persecuting-christians-and-mormons.html</ref><ref>http://www.hamiltonsquare.net/articlesRiotsSep1993.htm</ref><ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2008/may/08050205.html</ref><ref>http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=95296</ref><ref>Muehlenberg, Bill, [http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2009/06/04/another-nail-in-the-christian-coffin/ Another Nail in the Christian Coffin], [[4 June]] [[2009]]</ref><ref>[http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/09a/feder_0311/index.html Loud homosexual activists disrupt and halt Don Feder speech at UMass Amherst, despite police presence"]</ref> In addition, one pro-homosexual commentator recently took the homosexual community to task for being racist in their practice of homosexuality.<ref>LZ Granderson, ''Commentary: Gay is not the new black'', Cable News Network,July 16, 2009</ref>

While not all homosexuals agree with the use of deceptive psychological tactics, these have been promoted by leading homosexual activists. The aforementioned book, ''After the Ball'', is widely regarded as the handbook for the gay agenda, in which Harvard trained marketing experts and social scientists Marshall Kirk (1957 - 2005) and Hunter Madsen advocated avoiding portraying gays as aggressive challengers, but as victims, while making those who opposed them as evil persecutors. As a means of the latter, they promoted jamming, in which Christians, traditionalists, or anyone else who opposes the gay agenda are publicly smeared. In any campaign to win over the public, gays must be portrayed as victims in need of protection so that straights will be inclined by reflex to adopt the role of protector ... The purpose of victim imagery is to make straights feel very uncomfortable, they suggested.

Jam homophobia (i.e., disagreement with homosexual behaviors) by linking it to Nazi horror, was the strategy of Kirk and Madsen. Associate all who oppose homosexuality with images of Klansmen demanding that gays be slaughtered, hysterical backwoods preachers, menacing punks, and a tour of Nazi concentration camps where homosexuals were tortured and gassed. Thus, "propagandistic advertisement can depict homophobic and homohating bigots as crude loudmouths..."<ref>http://www.leaderu.com/socialsciences/sellinghomosexuality.html http://www.article8.org/docs/gay_strategies/after_the_ball.htm </ref>

Kirk and Madsen's open admission of their deceptive tactics is noted as most revealing: [O]ur effect is achieved without reference to facts, logic, or proof. "...the person's beliefs can be altered whether he is conscious of the attack or not"<ref>After the Ball: How America Will Conquer Its Fear and Hatred of Gays in the 90s, p. 152-153 (1989, Doubleday/Bantam)</ref> “The campaign we outline in this book, though complex, depends centrally upon a program of unabashed propaganda, firmly grounded in long-established principles of psychology and advertising.”<ref>Kirk and Madsen, After the Ball: How America Will Conquer Its Fear and Hatred of the Gay’s in the 90s, p.xxvi</ref><ref>[http://banap.net/ Behavior and Not a Person]</ref>

Similarly, author Robert Bauman additionally records, It makes no difference that the ads are lies . . . because were using them to ethically good effect, to counter negative stereotypes that are every bit as much lies, and far more wicked ones. <ref>The Gentleman from Maryland: The Conscience of a gay Conservative, by Robert Bauman, 1986, page 163.</ref>

The need for Kirk and Madsen to engage in such manipulation may be seen as being due to their sober realization of the nature of the homosexual lifestyle.

“In short, the gay lifestyle - if such a chaos can, after all, legitimately be called a lifestyle - it just doesn’t work: it doesn’t serve the two functions for which all social framework evolve: to constrain people’s natural impulses to behave badly and to meet their natural needs. While it’s impossible to provide an exhaustive analytic list of all the root causes and aggravants of this failure, we can asseverate at least some of the major causes. Many have been dissected, above, as elements of the Ten Misbehaviors; it only remains to discuss the failure of the gay community to provide a viable alternative to the heterosexual family.”<ref>Kirk and Madsen, After the Ball: How America Will Conquer Its Fear and Hatred of the Gay’s in the 90s, p.363</ref>

Marshall Kirk died in 2005 at the age of 48. The cause of death has not been publicly revealed.

Often cited as an early example form of such tactics was the role of homosexual activists in persuading the American Psychiatric Association (APA) to remove homosexuality as a mental disorder from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders (DSM-II). Dr. Ronald Bayer, though being himself a pro-homosexual psychiatrist, described this removal as being the result of power politics, threats, and intimidation, rather than any new scientific discoveries.<ref>[http://www.traditionalvalues.org/urban/eleven.php Exposed: The Myth That Psychiatry Has Proven That Homosexual Behavior Is Normal]</ref> In so doing, like slavery before it, the homosexual agenda is seen to threaten basic freedoms, principally the First Amendment.<ref>Adams, Guy (11-8-2008) [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/mormon-stars-face-backlash-after-gay-marriage-ban-1003967.html ''Mormon stars face backlash after gay marriage ban''] The Independent</ref>

The charge of "[[homophobia]]" has also been increasingly evidenced as being part of a means of intimidation used in promoting the homosexual agenda. Due to what homophobia has been made to denote, that of being a repressed homosexual, or possessing an irrational fear of being approached by homosexuals, or of being a bigot persecuting victims, the widespread use of the term "homophobic" attaches a powerful stigma to anyone who may even conscientiously oppose the practice of homosexuality, thus silencing many who might otherwise object to it.<ref>[http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/narth/1995papers/socarides.html Thought Reform And The Psychology of Homosexual Advocacy
Charles W. Socarides, M.D.]</ref>

In relation to such oppression, psychologist Nicholas Cummings, former president of the American Psychological Association (APA), observed, "Homophobia as intimidation is one of the most pervasive techniques used to silence anyone who would disagree with the gay activist agenda." As an example of such fear within the APA, in addressing 100 fellow professionals Cummings related that while writing "Destructive Trends in Mental Health," with psychologist Rogers Wright, a number of fellow psychologists were invited to participate. However, these flatly turned them down, as they feared loss of tenure, loss of promotion, and other forms of professional retaliation. "We were bombarded by horror stories," Dr. Cummings said. "Their greatest fear was of the gay lobby, which is very strong in the APA.<ref>[Psychology Losing Scientific Credibility, Say APA Insiders http://www.narth.com/docs/insiders.html]</ref>

Noted homosexual activist and pornographer Clinton Fein, in his article, The Gay Agenda stated, Homophobic inclinations alone, even without any actions, should be criminal and punishable to the full extent of the law.

Erik Holland, author of "The Nature of Homosexuality," perceives that homosexuals have become so reckless in labeling others homophobic that "anyone who questions their labeling someone a homophobe himself. Even quoting factual statistics about the connection between homosexuality and AIDS is allegedly homophobic." In addition, according to pro homosexual author Vernon A Wall, "even acceptance of homosexuality can be seen as a form of homophobia, because to talk about the acceptance of homosexuality is to imply that there is something about homosexuality that needs acceptance."<ref>http://www.homosexinfo.org/Homophobia/HomePage</ref>

It may be speculated that if the liberal use of the term homophobia is not primarily a psychological tactic, then it indicates a psychological condition on the part of those who use it, in which they imagine that those who oppose them are fearful of them, or of being one.

===Influence in the Academic World===

Professor Jerry Z. Muller described in an article titled, "First Things" (Aug/Sept. 1993), how the homosexual lobby has gained widespread acceptance in the educational realm.

[Their] strategy has been remarkably successful. With a rapidity largely attributable in large part to a total lack of articulate resistance, homosexual ideology has gained an unquestioned and uncontested legitimacy in American academic life. Within the academy, as within nonacademic elite culture, the definition of opposite to homosexuality as "homophobia - a definition which implies that it is impossible to give good reasons for the cultural disapproval of homosexuality - is the best evidence of the success of this strategy.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=cbfVg_1qhe0C&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=David+W.+Virtue+scots+college&source=bl&ots=aDW7a615Gn&sig=Y1cLsx5sCQTgUUDJ88b5AKPRkNg&hl=en&ei=8skISpP1AcGktgfi2PzsCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPR14,M1 Homosexuality, by F. Earle Fox, David W. Virtue, p. 12]</ref>

== Opposing Christian Agenda ==

Liberals are critical of Christian groups that oppose homosexuality. These criticisms include Christian activities of:

*Threatening to shut all the soup kitchens in New York if they cannot exclude homosexuals from employment <ref> [http://chicago.gopride.com/news/article.cfm/ArticleID/1824489]Salvation Army Uses Homeless To Fight Gay Benefits <ref/>
*Encouraging email activism
*Producing and disseminating gay reform information
*Influencing local media in what stories they produce
*Lobbying local, state and federal government officials to vote in the desired way on pending legislation<ref>[http://www.cwfa.org/about.asp Concerned Women For America] About page</ref>
*Calling anyone who supports gay rights a 'sinner' or other untrue insults.

==Opponents of the Homosexual Agenda ==
Some well known individuals/groups in the [[United States]] who actively oppose the homosexual agenda are: [[Focus on the Family]], [[Peter LaBarbera]]'s American's for Truth, the [[Traditional Values Coalition]] ([[Louis Sheldon]] is a chairman of the Traditional Values Coalition), the [[Westboro Baptist Church]] and [[Matt Barber]] of [[Concerned Women of America]].

==Further reading==
*[http://www.leaderu.com/jhs/lively.html Homosexuality and the Nazi Party] by Scott Lively. Excellent discussion of the anti-Christian and homosexual origins of the Nazism.
*[http://www.sbcbaptistpress.org/BPCollectionNews.asp?ID=131 2008 McDonald's and the Homosexual Agenda], Baptist Press
*[http://www.couplescompany.com/FEATURES/politics/2004/Selling%20Homosexuality.pdf Paul E. Rondeau, Selling homosexuality to America (PDF)] [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/730694/posts Or html form]

==See also==
*[[ACT-UP]]
*[[Anti-Defamation League]]
*[[Homosexual belief system]]
*[[Gay rights]]
*[[Homophobia]]
*[[Hate speech]], [[Hate crime]]
*[[Homosexual logic]], used to justify and promote the homosexual agenda
*[[Homosexuality]]
*[[Homosexuality and biblical interpretation]]
*[[Intimate Partner Violence]]
*[[Homosexualization]]

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

{{liberalism}}

[[Category:Homosexual Agenda]]
[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category: Liberal Deceit]]

Talk:Istanbul

2011-08-03T11:54:11Z

MickeyD:

This is a bit of a work in progress so bear with me.

I am planning on adding a bit about the Seat of The Eastern Orthodox Church as well as a bit of information on Istanbul during the Ottoman Era, maybe a bit about the Fourth Crusade and Latin Kingdom. Also of course some info on Modern Istanbul, the Bospherous Straight and Hagia Sofia I am open to any suggestions on improving this page and if anyone knows how to do a fancy city box or something please do.
--[[User:Rlpond|Rlpond]] 21:45, 9 June 2011 (EDT)

== Constantinople merge ==

Shouldn't we combine this article with the [[Constantinople]] article? --[[User:JarradD|JarradD]] 20:13, 1 August 2011 (EDT)
:Upon reflection, perhaps I should have put the notice on the [[Constantinople]] article so that we retain the article in the current city name. IN any case are there any dissenters? --[[User:JarradD|JarradD]] 20:23, 1 August 2011 (EDT)
::Considering the size, I'd have no problem with it as long as Constantinople gets made into a history section for this --[[User:SeanS|SeanS]] 20:56, 1 August 2011 (EDT)
Its Istanbul, not Constantinople :p [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqJXxHi6RwQ] [[User:MickeyD|MickeyD]] 07:54, 3 August 2011 (EDT)

Luftwaffe

2011-01-15T21:27:37Z

MickeyD:

'''Luftwaffe''' (''Luft - air'' and ''Waffe - weapon'') is the German air force (see [[World War II in the Air]]).

Its most famous period by far was during [[World War II]]. The '''Luftwaffe''' The pride of [[Nazi Germany]] under its bombastic leader Hermann Goering, it learned new combat techniques in the Spanish Civil War and appealed to Hitler as the decisive strategic weapon he needed. Its high technology and rapid growth led to exaggerated fears in the 1930s that cowed the British and French into appeasement. In the World War II the Luftwaffe performed well in 1939-41, but was poorly coordinated with overall German strategy, and never ramped up to the size and scope needed in a total war. It never built large bombers, was deficient in radar, and could not deal with the faster, more agile [[P-51]] Mustang pursuit planes after 1943. The Luftwaffe was narrowly defeated in the Battle of Britain (1940), and reached maximum size of 1.9 million airmen in 1942. Grueling operations wasted it away on the eastern front after 1942. It lost most of its remaining fighter planes to Mustangs in 1944 while trying to defend against massive American and British air raids.

When its gasoline supply ran dry in 1944, it was reduced to anti-aircraft flak roles, and many of its men were sent to infantry units. By 1944 it operated 39,000 flak batteries staffed with a million people in uniform, both men and women.

The Luftwaffe lacked the bomber forces for strategic bombing, because it did not think such bombing was worth it. They did attempt some startegic bombing in the east. Their one success was destroying an airbase at Poltava, Russia, which housed 43 new B-17 bombers and a million tons of aviation fuel.<ref> Richard J. Evans, ''The Third Reich at War'' (2009) 436-7</ref>

==Beginnings==
The German Air Force began as the '''Luftstreitkräfte''' (Air Force) of the Imperial German Army in 1912. During [[World_War_I|World War One]] the German Air Force was greatly increased in size and capacity. A famous fighter [[Flying ace|ace]] of this period was Manfred von Richthofen, the Red Baron.

==Early history==
The [[Treaty of Versailles]] caused the total dismantling of the German Air Force. To maneuver around this the German authorities used [[Lufthansa]] (the civil airline) to train pilots and ground crews. It was not until the advent of the Nazi regime that an air force (Luftwaffe) was created.

===1930s===
In 1925 the Soviet Union allowed the German government set up the top-secret Lipetsk Aviation School, inside Russia, to train pilots and navigators in violation of the Versailles Treaty of 1919, which ordered that Germany could never have an air force. The school closed in 1933 when secrecy was no longer needed to defy Versailles. Although no actual flying formations were in existence by 1933, the intellectual, technical and organizational bases for the ultimate establishment of a large air arm had been created. Göring defiantly announced the existence of the Luftwaffe in 1935, as British, French and Soviet intelligence hurried to track its soaring growth curve.

Various proposals to centralize military aviation under a separate military service, beginning even before World War I, were thwarted by the usual army-navy differences and the internal opposition of each service to losing its subordinate air arm. Air power theories alone would not have gained independence for the German air force, but Hitler's foreign policy needs and the political power of air minister [[Hermann Göring]] within the Nazi party proved a key in gaining first separate status under an Air Ministry and then gaining increased power, such as in acquiring control of anti-aircraft artillery (AAA), called "flak" in German. Unlike the army and navy, the Nazis had full control over the Luftwaffe and therefore needed to keep it independent of the old-guard officers who controlled the older services. This attitude made it impossible for the navy to develop its own air service. The one aircraft carrier it started to build was to have flight crews under Luftwaffe command, but the carrier was never finished.
===Strategic and tactical doctrines===
In the 1930s Hans von Seeckt and senior army leadership, using World War I as a guide, advocated an independent air force designed for aggressive support of the army on the battlefield, and air-to-air warfare to gain air supremacy. Developed and written by airmen and army officers and published as "Conduct of the Air War" in 1935, the Luftwaffe's operational doctrine was battle-tested in the Spanish Civil War.<ref> James S. Corum, "From Biplanes to Blitzkrieg: the Development of German Air Doctrine Between the Wars." ''War in History'' 1996 3(1): 85-101. Issn: 0968-3445</ref>

The [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-38) was the most intensive experience of combat for the Luftwaffe before World War II. Germany sent its "Kondor Legion" to test out its "blitzkrieg" doctrine using the [[Junkers Ju-87]] Stuka dive bomber, of which 5800 were built. Theorists completely redesigned their air superiority fighter tactics, and discovered new techniques for high-speed dogfight tactics and tactical air support for ground forces. The Spanish Civil War had a tremendous impact on all aspects of Luftwaffe combat doctrine, giving it technique, doctrine and self confidence that Britain and France lacked.<ref> Christopher C. Locksley, ''Condor over Spain: the Civil War, Combat Experience and the Development of Luftwaffe Airpower Doctrine." ''Civil Wars'' 1999 2(1): 69-99. Issn: 1369-8249 </ref>

===Strategic doctrine===
A common misperception holds that the Luftwaffe was primarily a tactical support force for the army and that, unlike the American and British air forces, it did not develop a theory or concept of strategic air war. In reality, the Luftwaffe built up an extensive doctrine of strategic air war by 1939. In the 1930s imaginative Nazis saw strategic bombardment by air as a powerful tool. Air warfare was seen as a growing threat to Germany, especially in British hands, so the Luftwaffe became a means of national mobilization and redemption. Nazi Germany believed that air warfare would allow the country to rebuild itself in a racial compact. During World War II, are warfare became a means for rejuvenating authority domestically and increasing influence abroad.
====Bombers====
However, Germany never built long-range bombers; only the British and Americans did so. While they experimented, one of Hitler's obsessions intervened on the side of the Allies: he insisted that every German bomber be capable of dive bombing, a method of attack impractical for long-range aircraft designs of the time.<ref> Peter Fritzsche, "Machine Dreams: Airmindedness and the Reinvention of Germany." ''American Historical Review,'' 98 (June 1993): 685-710; James S. Corum, "The Development of Strategic Air War Concepts in Interwar Germany, 1919-1939." ''Air Power History'' 1997 44(4): 18-35. Issn: 1044-016x </ref>
====Close air support====
Between 1918 and 1939 the Luftwaffe steadily developed a doctrine of close air support of ground forces, which while not its primary mission, nevertheless influenced its organization and aircraft design procurement. The Spanish war demonstrated the effectiveness of logistical disruption and close air support, and confirmed German views concerning the ineffectiveness - and even counterproductive nature - of the strategic bombing of civilian populations. After 1939, it further refined the doctrine based on successful operational experience, and by the time of the German invasion of Russia in 1941 the Luftwaffe was directly and decisively supporting army operations. In contrast, the Americans and British showed little interest in army support during the interwar period, and as late as 1940, notwithstanding the German success in Poland in 1939, the RAF still possessed no air formation that could rapidly respond to the ground situation.<ref> James S. Corum, "The Luftwaffe's Army Support Doctrine, 1918-1941." ''Journal of Military History'' 1995 59(1): 53-76. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2944364 in Jstor] </ref>
===French despair===
The French air force intelligence section was relatively well informed on the growth of the Luftwaffe, which, in their view, was the most important of the three services of the German armed forces and which could call upon virtually unlimited resources. The new German pursuit planes and bombers were considered the best in the world; German aircraft production was estimated at one thousand per month at the time of the Munich crisis. Thus, German aerial superiority was the main argument against protecting Czechoslovakia from Nazi aggression. The subsequent French rearmament program greatly increased aircraft production, but it failed to keep pace with German increases. Guy La Chambre, the French air minister, optimistically informed the government that the air force was capable of dealing with the Luftwaffe. On the other hand, General Joseph Vuillemin, air force chief of staff, described the French air force as far inferior and consistently opposed war with Germany. Nevertheless, the Daladier government, believing that the rearmament program would soon take off and relying on British determination to stop Hitler, rejected any new policy of appeasement. The reorganization of the air force had not been completed when the war broke out and the German aircraft industry was able to achieve a spectacular increase in production due to the development of machine tools more efficient than those used in French factories. Even so the Germans were not so far ahead in 1940 in quantity or quality of aircraft. They were far ahead in morale, self-confidence and useful doctrine; France lost the aerial battle of 1940 in the minds of the leaders of its air force.<ref> Peter Jackson, "La Perception de la Puissance Aerienne Allemande et Son Influence sur la Politique Exterieure Française Pendant les Crises Internationales de 1938 a 1939," [The Perception of German Air Power and its Influence on French Foreign Policy During the International Crises of 1938-39]. ''Revue Historique des Armées'' 1994 (4): 76-87. Issn: 0035-3299; Faris R. Kirkland, "French Air Strength in May 1940." ''Air Power History'' 1993 40(1): 22-34. Issn: 1044-016x </ref>

[[Image:luftwaffebombing.jpg]]

==Luftwaffe in World War II==
[[Image:LuftwaffeBadge.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Luftwaffe Nazi insignia]]
Early in the war the Luftwaffe played a very successful role in the destruction of enemy targets. The Luftwaffe was an integral part of the German tactic of '''Blitzkrieg''', with bombers acting as flying artillery in support of ground troops. The main German fighter plane at this time, the [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]] outclassed the Polish, French, and British planes up until the [[Battle of Britain]], giving the Luftwaffe air superiority through the battles of Poland and France.

During the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe lost about 1,000 planes and about 2,000 men. Because of its superior man power and size the Luftwaffe was set back but not knocked down by the smaller [[RAF]].

The Lufwaffe had initial success in North Africa and the Soviet Union, but as the war ground on, it saw a steady decline. Despite the creation of technologically advanced jet fighters such as the [[Me-262]], at war's end the Luftwaffe had ceased to be an effective fighting force.

The greatest ace of the Luftwaffe (and in all of aviation history) was Erich Hartmann, who scored 352 aerial victories, all on the Eastern Front.

[[Image:Luftwaffe-logo-large.jpg|thumb|200px|left]]

==Aircraft==
The state secretary in the Air Ministry, Erhard Milch later blamed Göring for not proceeding with heavy bomber development. Milch himself blamed personality conflicts but the general staff, the technical staff, and the aviation industry shared in the decision, which was more than a mere dispute between Göring and Milch. Lack of sufficient labor, capital, and raw materials in the 1930s contributed to the decision. Milch was second only to Göring in shaping the course of German air power from 1933 to 1945. Milch, however, underestimated the need for large numbers of fully trained pilots and decided too late to press for high production of fighter aircraft; his belief that defensive air power could save Germany was a fatal error.<ref> Edward L. Homze, "The Luftwaffe's Failure to Develop a Heavy Bomber Before World War II," ''Aerospace Historian'' 1977 24(1): 20-26. Issn: 0001-9364 </ref>

The workhorses of the Luftwaffe defenses were the Messerschmitt Bf 109 (31,000 were built) and the [[Focke-Wulf Fw-190]] (20,000 were built). By 1943 they were outclassed by the P-51 Mustang in terms of range, speed and rate of climb, not to mention gasoline (the Allies had much higher octane), and pilot training.
===Wartime production===
Production in the early years of the war was small, primarily because Luftwaffe did not see a need for a vast armada. At one point General Hans Jeschonneck, chief of the air staff, opposed a suggested increase in fighter plane production with the remark that he wouldn't know what to do with a monthly production of more than 360 fighters. By late 1943 doom was in the air and plans called for a steadily increasing output of fighters. By 1944 Allied bombers targeted aircraft factories, but they were widely dispersed. The main way to stop the Luftwaffe was to cut off its gasoline by bombing refineries and synthetic oil plants, and for the Soviets to capture the Romanian oil fields.

Luftwaffe Field Marshal Erhard Milch and airplane designer Ernst Heinkel built a huge factory at Budzyn, Poland, called the "Ultra Project" designed to use Jews as slave laborers to build warplanes. It lasted 18 months but turned out not one aircraft nor a single aircraft part.<ref> Lutz Budrass, "'Arbeitskräfte Können Aus Der Reichlich Vorhandenen Jüdischen Bevölkerung Gewonnen Werden.' Das Heinkel-werk in Budzyn 1942-1944," ''Jahrbuch Für Wirtschaftsgeschichte'' 2004 (1): 41-64. Issn: 0075-2800 </ref>

==Airmen==
Strength of Luftwaffe:
*1939.....677,000
*1940...1,200,000
*1941...1,545,000
*1942...1,900,000
*1943...1,700,000
*1944...1,500,000
*1945...1,000,000

In order to release able-bodied men serving in home-based flak units for combat duty, 100,000 women auxiliaries (Helferinnen) were called up in 1944-45 to serve in the air warning service, and in the telephone and teletype departments. There were no women pilots.
===Organization===
The Luftwaffe was organized into Luftflotten (air fleets). These were multi-role formations, with aircraft of all types. Initially there were four Luftflotten (Nos. 1–4), each covering a specified geographical territory; as Germany expanded their range expanded and three additional Luftflotten (5, 6, and Luftflotte Reich) were added, the last specifically for the defense of Germany. Each Luftflotte consisted of a number of Fliegerkorps (flying corps), which in turn had Fliegerdivision. They included Geschwader (similar to a RAF Group), notably Kampfgeschwader (KG) (bombers); Jagdgeschwader (JG) (pursuit); Nachtjagdgeschwader (NJG) (night fighter); Stukage schwader (StG) (dive-bomber); Zerstoerergeschwader (ZG) (destroyer); and Lehrgeschwader (LG) (training). The Geschwader in turn controlled several Gruppen (groups), similar to an RAF Wing, with each Gruppe commanding 3–4 Staffeln (squadrons), a Staffel consisting of 12 aircraft. In September 1939, the Luftwaffe comprised 302 Staffeln with 2,370 operational crews and 2,564 operational warplanes (bombers, dive bombers, and pursuit).

The Luftflotte had their own signals branch and a Flak branch that controlled the anti-aircraft artillery. It also had control of a number of Luftgaue, administrative commands responsible for airfields, personnel and logistics, and training.

==War in the West==
The Luftwaffe used its aircraft in a strategic manner in the early campaigns in Poland and France in 1939-40.
==Battle of Britain: 1940==
The [[Battle of Britain]], August to September. 1940, was fought for air supremacy over Britain. Hitler wanted to threaten an invasion, but with a weak navy he could not counter the [[Royal Navy]] unless the Luftwaffe defeated the RAF.<ref>An invasion was unlikely; over a third of the days were bad flying weather that grounded most flights. On those days the Royal Navy battleships could plow through the storms and sink the entire invasion fleet.</ref> The Luftwaffe used 1300 medium bombers guarded by 900 fighters; they made 1500 sorties a day from bases in France, Belgium and Norway. The RAF had 650 fighters, with more coming out of the factories every day. Thanks to its new radar system, the British knew where the Germans were, and could concentrate their counterattacks. The Germans used their strategic bombing doctrine to focus on RAF airfields and radar stations. After the RAF bomber forces (quite separate from the fighter forces) attacked Berlin and other cities, Hitler swore revenge and diverted the Luftwaffe to attacks on [[London]]. The success the Luftwaffe was having in rapidly wearing down the RAF was squandered, as the civilians being hit were far less critical than the airfields and radar stations that were now ignored.<ref> Civilian deaths were 300 to 600 a day, plus 1000 to 3000 injured. London was not a factory city and aircraft production went up.</ref> The last German daylight raid was September 30; the Luftwaffe was taking unacceptable losses and broke off the attack; occasional blitz raids hit London and other cities from time to time before May 1941, killing some 43,000 civilians. The Luftwaffe lost 1733 planes, the British, 915. The British showed more determination, better radar, and better ground control, while the Germans violated their own doctrine with wasted attacks on London.

The British surprised the Germans with their high quality airplanes; flying close to home bases where they could refuel, and using [[radar]] as part of an integrated air defense system, they had a significant advantage over German planes operating at long range. The [[Hawker Hurricane]] fighter plane played a vital role for the Royal Air Force (RAF) in winning the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. A fast, heavily armed monoplane that went into service in 1937, the Hurricane was effective against both German fighters and bombers and accounted for 70-75% of German losses during the battle. The Germans immediately pulled out their Stukas, which were so slow they were child's play for the Hurricanes and Spitfires. The Battle of Britain showed the world that Hitler's vaunted war machine could be defeated.
===Navigation===
The first system of radio guidance used by the Luftwaffe was the Knickebein or System K, operational in 1938. With it, ground controllers could direct bombers to targets at night and in all kinds of weather. Thirteen [[Knickebein]] transmitters were eventually built in the west, six in France. System K was expanded by the addition of [[X-Gerät]], a system of automatic bombardment. This was followed by System [[Y-Gerät]] (Wotan II). British countermeasures forced the Germans to discontinue the offensive use of the system but they used the Y-Gerät until the invasion of Normandy.

Over friendly territory the Germans used grid and hyperbolic systems, copied partly from the English Ground Electronic Environment and from [[LORAN]]. After 1941, the Luftwaffe used a new system for offensive navigation known as the Bernard system, which gave the airplane the transmitter's call-sign, the bearing of the plane, and the position, altitude, and heading of an enemy interceptor. In 1942 the Germans copied the English [identification-friend-or-foe]] (IFF), calling it the EGON system, which was also used offensively for tactical guidance.

After the war, much German radio-navigation technology was adopted for military and civilian purposes.<ref>Jean-François Salles, "Organisation des Systemes de Radionavigation de la Luftwaffe en Normandie en 1944," [The Organization of the Radio Navigation Systems of the Luftwaffe in Normandy in 1944]. ''Revue Historique des Armées'' 1995 (1): 77-88. Issn: 0035-3299 </ref>

==Hitler's mistakes==
After the failure of the Battle of Britain the Luftwaffe failed to mount a major strategic air campaign, not because of the lack of strategic air doctrine or theory but because of the failure to produce an effective heavy bomber, the failure to train enough pilots for a war of attrition, and the failure of the high command to utilize the Luftwaffe in the most effective manner. Göring met Hitler often; they talked of Nazi party affairs. The Luftwaffe was unaware of Hitler's strategic plans and was unable to prepare accordingly. Hitler's interference sabotaged the jet planes the Germans had invented. Hitler made strategy without realizing how progressively weaker his air power was becoming or how rapidly the Allies were building up theirs, and he put increasing faith in secret weapons (especially the V-1 and V-2) that were too inaccurate to be of much value.<ref>R. J. Overy, "Hitler and Air Strategy," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 1980 15(3): 405-421. </ref>
==Destruction of the Luftwaffe over Germany==
While the British air defense system was operational in the critical days of 1940, the Germans were only beginning to build their own version, the [[Kammhuber Line]], in 1940. They never caught up with the British.

In late 1943 the USAAF (U.S. Air Force) suddenly realized the need to revise its basic doctrine: strategic bombing against a technologically sophisticated enemy like Germany was impossible without air supremacy. General Hap Arnold replaced Ira Eaker with Carl Spaatz and Jimmy Doolittle, who fully appreciated the new reality. They provided fighter escorts all the way into Germany and back, and cleverly used B- 17s as bait for Luftwaffe planes, which the escorts then shot down. Doolittle's slogan was "The First Duty of 8th AF Fighters is to Destroy German Fighters."
===Big Week, February 1944===
The Allied response was the "Big Week," (20-25 February 1944, code named ARGUMENT), when 2400 bombers from the RAF [[Bomber Command]] and 3800 bombers from US [[Eighth Air Force]] and [[Ninth Air Force]] based in England, and the US [[Fifteenth Air Force]] based in Italy, launched a full-scale assault against the German aircraft industry. They dropped 20,000 tons of bombs, the British at night, the Americans by day. American losses amounted to 254 aircraft, including 28 fighters, while RAF lost 157. Flak accounted for most of the losses; flak seldom downed a bomber but instead knocked it out of formation, allowing the Germans to pounce. The purpose was to diminish the German air force by cutting into its fighter-plane production and by drawing the German fighters into the air for American fighters to destroy. American bombers protected by hundreds of fighters, flew 3,800 sorties dropping 10,000 tons of high explosives on the main German aircraft and ball-bearing factories. The Luftwaffe made a powerful effort to sweep American day bombers from the skies. The battle raged for a week. It was fought over Regensburg, Merseburg, Schweinfurt, and other critical industrial centers. The German fighter force was severely crippled, as their fighter planes were designed to knock out big bombers but were slower and less agile than the American P-51 Mustangs. The US suffered 2,600 casualties, with a loss of 137 bombers and 21 fighters. Ball bearing production was unaffected, as Nazi munitions boss [[Albert Speer]] repaired the damage in a few weeks; he even managed to double aircraft production. Sensing the danger, Speer began dispersing production into numerous small, hidden factories.<ref>Craven & Cate, 3:43-6</ref>

===Tactics===
Paradoxically, the Luftwaffe would have to come out and attack or see its planes destroyed at the factory. Before getting at the bombers the Germans had to confront the more numerous, better armed and faster American fighters. The heavily armed BF-110 could kill a bomber, but it slowness made it easy prey for the speedy [[P-47]] Thunderbolts and [[P-51]] Mustangs armed with numerous fast-firing machine guns. The big, slow twin-engine Ju-88 was dangerous because it could stand further off and fire its rockets into the tight [[B-17]] formations; but it too was hunted down. Germany's severe shortage of aviation fuel had sharply curtailed the training of new pilots, and most of the instructors had been sent into battle. Rookie pilots were rushed into combat after only 160 flying hours in training compared to 400 hours for the AAF, 360 for the RAF and 120 for the Japanese. They never had a chance against more numerous, better trained Allies flying superior planes.

The Germans began losing one thousand planes a month on the western front (and another 400 on the eastern front). Realizing that the best way to defeat the Luftwaffe was not to stick close to the bombers but to aggressively seek out the enemy, Doolittle told his Mustangs to "go hunting for Jerries. Flush them out in the air and beat them up on the ground on the way home." On one occasion German air controllers identified a large force of approaching B-17s, and sent all the Luftwaffe's 750 fighters to attack. Error. The bogeys were all Mustangs, which shot down 98 interceptors while losing 11. The actual B-17s were elsewhere, and completed their mission without a loss. In February, 1944, the Luftwaffe lost 33% of its frontline fighters and 18% of its pilots; the next month it lost 56% of its fighters and 22% of the pilots. April was just as bad, 43% and 20%, and May was worst of all, at 50% and 25%. German factories continued to produce many new planes, and inexperienced pilots did report for duty; but their life expectancy was down to a couple of combat sorties. Increasingly the Luftwaffe went into hiding; with Allied losses down to 1% per mission, the heavy bombers now got through.<ref> Craven and Cate 3:664 </ref>
===Allied air supremacy===
By April, 1944, Luftwaffe tactical air power had vanished, and the Allies had unquestioned air supremacy over France and much of Germany. From April through August, 1944, both the AAF's and the RAF's strategic bombers were placed under the direction of General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], the Allied Supreme Commander . He used them were used tactically to support the invasion. Airmen protested vigorously against this subordination of the air war to the land campaign, but Eisenhower forced the issue and used the bombers to simultaneously strangle Germany's supply system, burn out its oil refineries, and destroy its warplanes. Mission accomplished, Ike returned the bombers in September.<ref>Murray, ''Luftwaffe'' 183, 207, 211; Craven & Cate, 3:47 </ref>

Eisenhower, knowing he had complete control of the air, decided to go ahead with the invasion of Normandy on June 6. He guaranteed his men that "if you see fighting aircraft over you, they will be ours." Indeed, on D-Day Allied aircraft flew 14,000 sorties, while the Luftwaffe managed a mere 260, mostly in defense of its own battered airfields. In the two weeks after D-Day, the Luftwaffe lost 600 of the 800 planes it kept in France.

By the late spring of 1944, synthetic fuel plants and crude oil refineries became the prime targets for Allied bombers, which reduced production between May and October 1944 to 5% of the former monthly output.
[[Image:German-aviation-gas-ww2.jpg|thumb|325px|Germany's supply of aviation gasoline 1940-45]]

Allied medium bombers and fighter-bombers struck Luftwaffe airfields in diversionary attacks so timed as to reduce the concentration of [[fighter aircraft|interceptor]]s that threatened the bomber formations. Diversionary fighter sweeps further dislocated the Luftwaffe. As the range of P-47 and P-51 fighters was increased through the installation of droppable fuel tanks, they were employed more and more to escort bombers to targets deep in Germany. In response the Luftwaffe withdraw fighters from the East to meet the threat from the West. This was an important factor in enabling the Soviet air forces to maintain air superiority on their front.

==War in the East==
Though victorious in Poland in September, 1939, the Luftwaffe did not perform as well as the Nazi propaganda machine led the world to believe, both because of its own internal weaknesses and the creditable resistance put up by the Polish air force.<ref> John F. Kreis, "Blitzkrieg in Poland." ''Air Power History'' 1989 36(3): 31-35. Issn: 1044-016x </ref>

On the first day of the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the Soviet air force (VVS) lost 336 aircraft in aerial combat to only 40 German losses. Much more threatening was the loss, within a few days of 800 Soviet aircraft destroyed on the ground in the course of Luftwaffe bombing raids on airfields. This was the first ever instance of one air force achieving a significant victory over another by pre-emptive strikes against its air bases. The Luftwaffe had attempted this in Poland in 1939 and in France in 1940 with less success. The successful attacks on Soviet air bases, the superiority of the Luftwaffe pilots in air-to-air combat, and the loss of hundreds of damaged but repairable aircraft that had to be abandoned on airfields about to be over-run by advancing German ground troops together meant that, by the end of the first week of the German invasion, the Soviet air force VVS was nearly defunct as a combat organization.

In May 1942, the Luftwaffe, by providing a high level of tactical air support, played a key role in smashing a major Soviet offensive around Kharkov. Performing well in all operations, including tactical reconnaissance, air-drop and supply, direct battlefield support, interdiction, and protection of German logistics, it initially engaged in a series of nonstop defensive missions that countered the Soviet effort to encircle German forces and then greatly aided German ground forces as they threw back and crushed the Soviet forces.<ref> Joel S. A. Hayward, "The German Use of Air Power at Kharkov, May 1942." ''Air Power History'' 1997 44(2): 18-29. Issn: 1044-016x </ref>

In August and September 1942 the Luftwaffe had the opportunity and planes to deliver a major blow against the Soviet economy by attacking the Caucasus oil centers that provided nearly all of the Soviet supplies. Instead, Hitler diverted his airpower against Stalingrad, Not until October 1942, did Hitler finally order air attacks against the oil centers, but the Germans no longer had the bomber strength and advanced forward bases to carry out major operations against them. The raids were too little and too late and proved incapable of crippling Soviet oil production.<ref> Joel Hayward, "Too Little, Too Late: an Analysis of Hitler's Failure in August 1942 to Damage Soviet Oil Production." ''Journal of Military History'' 2000 64(3): 769-794. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/120868 in Jstor]
</ref>

In July 1942, north of Norway, an attack by the Luftwaffe sank two ships, and convoy PQ-17, sailing from Iceland to Archangel, Russia, was ordered to scatter by the British Admiralty. It mistakenly thought the German battleship ''Tirpitz'' was about to intercept the convoy. Twenty-two more ships were sunk by the well-coordinated attack of German air forces.<ref> Harold J. McCormick, "Convoy Catastrophe: the Destruction of PQ-17 to North Russia in July, 1942." ''Sea History'' 1992 (62): 14-16. Issn: 0146-9312 </ref>

After 1942 the Soviets completely restructured their air force around mobile air armies. By 1942-3 Soviet air power challenged the Luftwaffe for air supremacy in the Stalingrad, Kuban, and Kursk campaigns. Frontal aviation's 17 air armies were complemented by a long-range air army in 1944, by which time the Soviets had air superiority, though it lacked long range bombers. As a result the Soviets had more planes and more gasoline. The Russian front became a meatgrinder for the Luftwaffe; it was systematically worn down.

===Failure of Cooperation===
Germany's Kriegsmarine (navy) and Luftwaffe failed to cooperate throughout most of the war because of interbranch jealousy, limited strategic vision, poor leadership in the Luftwaffe, and the personality defects of Göring. This failure, coupled with the strategic shift eastward after mid-1941 and the lack of an offensive oriented air branch of the Kriegsmarine, meant that Germany was never able to fulfill its potential effectiveness in naval operations designed to restrict Britain's operational and material resource base.<ref> Sönke Neitzel, "Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe Co-operation in the War Against Britain, 1939-1945." ''War in History'' 2003 10(4): 448-463. Issn: 0968-3445
Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In sharp contrast to the smooth cooperation of the Allies, the Luftwaffe ignored opportunities for strategic and economic cooperation with the air forces of its allies Italy, Finland, Romania, and Hungary. Instead of using factories in France, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia to build new air fleets, it removed the machinery and shut the factories.<ref> James S. Corum, "The Luftwaffe and its Allied Air Forces in World War Ii: Parallel War and the Failure of Strategic and Economic Cooperation." ''Air Power History'' 2004 51(2): 4-19. Issn: 1044-016x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>
==Collapse==
By 1942 everything started to go wrong. Defeat after defeat in the air against increasingly superior enemy planes sapped morale, and killed off the best pilots. Göring was easily outmaneuvered by rival Nazis after 1940 and the Luftwaffe experienced an erosion of authority after it failed to meet his grandiose promises. Hitler was enthusiastic in support, believing air power was the supreme strategic weapon; but he never understood air affairs, even though he talked glibly about them. He did not coordinate the Luftwaffe with the other branches of service, and Göring systematically misled him about Luftwaffe progress. Hitler did not plan in terms of continuous massive quantity and quality in the number of planes or in their offensive use. He thought in terms of defense or of secret, magic weapons for one massive, catastrophic blow.<ref> Overy, "Hitler and Air Strategy" </ref>
===Secret weapons===
Luftwaffe technology was not well concentrated. The [[Me-262]] jet flew test runs in 1939--Germany needed 10,000 of these superior planes but only produced 1000 and most never flew in combat. Again, Hitler personally intervened in a manner providential — for the Allies. He insisted that the Me-262 not be deployed until it could carry out bombing missions, for which it was not designed. He only allowed it in a devastating air defense role when it was too late. Likewise the brilliant engineering efforts that went into the highly innovative [[V-1]] jet-powered cruise missile and [[V-2]] rocket-powered ballistic missile were partly wasted from a narrow military point of view; their guidance was too inaccurate to threaten any target smaller than a metropolitan area. On the other hand, the Allies diverted up to 25% of the air power to attacks on the V-weapons. (The Luftwaffe was responsible for the V-1, while the army was in charge of the V-2.)
===Poor long-term planning===
The success of early blitzkriegs blinded the Germans to the necessity of planning for a protracted air war, so they lacked the planes, fuel supplies, and trained airmen. By 1944 their pilots had far less flying experience than the Allies, and were more and more helpless in the sky. Furthermore, the Luftwaffe was unable to solve its growing logistics problems; when its fuel supply ran dry in 1944 it was doomed. Increasingly the Luftwaffe concentrated on ground-based anti-aircraft operations, which involved hundreds of thousands of women soldiers. The major cities were ringed with high power guns; including 423 around Vienna. Often they were built on high flak towers that had unobstructed views. The British bombers flew at night and the Germans used searchlights (staffed by women) to track their location, direction and speed so the guns, which shot ahead of the bombers, could throw up a barrage of shells that might hit the planes. The Germans never had a proximity fuze so their shells seldom exploded at the right moment. <ref> Note that the searchlights were not there to blind pilots; when four searchlights converged on one plane, then analog mechanical calculators were used to estimate exactly where the plane--two or three miles high-- would be when the shells reached that height. Edward B. Westermann, ''Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914-1945'' (2005); Horst Boog, "Luftwaffe and Logistics in the Second World War." ''Aerospace Historian'' 1988 35(2): 103-110. Issn: 0001-9364 </ref>

Surplus airmen and ground crews were reorganized into 21 Luftwaffe field divisions; they came under army control in late 1943, as Göring was losing power. They were generally of mediocre quality and were chewed up on the the Eastern Front; few men returned.

Despite intensified Allied bombing, Germany achieved its highest plane production at the end of 1944 (a total of 12,329 aircraft), but their quality was inferior to Allied warplanes. The production of aviation gasoline (itself of much lower octane than Allied gasoline) allowed for a daily consumption of 6,000 tons of flight fuel in 1944; the fuel production crisis in 1945 brought this to 76 tons. On 30 April 1945 the Luftwaffe flew its last 96 actions.

==Luftwaffe today==
==Post war re-creation==
It was not until 1955 that the Luftwaffe was recreated in West Germany. Former members of the WW2 era Luftwaffe were brought together to plan the formation of a new air force. The creation of a post war Luftwaffe was the result of the heightened tensions of the [[Cold War]]. The [[German Democratic Republic|East German]] authorities created the '''Luftstreitkräfte''' of the NVA (National People's Army) during the same period.

The modern '''Deutsche Luftwaffe''' is one of the three branches of the '''Bundeswehr''', the German Federal Defense Force. The Luftwaffe is mainly equipped with US made or designed aircraft. In 2004 the German defense minister announced a planned reduction in the number of fighter aircraft and the future purchase of the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]].

The name "Luftwaffe" was bestowed on the new West German air force that began in the 1950s, and included many veterans, but supposedly no Nazis.
==Bibliography==
* British Air Ministry. ''Rise and Fall of the German Air Force'' (1948, 1969), excellent official British history
* Claasen, Adam R. A.''Hitler's Northern War: The Luftwaffe's Ill-Fated Campaign, 1940-1945.'' (2001). 338 pp.
* Cooper, Matthew. ''The German Air Force, 1933-1945: An anatomy of failure'' (1981)
* Corum, James S. and Muller, Richard R. ''The Luftwaffe's Way of War: German Air Force Doctrine, 1911-1945.'' (1998). 295 pp.
* Corum, James S. ''The Luftwaffe: Creating the Operational Air War, 1918-1940.'' (1997). 368 pp.
* Corum, James S. "The Luftwaffe and Its Allied Air Forces in World War II: Parallel War and the Failure of Strategic and Economic Cooperation." ''Air Power History'' 51#2 (2004) pp 4+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5006413886?title=The%20Luftwaffe%20and%20Its%20Allied%20Air%20Forces%20in%20World%20War%20II%3a%20Parallel%20War%20and%20the%20Failure%20of%20Strategic%20and%20Economic%20Cooperation online edition]. shows Germany underutilized its allies such as Italy and Rumania
* Craven, Wesley Frank and J. L. Cate. ''The Army Air Forces in World War II'' (5 vol 1949), detailed official U.S. history; see vol 2 and 3 [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/ online edition]
* Harvey, A.D. "The Soviet Air Force versus the Luftwaffe: ''History Today.'' 52#1 (January 2002) pp 48+ in [[EBSCO]] and [http://www.questia.com/read/5000684819?title=The%20Soviet%20Air%20Force%20versus%20the%20Luftwaffe%3a%20A.D.Harvey%20Assesses%20the%20Role%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Air%20Force%20in%20the%20Defeat%20of%20Nazism online edition]
* Griehl, Manfred. ''Luftwaffe over America: The Secret Plans to Bomb the United States in World War II.'' (2004). 256 pp.
* Hayward, Joel. ''Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East, 1942-1943'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Stopped-Stalingrad-Luftwaffe-Hitlers-1942-1943/dp/0700611460/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214439075&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kurowski, Franz. ''Luftwaffe Aces: German Combat Pilots of World War II'', Stackpole Books, (2004)
* Macksey, Kenneth. ''Kesselring: The Making of the Luftwaffe.'' (1979). 262 pp. Biography of leading general
* Mitcham, Samuel W. ''Men of the Luftwaffe.'' (1988). 356 pp.
* Murray, Williamson. ''Luftwaffe: Strategy for Defeat, 1933-1945'' (1985), the standard scholarly history [http://www.amazon.com/Luftwaffe-1933-45-Strategy-Brasseys-Commemorative/dp/1574881256/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214439105&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* Overy, R. J. "Hitler and Air Strategy," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 1980 15(3): 405-421. Issn: 0022-0094 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/260411 in Jstor]
* Overy, Richard J. ''The Air War, 1939-1945'' (1981), sophisticated interpretation of all major powers
* Overy, Richard. ''Goering'' (1984) [http://www.amazon.com/Goering-Richard-Overy/dp/1842120484/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214439147&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Overy, Richard. ''The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Battle-Britain-Myth-Reality/dp/0393322971/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214439147&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Proctor, Raymond L. ''Hitler's Luftwaffe in the Spanish Civil War.'' (1983). 289 pp.
* Spick, Mike. ''Luftwaffe Fighter Aces: the Jagdflieger and their Combat Tactics and Techniques'' (1996);
* Wark, Wesley K. "British Intelligence on the German Air Force and Aircraft Industry, 1933-1939." ''Historical Journal'' 1982 25(3): 627-648. Issn: 0018-246x [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2638748 in Jstor ]
* Westermann, Edward B. ''Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914-1945'' (2005); [http://www.amazon.com/Flak-German-Anti-Aircraft-Defenses-1914-1945/dp/0700614206/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214454891&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zeitlin, Jonathan. "Flexibility and Mass Production at War: Aircraft Manufacture in Britain, the United States, and Germany, 1939-1945," ''Technology and Culture,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Jan., 1995), pp. 46-79 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3106341 in JSTOR]
===Primary Sources===
* Galland, Adolf. ''The First and the Last: German Fighter Forces in World War II'' (1955)
* Orange, Vincent. "The German Air Force Is Already 'The Most Powerful in Europe': Two Royal Air Force Officers Report on a Visit to Germany, 6-15 October 1936." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(4): 1011-1028. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

==Online resources==
*[http://www.ww2.dk/ "The Luftwaffe, 1933-1945", details on all units and equipment; long bibliography]
*[http://www.feldgrau.com/luft.html "Luftwaffe - The Airforce 1935-1945" by Jason Pipes]
====notes====
<references/>

[[category:Germany]]
[[category:German History]]
[[category:World War II]]
[[category:weaponry]]
[[category:United States Air Force]]
[[Category:Air Power]]

Jim Caviezel

2009-11-25T18:23:23Z

MickeyD: Just adding his most recent role

'''James Caviezel''' (born September 26, 1968) is an actor from Mount Vernon, Washington. He is most known for his role as [[Jesus]] in [[The Passion of the Christ]]. Jim's wife Kerri is a school teacher whom he met on a blind date in 1993 and married in 1997. James has adopted two children from [[China]] and is [[pro-life]]. <ref>[http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2009/aug/09082505.html Pro-Life Convictions Worth Risking Career For: "The Passion" Actor Jim Caviezel, Lifesitenews.com, August 25, 2009]</ref>

His nickname was Jimmy and he had a strong [[Catholic]] upbringing. He was athletically gifted on the basketball court and dreamed of someday playing in the [[NBA]]. <ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001029/bio Biography of James Caviezel, IMDB]</ref> Caviezel went to three high schools and graduated as a basketball star in 1987 from Burien Kennedy High School in Burien, Washington. Jimmy would play basketball at Bellevue Community College until his sophomore year when he injured his foot. Shortly after, he turned his focus toward acting. His latest acting is in the movie The Stoning of Soraya M.

==Roles==
*The Prisoner (TV Miniseries, 2009)
*The Stoning of Soraya M (2009)
*The Passion of the Christ (2004)
*High Crimes (2002)
*Angel Eyes (2001)
*Frequency (2000)
*Ride with the Devil (1999)
*The Thin Red Line (1998)
*My Own Private Idaho (1991)
*Diggstown (1992)
*Wyatt Earp (1994)
*guest roles on "The Wonder Years" (1988)
*"Murder, She Wrote" (1984)

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Caviezel, Jim}}
[[Category:Actors]]
[[Category:Movies]]

Public Opinion Poll

2009-04-30T18:32:15Z

MickeyD:

A '''public opinion poll''' is a survey of attitudes from a particular sample of the population at interest. Opinion polls represent the opinions of the total population by asking a sample of size N, where N is large enough for reliable results (usually expressed as a 95% confidence of +/- Z%. For most polls, N = 400 to 1000 people.

The sample had to be a ''valid'' representation of the population, which means that each person in the target population has a known chance of being sampled.<ref> In unweighted samples, each person has an equal chance. If people have a known but unequal chance, they are weighted to make the chances appear equal.</ref> Unscientific public opinion polls, made by collecting information from a haphazard sample, date from the '''straw polls''' in American elections in the 1820s. As soon as modern statistical sampling theory was invented around 1930, [[George Gallup]] and other advertisers started created nationwide public opinion polls, using about 1500 cases. The American public became fascinated with polls and they spread to many democratic countries by 1940. Totalitarian countries did not allow them.

==History of Polling==

The first known example of an opinion poll was a local straw vote conducted by a newspaper ''The Harrisburg Pennsylvanian'' in 1824; it showed [[Andrew Jackson]] leading [[John Quincy Adams]] by 335 votes to 169 in the contest for the presidency. Such straw votes—unweighted and unscientific— gradually became more popular; but they remained local, usually city-wide phenomena. In 1916, the large-circulation U.S. magazine ''[[Literary Digest]]'' embarked on a national survey (partly as a circulation-raising exercise) and correctly predicted Woodrow Wilson's election as president. Mailing out millions of postcards and simply counting the returns, the ''Digest'' correctly called the following four presidential elections.

In 1936, however, the ''Digest'' came unstuck. Its 2.3 million "voters" constituted a huge sample; however they were generally more affluent Americans who tended to have Republican sympathies. The ''Literary Digest'' saw the bias but did not know how to correct it. The week before election day, it reported that [[Alf Landon]] was far ahead of Franklin D. Roosevelt. At the same time, [[George Gallup]] conducted a far smaller, but more scientifically-based survey, in which he polled a demographically representative sample. Gallup correctly predicted Roosevelt's landslide victory. The ''Literary Digest'' went out of business soon afterwards, while the polling industry started to take off .

[[Gallup]] launched a subsidiary in Britain, where it correctly predicted Labour's victory in the 1945 general election, in contrast with virtually all other commentators, who expected the Conservative Party, led by Winston Churchill, to win easily.

By the 1950s, polling had spread to most democracies. Nowadays they reach virtually every country, although in more autocratic societies they tend to avoid sensitive political topics. In Iraq, surveys conducted soon after the 2003 war helped to measure the true feelings of Iraqi citizens to Saddam Hussein, post-war conditions and the presence of US forces.

For many years, opinion polls were conducted mainly face-to-face, either in the street or in people's homes. This method remains widely used, but in some countries it has been overtaken by telephone polls, which can be conducted faster and more cheaply. Because of the common practice of telemarketers to sell products under the guise of a telephone survey and due to the proliferation of residential call screening devices and use of cell phones, response rates for phone surveys have been plummeting. Mailed surveys have become the data collection method of choice among local governments that conduct a [[citizen survey]] to track service quality and manage resource allocation. In recent years, [[Internet]] and [[short message service]] (SMS, or text) surveys have become increasingly popular, but most of these draw on whomever wishes to participate rather than a scientific sample of the population, and are therefore not generally considered accurate.

==Potential for inaccuracy==
===Sampling error===

All polls based on samples are subject to [[sampling error]] which reflects the effects of chance in the sampling process. Too many of this group happen to fall in the sample, and too few of that group. This produces a bias that is inevitable when people are picked at random. The percentage error gets smaller as the sample size increases. The uncertainty is often expressed as a [[margin of error]]. A poll with a random sample of 1,000 people has margin of sampling error of 3% for the estimated percentage of the whole population. A 3% margin of error means that 95% of the time the procedure used would give an estimate within 3% of the percentage to be estimated. The margin of error can be reduced by using a larger sample, however if a pollster wishes to reduce the margin of error to 1% they would need a sample of around 10,000 people. In practice pollsters need to balance the cost of a large sample against the reduction in sampling error and a sample size of around 500-1,000 is a typical compromise for political polls. (Note that to get 500 complete responses it may be necessary to make thousands of phone calls.)[http://www.publicagenda.org/polling/polling_error.cfm]

The margin of error does not reflect other sources of error, such as poorly defined or ambiguous questions, or overlooking groups of people who might have different opinions. The ''Literary Digest'' sampled automobile and telephone owners in 1936 and thus got too many rich Republicans and too few poor Democrats. Today nearly all interviews are done by telephone or over the internet. Researchers today are studying whether people who only have cell phones are much different from people with land lines. (In general the differences are quites small.) Researchers have found that people who volunteer for a poll--say, on the internet--tend to be different; they are younger, better educated and more sure of their opinions.
===Nonresponse bias===

Since some people do not answer calls from strangers, or refuse to answer the poll, poll samples may not be representative samples from a population. Because of this [[selection bias]], the characteristics of those who agree to be interviewed may be markedly different from those who decline. That is, the actual sample is a biased version of the universe the pollster wants to analyze. In these cases, bias introduces new errors, one way or the other, that are in addition to errors caused by sample size. Error due to bias does not become smaller with larger sample sizes. If the people who refuse to answer, or are never reached, have the same characteristics as the people who do answer, the final results will be unbiased. If the people who do not answer have different opinions then there is bias in the results. In terms of election polls, studies suggest that bias effects are small, but each polling firm has its own formulas on how to adjust weights to minimize selection bias.[http://abcnews.go.com/images/pdf/responserates.pdf]

===Response bias===

Survey results may be affected by [[response bias]], where the answers given by respondents do not reflect their true beliefs. This may be deliberately engineered by unscrupulous pollsters in order to generate a certain result or please their clients, but more often is a result of the detailed wording or ordering of questions (see below). Respondents may deliberately try to manipulate the outcome of a poll by e.g. advocating a more extreme position than they actually hold in order to boost their side of the argument or give rapid and ill-considered answers in order to hasten the end of their questioning. Respondents may also feel under social pressure not to give an unpopular answer. For example, respondents might be unwilling to admit to unpopular attitudes like racism or sexism, and thus polls might not reflect the true incidence of these attitudes in the population. If the results of surveys are widely publicized this effect may be magnified - the so-called "spiral of silence."

===Wording of questions===

It is well established that the wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked and the number and form of alternative answers offered can influence results of polls. Thus comparisons between polls often boil down to the wording of the question. On some issues, question wording can result in quite pronounced differences between surveys. [http://www.publicagenda.org/issues/red_flags.cfm?issue_type=higher_education#affirmative_action][http://www.publicagenda.org/issues/red_flags.cfm?issue_type=gay_rights#benefits][http://www.publicagenda.org/issues/red_flags.cfm?issue_type=abortion#mixed] This can also, however, be a result of legitimately conflicted feelings or evolving attitudes, rather than a poorly constructed survey.[http://www.publicagenda.org/polling/polling_stages.cfm] One way in which pollsters attempt to minimize this effect is to ask the same set of questions over time, in order to track changes in opinion. Another common technique is to rotate the order in which questions are asked. Many pollsters also [[split-sample]]. This involves having two different versions of a question, with each version presented to half the respondents.

The most effective controls, used by [[attitude (psychology)|attitude]] researchers, are:

* asking enough questions to allow all aspects of an issue to be covered and to control effects due to the form of the question (such as positive or negative wording), the adequacy of the number being established quantitatively with [[psychometrics|psychometric]] measures such as reliability coefficients, and

* analyzing the results with psychometric techniques which synthesize the answers into a few reliable scores and detect ineffective questions.

These controls are not widely used in the polling industry.

===Coverage bias===

Another source of error is the use of samples that are not representative of the population as a consequence of the methodology used, as was the experience of the ''Literary Digest'' in 1936. For example, telephone sampling has a built-in error because in many times and places, those with telephones have generally been richer than those without. Several studies of mobile phone users by the Pew Research Center in the U.S. concluded that the absence of mobile users was not unduly skewing results, at least not yet. [http://pewresearch.org/obdeck/?ObDeckID=80]

An oft-quoted example of opinion polls succumbing to errors was the British election of 1992. Despite the polling organizations using different methodologies virtually all the polls in the lead up to the vote (and [[exit poll]]s taken on voting day) showed a lead for the opposition Labour party but the actual vote gave a clear victory to the ruling Conservative party.

In their deliberations after this embarrassment the pollsters advanced several ideas to account for their errors, including:

* '''Late swing'''. The Conservatives gained from people who switched to them at the last minute, so the error was not as great as it first appeared.

* '''Nonresponse bias'''. Conservative voters were less likely to participate in the survey than in the past and were thus underrepresented.

* The '''spiral of silence'''. The Conservatives had suffered a sustained period of unpopularity as a result of economic recession and a series of minor scandals. Some Conservative supporters felt under pressure to give a more popular answer.

The relative importance of these factors was, and remains, a matter of controversy, but since then the polling organizations have adjusted their methodologies and have achieved more accurate predictions in subsequent elections.

==Polling organizations==

There are many polling organizations. The most famous remains the very first one, the Gallup poll, created by [[George Gallup]].

Other major polling organizations in the U.S. include:

*The Pew Research Center conducts polls concentrating on media and political beliefs.
*The Harris Poll.
*The Roper Poll.
*The World Public Opinion provides in-depth information and analysis on public opinion from around the world on international issues.
*Nielsen Ratings, virtually always for television.
*Garin Hart Yang (Democratic)
*Ayres, McHenry & Associates (Republican)
*Penn, Schoen & Berland Associates (Democratic)
*Moore Information (Republican)
*Frederick Polls (Democratic)
*OnMessage Inc. (Republican)
*Hickman-Maslin Research (Democratic)
*The Tarrance Group (Republican)
*Greenberg Quinlan Rosner (Democratic)
*Public Opinion Strategies (Republican)
*Quinnipiac Polls, run by Quinnipiac University in Hamden, Connecticut, and started as a student project.*The National Opinion Research Center.
*Public Agenda, conducts research bridging the gap between what American leaders think and what the public really thinks.

In Britain the most notable "pollsters" are:
*MORI. This polling organization is notable for only selecting those who say that they are "likely" to vote. This has tended to favour the Conservative Party in recent years.
*YouGov, an online pollster.
*GfK NOP
*ICR/International Communications Research|ICR
*ICM (polling)|ICM
*Populus, official The Times pollster.

In Australia the most notable companies are:
*Newspoll - published in News Limited|News Limited's ''The Australian'' newspaper
*Roy Morgan Research - published in the Crikey email reporting service
*Galaxy Research|Galaxy Polling - published in News Limited|News Limited's tabloid papers
*ACNielsen|AC Nielsen Polling - published in Fairfax Media|Fairfax newspapers

In Canada the most notable companies are:
*Angus Reid Strategies
*Ipsos-Reid
*Environics
*Ekos
*Decima
*Leger
*CROP

In Nigeria the most notable polling organization is:
*NOI poll|NOI-Gallup poll

All the major television networks, alone or in conjunction with the largest newspapers or magazines, in virtually every democratic country, operate polling operations.

Several organizations monitor the behaviour of pollsters and the use of polling data, including PEW and, in Canada, the Laurier Institute for the Study of Public Opinion and Policy.[http://www.wlu.ca/lispop/lispop]
==Famous Failures==
The best-known failure of opinion polling to date in the U.S. was the prediction in 1948 that Thomas Dewey would defeat Harry S. Truman. Major polling organizations, including Gallup and Roper, indicated a landslide victory for Dewey.

In Britain, most polls failed to predict the Conservative election victories of 1970 and 1992, and Labour's victory in 1974. However, their figures at other elections have been generally accurate.
==Exit polls==
[[Exit poll|Exit polls]] ask voters just after they leave the booth how they voted. The results are tabulated within minutes and allow news agencies to make a prediction of who will win (or if it is "too close to call".)

==Influence ==

By providing information about voting intentions, opinion polls can sometimes influence the behaviour of electors. The various theories about how this happens can be split up into two groups: bandwagon/underdog effects, and strategic ('tactical') voting.

A [[Bandwagon effect]] occurs when the poll prompts voters to back the candidate shown to be winning in the poll. The idea that voters are susceptible to such effects is old, stemming at least from 1884; Safire (1993: 43) reported that it was first used in a political cartoon in the magazine Puck in that year. It has also remained persistent in spite of a lack of empirical corroberation until the late 20th century. [[George Gallup]] spent much effort in vain trying to discredit this theory in his time by presenting empirical research. A recent meta-study of scientific research on this topic indicates that from the 1980's onward the Bandwagon effect is found more often by researchers (Irwin & van Holsteyn 2000).

The opposite of the bandwagon effect is the [[Underdog effect]]. It is often mentioned in the media. This occurs when people vote, out of sympathy, for the party perceived to be 'losing' the elections. There is less empirical evidence for the existence of this effect than there is for the existence of the Bandwagon effect (Irwin & van Holsteyn 2000).

The second category of theories on how polls directly affect voting is called strategic or [[tactical voting]]. This theory is based on the idea that voters view the act of voting as a means of selecting a government. Thus they will sometimes not choose the candidate they prefer on ground of ideology or sympathy, but another, less-preferred, candidate from strategic considerations. An example can be found in the general election of 1997. Then Cabinet Minister, Michael Portillo's constituency of Enfield was believed to be a [[safe seat]] but opinion polls showed the Labour candidate Stephen Twigg steadily gaining support, which may have prompted undecided voters or supporters of other parties to support Twigg in order to remove Portillo. Another example is the Boomerang effect where the likely supporters of the candidate shown to be winning feel that s/he is "home and dry" and that their vote is not required, thus allowing another candidate to win.

These effects only indicate how opinion polls ''directly'' affect political choices of the electorate. Other effect can be found on journalists, politicians, political parties, civil servants etc. in, among other things, the form of media framing and party ideology shifts.

==Bibliography==
* Asher, Herbert, 1998: Polling and the Public. What Every Citizen Should Know, fourth edition, Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.
* Bourdieu, Pierre. "Public Opinion does not exist" in ''Sociology in Question'', London, Sage (1995)
* Bradburn, Norman M. and Seymour Sudman. ''Polls and Surveys: Understanding What They Tell Us'' (1988)
* Cantril, Hadley. ''Gauging Public Opinion'' (1944)
* Converse, Jean M. ''Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence 1890-1960'' (1987), the standard history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8971691 Crespi, Irving. ''Public Opinion, Polls, and Democracy'' (1989)]
* Gallup, George. ''Public Opinion in a Democracy'' (1939)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100501261 Glynn, Carroll J., Susan Herbst, Garrett J. O'Keefe, and Robert Y. Shapiro. ''Public Opinion'' (1999)] textbook
* Irwin, Galen A. and Joop J. M. Van Holsteyn. ''Bandwagons, Underdogs, the Titanic and the Red Cross: The Influence of Public Opinion Polls on Voters'' (2000).
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28537852 Lavrakas, Paul J. et al eds. ''Presidential Polls and the News Media'' (1995)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8540600 Moore, David W. ''The Superpollsters: How They Measure and Manipulate Public Opinion in America'' (1995)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28621255 Niemi, Richard G., John Mueller, Tom W. Smith, eds. ''Trends in Public Opinion: A Compendium of Survey Data'' (1989)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104829752 Oskamp, Stuart and P. Wesley Schultz; ''Attitudes and Opinions'' (2004)]
* Robinson, Claude E. ''Straw Votes'' (1932).
* Robinson, Matthew ''Mobocracy: How the Media's Obsession with Polling Twists the News, Alters Elections, and Undermines Democracy'' (2002)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89021667 Rogers, Lindsay. ''The Pollsters: Public Opinion, Politics, and Democratic Leadership'' (1949)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71288534 Traugott, Michael W. ''The Voter's Guide to Election Polls''] 3rd ed. (2004)
* James G. Webster, Patricia F. Phalen, Lawrence W. Lichty; ''Ratings Analysis: The Theory and Practice of Audience Research'' Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59669912 Young, Michael L. ''Dictionary of Polling: The Language of Contemporary Opinion Research'' (1992)]

==Primary sources==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98754501 Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. ''Public Opinion, 1935-1946'' (1951)], massive compilation of many public opinion polls from US, Britain, Canada, Australia, and elsewhere.
* Gallup, Alec M. ed. ''The Gallup Poll Cumulative Index: Public Opinion, 1935-1997'' (1999) lists 10,000+ questions, but no results
* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935-1971'' 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll.

==External links==
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/index.cfm Angus Reid Global Monitor - The world's largest free-access online public opinion database]
* [http://www.worldpublicopinion.org WorldPublicOpinion.org - Online publication covering worldwide opinion on international policy issues]
* [http://www.publicagenda.org/ Public Agenda - Nonpartisan, nonprofit group that tracks public opinion data in the United States]
* [http://www.ncpp.org/?q=home National Council on Public Polls - An association of polling organizations in the United States devoted to setting high professional standards for surveys]
* [http://answers.vizu.com/ Vizu Answers - Online Opinion Polling]
==See Also==
*[[Gallup Poll]]

====References====
<references/>

[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[category:political Terms]]

Jim Crow

2009-04-21T16:44:55Z

MickeyD:

[[Image:JimCrow.gif|thumb|minstrel character "Jim Crow"]]
'''Jim Crow''' was the system of racial segregation in the Southern U.S. from the 1880s to 1964 in which African Americans were segregated (separated) in public schools and public places, so that they did not mingle in public with whites on equal terms. It also means that blacks had little or no political power. It was a low point in [[Black history]] after the euphoria of [[Reconstruction]].

The Supreme Court of the United States held in the ''Civil Rights Cases'' (1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment did NOT give the federal government the power to outlaw private discrimination. In an even more important decision the Supreme Court held in ''Plessy v. Ferguson'' (1896) that Jim Crow laws were constitutional as long as they allowed for "separate but equal" facilities. Everyone knew that the "equal" in "separate but equal" was a technicality, and that groww inequality was tolerated in practice.

After 1945, the Civil Rights movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow. The Supreme Court declared legal, or ''de jure'', public school segregation unconstitutional in 1954, and it ended in practice in the 1970s.<ref> Michael J. Klarman, ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) </ref> The court ruling did not stop ''de facto'' or informal school segregation, which continued in large cities. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], building a coalition of liberal northern Democrats and conservative Northern Republicans, pushed Congress to pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] which immediately ended Jim Crow laws that segregated restaurants, hotels and theatres; these facilities (with rare exceptions) immediately dropped racial segregation. In 1965 the federal [[Voting Rights Act]] ended discrimination in voting for all federal, state and local elections.

Conservatives and liberals alike denounce the policy of Jim Crow as an unacceptable violation of the principle of equal rights for all.
==De Jure segregation==
"De jure" or legal segregation took place when state laws required it, in the South and some border states.<ref>"De facto" segregation refers to the practice of segregation, especially in Northern cities, that was in effect by custom and not by law. </ref> These laws mandated physical separation of the races in order to create a social distance and minimize violence. The facilities purchased by taxpayers for black use was almost always inferior to those provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. (These Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 "Black Codes", which had defined an inferior legal status for free blacks. State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in the seminal case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. All the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

During the [[Reconstruction]] period of 1863-77, federal law provided civil rights protection in the South for freedmen—the African-Americans who had formerly been slaves. Reconstruction ended at different dates (the latest 1877), and was followed in each Southern state by [[Redeemers|Redeemer]] governments that passed the Jim Crow laws to separate the races. In the [[Progressive Era]] the restrictions were formalized, and segregation was extended to the federal government when the Democrats held the White House, 1913-21.

==Origins==

In the first stage of "Presidential Reconstruction," 1865-66 all white Southern legislatures abolished laws regarding slavery but passed the black codes, which gave new rights to the freedmen but fewer than whites possessed. The codes were not actually enforced but they caused a sharp reaction in the North. The [[Radical Republicans]] passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 which gave freedmen legal rights (but not the right to vote). The country, by 1870, passed the 14th and 15th Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]], guaranteeing civil rights and the right to vote. The southern states came under Republican control— a party comprising the Freedmen, white Southerners ("[[Scalawags]]") and migrants from the North ([Carpetbaggers]]. The [[Ku Klux Klan]] and related groups reacted violently, but they were suppressed by President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] using the federal courts and troops. By 1877, the conservatives and Democrats, forming a Redeemer coalition, ousted all the Republican governments. From 1877 until the 1970s, the Southern Democrats largely controlled every Southern state.
===Redeemers===
After 1877, the [[Redeemers]] reversed many of the civil rights gains that African Americans had made during Reconstruction, passing laws that mandated discrimination by both local governments and by private citizens. Since "Jim Crow law" is a blanket term for any of this type of legislation, the date of inception for the laws varies by state. The most important laws came in the 1890s with the adoption of legislation segregating railroad cars in [[New Orleans]] as the first genuine Jim Crow law. By 1915, every Southern state had effectively destroyed the gains in civil rights and liberties that blacks had enjoyed from the Reconstructionist efforts.

Many of the discriminatory Jim Crow laws were enacted to support [[racial segregation]] in everyday life. They required black and white people to use separate water fountains, public schools, public bath houses, restaurants, public libraries, buses and rail cars—although, even without legal segregation.

In the South, before the resort to widespread legal segregation around 1890, de facto segregation had replaced exclusion in southern race relations. The integration stage was largely bypassed. Radical measures helped to institutionalize this shift to segregation. Both white Republicans and Redeemers came to embrace the new segregation policies, though often for different reasons. Even the attitudes of blacks helped to assure the shift. Lack of white support, black self-respect, economic pressures, tactical emphasis on securing better "separate but equal" facilities, and the development of group identity all shaped blacks' attitudes.<ref> Howard N. Rabinowitz, "From Exclusion To Segregation: Southern Race Relations, 1865-1890." ''Journal of American History 1976'' 63(2): 325-350. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899640 in JSTOR]</ref>

Virginia Governor James L. Kemper (governor 1874-77) and like-minded Conservatives for a variety of reasons implemented racial policies which were less anti-Negro and which gave fuller recognition than historians have conceded. The Virginia Redeemers . . . attempted to shape race relations to conform to what C. Vann Woodward has defined as the Conservative philosophy. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers deserve to rank in history alongside the Wade Hamptons and other proponents of the Conservative philosophy.<ref> Robert R. Jones, "James L. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers Face the Race Question: A Reconsideration." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1972 38(3): 393-414. 0022-4642 </ref>

The Redeemer system of Jim Crow meant that for the first time black teachers and principals controlled black education. Rabinowitz (1974) studies the transformation from white to black teachers in southern schools in the post-Civil War years, using the experiences of five southern cities to provide a cross-section: Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh, North Carolina; Nashville, Tennessee; Montgomery, Alabama; and Richmond, Virginia. Among the problems the Redeemers confronted were such matters as the removal of northern missionary ties and teachers in order to reassert southern control of the school system, the black demand for black teachers which was often accepted since it meant cheaper teachers, and the resultant black demand for equal salary for equal work, a demand usually denied. African Americans tried to obtain better quality instruction for their children, more administrative positions, and positions on the school board, but were usually unsuccessful. Ironically, since some schools became entirely black, insistence upon black instructors made it easier for the whites to discriminate.<ref> Howard N. Rabinowitz, "Half a Loaf: The Shift from White to Black Teachers in the Negro Schools of the Urban South, 1865-1890." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1974 40(4):565-594. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206355 in JSTOR] </ref>

===Voting disfranchisement===

Between 1890 and 1920, many state governments prevented most blacks from voting by various techniques, such as poll taxes (a person had to pay a voluntary tax to vote) and fake literacy tests (that whites always passed but blacks always failed).<ref> Whites who would be limited by the voting laws were protected by "grandfather clauses"--they could vote if their grandfather could vote. These clauses were found to be unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1915.</ref> Of 181,000 African-American males of voting age in [[Alabama]] in 1900, only 3,000 were registered to vote. Typically, the ministers and and ten to fifty prominent blacks in every county were allowed to vote.

==Segregation approved by the courts==
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, legislation introduced by [[Charles Sumner]] and [[Benjamin F. Butler]]. It seemed to guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in "public accommodations" (inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement).

In 1883, the Supreme Court restricted the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to actions by state and local government. It ruled Congress could not control private persons or corporations. After Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, it did not pass another civil rights law until 1957.

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white," "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed white and black ancestry). The law already had provided that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites prior to 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to the repeal of the law. They had Homer Plessy purchase a first-class railroad ticket. Plessy was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. He refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. They lost in 1896, and ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' validated the segregation laws as constitutional.

Jim Crow was supported politically by nearly all white politicians. To do otherwise was political death. The southern states formed a "Solid South" -- that is the region voted for (almost) all Democratic candidates at the state level, and was a powerful bloc in presidential elections.<ref> Republicans [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1928 and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and 1956 were the only Republicans to win notable support in the white South between 1876 and 1960.</ref> The Democrats dominated all aspects of local, state, and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, into the 1970s and 1980s. In 1956, nearly all Southern Congressmen and Senators signed the "Southern Manifesto," condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education.''
===Black opposition===
[[Booker T. Washington]] publicly accepted Jim Crow, but secretly financed numerous cases in federal court that chipped away at the system. In general, the black community in the South quietly accepted the system and did not cause trouble. In the North the black political leadership routinely denounced Jim Crow in the South (where it was part of state law) and ignored informal Jim Crow in the North.

When black soldiers returning from World War II recoiled at the second class Jim Crow citizenship in the South, the movement for [[Civil Rights]] was renewed. The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group independent of the NAACP)—and its lawyer [[Thurgood Marshall]]—brought the landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education|Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]'', before the Supreme Court.<ref>The main NAACP is often assumed to be involved in the case. Not true; the totally separate NAACP Legal Defense Committee handled it all. </ref> In 1954, the court under [[Earl Warren]] unanimously overturned the 1896 Plessy decision in its ruling; Thurgood Marshall later became the first black Supreme Court Justice.

===Social mobility for blacks---
Jim Crow limited blackl upward mobility and opportunity. Therefore millions moved to northern cities in the [[Great Migration]] (1917-1960).

African-American entertainers, musicians, and literary figures had separate, small niches in the world of art and culture in the North. The most successful writers formed the "Harlem Renaissance" of the 1920s in New York City, Jazz musicians developed their new music in Jim Crow Memphis and New Orleans, and took it north to Chicago and New York to largely black audiences (whites could hear jazz in the North, but were not allowed in all-black venues in the South).

African-American athletes found Jim Crow stood against them nationally. By 1900, white opposition to African-American boxers, baseball players, track athletes, and basketball players kept them segregated and limited in what they could do. But their prowess and abilities in all-African-American teams and sporting events could not be denied, and the barriers to African-American participation in all the major sports began to crumble in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the wake of the spectacular breakthrough of Jackie Robinson into baseball in 1947 in Brooklyn.

==Twentieth century==

In the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn a few Jim Crow laws on constitutional grounds. In ''[[Buchanan v. Warley]]'' 245 US 60 (1917), the court held that Kentucky could not require residential segregation. The Supreme Court in 1946, in ''Irene Morgan v. Virginia'' ruled segregation in interstate transportation to be unconstitutional, though its reasoning stemmed from the [[commerce clause]] of the Constitution rather than any moral objection to the practice. The impact of these Court decisions was small, but they set the legal basis for the major breakthrough in 1954.

In 1954 in ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'' 347 US 483 that the Court under the firm guidance of Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] unanimously held that separate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools. It effectively overturning ''Plessy v. Ferguson'', and outlawing Jim Crow in other areas of society as well. A series of followup decisions slowly dismantled the state-sponsored school segregation laws, but left standing most segregation in practice.
===Informal segregation===
Besides state laws that compelled segregation of the races, private organizations were almost wholly segregated in the South, and largely so in the North, on the basis of their own rules and traditions. Blacks could not buy houses in certain neighborhoods, nor join labor unions that controlled access to many skileld strades. The Supreme Court undercut private discrimination in ''Shelley v. Kraemer'' 334 US 1 (1948), in which it held that "restrictive covenants" that barred sale of homes to blacks or Jews or Asians could not be enforced in courts. The restrictive covenants, however, remained in place until 1964.

The Supreme Court was unwilling, however, to attack other forms of de facto private discrimination; it reasoned that private parties did not violate the Equal Protection clause of the Constitution when they discriminated, because they were not "state actors" covered by that clause.

After World War II, as attitudes in the Federal courts turned against segregation, the segregationist white governments of many of the states of the Southeast countered with even more numerous and strict segregation laws on the local level until the start of the 1960s. The modern Civil Rights movement has been dated to the action of Birmingham leaders who sent [[Rosa Parks]] to refuse to give up her seat on a bus to a white man after being ordered to do so by the bus driver. This act of civil disobedience, and the demonstrations that it spawned, led to a series of legislation and court decisions in which Jim Crow laws were repealed.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott led by Reverend [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] which followed Rosa Parks' action, was not an isolated case. Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the 1930s and 1940s. These early demonstrations achieved positive results and helped spark political activism. For instance, K. Leroy Irvis of Pittsburgh's Urban League led a demonstration against employment discrimination by Pittsburgh's department stores in 1947, and he became the first 20th century African-American to serve as a state Speaker of the House.

In 1964, the U.S. Congress attacked the parallel system of private Jim Crow practices. It invoked the commerce clause to pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], which outlawed discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, and in private schools and workplaces). This use of the commerce clause was upheld in ''Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States'' 379 US 241 (1964).

In 1971, the Supreme Court, in [[Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education]], upheld busing of students to achieve integration.

===End of ''de jure'' segregation===
In January, 1964, President [[Lyndon Johnson]] met with civil rights leaders. Johnson had long disliked Jim Crow, and now had the votes in Congress to end it. In his first State of the Union address in January 1964, Johnson asked Congress to "let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined." Johnson mobilized support from northern members of Congress of both parties, with strong grass roots support from Protestant churches, liberal labor unions, and civil rights activists. Support was increased by a flow of negative publicity from the South, such as the murder of three civil rights workers in Neshoba County, Mississippi. On July 2, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

==Origins of imagery==
According to PBS,
:On the eve of the Civil War, the universal image of the silly Jim Crow minstrel character provided southern [[white]]s with one of many stereotypical images of black inferiority that were a fundamental component of white popular culture. By the 1890s, the term had come to mean the separation of blacks from whites and the general customs and laws that subordinated blacks as an inferior people. <ref>http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi</ref>

The Center for American Music says:
:The "father of American minstrelsy" was Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice, who, between 1828 and 1831, developed a song-and-dance routine in which he impersonated an old, crippled black slave, dubbed Jim Crow. <ref>http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm</ref>

The phrase "Jim Crow" is also commonly used to refer to race relations in the American south before the advent of the [[Civil Rights]] movement, as well as to the laws which codified and maintained those relations.
==Basic further reading==
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR], by a leading black scholar
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [http://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books], by a leading white scholar; a highly influential book
==Bibliography==
* Ayers, Edward L. ''The Promise of the New South'' (1992), a general history of the South in the late 19th century [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=90462753 online edition]
* Barnes, Catherine A. ''Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit'' , 1983.
* Bartley, Numan V. ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s'' (1969).
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. ''Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Remembering-Jim-Crow-Americans-Segregated/dp/1565847784/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin Gabriel Chin & Hrishi Karthikeyan, Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950, 9 Asian L.J. (2002)]
* Dailey, Jane, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds. ''Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights'' (2000), essays by scholars on impact of Jim Crow on black communities [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002470890 online edition]
* Egerton, John. ''Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South.'' (1994).
* Fairclough, Adam. "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro…Seems…Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South." ''Journal of American History'' 87 (June 2000): 65–91. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200006)87%3A1%3C65%3A%22ITFOE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G in JSTOR]
* Feldman, Glenn. ''Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949''. (1999). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/politics-society-and-the-klan-in-alabama-1915-1949-by-glenn-feldman.jsp online edition]
* Fireside, Harvey. ''Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism'', (2004).
* Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877'' (1988), ISBN 0-06-015851-4, standard history of Reconstruction from [[neoabolitionist]] school
* Gaines, Kevin. ''Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century'' (1996). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/uplifting-the-race-black-leadership-politics-and-culture-in-the-twentieth-century-by-kevin-k-gaines.jsp online edition]
* Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. ''Gender and Jim Crow Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94820628 online edition]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Gender-Jim-Crow-Supremacy-1896-1920/dp/0807845965/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Griffin, John Howard. ''Black Like Me'' (1996) A Southern white reporter darkens his skin to experience segregation in the Deep South in 1959.
* Haws, Robert, ed. ''The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890– 1945'', 1978.
* Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama'' (1969)
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Tillman-Reconstruction-Supremacy-Morrison-Southern/dp/0807848395/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613294&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. "Ben Tillman and Hendrix McLane, Agrarian Rebels: White Manhood, 'The Farmers,' and the Limits of Southern Populism," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 66, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp. 497-524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(200008)66%3A3%3C497%3ABTAHMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Kennedy, Randall. ''Martin Luther King's Constitution: a Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,'' 98 Yale Law Journal 999-1067 (April, 1989) pp 999-1067 [http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/civilrights03.htm online edition without footnotes]; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0044-0094(198904)98%3A6%3C999%3AMLKCAL%3E2.0.CO;2-E complete edition from JSTOR]
* Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Jim-Crow-Civil-Rights-Struggle/dp/0195310187/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* Lipsitz, George. "'Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac': White Supremacy, Antiblack Racism, and the New Historicism," ''American Literary History,'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 700-725 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199524)7%3A4%3C700%3A%22LSCWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Trouble-Mind-Black-Southerners-Crow/dp/039452778X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613319&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. '' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Dark-Journey-Black-Mississippians-Crow/dp/025206156X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610311&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Myrdal, Gunnar. ''An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy'' (1944). Highly influential and detailed analysis of the Jim Crow system in operation. [http://www.amazon.com/American-Dilemma-Problem-Democracy-African-American/dp/1560008571/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610342&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, I. A. ''Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900-1930'' (1965)
* Percy, William Alexander. ''Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.'' (1941). by conservative white planter [http://www.amazon.com/Lanterns-Levee-Recollections-Planters-Son/dp/1406728357/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610379&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rabinowitz, Howard N. ''Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890'' (1978)
* Ritterhouse, Jennifer. ''Growing Up Jim Crow: The Racial Socialization of Black and White Southern Children, 1890-1940.'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Growing-Jim-Crow-Socialization-1890-1940/dp/0807856843/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, John David, ed. ''When Did Southern Segregation Begin?'' (2001), 194pp [http://www.amazon.com/Southern-Segregation-Begin-Historians-Palgrave/dp/0312237057/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200616609&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'', (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101423964 online edition]
* Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: 'Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro.'" ''Journal of Southern History'' 68 (February 2002): 65–106. [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002455235 online edition]
* Sterner, Richard. ''The Negro's share: a study of income, consumption, housing, and public assistance'' (1943), statistical analysis of 1930s [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.02857 ACLS E-book]
* Williams, Juan, and Julian Bond. ''Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965'' (1988) [http://www.amazon.com/Eyes-Prize-Americas-1954-1965-American/dp/0140096531/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610805&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [http://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Origins of the New South: 1877-1913'' (1951). [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00007.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]

==See also==
*[[Black History]]
*[[Reconstruction]]
*[[Racism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/series/program1.htm History of Jim Crow] - [[PBS]] series
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm Minstrelsy] - Center for American Music
*[http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi Encyclopedia of Jim Crow]
====Notes====
<references/>
[[category:United States History]]
[[category:Civil Rights]]
[[category:Reconstruction]]