Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Holy Spirit

2009-07-28T16:31:42Z

Merkon0:

{{trinity}}
[[Image:Murillo Annunciation.jpg|left|Annunciation of the Virgin]]
The '''Holy Spirit''' (Greek: παράκλητος) <ref>[http://www.zhubert.com/word?word=%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%E1%BD%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD&root=%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%E1%BD%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82&number=648406 Word Detail, zhubert.com]</ref> is the third person of the [[Holy Trinity]], both distinct and coequal with [[God|God the Father]] and the [[Jesus Christ|Son (Jesus)]].

The Holy Spirit embodies the mutual eternal love of the Father and the Son. The Greek term for the Holy Spirit is "Paraclete", which means advocate or intercessor, thereby connoting a driving force for good.

The apostles credit the Holy Spirit with giving them the courage to spread the good news of Jesus Christ in a very hostile world.

The essential Christian teachings about the Holy Spirit are summarized in the [[Nicene Creed]]:

{{cquote|I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]. With the Father and Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the prophets.}}

The bracketed language in the above will be explained shortly. Christians agree on the following two propositions:

* The Holy Spirit (also known as The Holy Ghost) is the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity.

* Though really distinct, as a Person, from the Father and the Son, He is "one in being" with them with Them; being God like Them, He possesses with Them one and the same Divine Essence or Nature.

There is a key distinction between Western Christians and the Eastern Orthodox churches on a seemingly trivial, but extremely controversial, point. Western Christians believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds "from the Father ''and the Son'' In other words, He proceeds, not by way of generation, but by way of inspiration, from the Father and the Son together, as from a single principle. The Eastern Orthodox omit the italicized language. They believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father ''through'' the Son. The disagreement between the East and West is sometimes known as the ''[[filioque]] controversy'', from the Latin word and enclitic for "and the Son," although such term may more properly apply to the [[Great Schism]] of 1054.

[[Image:Holy Spirit.jpg|thumb|The Holy Spirit inhabits all who desire its presence...]]

''In the New Testament the word spirit and, perhaps, even the expression spirit of God signify at times the soul or man himself, inasmuch as he is under the influence of God and aspires to things above; more frequently, especially in St. Paul, they signify God acting in man... to the Holy Ghost we attribute the operations of grace and the sanctification of souls, and in particular spiritual gifts and fruits.'' <ref> [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm Holy Ghost, Catholic Encyclopedia]</ref>

''"...for the Father and the Son come with Him when He descends into our souls (John 14:23)."''

''"He performs a sanctifying work among men (St. Athanasius, 360 AC)."''

''"Lulz jk (St. Athanasius, 361 AC)."''

'''Invocation of the Holy Spirit'''

Most powerful Holy Spirit,

come down upon us

and subdue us.

From heaven,

where the ordinary

is made glorious,

and glory seems

but ordinary,

bath us

with the brilliance

of your light

like dew.

:::- Celtic Prayer

According to the New Testament, Jesus after His resurrection told His disciples that they would be baptized with "The Holy Ghost", and would receive "Power, after that the Holy Ghost [was] come upon [them]" (Acts 1:4-8). Christians believe that the Holy Spirit, guiding people in the way of the truth, produce positive results, known as the Fruits of the Holy Spirit.

== See also ==
[[Image:Van Dyck The Descent of the Holy Spirit.jpg|right|The Descent of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Symbols of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Fruits of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Son of God]]
* [[Bible]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/topics/BlasphemyAgainstTheHolySpirit/ Blasphemy Against the Holy Spirit] This topic appears three times in the New Testament.

== References ==

<references/>

Holy Spirit

2009-07-28T16:31:11Z

Merkon0:

{{trinity}}
[[Image:Murillo Annunciation.jpg|left|Annunciation of the Virgin]]
The '''Holy Spirit''' (Greek: παράκλητος) <ref>[http://www.zhubert.com/word?word=%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%E1%BD%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD&root=%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%E1%BD%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82&number=648406 Word Detail, zhubert.com]</ref> is the third person of the [[Holy Trinity]], both distinct and coequal with [[God|God the Father]] and the [[Jesus Christ|Son (Jesus)]].

The Holy Spirit embodies the mutual eternal love of the Father and the Son. The Greek term for the Holy Spirit is "Paraclete", which means advocate or intercessor, thereby connoting a driving force for good.

The apostles credit the Holy Spirit with giving them the courage to spread the good news of Jesus Christ in a very hostile world.

The essential Christian teachings about the Holy Spirit are summarized in the [[Nicene Creed]]:

{{cquote|I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]. With the Father and Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the prophets.}}

The bracketed language in the above will be explained shortly. Christians agree on the following two propositions:

* The Holy Spirit (also known as The Holy Ghost) is the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity.

* Though really distinct, as a Person, from the Father and the Son, He is "one in being" with them with Them; being God like Them, He possesses with Them one and the same Divine Essence or Nature.

There is a key distinction between Western Christians and the Eastern Orthodox churches on a seemingly trivial, but extremely controversial, point. Western Christians believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds "from the Father ''and the Son'' In other words, He proceeds, not by way of generation, but by way of inspiration, from the Father and the Son together, as from a single principle. The Eastern Orthodox omit the italicized language. They believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father ''through'' the Son. The disagreement between the East and West is sometimes known as the ''[[filioque]] controversy'', from the Latin word and enclitic for "and the Son," although such term may more properly apply to the [[Great Schism]] of 1054.

[[Image:Holy Spirit.jpg|thumb|The Holy Spirit inhabits all who desire its presence...]]

''In the New Testament the word spirit and, perhaps, even the expression spirit of God signify at times the soul or man himself, inasmuch as he is under the influence of God and aspires to things above; more frequently, especially in St. Paul, they signify God acting in man... to the Holy Ghost we attribute the operations of grace and the sanctification of souls, and in particular spiritual gifts and fruits.'' <ref> [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm Holy Ghost, Catholic Encyclopedia]</ref>

''"...for the Father and the Son come with Him when He descends into our souls (John 14:23)."''

''"He performs a sanctifying work among men (St. Athanasius, 360 AC)."''
''"Lulz jk (St. Athanasius, 361 AC)."''

'''Invocation of the Holy Spirit'''

Most powerful Holy Spirit,

come down upon us

and subdue us.

From heaven,

where the ordinary

is made glorious,

and glory seems

but ordinary,

bath us

with the brilliance

of your light

like dew.

:::- Celtic Prayer

According to the New Testament, Jesus after His resurrection told His disciples that they would be baptized with "The Holy Ghost", and would receive "Power, after that the Holy Ghost [was] come upon [them]" (Acts 1:4-8). Christians believe that the Holy Spirit, guiding people in the way of the truth, produce positive results, known as the Fruits of the Holy Spirit.

== See also ==
[[Image:Van Dyck The Descent of the Holy Spirit.jpg|right|The Descent of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Symbols of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Fruits of the Holy Spirit]]
* [[Son of God]]
* [[Bible]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/topics/BlasphemyAgainstTheHolySpirit/ Blasphemy Against the Holy Spirit] This topic appears three times in the New Testament.

== References ==

<references/>

Microeconomics

2009-07-28T16:28:47Z

Merkon0:

Microeconomics is the study of the behavior of individual units, firms, households or persons in the economy.

If [[macroeconomics]] is compared to the study of a "forest", then microeconomics is the study of the mimes in the forest.
[[Category:Economics]]

Internet

2009-07-28T16:27:43Z

Merkon0: Replaced content with 'The Internet is for porn. Skank.'

The Internet is for porn. Skank.

Confederate States of America

2009-07-28T16:26:03Z

Merkon0: /* Notes */

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="250" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:Cwlogo.png|200px]]
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: gray no-repeat scroll top left;"|The Civil War
1861 - 1865
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: gray no-repeat scroll top left;"|Confederate States of America
|-
|Created
|February 4, 1861
|-
|Ended
|April 9, 1865
|-
|President
|[[Jefferson Davis]]
|-
|Secretary of War
|Leroy Pope Walker, Judah P. Benjamin, George W. Randolph, James Seddon, John C. Breckinridge
|-
|Secretary of the Navy
|Stephan Mallory
|-
|Secretary of State
|Robert Toombs, Robert M.T. Hunter, Judah P. Benjamin
|}
The '''Confederate States of America''' (informally, the ''Confederacy'') was a government created from an alliance of eleven southern states which had seceded from the [[United States]] between December 1860 and April 1861. The [[American Civil War]] that was begun by the Confederate shelling of Fort Sumter proved disastrous; four years of savage fighting ended with the fledgling government defeated and dissolved, and left the southern states a financial and industrial wreck.

For the social, political, economic and diplomatic history see [[American Civil War homefront]]

==Beginnings==
Eleven southern states seceded from the [[United States of America]] and joined together as the "Confederate States of America" to protect slavery. They saw that the antislavery forces in the North were gaining strength, typified by the election as president of [[Abraham Lincoln]] in 1860. The political future for slavery was bleak, as the South was losing relative strength in Congress. A widespread fear was that the North would unleash terrorists--[[abolitionism|abolitionists]]--who would cause a bloody race war. Arguing that their Constitutional [[states' rights]] protected slavery outside the South, they saw that issue rejected in the North.

Of the 15 slave states, four remained in the United States: [[Delaware]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maryland]] and [[Missouri]]. Residents of the latter three states raised [[regiment]]s for the Confederacy, although not as an official act of their governments.

The president of the Confederate States of America was [[Jefferson Davis]], a former [[Secretary of War]] under President [[Franklin Pierce]] and Senator from [[Mississippi]]. [[Richmond, Virginia]] was the capital of the Confederacy after that state seceded in mid-April of 1861 following the surrender of [[Fort Sumter]] and [[Lincoln's call for volunteers]].

General [[Robert E. Lee]] led the Confederate forces into battle against the Union armies, which were led by various generals appointed by [[Abraham Lincoln]], with the last, and most successful being General Ulysses S. Grant.

Disregard that, I suck cocks.

== Ideology ==

Historias Emory Thomas compared the correspondence sent by the Confederate government in the first year of its existence to different governments. He writes, "The Southern nation was by turns a guileless people attacked by a voracious neighbor, an 'established' nation in some temporary difficulty, a collection of bucolic aristocrats making a romantic stand against the banalities of industrial democracy, a cabal of commercial farmers seeking to make a pawn of [[King Cotton]], an apotheosis of nineteenth-century nationalism and revolutionary liberalism, or the ultimate statement of social and economic reaction." <ref> Emory M. Thomas, ''The Confederate Nation: 1861-1865'' (1979), pp. 83-84. </ref>

The example of the [[U. S. Constitution]] clearly guided the drafters of the Confederate Constitution, enabling the latter group to complete their work in less than half as much time. <ref> Thomas, p. 63. </ref> However, this Confederate Constitution contained a provision banning efforts to end de jure slavery, found at Article I, Section 9, clause 4, lumped in with the provisions banning [[ex post facto laws]] and [[bills of attainder]]. Another clause banned the international [[slave trade]], but permitted the importation of slaves from the United States; this clause was consistent with the United States' banning of Atlantic slave trading in 1808, which had the effect of improving the domestic slave market, benefiting states such as [[Virginia]]. The wording of this clause demonstrates that the drafters clearly anticipated that not all slave states would secede, although they also included a provision for accepting new states into the Confederacy. This proved essential when [[Virginia]], [[Arkansas]], [[Tennessee]] and [[North Carolina]] seceded from the United States after the Confederate Constitution was in effect. Although the Confederate document includes no [[bill of rights]], the [[Ninth Amendment]] and [[Tenth Amendment]] of the U.S. Bill of Rights are reproduced in Article VI as Sections 5 and 6. The Confederate Constitution implemented a ban on a [[religious test for office]] in Section 4, notwithstanding the preamble's invocation of God's blessing on the Confederate experiment. <ref> Thomas, Appendix, pp. 306-322. </ref> Other differences had to do with the [[appropriations]] process in Congress. Not only was a [[line-item veto]] expressly included, but Congress required a two-thirds [[supermajority]] to appropriate any funds not specifically requested by the President, giving Jefferson Davis in a real sense more Constitutional power than Abraham Lincoln possessed - an irony, given the Confederate states' putative objection to centralized power.

Despite the later romanticization of the Confederate cause, the perpetuation of Southern conceptions of race and slavery was of prime importance to the new nation. In his "Cornerstone Speech," Vice President Alexander Stephens argued that a major difference between the Confederate Constitution and the United States Constitution was the belief that blacks were not inherently equal. In describing this fundamental difference, Stephens said, "The new constitution has put at rest, forever, all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institution—African slavery as it exists amongst us—the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution... Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its corner- stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man." <ref>[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76]</ref> The rejection of slavery as a dominant ideology of the Confederate States began after the Civil War, as Confederate leaders sought to legitimize their failed rebellion.

==Leadership==
===Legislative branch===
'''President of the Congress'''
:Robert Woodward Barnwell, 4 Feb 1861 (served for several hours)
:Howell Cobb, 4 Feb 1861 - 18 Feb 1861
'''President Pro Tempore of the Senate'''
:Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter, 18 Feb 1862 - 18 Mar 1865
'''President Pro Tempore of the Provisional Congress'''
:Robert Woodward Barnwell, 4 Feb 1861 - 16 Mar 1861
:Thomas Stanhope Bobcock, Josiah A.P. Campbell, 18 Nov 1861 - 17 Feb 1862
'''Speaker of the House of Representatives'''
:Thomas Stanhope Bobcock, 18 Feb 1862 - 18 Mar 1865
===Executive branch===
'''President of the Confederate States'''
:Jefferson Finis Davis, 18 Feb 1861 - 10 May 1865 (provisional president to 6 Nov 1861)
'''Vice President of the Confederate States'''
:Alexander Hamilton Stephens, 18 Feb 1861 - 11 May 1865 (provisional vice president to 6 Nov 1861)
'''Secretary of State'''
:Robert Augustus Toombs, 21 Feb 1861 - 24 Jul 1861
:Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter, 25 Jul 1861 - 1 Feb 1862
:William Montague Brown, 1 Feb 1862 - 17 Mar 1862
:Judah Philip Benjamin, 18 Mar 1862 - 3 May 1865
'''Attorney General'''
:Judah Philip Benjamin, 25 Feb 1861 - 17 Sep 1861
:Wade Rutledge Keyes, 17 Sep 1861 - 21 Nov 1861
:Thomas Bragg, Jr., 21 Nov 1861 - 17 Mar 1862
:Thomas Hill Watts, 18 Mar 1862 - 1 Oct 1863
:Wade Rutledge Keyes, 1 Oct 1863 - 2 Jan 1864
:George Davis, 2 Jan 1864 - 24 Apr 1865
'''Commissioner of Patents'''
:Rufus Randolph Rhodes, 31 May 1861 - Apr 1865
'''Postmaster General'''
:Henry T. Ellet, 25 Feb 1861 - 6 Mar 1861 (nominated and confirmed; declined appointment)
:John Henninger Reagan, 6 Mar 1861 - 5 May 1865
'''Secretary of the Treasury'''
:Christopher Gustavus Memminger, 21 Feb 1861 - 18 Jul 1864
:George Alfred Trenholm, 18 Jul 1864 - 27 Apr 1865
:John Henninger Reagan, 28 Apr 1865 - 4 May 1865
'''Treasurer of the Confederate States'''
:Edward Carrington Elmore, 6 Mar 1861 - 1865
'''Comptroller and Solicitor'''
:Lewis Cruger, 1861 - 1865
'''Secretary of War'''
:Leroy Pope Walker, 21 Feb 1861 - 16 Sep 1861
:Judah Philip Benjamin, 17 Sep 1861 - 23 Mar 1862
:George Wythe Randolph, 24 Mar 1862 - 17 Nov 1862
:Gustavus Woodson Smith, 17 Nov 1862 - 21 Nov 1862
:James Alexander Seddon, 21 Nov 1862 - 6 Feb 1865
:John Cabell Breckenridge, 6 Feb 1865 - 5 May 1865
'''Chiefs of the Army Engineers Bureau (subordinated to Secretary of War)'''
:Josiah Gorgas, 8 Apr 1861 - 3 Aug 1861
:Danville Leadbetter, 3 Aug 1861 - 10 Nov 1861
:Alfred Landon Rives, 13 Nov 1861 - 24 Sep 1862
:Jeremy Francis Gilmer, 25 Sep 1862 - 17 Aug 1863
:Alfred Landon Rives, 18 Aug 1863 - 9 Mar 1864
:Martin Luther Smith, 9 Mar 1864 - Apr 1864
:Alfred Landon Rives, Apr 1864 - Jun 1864
:Jeremy Francis Gilmer, Jun 1864 - Apr 1865
'''Commissioner of Indian Territory (subordinated to Secretary of War)'''
:Albert Pike, 16 Mar 1861 - 1862
:Benjamin J. McCullough, 1862 - 7 Mar 1862
:Albert Pike, 1862 - 5 Nov 1862
:Douglas Hancock Cooper, Nov 1862 - Jan 1863
:William Steels, Jan 1863 - Dec 1863
'''Commander of the Department of Indian Territory and Superintendent of Indian Affairs (subordinated to Secretary of War)'''
:Samuel Ball Maxey, Dec 1863 - 1865
:Douglas Hancock Cooper, 1865
'''Surgeon-general (subordinated to Secretary of War)'''
:Samuel Preston Moore, 16 Mar 1861 - 1865
'''Secretary of the Navy'''
:Stephan Russell Mallory, 4 Mar 1861 - 5 May 1865
'''Colonel-Commandant of the Confederate States Marine Corps (subordinated to Secretary of the Navy)'''
:Lloyd J. Beall, 23 May 1861 - 10 May 1865
'''Superintendent of the Confederate States Naval Academy'''
:William Parker, 23 Jul 1863 - 2 May 1865

===Judicial branch===
:A federal court system with a chief justice was not created during the 1861-1865 Confederacy.

{| class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor=#cccccc
! Seal and Flags!!Detail!!Dates of Use
|- valign="center"
|-
| [[Image:ConfederateStatesofAmericaSeal.jpg|125px]] ||Great Seal of the Confederate States of America. The Latin motto ''Deo Vindice'' reads either ''"Under God, Our Vindicator"'' or ''"With God as [our] Champion"''. || 1862-1865
|-
| [[Image:Bonnieblue.png|125px]] ||The ''Bonnie Blue'' flag, unofficial first flag of the Confederacy. First flown January 9, 1861 over the state capitol building of Jackson, Mississippi. Originally, it was used by settlers of west Florida in a short, 74-day republic after they had revolted against the Spanish government, raising it at the Spanish fort in Baton Rouge on September 23, 1810.||1861
|-
| [[Image:Starsand bars1.png|125px]] ||Called the ''Stars and Bars'', it was first flown over Fort Sumter on April 13, 1861. || 1861
|-
| [[Image:CSAnational1.png|125px]] ||The First National Flag of the Confederacy. Like the flag before, it was also called the ''Stars and Bars''; this flag incorporated the 11 stars which symbolized the states that had seceeded from the Union by March, 1861.|| March 4, 1861 to May 26, 1863
|-
| [[Image:CSAnational2.png|125px]] ||The Second National Flag; also known as the ''Stainless Banner'' due to the large white field. It was also referred to as the ''Stonewall Flag'', as its first official use was to cover the casket of Lieutenant General [[Thomas J. Jackson]] in 1863.|| May 26, 1863 to March 3, 1865
|-
|[[Image:CSAnational3.png|125px]] ||The Third National Flag. The red stripe was added to the fly to correct a major drawback of the previous flag: the appearence of a flag of surrender when it hung limp.|| March 4, 1865 to April 26, 1865
|-
| [[Image:CSAbattleflag.png|125px]] ||The flag of General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s Army of Northern Virginia, called the ''Southern Cross''; the design became so popular that is was used as the canton of the Confederate national flag.|| November 28, 1861 to the fall
|-
|[[Image:CSA Naval Ensign.png|125px]] ||A variation of the Second National Flag, with a shorter 1.5:1 ratio instead of 2:1. This was the last flag hauled down in surrender, when [[CSS Shenandoah]] lowered it on November 7, 1865 in Liverpool, England.|| May 1, 1863 to the fall
|-
| [[Image:1st CSAJack.png|125px]] ||This 7-star jack was used on Confederate naval warships until 1863.|| 1861-1863
|-
| [[Image:Conf Navy Jack.png|125px]] ||Official Confederate naval jack for use on all warships from 1863, and patterned after the design of the battle flag. This flag was adopted in the years since as the ''de-facto'' flag of the South itself.|| 1863-1865
|-
|
|}

== Economics ==
While the Northern States had modernized and embraced the industrial revolution, incorporating new technology and rebuilding infrastructure to support it, the South had remained agrarian, and reliant on slave labor to boost productivity.

The southern economic model was challenged by its lack of access to capital. When a businessman in the North wanted to build a factory, he could obtain a loan from the bank or from a group of investors, pay the labor and material costs to erect it, maintain the factory as collateral, paying back the loan with cash flow from the business. The capital was constantly liquid, changing hands from one individual to another.

Banks were fewer in the South, and most plantation profits went to purchases of more slaves and more land.

== Legacy - Physical/Military ==

The principal physical legacy of the Confederacy was mass destruction. Four years of Civil War killed at least 620,000 soldiers (counting deaths from disease as well as in battle), of whom approximately 260,000 were from the Confederacy. This represented a much larger fraction (slightly over one quarter) of the Confederacy's military age free men than was lost by the Union.

An unknown number of [[civilians]] also died, in part as a result of the campaign of organized plunder in late 1864 and early 1865 by the troops of [[Union]] [[General]] [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] which helped not only to destroy the will of the Confederacy to fight, but literally to destroy the [[infrastructure]] of the Confederacy. Severe damage was inflicted on both urban and rural communities in the South, and hundreds of thousands of people became refugees. The exigencies of [[total war]] had led to the destruction of much Southern infrastructure, in particular [[railroads]], long before 1864.

The Union and Confederacy launched the first seagoing [[ironclad]] warships during the course of the war. With the possible exception of the [[Prussia]]ns and [[Great Britain|British]], it is unlikely that any country of comparable population and technology in the 1860s could have resisted the Union onslaught for as long as the Confederacy did{{fact}}. Upon the Confederate defeat, General Lee on April 9, 1865 ruled out continuing to fight as [[insurgents]]; although it can be argued that this only delayed the inevitable failure of [[Reconstruction]]{{fact}}, it also made physical rebuilding possible in a way it would not be in the latter stages of civil wars in other countries in the [[20th century]].

== Legacy ==

Slavery was abolished in the Confederacy by Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]], as enforced by the U.S. Army, and by the [[Thirteenth Amendment]], which became law in late 1865.

The seceding states all rescinded their ordinances of secession, and were admitted one-by-one back to the Union by the process of [[Reconstruction]]. Reconstruction began during the war and ended in 1877.

There was never an effort to revive the Confederacy, but nostalgia for the Lost Cause, and poisoned relations from the war and Reconstruction soured North-South relations until the 1890s. Some Southerners denied that slavery was the cause for their secession, but at the same time insisted on white supremacy.

After Reconstruction, the [[Redeemers]] (white Democrats) took full control and slowly removed the voting rights and some of the legal rights of the Freedmen, installing a system of segregation known as [[Jim Crow]]. The region became a [[Democratic Party]] stronghold for a century.

Economically the South was badly damaged and fell far behind the North in terms of prosperity; it took 100 years for the South to catch up.
==Bibliography==
* Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986) influential analysis of factors; ''The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion'' (1988), abridged version
* Boritt, Gabor S., et al, ''Why the Confederacy Lost'', (1992).
* Coulter, E. Merton. ''The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865'' (1950), highly detailed overview; strong Southern accent
* Current, Richard N., et al eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version), comprehensive excellent reference work
* Davis, William C. ''Look Away! A History of the Confederate States of America'' (2003)
* Davis, William C. and Robertson, James I., Jr., eds. ''Virginia at War, 1861.'' (2007). 241 pp.
* Donald, David ''et al.'' ''The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey
* Eaton, Clement. ''A History of the Southern Confederacy'' (1954).
* Fellman, Michael et al. ''This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath'' (2nd ed. 2007), 544 page survey
* Faust, Drew. ''Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Mothers-Invention-Slaveholding-American-Morrison/dp/0807855731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231241330&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Goldin, Claudia D., and Frank D. Lewis, "The Economic Cost of the American Civil War: Estimates and Implications," ''Journal of Economic History'' 35#2 (June 1975), pp. 299-326 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2119410 in JSTOR]
* Harper, Judith E. ''Women during the Civil War: An Encyclopedia.'' (2004). 472 pp.
* Heidler, David Stephen, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions; very good basic reference
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988), 900 page survey; Pulitzer prize
* Massey, Mary. ''Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War (1966), excellent overview
* [[Allan Nevins|Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947-1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize winner
** vol 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861; 5. The Improvised War, 1861-1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863-1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864-1865
* Owsley, Frank Lawrence. ''King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign relations of the Confederate States of America'' (1931)
* Rable, George C. ''Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism'' (1989), excellent
* Ransom, Roger L. "The Economics of the Civil War," ''EH.Net Encyclopedia,'' ed. Robert Whaples (Aug. 25, 2001), [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/ransom.civil.war.us online edition]
* Roberts, Giselle. ''The Confederate Belle.'' (2003). 245 pp.
* Roland, Charles P. ''The Confederacy'', 1960. brief survey
* Rable, George C., ''The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics'', (1994). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10417084 online edition]
* Rhodes, James Ford. [http://www.bartleby.com/252/ ''History of the Civil War, 1861-1865 (1918)], Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his 5-volume history
* Rubin, Anne Sarah. ''A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868.'' (2005). 319 pp.
* Thomas, Emory M. ''Confederate Nation: 1861-1865'' (1979). Standard political-economic-social history
* Thomas, Emory M. ''The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience'', (1992) short interpretive essay
* Wallenstein, Peter and Wyatt-Brown, Bertram, eds. ''Virginia's Civil War.'' (2005). 303 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Virginias-Civil-War-Peter-Wallenstein/dp/0813923158/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196544677&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''Southern Negroes: 1861-1865'' (1938)
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''Confederate Women'' (1975), good survey
* Woodward, C. Vann, Ed., ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'', (1981) Pulitzer Prize

== See also ==
*[[American Civil War homefront]]
*[[American Civil War: 1861]]
*[[American Civil War: 1862]]
*[[American Civil War: 1863]]
*[[American Civil War: 1864]]
*[[American Civil War: 1865]]
*[[American Civil War: Aftermath]]
*[[Reconstruction]]
*''[[C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America]]'' - A 2004 film set in an alternate world where the Confederacy won the [[American Civil War]]

===Primary sources===
* Carter, Susan B., ed. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition'' (5 vols), 2006; online at many universities
* Davis, Jefferson, ''The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government '' (2 vols), 1881.
* Harwell, Richard B. ed. ''The Confederate Reader'' (1957) 389 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/13580975?title=The%20Confederate%20Reader online edition]
* Jones, John B. ''A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital'', edited by Howard Swiggert, [1935] 1993. 2 vols.
* Richardson, James D., ed. ''A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Including the Diplomatic Correspondence 1861-1865'', 2 volumes, 1906.
* Yearns, W. Buck and Barret, John G.,eds. ''North Carolina Civil War Documentary'', 1980.
* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/confdocs.html Confederate official government documents] major online collection of complete texts in HTML format, from U. of North Carolina
*'' Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861-1865'' (7 vols), 1904. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwcc.html online]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ ''The Countryman'', 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner; primary source

==External links==
*[http://politicalgraveyard.com/offices/confed1.html#ZY4102y1862 Confederate offices Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ ''The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared'']
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ ''The Making of the Confederate Constitution''], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ ''Photographic History of the Civil War'', 10 vols., 1912.]
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/moore1/moore1.html ''The Geographical Reader for the Dixie Children''] - a Confederacy textbook written in 1863.
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?faid/faid:@field(DOCID+ms003052) ''Confederate States of America: A Register of Its Records in the Library of Congress'']

====Notes====
<references/>
[[Category:American Civil War]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Former Countries]]
[[Category:The South]]
[[Category:Black History]]
[[Category:Reconstruction]]
As an aside, the whole Civil War was a conspiracy, and in fact did not actually happen. The United States just wanted an excuse to shoot that nigger in the face.

Confederate States of America

2009-07-28T16:24:57Z

Merkon0: /* Beginnings */

American foreign policy

2009-07-28T16:23:33Z

Merkon0:

'''American foreign policy''' covers the foreign relations and diplomacy of the United States since 1775. Responsibility is held by the president, the Secretary of State and the [[U.S. Department of State]], the [[National Security Council]], and other agencies such as the departments of Defense and the Treasury.

==American Revolution to 1789==
* [[American Revolution]], 1775-1783
* [[Treaty of Alliance with France (1778)]]
* [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]
* [[Benjamin Franklin]]

American foreign affairs from independence in 1776 to the new Constitution in 1789 were handled under the [[Articles of Confederation]] directly by Congress until the creation of a department of foreign affairs and the office of secretary for foreign affairs on January 10, 1781. The cabinet-level '''Department of Foreign Affairs''' was created on July 27, 1789, by the First Congress. Because of the need to provide for the administration of "home affairs," and the reluctance of Congress to add a fourth department, Congress in September 1789, changed the name to the '''Department of State''' and changed the title of secretary for foreign affairs to secretary of state.

==Early National Era: 1789-1860==
* [[Jay's Treaty]], 1794
* [[Louisiana Purchase]], 1803
* [[Embargo of 1807]]
* [[War of 1812]], 1812-15
* [[Treaty of Ghent]], 1814; ended war of 1812
* [[Manifest Destiny]]
* [[Mexican American War]], 1846-48
* [[Monroe Doctrine]], 1823+
* [[Quasi-War]], 1798-1800
* [[George Washington]]
* [[Alexander Hamilton]]
* [[John Adams]]
* [[Thomas Jefferson]]
* [[John Quincy Adams]]
* [[John C. Calhoun]]
* [[Henry Clay]]
* [[James Monroe]]
* [[James K. Polk]]
* [[Daniel Webster]]

==Civil War==
* [[American Civil War homefront]]
* [[Confederate States of America]]
American foreign policy in the Civil War was summed up in the phrase, "Shoot that nigger in the face."
===France===
Paris was building an empire in Mexico, with its puppet "Emperor" Maximilian propped up by French bayonets. Washington saw this as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but avoided any confrontation until the war was over.<ref> After Appomattox, Washington sent tens of thousands of battle-hardened troops to the Mexican border. Paris finally pulled out; the Mexicans shot Maximilian. Richmond tolerated the French aggression. If somehow the Confederacy had become independent, it would have faced powerful enemies to its north and its south. </ref> The French navy was building up ironclad strength, but not as fast as the US Navy. Furthermore, the French people would never support such a war with the US, and if one broke out France might be attacked by Prussia (as happened in 1870). France would not move alone, but it would join Britain in a war. London, however, realized that the British people would never support such a war. Furthermore, the long-term economic prosperity of Britain depended on friendly commercial and financial ties with the US. Idle speculation about intervention always came crashing into the bottom line: Washington would declare war immediately on any nation that so much as exchanged ambassadors with Richmond. Not one nation did so; Confederate diplomats had only deuces to play.<ref> Lynn M. Case and Warren F. Spencer, ''The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy'' (1970)</ref>

===Crisis with Britain: the Trent Affair===
A grave blunder by the United States almost precipitated war with Britain in late 1861. On November 7, a US Navy warship under command of hotheaded Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted on the high seas the "Trent," a British merchant ship steam making a routine run from Havana. After firing a shot across the bow, Wilkes sent heavily armed Marines aboard and seized two passengers aboard, James Mason and John Slidell, the Confederate ambassadors to London and Paris. Wilkes released the ship but took the prisoners to Boston, where he received a jubilant welcome as the hero of the hour. The seizure was a clear violation of Britain's rights as a neutral, and London protested vehemently. More practically, it drew up war plans, mobilized the Royal Navy, and sent 13,000 regulars to Canada. British strategists realized that in a war with the US, Canada would be quickly captured. The regiments were sent as a gesture, and as an indication Britain would win Canada back at the peace conference. The large, well-trained Royal Navy, now being rebuilt around heavily armed ironclads, was ready for a major fleet battle, as the American blockade squadrons were not. Should war break out, the British fleet would swoop down on the blockaders and sink or capture them. After that the fleet would sail into New York harbor and either capture Manhattan or at least close down the leading American city. New York could then be traded for Canada at the peace conference. The British war plans had a reasonable chance of success, especially if the French joined in.<ref>
Kenneth Bourne, "British Preparations for War with the North, 1861-1862," ''English Historical Review'', Vol. 76, No. 301 (Oct., 1961), pp. 600-632 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/558199 in JSTOR]</ref> Their capabilities made known, the British invited Washington to negotiate the release of Mason and Slidell. Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward saw the danger. Thanks to the intervention of Queen Victoria's husband, a showdown was avoided. Although the seizure of the rebel diplomats had been wildly hailed in the States as a naval triumph and a tweak of the lion's tail, they were released and an apology was given London. The war scare passed.<ref> Howard Jones, ''Union in Peril: The Crisis Over British Intervention in the Civil War'' (1992); Charles Francis Adams, "The Trent Affair," ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 17, No. 3 (Apr., 1912), pp. 540-562 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834388 in JSTOR] </ref>

By 1862 it was clear that the Confederates were on the defensive. The announcement of the "Emancipation Proclamation" by Lincoln in September, 1862, made the end of slavery an explicit war goal, and ruined any Confederate hopes of intervention from Europe.

The Confederates did manage to purchase warships from neutral Britain and use them to destroy much of the U.S. merchant marine. Britain violated its neutrality in so doing. The US held Britain accountable after the war, and arbitration gave the US a large cash award of $15 million for the damage done.

==Late 19th Century==
In 1889 GOP President [[Benjamin Harrison]] appointed party leader [[James G. Blaine]] as Secretary of State. During three years of service in this office, helped open the nation's engagement with the outside world.<ref>A. T. Volwiler, "Harrison, Blaine, and American Foreign Policy, 1889-1893," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,'' Vol. 79, No. 4 (Nov. 15, 1938), pp. 637-648 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/984943 in JSTOR]; Robert L. Beisner, ''From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865—1900.'' (2d ed., 1986); Edward P. Crapol, ''James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire.'' (2000); David Healy, ''James G. Blaine and Latin America'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109808323 online edition]
</ref> Blaine focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington.<ref> Healy (2001)</ref> As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.<ref>Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor </ref> He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty.<ref> Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." ''Canadian Review of American Studies'' 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720 </ref> The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

In foreign policy Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of one era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the next. Blaine brought energy, imagination and verve to the office in sharp contrast with his somnolent rivals, inspiring his activist twentieth-century successors. He was a pioneer in arbitration treaties, tariff reciprocity, and American administration of Latin American customs houses. to avert civil wars over the revenue stream. Blaine wanted the the U.S. to be the protector and leader of the Western Hemisphere, even if the Latin America countries disagreed. He insisted on keeping the Americas away from European control while favoring peaceful arbitration and negotiations rather than war. Blaine forcefully argued for the national interests of his country. He kept the big picture firmly in mind, seeking long-term programs and not simply short-term fixes for the matter at hand.

==1898-1945==
===Wilson===
Tensions with Mexico, then in the throes of a violent civil war, escalated almost to the point of warfare. The U.S. sent military forces to chase Pancho Villa and to control the port of Vera Cruz. In 1917 both parties pulled back, and by 1920 the civil war was over.

More serious was the worldwide Great War (now called [[World War I]] that began in 1914 and was killing millions of soldiers to no apparent end. Proclaiming neutrality, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] tried repeatedly to broker peace in 1915-1916, but the adversaries in Europe were both planning to win and did not want a negotiated settlement. After Germany started sinking American merchant ships in 1917, and tried to entire Mexico into going to war with the U.S. Wilson in April 1917 asked and received a declaration of war from Congress. Wilson argued persuasively that it was now necessary to fight against militarism and for democracy in the world. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to the [[Western Front]] in France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. The Americans and the Allies defeated the germans in late 1918--the so-called "armistice" was in effect a German surrender.

Wilson, aided by his top advisor [[Colonel House]], played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] that set the peace terms. Wilson failed to obtain Senate approval for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]], and Republicans led by Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] demanded amendments (called "reservations") to protect American sovereignty, which Wilson rejected. The League went into operation but was ineffective; the U.S. never joined it.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism has been a major feature of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009).

* [[Open Door Policy]], opens China
* [[World War I]], 1917-18
* [[Zimmermann Telegram]], 1917
* [[Fourteen Points]], 1918
* [[Treaty of Versailles]], 1919
* [[Wilsonianism]], idealism 1914+
* [[Paris Peace Conference]], ends WWI
* [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]], world peace agreed to
* [[McNary-Haugen Bill]], 1920s; (never passed)
* [[Jane Addams]], peace leader in 1920s
* [[Edward M. House]], top WIlson advisor
* [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]. naval strategist
* [[Theodore Roosevelt]], president
* [[Woodrow Wilson]], president
* [[Charles Dawes]], plans European recovery
* [[Charles Evans Hughes]], Sec. State 1920s
* [[Herbert Hoover]], president
* [[Harry Hopkins]], FDR's top aide
* [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], president
* [[Wendell Willkie]], GOP candidate in 1940
* [[Charles A. Beard]] isolationist historian

===1933-39: Isolation===
The rejection of the [[League of Nations]] treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of [[isolationism]] from world organizations in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Cordell Hull]] acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. Roosevelt's "bombshell" message to the world monetary conference in 1933 effectively ended any major efforts by the world powers to collaborate on ending the worldwide depression, and allowed Roosevelt a free hand in economic policy. The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the [[Good Neighbor Policy]], which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy towards [[Latin America]]. Since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. American forces were withdrawn from [[Haiti]], and new treaties with [[Cuba, history|Cuba]] and [[Panama]] ended their status as protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. The rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] in Germany in 1933 aroused fears of a new world war. In 1935, at the time of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Congress passed the Neutrality Act, applying a mandatory ban on the shipment of arms from the U.S. to any combatant nation. Roosevelt opposed the act on the grounds that it penalized the victims of aggression such as Ethiopia, and that it restricted his right as President to assist friendly countries, but public support was overwhelming so he signed it. In 1937, Congress passed an even more stringent act, but when the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, public opinion favored China, and Roosevelt found various ways to assist that nation.

==Coming of World War II==
* [[Isolationism]]
* [[Lend Lease]], 1941-45
* [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] Dec. 7, 1941
* [[World War II]], 1939-45

In October 1937, Roosevelt gave the "Quarantine Speech" aiming to contain aggressor nations, that is, Japan, Germany and Italy. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined." See [http://www.vlib.us/amdocs/texts/fdrquarn.html for text]Meanwhile he secretly stepped up a program to build long range submarines that could blockade Japan. In the summer of 1938, sensing war would come, Roosevelt began preparations for hemispheric defense and arms production; he asked for far more airplanes than the Air Corps had envisioned.

When [[World War II]] broke out in Europe in September, 1939, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance (of being neutral in thought and deed), and made it clear that America detested Nazi aggression. Isolationist sentiment remained strong, however, forcing FDR to find new ways to assist Britain and France militarily. The great majority of Americans opposed Japan and agreed with FDR's efforts to provide military aid to China. Roosevelt turned to [[Harry Hopkins]] for foreign policy advice; Hopkins became his chief wartime adviser. Bypassing the State Department, FDR and Hopkins sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to "lend" huge amounts of military equipment in return for "leases" on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Roosevelt was a lifelong free trader and anti-imperialist, and ending European colonialism was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with [[Winston Churchill]], who became Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940. In May 1940, a stunning German blitzkrieg overran Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and finally France, leaving Britain vulnerable to invasion. Roosevelt, who was determined to defend Britain, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the U.S. should risk war in helping Britain. FDR replaced his cautious war and navy secretaries with pro-war interventionist Republican leaders, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.

FDR successfully urged Congress to enact the first peacetime draft in American history in 1940 (it was renewed in 1941 by one vote in Congress). Roosevelt was supported by the [[Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies]], and opposed by the isolationist [[America First Committee]]. Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the "Arsenal of Democracy," he told his fireside audience. In August, Roosevelt's "Destroyers for Bases Agreement" traded 50 old American destroyers to Britain in exchange for base rights in the British Atlantic islands. This was a precursor of the March 1941 "[[Lend-Lease]]" agreement which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain, the China and the Soviet Union. After reelection in 1940, with much of Europe under German domination, Roosevelt cautiously prepared for war by extending the Atlantic neutrality zone, pushing the Lend-Lease Act through Congress, and drawing plans for an enlarged army. Roosevelt used the German submarine attacks on the American destroyer "Greer" on 4 September 1941 and the U-boat torpedoing of the destroyer "Kearny" on 16-17 October 1941 as pretexts to extend naval warfare in the Atlantic without congressional approval or the repeal of neutrality legislation. Through the fall of 1941, Roosevelt continued to plan and assemble the necessary military force to combat Hitler, although he never terminated diplomatic relations with Germany and never intended to appeal to Congress for a declaration of war.

===World War II===
* [[Henry Stimson]], Secretary of War

While there may have been miscalculations, Roosevelt did not provoke the attack on Pearl Harbor as a means of getting into war with Germany. Roosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II, in Europe and in the [[Pacific War|Pacific]]. Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938 since he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from leaders like Senators [[William Borah]] and [[Robert Taft]] who supported re-armament. By 1940, it was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy" supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the [[Axis Powers]], American isolationists—including [[Charles Lindbergh]] and [[America First]]—attacked the President as an irresponsible warmonger. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the Allied coalition. On December 29, 1940, he delivered his Arsenal of Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement directly to the American people, and a week later he delivered his famous [[Four Freedoms]] speech in January 1941, further laying out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world. Germany and the Soviet Union had been allied in 1939-41, so American Communists demanded neutrality and no aid to Britain; they opposed FDR's reelection in 1940. Increasingly the conservative Republican business and professional community in the Northeast rallied behind Britain, and supported Roosevelt's efforts to aid the British war effort. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the Soviets.

During 1941, Roosevelt agreed that the U.S. Navy would escort British convoys as far east as Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines if they attacked Allied shipping within the U.S. Navy zone. Moreover, by 1941, U.S. Navy aircraft carriers were secretly ferrying British fighter planes between Britain and the Mediterranean war zones, and the British Royal Navy was receiving supply and repair assistance at American naval bases. Thus, by mid-1941, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war." Roosevelt met with Churchill in August 1941, to write the [[Atlantic Charter]] in what was to be the first of several wartime conferences. The War Department's "Victory Program," provided the President with the estimates necessary for the total mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics to defeat Germany and Japan.Mark Skinner Watson, ''Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations,'' (1950), 331-366 at [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/csppp/ch11.htm online] The program also planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to have ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943. Roosevelt was firmly committed to the Allied cause.

==1945-1969: Cold War==
*see [[Cold War]]
* [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [[Containment]]
* [[Detente]]
* [[Rollback]]
* [[Eisenhower Doctrine]], 1957
* [[Korean War]], 1950-53
* [[Marshall Plan]], 1948-51
* [[NATO]], 1949+
* [[NSC-68]], 1950
* [[Truman Doctrine]], 1947
* [[Berlin Wall]], 1961-89
* [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], 1962
* [[Vietnam War]], 1965-73
* [[Dean Acheson]]
* [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
* [[John F. Kennedy]]
* [[George Kennan]]
* [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
* [[Robert Taft]]
* [[Harry Truman]]
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
===Truman: 1945-53===
[[Harry S. Truman]] had no knowledge or interest in foreign policy before becoming president in April 1945, and depended on the State Department for foreign policy advice. By 1946 he had two valuable aides Clark Clifford and George Elsey. Truman shifted from FDR's détente to [[containment]] as soon as [[Dean Acheson]] convinced him the Soviet Union was a long-term threat to American interests. They viewed communism as a secular, millennial religion that informed the Kremlin's worldview and actions and made it the chief threat to American security, liberty, and world peace. They rejected the moral equivalence of democratic and Communist governments and concluded that until the regime in Moscow changed only American and Allied strength could curb the Soviets. Following Acheson's advice, Truman in 1947 announced the [[Truman Doctrine]] of containing Communist expansion by furnishing military and economic American aid to Europe and Asia, and particularly to Greece and Turkey. He followed up with the [[Marshall Plan]], which was enacted into law as the European Recovery Program (ERP) and pumped $12.4 into the European economy, forcing the breakdown of old barriers and encouraging modernization along American lines. On May 14, 1948, Truman announced recognition of the new state of [[Israel]], making the United States the first major power to do so. After his surprise reelection in 1948, Truman brought in [[Dean Acheson]] as Secretary of State, and promoted the Point Four program of aid to underdeveloped countries. The policy of containing Communism was operationalized by the creation, in 1949, of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]) to oversee the integration of the military forces of its member nations in Western Europe and North America. A further step was taken in 1951 with the establishment of the Mutual Security Agency to coordinate U.S. economic, technical and military aid abroad.
===Korean War: 1950-1953===
The [[Korean War]] began at the end of June 1950 when North Korea, a Communist country, invaded South Korea, which was under U.S. protection. Without consulting Congress Truman ordered General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to use all American forces to resist the invasion. Truman then received approval from the United Nations, which the Soviets were boycotting. UN forces managed to cling to a toehold in Korea, as the North Koreans outran their supply system. A counterattack at Inchon destroyed the invasion army, and the UN forces captured most of North Korea on their way to the Yalu River, Korea's northern border with China. Truman defined the war goal as rollback of Communism and reunification of the country under UN auspices. China intervened unexpectedly, drove the UN forces all the way back to South Korea. The fighting stabilized close to the original 38th parallel that had divided North and South. MacArthur wanted to continue the rollback strategy but Truman arrived at a new policy of containment, allowing North Korea to persist. Truman's dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur in April 1951 sparked a violent debate on U.S. Far Eastern policy, as Truman took the blame for a high-cost stalemate with 37,000 Americans killed and over 100,000 wounded. The top-secret [[NSC-68]] of 1950 policy paper was the grounds for escalating the Cold War, especially in terms of tripling spending on rearmament and building the hydrogen bomb. The integration of European defense was given new impetus by continued U.S. support of NATO, under the command of General Eisenhower.
===Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson: 1953-1968===

==1969 to 1989==
* [[Henry Kissinger]]
* [[Richard Nixon]]

===Nixon and Kissinger: 1969-77===
Kissinger's first priority in office was the achievement of détente with the Soviet Union and China, and playing them off against each other. Recognizing and accepting the Soviet Union as a superpower, Nixon and Kissinger sought both to maintain U.S. military strength and to inaugurate peaceful economic, cultural, and scientific exchanges to engage the Soviet Union in the international system. This policy flourished under Kissinger's direction and led in 1972 to the signing of the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I). At the same time they successfully engineered a rapprochement with Communist [[China]], leading to the astonishing news in 1971 that Nixon would visit China, which he and Kissinger did in 1972. Margaret Macmillan, ''Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World'' (2008) Aware that China and the Soviet Union were at sword's point, with rival claims to be the true Communists, Nixon and Kissinger used the "Soviet card" to win over Chinba by playing up the Soviet threat to the Chinese as a way of promoting closer relations with China. He even hinted at a US-China alliance to oppose the Soviets, and, with Nixon's trips to Moscow, hinted that China had better come to terms lest the US form an alliance with Moscow. The tactics worked, resulting in a friendly relationship with both Beijing and Moscow. As part of the détente, both powers reduced or ended their aid to North Vietnam, thus allowing a settlement of the [[Vietnam War]].Evelyn Goh, "Nixon, Kissinger, and the 'Soviet Card' in the U.S. Opening to China, 1971-1974." ''Diplomatic History'' 2005 29(3): 475-502.

====Vietnam====
Nixon and Kissinger worked to achieve a disengagement of U.S. forces fighting in Vietnam. Balancing a policy of "Vietnamization," aimed at returning the burden of actual combat to the South Vietnamese, with repeated shows of U.S. air strength, notably in the bombings of Cambodia and Hanoi, Kissinger met secretly with North Vietnamese leaders in Paris from 1969 on, finally concluding a cease-fire in January 1973, for which he and chief North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho were awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize.
====Middle East====
One challenge to détente came with the outbreak of the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War. Faced with a threat of Soviet intervention, Nixon put U.S. military forces be placed on worldwide alert. He then employed shuttle diplomacy to secure cease-fires between Israel and the Arab states and to restore U.S. Egyptian diplomatic ties, broken since 1967.
==== Latin America====
The Nixon administration sought to protect the economic and commercial interests of the United States during a period of heightened Latin American nationalism and expropriations, 1969-74. Though the administration initially adopted a flexible policy toward Latin American governments that nationalized American corporations' assets, the influence of Nixon's economic ideology, domestic political pressures, and the advice of his close adviser, Secretary of the Treasury [[John Connally]], led to a more confrontational stance toward Latin American countries. As the Department of State, the Department of Defense, the National Security Council, and Henry Kissinger had warned, however, Latin American countries took an even more anti-US stance and expropriated even more assets. Nixon's "get tough" stance, therefore, had a negative effect on US credibility and influence in the hemisphere.<ref>Hal Brands, "Richard Nixon and Economic Nationalism in Latin America: the Problem of Expropriations, 1969-1974." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2007 18(1): 215-235. Issn: 0959-2296 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> Kissinger and Nixon permitted covert [[CIA]] operations designed to destabilize the anti-American Allende regime in [[Chile]]
====South Asia====
During the South Asian crisis in 1971, the White House, stood firmly behind Pakistani president Yahya Khan and demonstrated a disdain for India and particularly its leader, [[Indira Gandhi]] because of India's tilt toward the Soviet Union. Many analysts believed that Pakistan's role as a conduit of rapprochement with China and Kissinger's focus on geopolitical concerns greatly influenced the American policy decision in 1971. These claims have now been confirmed by recently declassified documents. The US undertook at least three initiatives to dissipate the Bangladesh movement but which backfired and contributed to the bloodshed instead of bringing it to an end. Nixon and Kissinger were "realists" who deemphasized idealistic goals like anti-communism or promotion of democracy worldwide, because those goals were too expensive in terms of America's economic capabilities. Instead of a Cold War they wanted peace, trade and cultural exchanges. They realized that Americans were no longer willing to tax themselves for idealistic foreign policy goals, especially for containment policies that never seemed to produce positive results. Instead Nixon and Kissinger sought to downsize America's global commitments in proportion to its reduced economic, moral and political power. They rejected "idealism" as impractical and too expensive; neither man showed much sensitivity to the plight of people living under Communism. Kissinger's realism fell out of fashion as idealism returned to American foreign policy with Carter's moralism emphasizing human rights, and Reagan's rollback strategy aimed at destroying Communism.
====Ford years====
Nixon resigned in 1974 under the threat of impeachment and was succeeded by [[Gerald R. Ford]], who kept Nixon's policies. The US was not involved in 1975 when North Vietnam invaded and defeated South Vietnam, except to rescue Americans and some Vietnamese supporters. Over a million Vietnamese refugees, and many Hmong from Cambodia, eventually came to the U.S. In 1976 Ford was challenged by [[Ronald Reagan]] for the GOP nomination. Ford won, but the détente policy was the focus of Reagan's attacks, as the GOP moved to the right. [[Jimmy Carter]] continued the détente policy until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in late 1979 destroyed that policy and reopened the [[Cold War]] at a more intense level.
===Jimmy Carter 1977-81===
* [[Afghanistan War]]
* [[Jimmy Carter]]
=== Foreign Policy ===

In his inaugural speech Carter stated that "our commitment to human rights must be absolute." He singled out the [[Soviet Union]] as a violator of human rights and strongly condemned the country for arresting its citizens for political protests. However, he was criticized for not doing enough to promote his proclaimed human rights foreign policy stance in his administration, such as continuing to support [[Indonesia]] even while it was implicated in the commission of acts of genocide in the occupation of [[East Timor]].

Carter also tried to remove the U.S. image of interventionism by giving Panamanians control of the [[Panama Canal]]. He was strongly opposed by conservatives but won, and gave back the Canal. The result was disaster and the US invaded Panama in 1989 to overthrow a nasty dictator named Noriega.

Détente with China continued successfully.

Détente with the Soviet Union collapsed in 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, setting off a long war that the Soviets lost. President Carter responded by giving military aid to the rebels, imposing an [[embargo]] on the sale of grain to the Soviet Union and boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow. The policy of détente that was established by President Nixon had ended.

Carter's only triumph while in office was a historic peace [[treaty]] known as the Camp David Peace Accords, between [[Israel]] and [[Egypt]], two nations that had been bitter enemies for decades. The treaty was formally signed in 1979, with most middle eastern countries opposed to it, bit it remains in effect in 2009.

=== Iran Hostage Crisis ===

[[Image:Iran1979.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Blindfolded American hostages being paraded before the public by their Iranian captors, November 5, 1979.]]
In 1979, a new radical [[Islamic]] regime lead by [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in [[Iran]] overthrew America's close ally Shah. Thousands of modernizers were arrested, expelled or executed. In November 1979 student revolutionaries stormed into the American embassy in [[Tehran]] and captured 52 United States diplomats as hostages. They refused to negotiate and the government refused to intervene. The US seized all Iranian assets and tried to bargain, a process that dragged on for 444 days. Carter tried to use the US military action to rescue the hostages, but it was a total failure. Fearful of what President Reagan might do, the Iranians released the hostages were released minutes before Reagan was inaugurated on January 20, 1981.

The result was a major humiliation for the United States, and a consensus that the country was now an underdog and needed new leadership to claw its way back.

==Ronald Reagan 1981-93==
* [[Gulf War]], 1990-91
* [[Reagan Doctrine]]
* [[Rollback]]
* [[Jesse Helms]]
* [[Ronald Reagan]]
* [[George H.W. Bush]]

Reagan defeated Carter in 1980 by stressing the failures of both foreign and domestic policy, warning America had become weak at home and abroad. Rejecting detente he called for rollback of the decrepit Soviet Empire, whose only strength was in missile power but which was falling apart in terms of economics, politics and society.
====Ending the Cold War====
What scholars label the "orthodox view" of the end of the Cold War is that "the Soviet Union's capitulation and the Cold War victory for the forces of freedom and democracy were ultimately due to the relentless application of the West's military superiority and the dynamism of its ideas and economic system. These factors revealed communism's moral illegitimacy and highlighted its economic stagnation." Salla and Summy, p 3 It is broadly endorsed by both Republicans (who emphasize Reagan's role), and by Democrats (who emphasize the containment policies of [[Harry S. Truman]], [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Lyndon Johnson]]. European leaders of the 1980s give credit to Reagan for winning the Cold War. [[Lech Wałęsa]], leader of the [[Solidarity]] movement in Poland, said in 2004, "When talking about Ronald Reagan, I have to be personal. We in Poland took him so personally. Why? Because we owe him our liberty. This can't be said often enough by people who lived under oppression for half a century, until communism fell in 1989." Quoted in [http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005204] Helmut Kohl, chancellor of [[West Germany]], said, "He was a stroke of luck for the world. Two years after Reagan called on [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to tear down the wall, he noted, it fell and 11 months later Germany was reunified. We Germans have much to thank Ronald Reagan for." Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern said, "President Reagan was a determined opponent of Communism and he played an important role in bringing an end to Communism and to the artificial division of Europe imposed after the Second World War." [[Václav Havel]], who became the Czech president in 1989, said, "He was a man of firm principles who was indisputably instrumental in the fall of Communism." Quotes at [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1227784,00.html] Liberals were aghast at Reagan's foreign policy, because it pushed idealism and moralism in dangerous directions. Fearing that rollback would lead to war, one critic ridiculed it as "crackpot moralism." Liberals preferred a foreign policy that pursued the national interest -- by pulling back from a preoccupation with the Soviet threat, reducing military expenditure, relying on increased cooperation with our allies, establishing more constructive links to the Third World, restricting the freedom of multinational capital, deemphasizing nuclear weapons, and deepening detente with the Soviet Union. Alan Wolfe, "Crackpot Moralism, Neo-Realism and U.S. Foreign Policy." ''World Policy Journal.'' 3#2 (1986) pp 252-75 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95721797 online edition]

====Relations with Britain====
Relations with Britain had been strained since the Suez crisis of 1956. Now both countries were led by like-minded leaders who collaborated closely, Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] and Reagan. Their collaboration was based on a striking convergence of ideologically driven conservatives who shared similar domestic agendas and a common foreign policy. Both led domestic political revolutions--supply-side economics, increased defense spending, privatization, deregulation, and an overall conservative agenda. Reagan was the "Great Communicator", Thatcher the "Iron Lady". The two became personal friends. Strains erupted in 1982 when the U.S. tried to mediate a dispute between Britain and Argentina over ownership of the [[Falkland Islands]], located in the south Atlantic Ocean, far from Britain and close to Argentina. When mediation failed, the U.S. supported Britain by quietly providing logistical support and military intelligence during the three-month conflict. In 1983 Thatcher criticized Reagan's intervention in Genada, nominally part of the British Commonwealth. Reagan and Thatcher's mutual trust strengthened Reagan's hand against the Soviet Union. In 1984 Thatcher became the first NATO leader to meet with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] before his ascension to the Soviet presidency. She told the world, "We can do business together." That assessment shifted Western political rhetoric from East-West confrontation to conciliation and support for internal democratic reform in the Soviet Union. Reagan adopted Thatcher's view, and when Gorbachev started to dismantle the Soviet Empire Reagan largely abandoning his own harsh depiction of the Soviet Union as the "focus of evil in the modern world." The collapse of the Soviet Union, however, lessened U.S. military need for a trusty friend in Europe. Thus, American relations with Britain turned more to trade and economic issues.

==1989 to present==
===Clinton 1993-2001===

===Bush: 2001-2008===
* [[9-11 Attack]]
* [[Iraq War]], 2003+

===Obama: 2009- ===

==Bibliography==
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Rise to Globalism,'' (1988), since 1945
* Bailey, Thomas A. ''Diplomatic History of the American People'' (1940), standard older textbook
* Beisner, Robert L. ed, ''American Foreign Relations since 1600: A Guide to the Literature'' (2003), 2 vol. 16,300 annotated entries evaluate every major book and scholarly article.
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''A Diplomatic History of the United States'' (1952) old standard textbook; by conservative scholar
* Brune, Lester H. ''Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations'' (2003), 1400 pages
* Burns, Richard Dean, ed. ''Guide to American Foreign Relations since 1700'' (1983) highly detailed annotated bibliography
* Dallek, Robert. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945'' (2nd ed. 1995) standard scholarly survey [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Roosevelt-American-Foreign-1932-1945/dp/0195097327/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193881549&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* DeConde, Alexander, Richard Dean Burns, Fredrik Logevall, and Louise B. Ketz, eds. ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'' 3 vol (2001), 2200 pages; 120 long articles by specialists.
* DeConde, Alexander. ''A History of American Foreign Policy'' (1963) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65362550 online edition]
* Dobson, Alan P., and Steve Marsh. ''U.S. Foreign Policy since 1945.'' 160pp (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/102241692?title=U.S.%20Foreign%20Policy%20since%201945 online edition]
* Findling, John E. ed. ''Dictionary of American Diplomatic History'' 2nd ed. 1989. 700pp; 1200 short articles.
* Flanders, Stephen A, and Carl N. Flanders. ''Dictionary of American Foreign Affairs'' (1993) 835 pp, short articles
* Herring, George C. ''From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776'' (Oxford History of the United States) (2008), 1056pp; the best survey. [http://www.amazon.com/Colony-Superpower-Foreign-Relations-History/dp/0195078225/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1238879749&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hogan, Michael J. ed. ''Paths to Power: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations to 1941'' (2000) essays on main topics
* Hogan, Michael J. and Thomas G. Paterson, eds. ''Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations'' (1991) essays on historiography
* Jentleson, B.W. and Thomas G. Paterson, eds. ''Encyclopaedia of U.S. Foreign Relations,'' (4 vols., 1997)
* Lafeber, Walter. '' The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to Present'' (2nd ed 1994) New Left textbook; 884pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98818311 online edition]
* Paterson, Thomas G. et al. ''American Foreign Relations'' (4th ed. 1995), recent New Left textbook
* Scott, James A. ''After the End: Making U.S. Foreign Policy in the Post-Cold War World.'' (1998) 434pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&docId=29132551 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8684(200311)72%3A4%3C495%3ABATCCT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I ''Foreign Relations of the United States'' (FRUS), 1861-1960, 372 volumes complete text. This series is the official documentary historical record of U.S. foreign policy decisions]
====references====
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[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Cold War]]