Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

France

2009-10-08T02:23:39Z

MarkBazerman: /* Security Issues */

{{Country
|map =France rel94.JPG
|name =''République Française''
|map2 =France location.png
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =Armoirie France.png
|capital =Paris
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Nicolas Sarkozy
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =François Fillon
|pm-raw =
|area =260,558 sq mi
|pop =64,102,140 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1.871 trillion (2007)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$30,100 (2007)
|currency =euro
}}
'''France''' (Official title: ''République Française'', the ''French Republic'') is a country in Western [[Europe]]. One of the oldest countries in Europe, Franch has played a major role in world events since the 18th century.

==Geography==
*Area: 551,670 sq. km. (220,668 sq. mi.); largest west European country, about four-fifths the size of Texas.
*Cities: Capital--[[Paris]]. Major cities--Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nice, Rennes, Lille, Bordeaux.
*Terrain: Varied.
*Climate: Temperate.
*Population : 62,150,775 (July 2008 INSEE est.) excluding overseas territories.

==People==
Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, travel, and migration. Three basic European ethnic stocks--Celtic, Latin, and Teutonic (Frankish)--have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. France's birth rate was among the highest in Europe from 1945 until the late 1960s. Since then, its birth rate has fallen but remains higher than that of most other west European countries. Traditionally, France has had a high level of [[immigration]]. More than 1 million [[Muslims]] immigrated in the 1960s and early 1970s from [[North Africa]], especially [[Algeria]]; their numbers are now above 5 million (2004 figure).
[[Image:French people.jpg|right|180px]]
Education is free, beginning at age 3 (sometimes 2), and mandatory between ages 6 and 16. The [[public education]] system is highly centralized. Private education is primarily Roman Catholic. Higher education in France began with the founding of the [[University of Paris]] in 1150. It now consists of 91 public universities and 175 professional schools, including the post-graduate Grandes Ecoles. Private, college-level institutions focusing on business and management with curricula structured on the American system of credits and semesters have been growing in recent years.

The French language derives from the vernacular Latin spoken by the [[Roman]]s in [[Gaul]], although it includes some Celtic and Germanic words. Historically, French has been used as the international language of diplomacy and commerce. Today it remains one of six official languages at the [[United Nations]] and has been a unifying factor in Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Caribbean.
===Religion===
In a January 2007 poll, 51% percent of respondents indicated they were Roman Catholic, including those who never attend religious services. Of Catholics, only 10% went to church regularly--mainly to Sunday mass or christenings. There are an estimated 5 million to 6 million Muslims (8 to 10% of the population), although estimates of how many of these are practicing vary widely. According to a January 17, 2008 survey in the Catholic daily ''La Croix,'' 39% of Muslims surveyed said they observed Islam's five prayers daily, an increase from 31% in 1994. Mosque attendance for Friday prayers rose to 23%, up from 16 percent in 1994, while Ramadan observance reached 70% compared to 60% in 1994. Drinking alcohol, which Islam forbids, also declined to 34% from 39% in 1994.<ref> Data reported by [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108446.htm U.S. State Department, 2008]</ref>

Protestants make up 3% of the population, Jewish and Buddhist religious groups 1% each, and Sikhs less than 1 percent.

In April 2008 a practicing Buddhist claimed the current estimate of 600,000 Buddhists strongly under represents the actual number of adherents; however, he acknowledged the difficulty in distinguishing between practicing Buddhists and the much larger number of persons who characterize themselves as sympathetic to certain Buddhist principles. Scholars distinguish between "sympathizers" (approximately 5 million), "associates" (defined as having a certain degree of proximity to Buddhism and estimated to number between 100,000 and 150,000), and "practitioners" (approximately 12,000). The biggest Buddhist meditation center in the West is in the region of Touraine, and two Tibetan monasteries in the Auvergne region have trained the largest number of Buddhist monks outside Asia, according to 2002 statistical data.

The Jewish community numbers approximately 600,000. According to press reports, at least 60% of Jews are not highly observant, celebrating at most only the High Holy Days. The large majority of observant Jews are Orthodox. There are small Conservative and Reform congregations as well.

Jehovah's Witnesses reported that 250,000 persons attend their services either regularly or periodically.

Orthodox Christians number between 80,000 and 100,000; the vast majority are associated with the Greek or Russian Orthodox Churches.

Other religious groups include Evangelicals, Christian Scientists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Membership in evangelical churches is growing (with as many as 400,000 adherents, according to February 2007 press reports), including African-style "prosperity" churches, especially in the suburbs of Paris, in large part because of increased participation by African and Antillean immigrants. According to the press, there are approximately 31,000 Mormons. The Church of Scientology has an estimated 5,000 to 20,000 members.

==Government==
The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by public referendum on September 28, 1958. It greatly strengthened the powers of the executive in relation to those of Parliament. Under this constitution, presidents have been elected directly for a 7-year term since 1958. Beginning in 2002, the presidential term of office was reduced to 5 years. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties. Traditionally, presidents under the Fifth Republic have tended to leave day-to-day policy-making to the Prime Minister and government; the five-year term of office is expected to make presidents more accountable for the results of domestic policies.

The president can submit questions to a national referendum and can dissolve the National Assembly. In certain emergency situations, with the approval of parliament, the president may assume [[dictator]]ial powers and rule by decree. The main components of France's executive branch are the president, the prime minister and government, and the permanent bureaucracies of the many ministries. Led by a prime minister, who is the head of government, the cabinet is composed of a varying number of ministers, ministers-delegate, and secretaries of state. Parliament meets for one 9-[[month]] session each year. Under special circumstances the president can call an additional session.

Under the Constitution, the legislative branch has few checks on executive power; nevertheless, the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. The Parliament is [[bicameral]] with a National Assembly and a Senate. The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its deputies are directly elected to 5-year [[terms]], and all seats are voted on in each election. Senators are chosen by an electoral college and, under new rules passed in 2003 to shorten the term, serve for six years, with one-half of the Senate being renewed every three years. (As a transitional measure in 2004, 62 Senators were elected to 9-year terms, while 61 were elected to 6-year terms; subsequently, all terms will be six years.) The Senate's [[legislature|legislative]] powers are limited; the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can declare a bill to be a question of confidence, thereby linking its continued existence to the passage of the legislative text; unless a motion of censure is introduced and voted, the text is considered adopted without a vote.

A distinctive feature of the French [[judiciary|judicial]] system is that the Constitutional Council protects basic rights when they might be potentially violated by new laws and the Council of State protects basic rights when they might be violated by actions of the state. The Constitutional Council examines legislation and decides whether it conforms to the constitution. Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, it considers only legislation that is referred to it by Parliament, the prime minister, or the president. Moreover, it considers legislation before it is promulgated. The Council of State has a separate function from the Constitutional Council and provides recourse to individual citizens who have claims against the administration. The Ordinary Courts--including specialized bodies such as the police court, the criminal court, the correctional tribunal, the commercial court, and the industrial court--settle disputes that arise between citizens, as well as disputes that arise between citizens and corporations. The Court of Appeals reviews cases judged by the Ordinary Courts.

Traditionally, decision-making in France has been highly centralized, with each of France's departments headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. In 1982, the national government passed legislation to decentralize authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March 1986, regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of [[decentralization]] continues, albeit at a slow pace.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Nicolas Sarkozy
*Prime Minister--François Fillon
*Foreign Minister--Bernard Kouchner
*Ambassador to the United States--Pierre Vimont (pending accreditation)
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Jean-Marc Rochereau de la Sablière

===Political Conditions===
Since his inauguration in May 2007 as France's sixth president under the Fifth Republic, Nicolas Sarkozy focused his first months in office on improving the performance of France's economy through liberalization of labor markets, higher education and taxes. In the April 22, 2007 first round of presidential elections, Sarkozy, the leader of the center-right, union for a popular Movement (UMP) party, placed first; Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal placed second; centrist François Bayrou placed third; and extremist Jean-Marie Le Pen placed fourth out of a field of 12 candidates. Sarkozy prevailed in the May 6, 2007 second round, defeating Royal by a 53.06% to 46.94% margin. Royal's loss marked the third straight defeat for the Socialist candidate in presidential elections.

President Sarkozy assumed office on May 16, 2007, the last day of Jacques Chirac's official term. Sarkozy named François Fillon Prime Minister. Jean-Louis Borloo, the second highest ranking figure in the government, presides over an expanded Ministry of Environment.. Legislative elections held on June 10 and 17, 2007 gave the UMP a large parliamentary majority. Current key ministers include: Jean-Louis Borloo, Ecology and Sustainable Planning; Michèle Alliot-Marie, Interior; Bernard Kouchner, Foreign Affairs; Christine Lagarde, Economy; Brice Hortefeux, Immigration; Rachida Dati, Justice; and Hervé Morin, Defense.

In electing Nicolas Sarkozy, French voters endorsed the wide-ranging program of reforms--including market-oriented social and economic reforms--that were the focal point of Sarkozy's campaign, implicitly giving him the green light to try and implement these reforms quickly, and allowing a way forward for overcoming France's 2005 rejection of the EU constitutional treaty. By embracing a figure long tagged as "pro-American," French voters also expressed their desire to renew trust in the U.S.-France relationship. During the campaign Sarkozy often ended his stump speeches--evoking Martin Luther King--by calling for a "French dream" of social equality, social mobility, and equal opportunity; and his first speech as President-elect assured his "American friends" that they could rely on France's friendship.

Shortly after taking office, President Sarkozy went to work on a series of reforms to address mounting pressure for short- and long-term restructuring, including reduced government spending, flexibility in the implementation of the 35-hour work week, more labor-market flexibility, less taxation, and further privatization and liberalization of the business sector. French and EU analysts stress that longer-term measures must focus on reducing the future burden of ballooning public pension and health care budgets, as well as reducing labor-related taxes. Government action to initiate such reforms may have contributed to the center-right's poor showing in 2004 regional and European Parliamentary elections, and continues to spark periodic strikes and work stoppages throughout France.

===Foreign Relations===
A charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies. France is also America's oldest ally; French military intervention was instrumental in helping Britain's American colonies establish independence. Because many battles in which the United States was involved during World War I and World War II took place in France, more American soldiers have been killed on French soil than on that of any other foreign country.

France is a leader in Western Europe because of its size, location, and large economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture, and energetic diplomacy. France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the EU and its role in common European defense. It views Franco-German cooperation and the development of a European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) with other EU members, as the foundation of efforts to enhance European security.

France supports Quartet (U.S.-EU-Russia-UN) efforts to implement the Middle East roadmap, which envisions establishment of a Palestinian state, living side-by-side in peace and security with Israel. Recognizing the need for a comprehensive peace agreement, France supports the involvement of all Arab parties and Israel in a multilateral peace process.

Since 2003, France has supported four UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions on Iraq, including UNSCR 1546, which laid out a timetable for Iraq's political transition and reaffirmed UNSC authorization for a Multinational Force in Iraq, at the invitation of the Iraqi government, to stabilize the country. France contributed to the 230 million euro EU contribution to Iraq reconstruction in 2003. After the Iraqi Interim Government took power, France agreed to substantial debt relief and offered police training to Iraqi security forces. In 2006, France and the U.S. collaborated closely to create a consensus in the UN to adopt UNSCR 1696 demanding action from Iran to end its enrichment-related and preprocessing activities.

France continues to play an important role in Africa, especially in its former colonies, through aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact. In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France has supported political, military, and social stability. France maintains permanent military bases in Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Gabon, and Senegal, and has maintained a long-term military presence in Chad. An attack on French forces in Côte d'Ivoire in 2004 led to the departure of thousands of French nationals from that country. France responded to the crisis in Côte d'Ivoire by dispatching Operation Unicorn, which has worked with UN forces to help stabilize Côte d'Ivoire. France has also deployed forces to Togo (in support of Operation Unicorn in Côte d'Ivoire) and to the Central African Republic, where French forces have assisted government forces in deterring rebel elements. France with EU partners, participated in an international military operation (EUFOR) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2006, which played an important presence during in elections that year in the D.R.C. France was instrumental in organizing the June 2007 ministerial conference on Darfur and has shown leadership in increasing international interest and involvement in Chad and the Central African Republic, both of which are affected by the crisis in Darfur.

France has extensive political and commercial relations with Asian countries, including China, Japan, and Southeast Asia as well as an increasing presence in regional fora. France is seeking to broaden its commercial presence in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in aerospace, high-tech, and luxury markets. In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the 1991 Paris Accords, which ended the conflict in Cambodia.

===Relations with the United States===
[[Image:Sacre Coeur.jpg|right|Le Sacre Coeur]]
Relations between the United States and France are active and cordial. Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted frequently. Bilateral contact at the cabinet level has traditionally been active. France and the United States share common values and have parallel policies on most political, economic, and security issues. Differences are discussed frankly and have not generally been allowed to impair the pattern of close cooperation that characterizes relations between the two countries.

France is one of NATO's top three troop contributors. The French support NATO modernization efforts and are leading contributors to the NATO Response Force (NRF). France is keen to build European defense capabilities, including through the development of EU battle-group sized force packages and joint European military production initiatives. Defense Minister Morin supports development of a European defense that must complement, not compete with, NATO, which remains at the core of transatlantic security. French resistance, however, to efforts to reinforce NATO's reach beyond the North Atlantic region remain a source of contention.

France is a close partner with the U.S. in the war on terror. It cooperates with the U.S. to monitor and disrupt terrorist groups and has processed numerous U.S. requests for information under the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty. French security and intelligence services have rounded up hundreds of extremists in the past year. The French judiciary has upheld the pre-trial detainment of the four French former Guantanamo detainees. France is a strong partner in multiple non-proliferation fora and is a key participant in the Proliferation Security Initiative. Through the "EU3" (France, the U.K., and Germany), France is working to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.

France opposed the use of force in Iraq in March 2003 and did not join the U.S.-led coalition that liberated the country from the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein with whom they, like other countries had close economic ties, especially in the supply of nuclear technology.Donald Rumsfeld famously quipped that "going to war without the French is like going on a duck hunt without an accordion".

Despite differences over Iraq, the U.S. and France continue to cooperate closely on many issues, most notably the global war on terrorism, efforts to stem the [[proliferation]] of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and on regional problems, including in Africa, Lebanon, and Kosovo. On Iraq, the French agreed to generous debt relief for Iraq in Paris Club negotiations and have accepted the establishment of a NATO training mission there.

In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, France seeks robust U.S. engagement in the peace process. France is working to contain the Hamas-led challenge to the Palestinian Authority. President Sarkozy, like his predecessor, President Chirac, is committed to keeping France in supportive relations with Israel.

The U.S. and France have worked closely to support a sovereign and independent Lebanon, free of Syrian domination, having fought with uncharacteristic tenacity to keep the British out in World War II, but without success.
The U.S. and France co-sponsored in September 2004 UNSCR 1559, which called for full withdrawal of Syrian forces, a free and fair electoral process, and disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias. In the wake of the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri in February 2005, the U.S. and France reiterated calls for a full, immediate withdrawal of all Syrian troops and security services from Lebanon. France also co-sponsored UNSCR 1701 and was one of the leading countries in Europe working to end hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah in 2006 by committing 2,000 troops to UNIFIL-plus. Strong French backing led to adoption of UNSCR 1757 establishing a Special Tribunal for Lebanon to prosecute the perpetrators of the Hariri assassination and other killings of critics of Syria's interference in Lebanon. Foreign Minister Kouchner is working hard to help competing Lebanese political factions agree to a framework for governing the country in accordance with the country's constitution and free from external interference. France also participates in the U.S. Broader Middle East and North Africa initiative.

Trade and investment between the U.S. and France are strong. On average over $1 billion in commercial transactions take place between France the U.S. every day. In 2006 U.S. exports to France totaled over 24.2 billion euros and U.S. imports from France were valued at 37.1 billion euros. France is the eighth partner for total trade of goods (imports plus exports) and the tenth-ranked supplier worldwide to the U.S. and its 10th largest customer. The U.S. is France's third-ranked supplier and its fifth largest customer. There are approximately 2,300 French subsidiaries in the U.S., providing more than 481,100 jobs and generating an estimated $178 billion turnover. U.S. companies in France employ about 603,400 French citizens. The U.S. is the top destination for French investments worldwide.

==Security Issues==
French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence, and military sufficiency. France is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and has worked actively with Allies to adapt NATO, internally and externally, to the post-Cold War environment. However, in 1966, the French withdrew from NATO's military bodies while remaining full participants in the alliance's political councils. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee. France remains a firm supporter of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other efforts at cooperation.

Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in a variety of peacekeeping/coalition efforts in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, often taking the lead in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include reducing personnel, bases, and headquarters and rationalizing equipment and the armament industry. French active-duty military in June 2007 numbered about 350,000 (including Gendarmes), of which nearly 34,000 were deployed outside of French territory. France completed the move to all-professional armed forces when conscription ended on December 31, 2002.

France places a high priority on arms control<ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/11/10/151219.shtml French Arms Sales to China]</ref> and non-proliferation. After conducting a final series of six nuclear tests, the French signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel landmines and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. France is an active participant in the major supplier regimes designed to restrict transfer of technologies that could lead to proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Australia Group (for chemical and biological weapons), the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the Missile Technology Control Regime. France participates actively in the Proliferation Security Initiative, and is engaged with the U.S., both bilaterally and at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), to curb nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) proliferation from the D.P.R.K., Iran, Libya, and elsewhere. France has joined with the U.S., Germany, and the other three permanent members of the UN Security Council to offer a package of incentives and disincentives to Iran to halt its uranium enrichment activities. France has also signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. France maintains a color-coded security system, similar to that of the U.S., consisting of yellow, orange, red and scarlet threat levels.

At least 12 French soldiers have been killed in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] since its inception in 2001.<ref>Anon., [http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10651794&CFID=10819516&CFTOKEN=58cc719e037c97de-2515EEEE-B27C-BB00-012942FB89A6CFE4 Where the sniping has to stop] ''The Economist'', 7th February, 2008.</ref>
Unrest in France by Moslem immigrants has resulted in destruction of property.<ref>[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=333 Ann Coulter, October 7, 2009]</ref>

==Economy==
With a GDP of approximately $2 trillion, France is the sixth-largest economy. It has substantial agricultural resources, a large industrial base, and a highly skilled work force. A dynamic services sector accounts for an increasingly large share of economic activity and is responsible for nearly all job creation in recent years. GDP growth was 1.1% in 2003, after two years of steady decline from 3.9% in 2000. GDP growth was 1.7% in 2005, down from 2.5% in 2004 (2000 price basis).

Government economic policy aims to promote investment and domestic growth in a stable fiscal and monetary environment. Creating jobs and reducing the high unemployment rate through recovery-supportive policy has been a top priority. French unemployment dropped from a high of 12% to 8.7% in the late 1990s, and after hovering around 10% during the 2000s, unemployment slipped once again to 8.0% in July 2007. France joined 10 other European Union countries in adopting the euro as its currency in January 1999. Since then, monetary policy has been set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. On January 1, 2002, France, along with the other countries of the euro zone, dropped its national currency in favor of euro bills and coins.

Despite significant reform and privatization over the past 15 years, the government continues to control a large share of economic activity: Government spending, at 53.5% of GDP in 2006, is among the highest in the G-7. Regulation of labor and product markets is pervasive. The government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications.

Legislation passed in 1998 shortened the legal work week from 39 to 35 hours for most employees effective January 1, 2000. Recent assessments of the impact of work week reduction on growth and jobs have generally concluded that the goal of job creation was not met. The former administration introduced increasing flexibility into the law, returning the country to a de facto (if not de jure) 39-hour work week in the private sector. Under President Nicolas Sarkozy's impetus, overtime work will be exempt from income taxes on October 1, 2007, a move to encourage work and to increase work duration.

Membership in France's labor unions accounts for approximately 5% of the private sector work force and is concentrated in the manufacturing, transportation, and heavy industry sectors. Most unions are affiliated with one of the competing national federations, the largest and most powerful of which are the communist-dominated General Labor Confederation (CGT), the Workers' Force (FO), and the French Democratic Confederation of Labor (CFDT).

France has been very successful in developing dynamic telecommunications, aerospace, and weapons sectors. With virtually no domestic oil production, France has relied heavily on the development of nuclear power, which now accounts for about 80% of the country's electricity production.

===Trade===
[[Image:French-Perfume.jpg|right|280px]]
France is the second-largest trading nation in Western Europe (after Germany). France ran a $33.7 billion deficit in 2006. Total trade for 2006 amounted to $1,013.5 billion, over 45% of GDP 75.0% of which was with EU-24 countries. In 2003, U.S.-France trade in goods and services totaled $80.3 billion. U.S. industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronic components, telecommunications, computer software, computers and peripherals, analytical and scientific instrumentation, medical instruments and supplies, broadcasting equipment, and programming and franchising are particularly attractive to French importers. Total French trade of goods and services was $1,001 billion in 2006.

Principal French exports to the United States are [[aircraft]] and [[engine]]s, beverages, electrical equipment, chemicals, cosmetics, and luxury products. France is the ninth-largest trading partner of the United States.

===Agriculture===
France is the European Union's leading agricultural producer, accounting for about one-third of all agricultural land within the EU. Northern France is characterized by large wheat farms. Dairy products, pork, poultry, and apple production are concentrated in the western region. Beef production is located in central France, while the production of fruits, vegetables, and wine ranges from central to southern France. France is a large producer of many agricultural products and is expanding its forestry and fishery industries. The implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Uruguay Round of the GATT Agreement resulted in reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy. Continued revision of the CAP and reforms agreed under the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) will further change French agriculture. France remains Europe's strongest opponent of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and often assumes an agricultural position at the EU Council to promote this policy.

France is the world's second-largest agricultural producer, after the United States. However, the destination of 70% of its exports is other EU member states. Wheat, beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products are the principal exports. The United States, although the second-largest exporter to France, faces stiff competition from domestic production, other EU member states, and third countries. U.S. agricultural exports to France, totaling $464 million in 2003, consist primarily of soybeans and products, feeds and fodders, seafood, and consumer oriented products, especially snack foods and nuts. French agricultural exports to the United States are mainly cheese, processed products, and wine. They amount to about $3.327 billion (2006) annually.

==History==
see [[History of France]]

== See also ==

*[[Gallery of French Masterpieces]]
*[[Famous French paintings]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)|http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3842.htm}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:France| ]]

International Organization for Standardization

2009-10-08T02:13:46Z

MarkBazerman: create a stub article

The [[International Organization for Standardization]] or ''ISO''<ref>[http://www.iso.org ISO web page]</ref> is a [[non-governmental organization]] based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] which creates and promotes international standards.

The name of the organization is ''ISO'' from the [[Greek language | Greek]] for ''the same''. Many English speakers wrongly assume that it is an [[acronym]] for ''International Standards Organization''.

==References==
<references/>

International System of Units

2009-10-08T02:05:44Z

MarkBazerman: /* Writing Metric */ correct the expansion of ISO

The [[International System of Units]] ([[France|French]] ''Système International d'Unités'', ''Système International'' or '''SI''' for short) is the agreed-upon system for measurement as adopted by periodic meetings of the forty-six-member ''Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures'' (General Conference on Weights and Measures, abbreviated CGPM). It was developed in 1960 from the [[meter-kilogram-second]] (MKS) system and replaces the [[centimeter-gram-second]] (cgs) system.

The SI system introduced several new units for physical terms and continues to change to this day. As measurement accuracy improves, so the standards against which measures are calibrated must also be defined to higher accuracy. Definitions have been subject to change through the years, and generally depend on assumptions that the CGPM makes about what is permanent and what is not.

Nearly all countries have adopted the SI system of units as their official system of weights and measures. The [[United States of America]] also uses the [[US customary system]], which is defined in terms of metric units since the Convention on the Meter.

==Principles==
The value of a physical quantity is considered to a number multiplied by a unit. Units may be '''base units''' or '''derived units'''. Derived units are constructed by multiplying, dividing or raising to powers the base units or their multiples and submultiples. Thus a unit of speed, the meter per second, can be constructed by dividing the base unit of length, the meter, by the base unit for time, the second. The symbol for a derived unit is constructed from the symbols for its constituent base units. Multiplication should be denoted by either a space or the half-high dot ([[ANSI]] symbol 0183). Division is denoted by the '''solidus''' (oblique stroke) or by a negative exponent. For example, 25 meters per second could be written in symbols as 25 m/s or 25 m·s-1. New derived units can always be constructed as new situations arise. There is no limit to the number of multiplications, divisions and raising of powers that can be used, so there is no limit to the number of possible derived units. 22 of the derived units have their own names.

== The Base Units ==
SI depends on seven ''base units'' of measurement from which all other units derive. They are:

=== Second ===
The '''second''' (symbol s) is the unit of [[time]], defined as<blockquote>
the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the [[cesium]]-133 atom (13th CGPM, 1967).</blockquote> This translation is defined at [[absolute zero]].

There are 60 seconds in a [[minute]] and 3600 seconds in an [[hour]].

Historically the second was without definition, until 1820, when it was defined as 1/86,400 of the mean solar day. In 1956 the CGPM adopted the ''ephemeris second'' definition of 1/31 556 925.9747 of the tropical year 1900. The present definition dates from 1963.

=== Meter ===
The '''meter''' (or '''metre''') (symbol m) is the unit of [[length]]. Originally (see [[Metric system]]) it had a definition depending on the dimensions of the earth. It was defined so that the circumference of the Earth would be exactly 40 million meters. However, the circumference of the Earth depends on where you measure it, so the French creators of the metric system chose the circumference which travels through both poles, along the [[meridian]] that passes through [[Paris]]. (This was a snub to the British, who had defined longitude by reference to the meridian passing through [[Greenwich]]).
It later had a definition dependent on a particular type of radiation. Today its definition depends upon the second and on the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum--which the CGPM now assumes to be constant. Thus a meter is 1⁄299,792,458th of a light-second. (Therefore the speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second.)

* The '''centimeter''' (or '''centimetre''') (symbol cm) is one-hundreth of a meter. It is not a base unit but is included here because it is a commonly used unit of length.

=== Kilogram ===
The '''kilogram''' (symbol kg) is the unit of [[mass]]. It is defined as an amount of mass equal to that of the standard prototype kilogram kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. It is the ''only unit of measure'' based on a physical artifact. This is the same artifact that has provided the definition of grams and kilograms for over a century. It is also the only base SI unit to retain its decimal prefix, ''kilo-'', which comes from the [[Greek]] word for "thousand." Efforts are presently underway to redefine the kilogram more rigorously than it is defined today.

=== Ampere ===
The '''ampere''' (symbol A) is the unit of [[electric current]]. (Strangely, electric ''charge'' is not the base quantity.) The definition is as follows:<blockquote>One ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newtons per meter of length.</blockquote>

=== Kelvin ===
The '''kelvin''' (symbol K, named after [[Lord Kelvin]]) is the unit of [[temperature]], and specifically of [[absolute temperature scale|absolute temperature]]. It is 1/273.16 of the absolute temperature of the [[triple point]] of [[water]]. The size of the kelvin is the same as the size of the [[Celsius]] degree, and thus to convert from degrees Celsius to kelvins, one adds 273.15. (The zero of the Celsius scale, which is the [[melting point]] of water ice under standard atmospheric pressure, happens to be 273.15 kelvins.) Note that one says '200 kelvins' not '200 ''degrees'' kelvin'.

=== Mole ===
: ''Main Article: [[Mole (chemistry)]]''
The '''mole''' (symbol mol) is the unit of [[amount of substance]]. Its definition depends on that of the kilogram. It is that mass of any substance having as many ''elementary entities'' of that substance as are to be counted in 12 grams of [[carbon]]-12. An ''elementary entity'' is either an [[atom]] or a [[molecule]]--but for an [[ionic compound]], the number of elementary entities is the total number of [[cation|cations]] and [[anion|anions]] required to make the compound electrically neutral.

[[Avogadro's number]] gives the required number of elementary entities, and is typically represented by ''NA''. ''NA'' has the approximate value of 6.022X1023

Effectively, one mole of any substance is its formula mass in grams.

=== Candela ===
The '''candela''' (symbol cd) is the unit of [[luminous intensity]]. It replaces the old idea of 'candlepower'. Its definition is <blockquote>the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a [light] source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1⁄683 watt per steradian.</blockquote>

The term ''hertz'' means "vibrations, transitions, or other events per second." For the definitions of the terms '''watt''' and '''steradian''', see below. Light having the stated frequency is generally perceived as red.

== Named Derived Units ==
SI has multiple derived units that measure quantities in several areas of measurement and inquiry. The following is a comprehensive list of the named derived units, grouped by category.

=== Dynamics ===
==== Newton ====
The '''newton''' (symbol N, named for [[Sir Isaac Newton]]) is the SI unit of [[force]]. Force is generally found by multiplying the mass times the acceleration of the mass (giving us the more complicated form <math>kg(m/s^2)</math> )
. One newton is that amount of force required to give a one-kilogram mass an acceleration of one meter per second per second. To calculate, multiply mass by acceleration.

==== Pascal ====
: ''Main Article: [[Pascal]]''
The '''pascal''' (symbol Pa, named for [[Blaise Pascal]]) is that amount of [[pressure]] that exerts a force of one newton per square meter of area.

=== Work and Power ===
==== Joule ====
The '''joule''' (symbol J, named for [[James Joule]]) is that amount of [[energy]] required to do the ''work'' of exerting a force of one newton over a distance of one meter. To calculate, multiply force by distance, which reveals a joule is a Newton-meter or <math>N/m</math>. To expand further (keeping in mind a newton is a <math>kg(m/s^2)</math> ) a joule is a <math>kg (m^2/s^2)</math>

==== Watt ====
The '''watt''' (symbol W, named for [[James Watt]]) is the [[power]] required to do one Joule of work in one second. To calculate, divide work by time.
=== Electricity and Magnetism ===
==== Coulomb ====
The '''coulomb''' (symbol C, for [[C. A. Coulomb]]) is that amount of [[electric charge]] that passes through a conductor in one second at a current of one ampere. To calculate, multiply current by time.
==== Volt ====
The '''volt''' (symbol V, named after Alessandro Volta) is the [[electric potential]] difference between two conductors having a current flow of one ampere from one to another, and dissipating one watt of power. Most people find the phrase "electric potential" hard to understand and the alternative "electromotive force" to be hard to pronounce. They therefore use the word "voltage" for this quantity. To calculate, divide power by current--or divide work (or energy) by electric charge.

==== Ohm ====
The '''ohm''' (symbol Ω, for [[Georg Simon Ohm]]) is that amount of [[electric resistance]] that requires an electric potential difference of one volt to push a current of one ampere through it. To calculate, divide electrical potential by current.
==== Siemens ====
The '''siemens''' (symbol S, for [[Werner von Siemens]]) is the unit of [[electric conductance]], which is merely the reciprocal of resistance. In essence, the siemens is that level of conductance required to ''allow'' a current of one ampere to flow through a load after an electric potential of one volt is applied. To calculate it, divide current by electric potential or "voltage," rather than dividing voltage by current.

==== Farad ====
The '''farad''' (symbol F, for [[Michael Faraday]]) is that amount of [[capacitance]] that exists in a ''capacitor'' (essentially a pair or collection of metal plates that store charge) if a charge of one coulomb increases the electrical potential by one volt. To calculate, divide charge by electrical potential.
==== Weber ====
The '''weber''' (symbol Wb, for [[W. E. Weber]]) is <blockquote>the [[magnetic flux]] which, linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.</blockquote> To calculate, multiply electric potential (or electromotive force) by time.
==== Henry ====
The '''henry''' (symbol H) is that [[inductance]] in a closed loop or coil that produces a magnetic flux of one weber given a current of one ampere. To calculate, divide magnetic flux by current.
==== Tesla ====
The '''tesla''' (symbol T, for [[Nikola Tesla]]) is the [[magnetic flux density]] required to produce one weber of magnetic flux in one square meter of surface area. To calculate, divide flux by area.

=== Light ===
==== Lumen ====
The '''lumen''' (symbol lm) is that amount of [[luminous flux]] emitted in a solid-angle region of one steradian that produces one candela of intensity. To calculate, multiply luminous intensity by solid angle.
==== Lux ====
The '''lux''' (symbol lx) is that [[illuminance]] that represents one lumen in one square meter. To calculate, divide luminous flux by area.
==Temperature==
The degree Celsius (symbol °C) is a derived unit of temperature centered on the freezing temperature of water ice rather than absolute zero. It is defined by the temperature in kelvins minus 273.15. Note that
* the degree symbol (°) is a mandatory part of the symbol, as 'C' denotes the coulomb, the unit of electric charge
* It is perfectly correct, though rather unusual in practice, to use metric prefixes with the degree Celsius. Thus one can say 'the melting point of the metal is in excess of 2 k°C'
* While one does not say '200 degrees Kelvin' one ''does'' say '200 degrees Celsius'
* Prior to 1960 the degree Celsius was known as the degree Centigrade, a term that is now deprecated.

=== Radioactivity, Radiation, Health Physics, and Radiation Safety ===
==== Becquerel ====
The '''becquerel''' (symbol Bq, for [[Henri Becquerel]]) is that amount of [[activity]] of a radioactive substance represented by one decaying atom per second.

==== Gray (Unit) ====
The '''gray''' (symbol Gy) is that [[absorbed dose]] of radiation that imparts one joule of energy to one kilogram of target mass. To calculate, divide imparted energy by mass.
==== Sievert ====
The '''sievert''' (symbol Sv) is the unit of [[dose equivalent]]. It is that dose of any given form of ionizing radiation that would cause a human being or an animal as much injury as would a one-gray dose of [[X ray]]s.

== Supplementary Units ==
The metric system originally had the two units of plane angle and solid angle. Since they consist of a unit of length divided by a unit of length and thus dimensionless CGPM decided not to retain them in the base units. They were put into a separate category called Supplementary Units. They have been moved again and are now listed as named Derived Units.

=== Radian ===
The '''radian''' (symbol rad) is the ''plane angle'' unit. It is the measure of a central angle (one having its origin as the center of a [[circle]]) that subtends an [[arc]] of the circle having a length equal to that of the radius. By convention, the [[circumference]] of the ''unit circle'' (a circle having a radius of one) is 2π, and therefore the maximum "major angle" of any circle is 2π radians.

=== Steradian ===
The '''steradian''' (symbol sr) is the ''solid angle'' unit. A ''solid angle'' is actually one [[nappe]] of a right circular conical surface. One steradian is the measure of a solid angle that subtends a portion of the surface of a [[sphere]] having an area equal to that of a square having sides equal in length to the radius. By convention, the [[surface area]] of a sphere is 4πr2, where r is the length of the radius, and thus the maximum "major solid angle" of any sphere is 4π steradians.

==Obsolete metric units==
As the metric system has changed over time, some units have been abandoned and replaced with others. Examples of obsolete metric units, which should not be used.

* The '''calorie''' was originally defined as the amount of [[energy]] required to raise 1 g of water through 1 °C. It later was clarified to raising the temperature from 15 °C to 16 °C, since the energy required varies slightly with temperature. Confusingly, a second calorie, the Calorie (spelt with an upper case C) was introduced that was defined as the amount of energy required to raise 1 kg of water through 1 °C. Thus , 1 Calorie = 1000 calories. The Calorie (big C) became widely used as a measure of food energy. To avoid the confusion the Calorie was renamed the kilocalorie and the term Calorie was deprecated. The kilocalorie has now been replaced by the joule as the unit of energy, though energy values in kilocalories are still widely seen.

* The '''Ångstrom''' was a very small unit of length equal to 10-10 m. It was used for describing the wavelength of light, for example. The ångstrom was replaced by the nanometer. 1 nm = 10 Å.

* The '''curie''' (symbol Ci, for [[Marie Curie]]) is an obsolete unit of radioactivity. Its original definition was "the amount of radioactivity in one gram of [[radium]]-226." Madame Curie, of course, is most famous as the discoverer of radium. It was replaced by the becquerel, though it is still widely used in the US nuclear power industry. One curie is equal to 3.7 * 1010 becquerel.

* The '''micron''' (symbol µ) was a unit of length equal to one thousandth of a millimeter. It was replaced by the micrometer (symbol µm) in 1960.

* The '''degree Centigrade''' (symbol °C) was renamed the degree Celsius (symbol °C) in 1960.

==Metric Prefixes==
The base and derived units can be multiplied by prefixes in order to extend their range to virtually every magnitude used in practice, from subatomic physics to the large-scale structure of the universe. The following prefixes are available.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! The prefix:
! Abbreviated:
! Multiplies the unit by:
|-
| yocto-
| y
| 10-24
|-
| zepto-
| z
| 10-21
|-

| atto-
| a
| 10-18
|-
| femto-
| f
| 10-15
|-
| pico-
| p
| 10-12
|-
| nano-
| n
| 10-9
|-
| micro- ([[Greek]] ''small'')
| µ
| 10-6
|-
| milli- ([[Latin]] ''one thousand'')
| m
| 10-3
|-
| centi- (Latin ''one hundred'')
| c
| 10-2
|-
| deci- (Latin ''ten'')
| d
| 10-1
|-
| deka- (Greek ''ten'')
| da
| 101
|-
| hecto- (Greek ''one hundred'')
| H
| 102
|-
| kilo- (Greek ''one thousand'')
| k
| 103
|-
| mega- (Greek ''large'')
| M
| 106
|-
| giga- (Latin ''gigantic'')
| G
| 109
|-
| tera- (Greek ''wonder'')
| T
| 1012
|-
| peta-
| P
| 1015
|-
| exa-
| E
| 1018
|-
| zetta-
| Z
| 1021
|-
| yotta-
| Y
| 1024
|}

==Symbols, not Abbreviations==
The units of the SI do not have abbreviations, as these would vary depending on the language used and SI is designed to be the global standard. An English speaker might write 'sec' as an abbreviation for 'second', whereas a Spanish speaker would write 'seg' for 'segundo'. To get around this problem, a set of language-independent '''symbols''' were defined for each unit. Thus the symbol for the second is 's', for both the Spanish and English speaker. The SI symbols are a global standard, just like the Arabic numerals and the symbols for the chemical elements, that are the same whatever language is being used. For example, the language of [[Welsh]] does not contain the letter 'k' and the word 'kilometer' is spelt 'cilometr'. Nevertheless, a Welsh person writing in Welsh that 'the runway is 3 km long' would use '3 km' for 'three kilometers'. By contrast, use of an abbreviation such as 'cm' for 'cilometr' would cause confusion, as 'cm' denotes the centimeter.

==Writing Metric==
The rules of the SI system are defined in the [[International Organization for Standardization]] documents [[ISO 1000]] and [[ISO 31]]. They define not only the units, but the ways in which they are to be written.
* A space is to be put between the number and the unit. '25 km' is correct, '25km' is incorrect. This is a common mistake for users of English units, where no space is placed between the number and the unit.
* SI units do not take a trailing 's' to denote the plural. Thus '5 cms' is wrong and '5 cm' is correct. The reason is that 's' is the symbol for the second and 'cms' (intended to mean centimeters) could be confused with 'cm s' (meaning centimeter-seconds, a derived unit)
* SI symbols do not take a trailing period. (This would be appropriate if they were abbreviations, but they are not.)
* Since the SI symbols are symbols they are not altered to fit in with the surrounding text. The case of the symbol does not change - kelvin is always written as 'K' and kilograms is always written as 'kg'. Furthermore, they are never written in italics. Thus The woman lost 25 kg in weight is incorrect and should be The woman lost 25 kg in weight. Similarly, it is incorrect to alter the symbols to upper case (as often observed on shipping crates).

== Units of volume in the metric system ==
The liter was a unit of volume in the original 1795 definition of the metric system.It was defined as a cubic decimeter, i.e. a volume of 1/1000th of a cubic meter. However, the 1901 redefinition of the liter as the volume of 1 kg of water at the temperature when it takes its maximum density (3.98 °C) yields a a volume greater than a cubic decimeter by 28 parts per million. For everyday purposes this was not a problem, but for highly accurate scientific purposes it then became important to specify whether one actually meant a liter or cubic decimeter. The liter was thus not recommended for scientific purposes and technically became no longer part of the metric system. Officially, volume is measured in cubic meters and its multiples and submultiples, such as the cubic centimeter. The 1964 definition of the liter changed it back to exactly a cubic decimeter but technically it is a now a unit approved for use alongside the metric system but not part of it, alongside the minute, hour, year and others.

=== Metric and English Volume Units Compared ===
In the English system of weights and measures used in the USA, different units of volume are used for dry goods than for liquids. The Queen Anne gallon of 231 cubic inches is used for liquids and the Winchester gallon is the basis of the Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches. However in the metric system no distinction is made between units of volume used for dry goods and units of volume used for liquids. The cubic meter and its multiples and submultiples are used for all volumetric purposes. This is part of a general difference of approach between the two systems. The English system tends to use different measures for the same quantity depending on the context whereas the metric system uses the same measure. For example, in the English system pressure is measured in inches of mercury for weather, pounds per square inch for tire pressure and pounds per square foot for floor pressure. In the metric system these would be all measured in pascals or kilopascals.
==Lead Agency==
As scientific and engineering measurements become more accurate over time, the measurement standards they are compared against need to be continually refined. The National Institute for Science and Technology (NIST), based in Gaithersburg, Maryland, carries out world-class research in metrological science. NIST represents the United States in international committees on metrology.

== Reference ==
[http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/ The official, definitive definition of the SI system, from the Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesures]

[http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/contents.full.html Guide to the SI System from NIST, the lead federal agency on all metrology issues for the US]

[http://www.sizes.com/units/SI.htm SI at Sizes.com]

== See Also ==
* [[Metric system]] This describes the original metric system as defined at its creation in 1795.

[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Measurements]]

Domain name

2009-10-08T02:01:45Z

MarkBazerman: /* Top-level domain */ reference ISO

'''Domain name''' is a 'word form' entry in the Internet Domain Name System which is owned by a registrant of that name. Several kinds of entries can be associated with a domain name, including entries for routing email and entries for other kinds of interaction.

A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is resolvable to a numerical Internet Protocol (IP) address of an internet computer or system. In layman's terms, it is analogous to the names in a telephone directory which are associated with a telephone number. The domain name is 'pointed to' the actual IP address of a given computer or network, and allows a user to remember how to access that service more easily than having to remember a complex string of numbers<ref>[http://searchwindevelopment.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid8_gci211988,00.html Techtarget.com - Definition of Domain name]</ref>

Web servers, as is the case with all computers, are given [[IP address]]es when on the Internet. IP addresses may be represented by domain names (this is called "name resolution"). One example of a fully-qualified domain name would be "www.conservapedia.com".

==Subdomain==
The first portion of a domain name (often "www") is known as a ''subdomain''.

==Top-level domain==
The last portion of a Web site's name is known as a top-level domain (or TLD). Common TLDs of US Web sites include ".com" (commercial site), ".org" (non-profit organization), ".edu" (educational institution), ".gov" (government institution), ".us" (any United States user) and ".mil" (military institution). Other countries have their own TLDs, such as Britain's ".co.uk" and Germany's ".de" TLD. The ".com" TLD is used by companies world-wide. Some country TLDs, such as ".tv" (Tuvalu) and ".fm" (Federated Micronesia), are resold outside their country because of their resemblance to common English terms.
These country TLDs are based on the [[ISO]] 3166<ref>http://www.iso.org/iso/english_country_names_and_code_elements</ref> standard country codes.

==References==
<references/>
==See also==
*[[Web site]]
*[[IP address]]

[[Category:Internet]]