https://www.conservapedia.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Mark01 2026-10-10T04:20:16Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.35.14 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=James_V._Forrestal&diff=849337 2011-02-14T20:52:12Z

<p>Mark01: /* Last days and death */ spelling error</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:JVForrestal.jpg|right|300px|thumb|James V. Forrestal]]<br /> '''James Vincent Forrestal''' (1892-1949), Secretary of the Navy during the final year [[World War II]], and the first [[Secretary of Defense]] under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Forrestal was born on 15 February 1892, in Matteawan (now Beacon), [[New York]]. His father, an Irish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1857, managed a construction company. After graduating from high school in 1908, Forrestal worked for three years on local newspapers in New York State and then entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in 1911. The following year he transferred to [[Princeton University]] in New Jersey, but left in 1915 a few credits short of his degree, apparently due to academic and financial difficulties. During his time at both schools he also participated in boxing, tennis and wrestling. He then worked briefly as a financial reporter, a clerk for a zinc company and as a tobacco salesman. The next year Forrestal joined an investment banking house, William A. Read and Company of New York (which became Dillon, Read and Company in 1923), as a bond salesman. [[World War I]] interrupted his career in finance, however, and he enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] as a seaman second class on 2 June 1917.<br /> <br /> ====World War I====<br /> The young sailor became enthused by naval aviation and he took flight training with British instructors from the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden – considered to be the birthplace of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] – and at Deseronto, both in Ontario, [[Canada]]. He commissioned as an ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps (NRFC) at Boston, Massachusetts, on 17 November of that year, and he gained his wings of gold as Naval Aviator No. 154 [HTA–heavier-than-air] on 6 December 1917. Soon thereafter, Forrestal served in the office of the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].<br /> <br /> ==Between the wars==<br /> Following the Armistice, Forrestal, discharged from the Navy with the rank of lieutenant on 30 December 1919, returned to banking through 1940. He rose rapidly in the company, becoming a partner in 1923, vice president in 1926, and president in 1938. Meanwhile, he met and courted Josephine Ogden, a beautiful 26-year-old chorus girl for the Ziegfeld Follies, and after a tempestuous romance the couple married on 13 October 1926, a union that would produce two sons, Michael V., and Peter. Although “Jim Forrestal was the man I wanted” the bride afterward confided to an interviewer, and their matrimonial voyage began happily, their marriage eventually grounded on the husband’s extra-marital affairs and his wife's descent into alcoholism and mental illness.<br /> <br /> ==World War II==<br /> In June 1940, Forrestal accepted a post as a special assistant to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], serving as a liaison for the chief executive in handling the National Defense Program, part of the country’s belated rearmament efforts as it prepared for World War II. In August 1940, the President nominated Forrestal to fill the new position of under secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Navy William Frank Knox assigned his under secretary to handle contracts, taxes and legal affairs, and as a liaison with several other government agencies. A highly capable administrator and manager, Forrestal built his office into an efficient organization, and he ran very effectively the Navy’s machinery for industrial mobilization and procurement, a vast system that ultimately produced the largest fleet ever to put to sea. The seemingly tireless under secretary made numerous trips across the country and to the far-flung battlefields, coming under fire by the Japanese more than once during inspection and morale-building tours on Kwajalein and [[Iwo Jima]]. When a heart attack took Secretary Knox, Forrestal succeeded him on 19 May 1944. He guided the Navy through the last year of the war and into the two difficult years of demobilization after the Japanese surrendered.<br /> <br /> ==Defense secretary==<br /> Forrestal visited Joint Task Force 1 at Bikini Lagoon in the Marshall Islands for Test ''Able'' of [[Operation Crossroads]] to witness the detonation of an [[atomic bomb]] and its effects upon over 90 ships, together with weapons and equipment, during late June and early July 1946. The explosion stunned the secretary, who made a number of references during interviews over succeeding days to the tremendous power unleashed by the blast and its effect upon viewers. Complex global problems made more urgent by the [[Cold War]] confronted the nation, however, and planners developed a new national security system to begin functioning without delay. Forrestal participated prominently in the development of the National Security Act of 1947, even though he initially opposed unification services. Nonetheless, under pressure from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and others, Forrestal made use of the 1945 Eberstadt report and negotiations with Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson to play a primary role in shaping the initial form of the plans. Although the President preferred Patterson as his first choice for secretary of defense, the latter intended to return to private life. The President’s subsequent selection of Forrestal, however ironic it might appear given the Secretary’s resistance to unification, was deserved and logical considering his long experience in the Defense establishment and dedication to effective administration.<br /> <br /> Tensions between the West and the East Bloc continued to build and intelligence analysts feared that Yugoslav Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] might attempt to seize the Adriatic city of [[Trieste]], still occupied by U.S. and British troops to ensure the orderly transition of power following the Axis collapse. Therefore, when President Truman selected Forrestal as the first secretary of defense, he also directed that be sworn-in several days earlier than originally scheduled, on 17 September 1947.<br /> <br /> Forrestal brought to his new office a deep distrust of the Soviets and a determination to make the new national security structure workable. He recognized the magnitude of the job; he wrote to a friend shortly after announcement of his appointment confiding his serious apprehensions about the future of the new organization. He soon discovered that perhaps the chief obstacle to accomplishing his objectives would be the inherent weakness in the secretary of defense’s powers as defined in the National Security Act. Another problem became the existence of virtually autonomous heads for the military departments. These organizational difficulties, combined with a steady escalation of Cold War tensions, ensured 18 months of frustration.<br /> <br /> By February 1948, the Russians had largely completed their network of satellite nations across eastern Europe, as communists supported by [[Moscow]] seized control in [[Czechoslovakia]]. That June, the Soviets blockaded land routes from the western zones of [[Germany]] to Berlin, forcing the Americans and their allies to initiate an airlift which supplied Berlin until Moscow relaxed the blockade more than 10 months later. In the meantime, war broke out in [[Palestine]] between the Arabs and [[Israel]]is. As these events occurred, Congress approved the [[Marshall Plan]], providing economic aid for 16 European nations, and in June 1948 the Senate adopted the [[Vandenberg Resolution]], encouraging the administration to enter into collective defense arrangements. The Americans and British led in developing the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), formally established in April 1949. On the other side of the world, the Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists and drove them from the mainland, leading in 1949 to their emergence as a growing threat to freedom within Asia.<br /> <br /> The national security apparatus played an important role in the development of U.S. policies and programs to meet these Cold War challenges. Forrestal believed strongly in the need for close coordination of defense and foreign policy and saw the National Security Council as a major instrument for accomplishing this coordination. Although President Truman deemed the council a subordinate advisory body he met infrequently with it before the Korean War erupted in June 1950. Forrestal thought it should originate policy proposals and provide firm guidance for strategic planning. He labored hard, for the most part unsuccessfully, to increase its influence. In addition, during these years many Western leaders feared that the Soviets would use their enormous armed forces to conquer Western Europeans, who World War II largely weakened and made destitute. These men sought desperately for aid to brunt the (perceived) Russian steamroller and embraced many former Axis leaders due to the latter’s expertise in and dedication to containing communism.<br /> <br /> Forrestal became one of these leaders who established a chain of contacts and infrastructure with émigré anti-communists, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN, better known by their code name of Nactigall, or Nightingale), a group of zealously xenophobic Ukrainians who fought both the Poles and the Russians from World War I onward. Some of these men gained a notorious reputation for supporting Nazi efforts to exterminate Jews, Gypsies and other victims of the [[Holocaust]].<br /> <br /> While the public did not become aware of these classified operations for sometime, the highly publicized War Crimes trials drew attention to the atrocities of the Holocaust, and to those even remotely affiliated with them in whatever manner.<br /> <br /> ==Last days and death==<br /> <br /> National security issues plagued the Secretary and the defense budget became a source of tension between Forrestal and Truman. Due to public pressures to limit defense expenditures and his predilection for a balanced budget, Truman would not agree to budget levels proposed by Forrestal or the larger amounts desired by the services. Disagreements between the services over roles and missions complicated the matter. Because the budget limits Truman imposed intensified the competition for scarce funds, the services developed elaborate rationales justifying their views of roles and missions and the funds to support them.<br /> <br /> The Air Force argued that strategic air power as exemplified by long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons could be key factor in future wars, and that service wanted funds to support 70 combat groups as well as exclusive use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, the Navy wanted to build large flush-deck carriers from which it could launch naval aircraft carrying atomic weapons. These and other differences among the services surfaced especially during annual consideration of the budget.<br /> <br /> For all the problems, Forrestal could list 15 “solid accomplishments in the process of unification” in his first report as secretary of defense in December 1948. These included the formulation of long-range and short-range strategic plans, the development of an integrated defense budget for FY 1950, the definition of service roles and missions, the coordination of service procurement efforts, and the establishment of additional overseas unified commands. Forrestal observed that: “the mere passage of the National Security Act did not mean the accomplishment of its objectives overnight. The most difficult part of the task of unification is to bring conflicting ideas into harmony… How fast we complete the process of resolution will depend on the speed with which we achieve the harmony of thought which is inherent in true unification. I am confident that we shall reach that accord.”<br /> <br /> The 1949 amendments to the National Security Act stand as testimony to Forrestal’s determination to improve the Defense structure. The 1949 amendments began the legislative process of clarifying and expanding the powers of the secretary of defense. Centralization of authority in the Office of the Secretary of Defense became a constant objective under Forrestal and many of his successors. Unfortunately, Forrestal no longer served in the Pentagon when Congress approved these amendments.<br /> <br /> In March 1949, because of Forrestal’s outspoken criticism of these and other policies of the Truman administration, Truman demanded his resignation.<br /> <br /> While Forrestal was on vacation in Florida the Surgeon General had him brought back to Washington and admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. It is unclear why the government was involved with the health of a civilian, and to what extent the admission was voluntary. The hospital doctors described Forrestal as suffering from exhaustion and depression due to overwork.<br /> <br /> The central building of Bethesda Naval Hospital has 18 floors. Forrestal was placed on the 16th. After several weeks rest he had apparently recovered but still remained hospitalized. In the early hours of May 22 he fell to his death from his suite’s kitchen window, landing on a ledge or roof 13 floors below, clothed only in pajamas -- the belt cord of his robe knotted around his neck.<br /> <br /> On May 23 a military board of investigation was convened, headed by Morton D. Willcutts, Rear Admiral of the Navy Medical Corps. The resulting report is now known as the Willcutts Report. A copy was not made available to the general public until April 2004, 55 years later. The Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library of Princeton University has a PDF photocopy. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/ The Willcutts Report] at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University&lt;/ref&gt; A searchable text version is available online. &lt;ref&gt;[http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report] - HTML version&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The report contains a number of discrepancies. Perhaps the most blatant is that the poem alleged to have been copied by Forrestal the night of his death is obviously in someone else’s handwriting.<br /> <br /> Much has been written about the mysterious circumstances surrounding Forrestal’s death, that predating April 2004 uninformed by the Willcutts Report.<br /> <br /> The country acknowledged Forrestal’s services to American security and freedom through two world wars by interring Forrestal's remains with full military honors at [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. The Finnish artist Kalervo Kallio sculpted a bronze bust of Forrestal which officials unveiled at the Mall entrance to the Pentagon on 22 September 1950. The USS Forrestal, launched in 1954, was named after him.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> &lt;small&gt;Part of this article is from {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/forrestal.htm]}}} in the public domain.&lt;/small&gt; <br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Forrestal, James V.}}<br /> [[Category:United States Appointed Officials]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=James_V._Forrestal&diff=849323 2011-02-14T19:41:44Z

<p>Mark01: /* Last days and death */ added sentence about the USS Forrestal, etc.</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:JVForrestal.jpg|right|300px|thumb|James V. Forrestal]]<br /> '''James Vincent Forrestal''' (1892-1949), Secretary of the Navy during the final year [[World War II]], and the first [[Secretary of Defense]] under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Forrestal was born on 15 February 1892, in Matteawan (now Beacon), [[New York]]. His father, an Irish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1857, managed a construction company. After graduating from high school in 1908, Forrestal worked for three years on local newspapers in New York State and then entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in 1911. The following year he transferred to [[Princeton University]] in New Jersey, but left in 1915 a few credits short of his degree, apparently due to academic and financial difficulties. During his time at both schools he also participated in boxing, tennis and wrestling. He then worked briefly as a financial reporter, a clerk for a zinc company and as a tobacco salesman. The next year Forrestal joined an investment banking house, William A. Read and Company of New York (which became Dillon, Read and Company in 1923), as a bond salesman. [[World War I]] interrupted his career in finance, however, and he enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] as a seaman second class on 2 June 1917.<br /> <br /> ====World War I====<br /> The young sailor became enthused by naval aviation and he took flight training with British instructors from the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden – considered to be the birthplace of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] – and at Deseronto, both in Ontario, [[Canada]]. He commissioned as an ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps (NRFC) at Boston, Massachusetts, on 17 November of that year, and he gained his wings of gold as Naval Aviator No. 154 [HTA–heavier-than-air] on 6 December 1917. Soon thereafter, Forrestal served in the office of the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].<br /> <br /> ==Between the wars==<br /> Following the Armistice, Forrestal, discharged from the Navy with the rank of lieutenant on 30 December 1919, returned to banking through 1940. He rose rapidly in the company, becoming a partner in 1923, vice president in 1926, and president in 1938. Meanwhile, he met and courted Josephine Ogden, a beautiful 26-year-old chorus girl for the Ziegfeld Follies, and after a tempestuous romance the couple married on 13 October 1926, a union that would produce two sons, Michael V., and Peter. Although “Jim Forrestal was the man I wanted” the bride afterward confided to an interviewer, and their matrimonial voyage began happily, their marriage eventually grounded on the husband’s extra-marital affairs and his wife's descent into alcoholism and mental illness.<br /> <br /> ==World War II==<br /> In June 1940, Forrestal accepted a post as a special assistant to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], serving as a liaison for the chief executive in handling the National Defense Program, part of the country’s belated rearmament efforts as it prepared for World War II. In August 1940, the President nominated Forrestal to fill the new position of under secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Navy William Frank Knox assigned his under secretary to handle contracts, taxes and legal affairs, and as a liaison with several other government agencies. A highly capable administrator and manager, Forrestal built his office into an efficient organization, and he ran very effectively the Navy’s machinery for industrial mobilization and procurement, a vast system that ultimately produced the largest fleet ever to put to sea. The seemingly tireless under secretary made numerous trips across the country and to the far-flung battlefields, coming under fire by the Japanese more than once during inspection and morale-building tours on Kwajalein and [[Iwo Jima]]. When a heart attack took Secretary Knox, Forrestal succeeded him on 19 May 1944. He guided the Navy through the last year of the war and into the two difficult years of demobilization after the Japanese surrendered.<br /> <br /> ==Defense secretary==<br /> Forrestal visited Joint Task Force 1 at Bikini Lagoon in the Marshall Islands for Test ''Able'' of [[Operation Crossroads]] to witness the detonation of an [[atomic bomb]] and its effects upon over 90 ships, together with weapons and equipment, during late June and early July 1946. The explosion stunned the secretary, who made a number of references during interviews over succeeding days to the tremendous power unleashed by the blast and its effect upon viewers. Complex global problems made more urgent by the [[Cold War]] confronted the nation, however, and planners developed a new national security system to begin functioning without delay. Forrestal participated prominently in the development of the National Security Act of 1947, even though he initially opposed unification services. Nonetheless, under pressure from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and others, Forrestal made use of the 1945 Eberstadt report and negotiations with Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson to play a primary role in shaping the initial form of the plans. Although the President preferred Patterson as his first choice for secretary of defense, the latter intended to return to private life. The President’s subsequent selection of Forrestal, however ironic it might appear given the Secretary’s resistance to unification, was deserved and logical considering his long experience in the Defense establishment and dedication to effective administration.<br /> <br /> Tensions between the West and the East Bloc continued to build and intelligence analysts feared that Yugoslav Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] might attempt to seize the Adriatic city of [[Trieste]], still occupied by U.S. and British troops to ensure the orderly transition of power following the Axis collapse. Therefore, when President Truman selected Forrestal as the first secretary of defense, he also directed that be sworn-in several days earlier than originally scheduled, on 17 September 1947.<br /> <br /> Forrestal brought to his new office a deep distrust of the Soviets and a determination to make the new national security structure workable. He recognized the magnitude of the job; he wrote to a friend shortly after announcement of his appointment confiding his serious apprehensions about the future of the new organization. He soon discovered that perhaps the chief obstacle to accomplishing his objectives would be the inherent weakness in the secretary of defense’s powers as defined in the National Security Act. Another problem became the existence of virtually autonomous heads for the military departments. These organizational difficulties, combined with a steady escalation of Cold War tensions, ensured 18 months of frustration.<br /> <br /> By February 1948, the Russians had largely completed their network of satellite nations across eastern Europe, as communists supported by [[Moscow]] seized control in [[Czechoslovakia]]. That June, the Soviets blockaded land routes from the western zones of [[Germany]] to Berlin, forcing the Americans and their allies to initiate an airlift which supplied Berlin until Moscow relaxed the blockade more than 10 months later. In the meantime, war broke out in [[Palestine]] between the Arabs and [[Israel]]is. As these events occurred, Congress approved the [[Marshall Plan]], providing economic aid for 16 European nations, and in June 1948 the Senate adopted the [[Vandenberg Resolution]], encouraging the administration to enter into collective defense arrangements. The Americans and British led in developing the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), formally established in April 1949. On the other side of the world, the Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists and drove them from the mainland, leading in 1949 to their emergence as a growing threat to freedom within Asia.<br /> <br /> The national security apparatus played an important role in the development of U.S. policies and programs to meet these Cold War challenges. Forrestal believed strongly in the need for close coordination of defense and foreign policy and saw the National Security Council as a major instrument for accomplishing this coordination. Although President Truman deemed the council a subordinate advisory body he met infrequently with it before the Korean War erupted in June 1950. Forrestal thought it should originate policy proposals and provide firm guidance for strategic planning. He labored hard, for the most part unsuccessfully, to increase its influence. In addition, during these years many Western leaders feared that the Soviets would use their enormous armed forces to conquer Western Europeans, who World War II largely weakened and made destitute. These men sought desperately for aid to brunt the (perceived) Russian steamroller and embraced many former Axis leaders due to the latter’s expertise in and dedication to containing communism.<br /> <br /> Forrestal became one of these leaders who established a chain of contacts and infrastructure with émigré anti-communists, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN, better known by their code name of Nactigall, or Nightingale), a group of zealously xenophobic Ukrainians who fought both the Poles and the Russians from World War I onward. Some of these men gained a notorious reputation for supporting Nazi efforts to exterminate Jews, Gypsies and other victims of the [[Holocaust]].<br /> <br /> While the public did not become aware of these classified operations for sometime, the highly publicized War Crimes trials drew attention to the atrocities of the Holocaust, and to those even remotely affiliated with them in whatever manner.<br /> <br /> ==Last days and death==<br /> <br /> National security issues plagued the Secretary and the defense budget became a source of tension between Forrestal and Truman. Due to public pressures to limit defense expenditures and his predilection for a balanced budget, Truman would not agree to budget levels proposed by Forrestal or the larger amounts desired by the services. Disagreements between the services over roles and missions complicated the matter. Because the budget limits Truman imposed intensified the competition for scarce funds, the services developed elaborate rationales justifying their views of roles and missions and the funds to support them.<br /> <br /> The Air Force argued that strategic air power as exemplified by long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons could be key factor in future wars, and that service wanted funds to support 70 combat groups as well as exclusive use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, the Navy wanted to build large flush-deck carriers from which it could launch naval aircraft carrying atomic weapons. These and other differences among the services surfaced especially during annual consideration of the budget.<br /> <br /> For all the problems, Forrestal could list 15 “solid accomplishments in the process of unification” in his first report as secretary of defense in December 1948. These included the formulation of long-range and short-range strategic plans, the development of an integrated defense budget for FY 1950, the definition of service roles and missions, the coordination of service procurement efforts, and the establishment of additional overseas unified commands. Forrestal observed that: “the mere passage of the National Security Act did not mean the accomplishment of its objectives overnight. The most difficult part of the task of unification is to bring conflicting ideas into harmony… How fast we complete the process of resolution will depend on the speed with which we achieve the harmony of thought which is inherent in true unification. I am confident that we shall reach that accord.”<br /> <br /> The 1949 amendments to the National Security Act stand as testimony to Forrestal’s determination to improve the Defense structure. The 1949 amendments began the legislative process of clarifying and expanding the powers of the secretary of defense. Centralization of authority in the Office of the Secretary of Defense became a constant objective under Forrestal and many of his successors. Unfortunately, Forrestal no longer served in the Pentagon when Congress approved these amendments.<br /> <br /> In March 1949, because of Forrestal’s outspoken criticism of these and other policies of the Truman administration, Truman demanded his resignation.<br /> <br /> While Forrestal was on vacation in Florida the Surgeon General had him brought back to Washington and admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. It is unclear why the government was involved with the health of a civilian, and to what extent the admission was voluntary. The hospital doctors described Forrestal as suffering from exhaustion and depression due to overwork.<br /> <br /> The central building of Bethesda Naval Hospital has 18 floors. Forrestal was placed on the 16th. After several weeks rest he had apparently recovered but still remained hospitalized. In the early hours of May 22 he fell to his death from his suite’s kitchen window, landing on a ledge or roof 13 floors below, clothed only in pajamas -- the belt cord of his robe knotted around his neck.<br /> <br /> On May 23 a military board of investigation was convened, headed by Morton D. Willcutts, Rear Admiral of the Navy Medical Corps. The resulting report is now known as the Willcutts Report. A copy was not made available to the general public until April 2004, 55 years later. The Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library of Princeton University has a PDF photocopy. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/ The Willcutts Report] at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University&lt;/ref&gt; A searchable text version is available online. &lt;ref&gt;[http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report] - HTML version&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The report contains a number of discrepancies. Perhaps the most blatant is that the poem alleged to have been copied by Forrestal the night of his death is obviously in someone else’s handwriting, and on very worn paper.<br /> <br /> Much has been written about the mysterious circumstances surrounding Forrestal’s death, that predating April 2004 uniformed by the Willcutts Report.<br /> <br /> The country acknowledged Forrestal’s services to American security and freedom through two world wars by interring Forrestal's remains with full military honors at [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. The Finnish artist Kalervo Kallio sculpted a bronze bust of Forrestal which officials unveiled at the Mall entrance to the Pentagon on 22 September 1950. The USS Forrestal, launched in 1954, was named after him.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> &lt;small&gt;Part of this article is from {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/forrestal.htm]}}} in the public domain.&lt;/small&gt; <br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Forrestal, James V.}}<br /> [[Category:United States Appointed Officials]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=James_V._Forrestal&diff=849302 2011-02-14T19:22:40Z

<p>Mark01: /* Last days and death */ added section for footnotes</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:JVForrestal.jpg|right|300px|thumb|James V. Forrestal]]<br /> '''James Vincent Forrestal''' (1892-1949), Secretary of the Navy during the final year [[World War II]], and the first [[Secretary of Defense]] under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Forrestal was born on 15 February 1892, in Matteawan (now Beacon), [[New York]]. His father, an Irish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1857, managed a construction company. After graduating from high school in 1908, Forrestal worked for three years on local newspapers in New York State and then entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in 1911. The following year he transferred to [[Princeton University]] in New Jersey, but left in 1915 a few credits short of his degree, apparently due to academic and financial difficulties. During his time at both schools he also participated in boxing, tennis and wrestling. He then worked briefly as a financial reporter, a clerk for a zinc company and as a tobacco salesman. The next year Forrestal joined an investment banking house, William A. Read and Company of New York (which became Dillon, Read and Company in 1923), as a bond salesman. [[World War I]] interrupted his career in finance, however, and he enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] as a seaman second class on 2 June 1917.<br /> <br /> ====World War I====<br /> The young sailor became enthused by naval aviation and he took flight training with British instructors from the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden – considered to be the birthplace of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] – and at Deseronto, both in Ontario, [[Canada]]. He commissioned as an ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps (NRFC) at Boston, Massachusetts, on 17 November of that year, and he gained his wings of gold as Naval Aviator No. 154 [HTA–heavier-than-air] on 6 December 1917. Soon thereafter, Forrestal served in the office of the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].<br /> <br /> ==Between the wars==<br /> Following the Armistice, Forrestal, discharged from the Navy with the rank of lieutenant on 30 December 1919, returned to banking through 1940. He rose rapidly in the company, becoming a partner in 1923, vice president in 1926, and president in 1938. Meanwhile, he met and courted Josephine Ogden, a beautiful 26-year-old chorus girl for the Ziegfeld Follies, and after a tempestuous romance the couple married on 13 October 1926, a union that would produce two sons, Michael V., and Peter. Although “Jim Forrestal was the man I wanted” the bride afterward confided to an interviewer, and their matrimonial voyage began happily, their marriage eventually grounded on the husband’s extra-marital affairs and his wife's descent into alcoholism and mental illness.<br /> <br /> ==World War II==<br /> In June 1940, Forrestal accepted a post as a special assistant to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], serving as a liaison for the chief executive in handling the National Defense Program, part of the country’s belated rearmament efforts as it prepared for World War II. In August 1940, the President nominated Forrestal to fill the new position of under secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Navy William Frank Knox assigned his under secretary to handle contracts, taxes and legal affairs, and as a liaison with several other government agencies. A highly capable administrator and manager, Forrestal built his office into an efficient organization, and he ran very effectively the Navy’s machinery for industrial mobilization and procurement, a vast system that ultimately produced the largest fleet ever to put to sea. The seemingly tireless under secretary made numerous trips across the country and to the far-flung battlefields, coming under fire by the Japanese more than once during inspection and morale-building tours on Kwajalein and [[Iwo Jima]]. When a heart attack took Secretary Knox, Forrestal succeeded him on 19 May 1944. He guided the Navy through the last year of the war and into the two difficult years of demobilization after the Japanese surrendered.<br /> <br /> ==Defense secretary==<br /> Forrestal visited Joint Task Force 1 at Bikini Lagoon in the Marshall Islands for Test ''Able'' of [[Operation Crossroads]] to witness the detonation of an [[atomic bomb]] and its effects upon over 90 ships, together with weapons and equipment, during late June and early July 1946. The explosion stunned the secretary, who made a number of references during interviews over succeeding days to the tremendous power unleashed by the blast and its effect upon viewers. Complex global problems made more urgent by the [[Cold War]] confronted the nation, however, and planners developed a new national security system to begin functioning without delay. Forrestal participated prominently in the development of the National Security Act of 1947, even though he initially opposed unification services. Nonetheless, under pressure from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and others, Forrestal made use of the 1945 Eberstadt report and negotiations with Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson to play a primary role in shaping the initial form of the plans. Although the President preferred Patterson as his first choice for secretary of defense, the latter intended to return to private life. The President’s subsequent selection of Forrestal, however ironic it might appear given the Secretary’s resistance to unification, was deserved and logical considering his long experience in the Defense establishment and dedication to effective administration.<br /> <br /> Tensions between the West and the East Bloc continued to build and intelligence analysts feared that Yugoslav Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] might attempt to seize the Adriatic city of [[Trieste]], still occupied by U.S. and British troops to ensure the orderly transition of power following the Axis collapse. Therefore, when President Truman selected Forrestal as the first secretary of defense, he also directed that be sworn-in several days earlier than originally scheduled, on 17 September 1947.<br /> <br /> Forrestal brought to his new office a deep distrust of the Soviets and a determination to make the new national security structure workable. He recognized the magnitude of the job; he wrote to a friend shortly after announcement of his appointment confiding his serious apprehensions about the future of the new organization. He soon discovered that perhaps the chief obstacle to accomplishing his objectives would be the inherent weakness in the secretary of defense’s powers as defined in the National Security Act. Another problem became the existence of virtually autonomous heads for the military departments. These organizational difficulties, combined with a steady escalation of Cold War tensions, ensured 18 months of frustration.<br /> <br /> By February 1948, the Russians had largely completed their network of satellite nations across eastern Europe, as communists supported by [[Moscow]] seized control in [[Czechoslovakia]]. That June, the Soviets blockaded land routes from the western zones of [[Germany]] to Berlin, forcing the Americans and their allies to initiate an airlift which supplied Berlin until Moscow relaxed the blockade more than 10 months later. In the meantime, war broke out in [[Palestine]] between the Arabs and [[Israel]]is. As these events occurred, Congress approved the [[Marshall Plan]], providing economic aid for 16 European nations, and in June 1948 the Senate adopted the [[Vandenberg Resolution]], encouraging the administration to enter into collective defense arrangements. The Americans and British led in developing the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), formally established in April 1949. On the other side of the world, the Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists and drove them from the mainland, leading in 1949 to their emergence as a growing threat to freedom within Asia.<br /> <br /> The national security apparatus played an important role in the development of U.S. policies and programs to meet these Cold War challenges. Forrestal believed strongly in the need for close coordination of defense and foreign policy and saw the National Security Council as a major instrument for accomplishing this coordination. Although President Truman deemed the council a subordinate advisory body he met infrequently with it before the Korean War erupted in June 1950. Forrestal thought it should originate policy proposals and provide firm guidance for strategic planning. He labored hard, for the most part unsuccessfully, to increase its influence. In addition, during these years many Western leaders feared that the Soviets would use their enormous armed forces to conquer Western Europeans, who World War II largely weakened and made destitute. These men sought desperately for aid to brunt the (perceived) Russian steamroller and embraced many former Axis leaders due to the latter’s expertise in and dedication to containing communism.<br /> <br /> Forrestal became one of these leaders who established a chain of contacts and infrastructure with émigré anti-communists, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN, better known by their code name of Nactigall, or Nightingale), a group of zealously xenophobic Ukrainians who fought both the Poles and the Russians from World War I onward. Some of these men gained a notorious reputation for supporting Nazi efforts to exterminate Jews, Gypsies and other victims of the [[Holocaust]].<br /> <br /> While the public did not become aware of these classified operations for sometime, the highly publicized War Crimes trials drew attention to the atrocities of the Holocaust, and to those even remotely affiliated with them in whatever manner.<br /> <br /> ==Last days and death==<br /> <br /> National security issues plagued the Secretary and the defense budget became a source of tension between Forrestal and Truman. Due to public pressures to limit defense expenditures and his predilection for a balanced budget, Truman would not agree to budget levels proposed by Forrestal or the larger amounts desired by the services. Disagreements between the services over roles and missions complicated the matter. Because the budget limits Truman imposed intensified the competition for scarce funds, the services developed elaborate rationales justifying their views of roles and missions and the funds to support them.<br /> <br /> The Air Force argued that strategic air power as exemplified by long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons could be key factor in future wars, and that service wanted funds to support 70 combat groups as well as exclusive use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, the Navy wanted to build large flush-deck carriers from which it could launch naval aircraft carrying atomic weapons. These and other differences among the services surfaced especially during annual consideration of the budget.<br /> <br /> For all the problems, Forrestal could list 15 “solid accomplishments in the process of unification” in his first report as secretary of defense in December 1948. These included the formulation of long-range and short-range strategic plans, the development of an integrated defense budget for FY 1950, the definition of service roles and missions, the coordination of service procurement efforts, and the establishment of additional overseas unified commands. Forrestal observed that: “the mere passage of the National Security Act did not mean the accomplishment of its objectives overnight. The most difficult part of the task of unification is to bring conflicting ideas into harmony… How fast we complete the process of resolution will depend on the speed with which we achieve the harmony of thought which is inherent in true unification. I am confident that we shall reach that accord.”<br /> <br /> The 1949 amendments to the National Security Act stand as testimony to Forrestal’s determination to improve the Defense structure. The 1949 amendments began the legislative process of clarifying and expanding the powers of the secretary of defense. Centralization of authority in the Office of the Secretary of Defense became a constant objective under Forrestal and many of his successors. Unfortunately, Forrestal no longer served in the Pentagon when Congress approved these amendments.<br /> <br /> In March 1949, because of Forrestal’s outspoken criticism of these and other policies of the Truman administration, Truman demanded his resignation.<br /> <br /> While Forrestal was on vacation in Florida the Surgeon General had him brought back to Washington and admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. It is unclear why the government was involved with the health of a civilian, and to what extent the admission was voluntary. The hospital doctors described Forrestal as suffering from exhaustion and depression due to overwork.<br /> <br /> The central building of Bethesda Naval Hospital has 18 floors. Forrestal was placed on the 16th. After several weeks rest he had apparently recovered but still remained hospitalized. In the early hours of May 22 he fell to his death from his suite’s kitchen window, landing on a ledge or roof 13 floors below, clothed only in pajamas -- the belt cord of his robe knotted around his neck.<br /> <br /> On May 23 a military board of investigation was convened, headed by Morton D. Willcutts, Rear Admiral of the Navy Medical Corps. The resulting report is now known as the Willcutts Report. A copy was not made available to the general public until April 2004, 55 years later. The Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library of Princeton University has a PDF photocopy. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/ The Willcutts Report] at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University&lt;/ref&gt; A searchable text version is available online. &lt;ref&gt;[http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report] - HTML version&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The report contains a number of discrepancies. Perhaps the most bizarre is that the poem alleged to have been copied by Forrestal the night of his death is obviously in someone else’s handwriting, and on very worn paper.<br /> <br /> Much has been written about the mysterious circumstances surrounding Forrestal’s death, that predating April 2004 uniformed by the Willcutts Report.<br /> <br /> The country acknowledged Forrestal’s services to American security and freedom through two world wars by interring Forrestal with full military honors at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] three days after his death. The Finnish artist Kalervo Kallio sculpted a bronze bust of Forrestal which officials unveiled at the Mall entrance to the Pentagon on 22 September 1950. Some months after he left office, the House Armed Services Committee, with which he worked closely, described his administration as secretary of defense as “able, sensitive, restrained, and far-sighted.”<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> &lt;small&gt;Part of this article is from {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/forrestal.htm]}}} in the public domain.&lt;/small&gt; <br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Forrestal, James V.}}<br /> [[Category:United States Appointed Officials]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=James_V._Forrestal&diff=849300 2011-02-14T19:19:37Z

<p>Mark01: /* Last days and death */ part of article is from U.S. federal government</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:JVForrestal.jpg|right|300px|thumb|James V. Forrestal]]<br /> '''James Vincent Forrestal''' (1892-1949), Secretary of the Navy during the final year [[World War II]], and the first [[Secretary of Defense]] under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Forrestal was born on 15 February 1892, in Matteawan (now Beacon), [[New York]]. His father, an Irish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1857, managed a construction company. After graduating from high school in 1908, Forrestal worked for three years on local newspapers in New York State and then entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in 1911. The following year he transferred to [[Princeton University]] in New Jersey, but left in 1915 a few credits short of his degree, apparently due to academic and financial difficulties. During his time at both schools he also participated in boxing, tennis and wrestling. He then worked briefly as a financial reporter, a clerk for a zinc company and as a tobacco salesman. The next year Forrestal joined an investment banking house, William A. Read and Company of New York (which became Dillon, Read and Company in 1923), as a bond salesman. [[World War I]] interrupted his career in finance, however, and he enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] as a seaman second class on 2 June 1917.<br /> <br /> ====World War I====<br /> The young sailor became enthused by naval aviation and he took flight training with British instructors from the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden – considered to be the birthplace of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] – and at Deseronto, both in Ontario, [[Canada]]. He commissioned as an ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps (NRFC) at Boston, Massachusetts, on 17 November of that year, and he gained his wings of gold as Naval Aviator No. 154 [HTA–heavier-than-air] on 6 December 1917. Soon thereafter, Forrestal served in the office of the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].<br /> <br /> ==Between the wars==<br /> Following the Armistice, Forrestal, discharged from the Navy with the rank of lieutenant on 30 December 1919, returned to banking through 1940. He rose rapidly in the company, becoming a partner in 1923, vice president in 1926, and president in 1938. Meanwhile, he met and courted Josephine Ogden, a beautiful 26-year-old chorus girl for the Ziegfeld Follies, and after a tempestuous romance the couple married on 13 October 1926, a union that would produce two sons, Michael V., and Peter. Although “Jim Forrestal was the man I wanted” the bride afterward confided to an interviewer, and their matrimonial voyage began happily, their marriage eventually grounded on the husband’s extra-marital affairs and his wife's descent into alcoholism and mental illness.<br /> <br /> ==World War II==<br /> In June 1940, Forrestal accepted a post as a special assistant to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], serving as a liaison for the chief executive in handling the National Defense Program, part of the country’s belated rearmament efforts as it prepared for World War II. In August 1940, the President nominated Forrestal to fill the new position of under secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Navy William Frank Knox assigned his under secretary to handle contracts, taxes and legal affairs, and as a liaison with several other government agencies. A highly capable administrator and manager, Forrestal built his office into an efficient organization, and he ran very effectively the Navy’s machinery for industrial mobilization and procurement, a vast system that ultimately produced the largest fleet ever to put to sea. The seemingly tireless under secretary made numerous trips across the country and to the far-flung battlefields, coming under fire by the Japanese more than once during inspection and morale-building tours on Kwajalein and [[Iwo Jima]]. When a heart attack took Secretary Knox, Forrestal succeeded him on 19 May 1944. He guided the Navy through the last year of the war and into the two difficult years of demobilization after the Japanese surrendered.<br /> <br /> ==Defense secretary==<br /> Forrestal visited Joint Task Force 1 at Bikini Lagoon in the Marshall Islands for Test ''Able'' of [[Operation Crossroads]] to witness the detonation of an [[atomic bomb]] and its effects upon over 90 ships, together with weapons and equipment, during late June and early July 1946. The explosion stunned the secretary, who made a number of references during interviews over succeeding days to the tremendous power unleashed by the blast and its effect upon viewers. Complex global problems made more urgent by the [[Cold War]] confronted the nation, however, and planners developed a new national security system to begin functioning without delay. Forrestal participated prominently in the development of the National Security Act of 1947, even though he initially opposed unification services. Nonetheless, under pressure from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and others, Forrestal made use of the 1945 Eberstadt report and negotiations with Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson to play a primary role in shaping the initial form of the plans. Although the President preferred Patterson as his first choice for secretary of defense, the latter intended to return to private life. The President’s subsequent selection of Forrestal, however ironic it might appear given the Secretary’s resistance to unification, was deserved and logical considering his long experience in the Defense establishment and dedication to effective administration.<br /> <br /> Tensions between the West and the East Bloc continued to build and intelligence analysts feared that Yugoslav Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] might attempt to seize the Adriatic city of [[Trieste]], still occupied by U.S. and British troops to ensure the orderly transition of power following the Axis collapse. Therefore, when President Truman selected Forrestal as the first secretary of defense, he also directed that be sworn-in several days earlier than originally scheduled, on 17 September 1947.<br /> <br /> Forrestal brought to his new office a deep distrust of the Soviets and a determination to make the new national security structure workable. He recognized the magnitude of the job; he wrote to a friend shortly after announcement of his appointment confiding his serious apprehensions about the future of the new organization. He soon discovered that perhaps the chief obstacle to accomplishing his objectives would be the inherent weakness in the secretary of defense’s powers as defined in the National Security Act. Another problem became the existence of virtually autonomous heads for the military departments. These organizational difficulties, combined with a steady escalation of Cold War tensions, ensured 18 months of frustration.<br /> <br /> By February 1948, the Russians had largely completed their network of satellite nations across eastern Europe, as communists supported by [[Moscow]] seized control in [[Czechoslovakia]]. That June, the Soviets blockaded land routes from the western zones of [[Germany]] to Berlin, forcing the Americans and their allies to initiate an airlift which supplied Berlin until Moscow relaxed the blockade more than 10 months later. In the meantime, war broke out in [[Palestine]] between the Arabs and [[Israel]]is. As these events occurred, Congress approved the [[Marshall Plan]], providing economic aid for 16 European nations, and in June 1948 the Senate adopted the [[Vandenberg Resolution]], encouraging the administration to enter into collective defense arrangements. The Americans and British led in developing the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), formally established in April 1949. On the other side of the world, the Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists and drove them from the mainland, leading in 1949 to their emergence as a growing threat to freedom within Asia.<br /> <br /> The national security apparatus played an important role in the development of U.S. policies and programs to meet these Cold War challenges. Forrestal believed strongly in the need for close coordination of defense and foreign policy and saw the National Security Council as a major instrument for accomplishing this coordination. Although President Truman deemed the council a subordinate advisory body he met infrequently with it before the Korean War erupted in June 1950. Forrestal thought it should originate policy proposals and provide firm guidance for strategic planning. He labored hard, for the most part unsuccessfully, to increase its influence. In addition, during these years many Western leaders feared that the Soviets would use their enormous armed forces to conquer Western Europeans, who World War II largely weakened and made destitute. These men sought desperately for aid to brunt the (perceived) Russian steamroller and embraced many former Axis leaders due to the latter’s expertise in and dedication to containing communism.<br /> <br /> Forrestal became one of these leaders who established a chain of contacts and infrastructure with émigré anti-communists, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN, better known by their code name of Nactigall, or Nightingale), a group of zealously xenophobic Ukrainians who fought both the Poles and the Russians from World War I onward. Some of these men gained a notorious reputation for supporting Nazi efforts to exterminate Jews, Gypsies and other victims of the [[Holocaust]].<br /> <br /> While the public did not become aware of these classified operations for sometime, the highly publicized War Crimes trials drew attention to the atrocities of the Holocaust, and to those even remotely affiliated with them in whatever manner.<br /> <br /> ==Last days and death==<br /> <br /> National security issues plagued the Secretary and the defense budget became a source of tension between Forrestal and Truman. Due to public pressures to limit defense expenditures and his predilection for a balanced budget, Truman would not agree to budget levels proposed by Forrestal or the larger amounts desired by the services. Disagreements between the services over roles and missions complicated the matter. Because the budget limits Truman imposed intensified the competition for scarce funds, the services developed elaborate rationales justifying their views of roles and missions and the funds to support them.<br /> <br /> The Air Force argued that strategic air power as exemplified by long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons could be key factor in future wars, and that service wanted funds to support 70 combat groups as well as exclusive use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, the Navy wanted to build large flush-deck carriers from which it could launch naval aircraft carrying atomic weapons. These and other differences among the services surfaced especially during annual consideration of the budget.<br /> <br /> For all the problems, Forrestal could list 15 “solid accomplishments in the process of unification” in his first report as secretary of defense in December 1948. These included the formulation of long-range and short-range strategic plans, the development of an integrated defense budget for FY 1950, the definition of service roles and missions, the coordination of service procurement efforts, and the establishment of additional overseas unified commands. Forrestal observed that: “the mere passage of the National Security Act did not mean the accomplishment of its objectives overnight. The most difficult part of the task of unification is to bring conflicting ideas into harmony… How fast we complete the process of resolution will depend on the speed with which we achieve the harmony of thought which is inherent in true unification. I am confident that we shall reach that accord.”<br /> <br /> The 1949 amendments to the National Security Act stand as testimony to Forrestal’s determination to improve the Defense structure. The 1949 amendments began the legislative process of clarifying and expanding the powers of the secretary of defense. Centralization of authority in the Office of the Secretary of Defense became a constant objective under Forrestal and many of his successors. Unfortunately, Forrestal no longer served in the Pentagon when Congress approved these amendments.<br /> <br /> In March 1949, because of Forrestal’s outspoken criticism of these and other policies of the Truman administration, Truman demanded his resignation.<br /> <br /> While Forrestal was on vacation in Florida the Surgeon General had him brought back to Washington and admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. It is unclear why the government was involved with the health of a civilian, and to what extent the admission was voluntary. The hospital doctors described Forrestal as suffering from exhaustion and depression due to overwork.<br /> <br /> The central building of Bethesda Naval Hospital has 18 floors. Forrestal was placed on the 16th. After several weeks rest he had apparently recovered but still remained hospitalized. In the early hours of May 22 he fell to his death from his suite’s kitchen window, landing on a ledge or roof 13 floors below, clothed only in pajamas -- the belt cord of his robe knotted around his neck.<br /> <br /> On May 23 a military board of investigation was convened, headed by Morton D. Willcutts, Rear Admiral of the Navy Medical Corps. The resulting report is now known as the Willcutts Report. A copy was not made available to the general public until April 2004, 55 years later. The Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library of Princeton University has a PDF photocopy. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/ The Willcutts Report] at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University&lt;/ref&gt; A searchable text version is available online. &lt;ref&gt;[http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report] - HTML version&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The report contains a number of discrepancies. Perhaps the most bizarre is that the poem alleged to have been copied by Forrestal the night of his death is obviously in someone else’s handwriting, and on very worn paper.<br /> <br /> Much has been written about the mysterious circumstances surrounding Forrestal’s death, that predating April 2004 uniformed by the Willcutts Report.<br /> <br /> The country acknowledged Forrestal’s services to American security and freedom through two world wars by interring Forrestal with full military honors at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] three days after his death. The Finnish artist Kalervo Kallio sculpted a bronze bust of Forrestal which officials unveiled at the Mall entrance to the Pentagon on 22 September 1950. Some months after he left office, the House Armed Services Committee, with which he worked closely, described his administration as secretary of defense as “able, sensitive, restrained, and far-sighted.”<br /> <br /> {|-<br /> !style=&quot; background-color: #000088; color:white;&quot;|Source:<br /> |style=&quot;background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black&quot;| &lt;small&gt;Part of this article is from {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/forrestal.htm]&lt;/small&gt;}}} and consequently in the public domain. <br /> |}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Forrestal, James V.}}<br /> [[Category:United States Appointed Officials]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=James_V._Forrestal&diff=849296 2011-02-14T19:14:27Z

<p>Mark01: added reference to the Willcutts Report and explanation</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:JVForrestal.jpg|right|300px|thumb|James V. Forrestal]]<br /> '''James Vincent Forrestal''' (1892-1949), Secretary of the Navy during the final year [[World War II]], and the first [[Secretary of Defense]] under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Forrestal was born on 15 February 1892, in Matteawan (now Beacon), [[New York]]. His father, an Irish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1857, managed a construction company. After graduating from high school in 1908, Forrestal worked for three years on local newspapers in New York State and then entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in 1911. The following year he transferred to [[Princeton University]] in New Jersey, but left in 1915 a few credits short of his degree, apparently due to academic and financial difficulties. During his time at both schools he also participated in boxing, tennis and wrestling. He then worked briefly as a financial reporter, a clerk for a zinc company and as a tobacco salesman. The next year Forrestal joined an investment banking house, William A. Read and Company of New York (which became Dillon, Read and Company in 1923), as a bond salesman. [[World War I]] interrupted his career in finance, however, and he enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] as a seaman second class on 2 June 1917.<br /> <br /> ====World War I====<br /> The young sailor became enthused by naval aviation and he took flight training with British instructors from the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden – considered to be the birthplace of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] – and at Deseronto, both in Ontario, [[Canada]]. He commissioned as an ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps (NRFC) at Boston, Massachusetts, on 17 November of that year, and he gained his wings of gold as Naval Aviator No. 154 [HTA–heavier-than-air] on 6 December 1917. Soon thereafter, Forrestal served in the office of the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].<br /> <br /> ==Between the wars==<br /> Following the Armistice, Forrestal, discharged from the Navy with the rank of lieutenant on 30 December 1919, returned to banking through 1940. He rose rapidly in the company, becoming a partner in 1923, vice president in 1926, and president in 1938. Meanwhile, he met and courted Josephine Ogden, a beautiful 26-year-old chorus girl for the Ziegfeld Follies, and after a tempestuous romance the couple married on 13 October 1926, a union that would produce two sons, Michael V., and Peter. Although “Jim Forrestal was the man I wanted” the bride afterward confided to an interviewer, and their matrimonial voyage began happily, their marriage eventually grounded on the husband’s extra-marital affairs and his wife's descent into alcoholism and mental illness.<br /> <br /> ==World War II==<br /> In June 1940, Forrestal accepted a post as a special assistant to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], serving as a liaison for the chief executive in handling the National Defense Program, part of the country’s belated rearmament efforts as it prepared for World War II. In August 1940, the President nominated Forrestal to fill the new position of under secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Navy William Frank Knox assigned his under secretary to handle contracts, taxes and legal affairs, and as a liaison with several other government agencies. A highly capable administrator and manager, Forrestal built his office into an efficient organization, and he ran very effectively the Navy’s machinery for industrial mobilization and procurement, a vast system that ultimately produced the largest fleet ever to put to sea. The seemingly tireless under secretary made numerous trips across the country and to the far-flung battlefields, coming under fire by the Japanese more than once during inspection and morale-building tours on Kwajalein and [[Iwo Jima]]. When a heart attack took Secretary Knox, Forrestal succeeded him on 19 May 1944. He guided the Navy through the last year of the war and into the two difficult years of demobilization after the Japanese surrendered.<br /> <br /> ==Defense secretary==<br /> Forrestal visited Joint Task Force 1 at Bikini Lagoon in the Marshall Islands for Test ''Able'' of [[Operation Crossroads]] to witness the detonation of an [[atomic bomb]] and its effects upon over 90 ships, together with weapons and equipment, during late June and early July 1946. The explosion stunned the secretary, who made a number of references during interviews over succeeding days to the tremendous power unleashed by the blast and its effect upon viewers. Complex global problems made more urgent by the [[Cold War]] confronted the nation, however, and planners developed a new national security system to begin functioning without delay. Forrestal participated prominently in the development of the National Security Act of 1947, even though he initially opposed unification services. Nonetheless, under pressure from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and others, Forrestal made use of the 1945 Eberstadt report and negotiations with Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson to play a primary role in shaping the initial form of the plans. Although the President preferred Patterson as his first choice for secretary of defense, the latter intended to return to private life. The President’s subsequent selection of Forrestal, however ironic it might appear given the Secretary’s resistance to unification, was deserved and logical considering his long experience in the Defense establishment and dedication to effective administration.<br /> <br /> Tensions between the West and the East Bloc continued to build and intelligence analysts feared that Yugoslav Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] might attempt to seize the Adriatic city of [[Trieste]], still occupied by U.S. and British troops to ensure the orderly transition of power following the Axis collapse. Therefore, when President Truman selected Forrestal as the first secretary of defense, he also directed that be sworn-in several days earlier than originally scheduled, on 17 September 1947.<br /> <br /> Forrestal brought to his new office a deep distrust of the Soviets and a determination to make the new national security structure workable. He recognized the magnitude of the job; he wrote to a friend shortly after announcement of his appointment confiding his serious apprehensions about the future of the new organization. He soon discovered that perhaps the chief obstacle to accomplishing his objectives would be the inherent weakness in the secretary of defense’s powers as defined in the National Security Act. Another problem became the existence of virtually autonomous heads for the military departments. These organizational difficulties, combined with a steady escalation of Cold War tensions, ensured 18 months of frustration.<br /> <br /> By February 1948, the Russians had largely completed their network of satellite nations across eastern Europe, as communists supported by [[Moscow]] seized control in [[Czechoslovakia]]. That June, the Soviets blockaded land routes from the western zones of [[Germany]] to Berlin, forcing the Americans and their allies to initiate an airlift which supplied Berlin until Moscow relaxed the blockade more than 10 months later. In the meantime, war broke out in [[Palestine]] between the Arabs and [[Israel]]is. As these events occurred, Congress approved the [[Marshall Plan]], providing economic aid for 16 European nations, and in June 1948 the Senate adopted the [[Vandenberg Resolution]], encouraging the administration to enter into collective defense arrangements. The Americans and British led in developing the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), formally established in April 1949. On the other side of the world, the Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists and drove them from the mainland, leading in 1949 to their emergence as a growing threat to freedom within Asia.<br /> <br /> The national security apparatus played an important role in the development of U.S. policies and programs to meet these Cold War challenges. Forrestal believed strongly in the need for close coordination of defense and foreign policy and saw the National Security Council as a major instrument for accomplishing this coordination. Although President Truman deemed the council a subordinate advisory body he met infrequently with it before the Korean War erupted in June 1950. Forrestal thought it should originate policy proposals and provide firm guidance for strategic planning. He labored hard, for the most part unsuccessfully, to increase its influence. In addition, during these years many Western leaders feared that the Soviets would use their enormous armed forces to conquer Western Europeans, who World War II largely weakened and made destitute. These men sought desperately for aid to brunt the (perceived) Russian steamroller and embraced many former Axis leaders due to the latter’s expertise in and dedication to containing communism.<br /> <br /> Forrestal became one of these leaders who established a chain of contacts and infrastructure with émigré anti-communists, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN, better known by their code name of Nactigall, or Nightingale), a group of zealously xenophobic Ukrainians who fought both the Poles and the Russians from World War I onward. Some of these men gained a notorious reputation for supporting Nazi efforts to exterminate Jews, Gypsies and other victims of the [[Holocaust]].<br /> <br /> While the public did not become aware of these classified operations for sometime, the highly publicized War Crimes trials drew attention to the atrocities of the Holocaust, and to those even remotely affiliated with them in whatever manner.<br /> <br /> ==Last days and death==<br /> <br /> National security issues plagued the Secretary and the defense budget became a source of tension between Forrestal and Truman. Due to public pressures to limit defense expenditures and his predilection for a balanced budget, Truman would not agree to budget levels proposed by Forrestal or the larger amounts desired by the services. Disagreements between the services over roles and missions complicated the matter. Because the budget limits Truman imposed intensified the competition for scarce funds, the services developed elaborate rationales justifying their views of roles and missions and the funds to support them.<br /> <br /> The Air Force argued that strategic air power as exemplified by long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons could be key factor in future wars, and that service wanted funds to support 70 combat groups as well as exclusive use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, the Navy wanted to build large flush-deck carriers from which it could launch naval aircraft carrying atomic weapons. These and other differences among the services surfaced especially during annual consideration of the budget.<br /> <br /> For all the problems, Forrestal could list 15 “solid accomplishments in the process of unification” in his first report as secretary of defense in December 1948. These included the formulation of long-range and short-range strategic plans, the development of an integrated defense budget for FY 1950, the definition of service roles and missions, the coordination of service procurement efforts, and the establishment of additional overseas unified commands. Forrestal observed that: “the mere passage of the National Security Act did not mean the accomplishment of its objectives overnight. The most difficult part of the task of unification is to bring conflicting ideas into harmony… How fast we complete the process of resolution will depend on the speed with which we achieve the harmony of thought which is inherent in true unification. I am confident that we shall reach that accord.”<br /> <br /> The 1949 amendments to the National Security Act stand as testimony to Forrestal’s determination to improve the Defense structure. The 1949 amendments began the legislative process of clarifying and expanding the powers of the secretary of defense. Centralization of authority in the Office of the Secretary of Defense became a constant objective under Forrestal and many of his successors. Unfortunately, Forrestal no longer served in the Pentagon when Congress approved these amendments.<br /> <br /> In March 1949, because of Forrestal’s outspoken criticism of these and other policies of the Truman administration, Truman demanded his resignation.<br /> <br /> While Forrestal was on vacation in Florida the Surgeon General had him brought back to Washington and admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. It is unclear why the government was involved with the health of a civilian, and to what extent the admission was voluntary. The hospital doctors described Forrestal as suffering from exhaustion and depression due to overwork.<br /> <br /> The central building of Bethesda Naval Hospital has 18 floors. Forrestal was placed on the 16th. After several weeks rest he had apparently recovered but still remained hospitalized. In the early hours of May 22 he fell to his death from his suite’s kitchen window, landing on a ledge or roof 13 floors below, clothed only in pajamas -- the belt cord of his robe knotted around his neck.<br /> <br /> On May 23 a military board of investigation was convened, headed by Morton D. Willcutts, Rear Admiral of the Navy Medical Corps. The resulting report is now known as the Willcutts Report. A copy was not made available to the general public until April 2004, 55 years later. The Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library of Princeton University has a PDF photocopy. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/ The Willcutts Report] at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University&lt;/ref&gt; A searchable text version is available online. &lt;ref&gt;[http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report] - HTML version&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The report contains a number of discrepancies. Perhaps the most bizarre is that the poem alleged to have been copied by Forrestal the night of his death is obviously in someone else’s handwriting, and on very worn paper.<br /> <br /> Much has been written about the mysterious circumstances surrounding Forrestal’s death, that predating April 2004 uniformed by the Willcutts Report.<br /> <br /> The country acknowledged Forrestal’s services to American security and freedom through two world wars by interring Forrestal with full military honors at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] three days after his death. The Finnish artist Kalervo Kallio sculpted a bronze bust of Forrestal which officials unveiled at the Mall entrance to the Pentagon on 22 September 1950. Some months after he left office, the House Armed Services Committee, with which he worked closely, described his administration as secretary of defense as “able, sensitive, restrained, and far-sighted.”<br /> <br /> {| style=&quot;width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot;<br /> !colspan=2 style=&quot;width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; &quot;|'''Copyright Details'''<br /> |-<br /> !style=&quot;background-color: #000088; color:white;&quot;|License:<br /> |style=&quot; background-color: none;&quot;| &lt;small&gt;This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |-<br /> !style=&quot; background-color: #000088; color:white;&quot;|Source:<br /> |style=&quot;background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black&quot;| &lt;small&gt;File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/forrestal.htm]&lt;/small&gt;}}}. <br /> |}<br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Forrestal, James V.}}<br /> [[Category:United States Appointed Officials]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=753746 2010-02-12T15:31:45Z

<p>Mark01: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */ fixed typo</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; [[U.S. State Department]] official and Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the founding conference of the [[United Nations]]. Hiss was [[conviction|convicted]] of [[perjury]] in 1950, after denying involvement in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. For decades, a great number of Americans saw Hiss, a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Hiss referred to &quot;liberals like myself,&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. Alger Hiss, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html Draft of a Chapter on the Foundations of His Liberalism], Small Manuscript Collection, Special Collections, Harvard Law School Library&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia''. Hiss had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties to the Democratic Party]]&amp;mdash;not just [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but others in it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism].&lt;ref&gt;Some have depicted Hiss as the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important,&quot; wrote [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]), who was instrumental in the declassification of [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts and [[FBI]] files on the case,&lt;ref&gt;“Moynihan asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6&lt;/ref&gt; which had been classified for half a century. &quot;Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt,&quot; concluded the liberal Democrat&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1998, &quot;but they never told.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a financially comfortable upper-middle-class&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss was born... in an [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]... family... The Hiss family was [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]]...&quot; The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) Contrary to [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/bookend/bookend.html ex-Communist] ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 3) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. Alger's father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss' father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when the boy was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss' son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss' father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; [[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; ''[http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 The New Yorker]'', May 13, 1950; Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss' favorite [[instructor|instructors]] included [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4)&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) [[H.L. Mencken]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] and [[Theodore Dreiser]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder|murderers]] [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution|revolutionary]] [[terrorist|terrorists]] who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101. Hiss' Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot; ([[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 199)&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate].&lt;ref&gt;New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]; cf. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/06/wallstreetbomb,0115-6.htm Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/sept07/wallstreet091307.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Charles Poggi, Frank Maffi said the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of his uncle, a Galleanist named Mario Buda. ([[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133)&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1374/article_detail.asp an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 24&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss [[marriage|married]] the former Mrs. [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/hobson.bio.html Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; but since then she'd had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to prestigious&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. Hiss joined Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart in Boston; [[#refMHSL|after two years he moved to]] Cotton &amp; Franklin in New York.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firms] in [[Boston]] and [[New York City|New York]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']]By 1932, Priscilla Hiss had [[#refChronology|registered as a member]] of [[#refNoe9|the Socialist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; and was an active member of American Labor Associates. Alger was becoming &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; joining (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; the International Juridical Association (IJA), which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia360638.us.archive.org/2/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss' letters to his wife reflected his increasing [[radical|radicalism]]. In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005] ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist|socialistic]] (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist|Communistic]]') cheek.&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=14B3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281, pp. 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join the [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the Inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote that he thought the film “would help the country.”&lt;/ref&gt; administration of [[President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; as assistant general counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot; [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot; [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Arthur Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456. In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Progressive]] Party ticket, finally recanting [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;Had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, [[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] would have become President; Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]], already at the agency, wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA (Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mother of seven children without food, California, ca. February 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At AAA, Hiss reunited with [[Henry Collins|Collins]], as well as IJA colleagues [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) &lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; and became acquainted with [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/WarCom.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;[[Harold Ware|Ware]], the son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]], reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; AAA administrator George Peek resigned in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers on settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss' colleagues at the AAA would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal|New Dealer]] [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano (who covered the Hiss trials for ''Newsweek'') and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for the ''New York World-Telegram''): &quot;When Hiss' lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss' laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss merely replied, &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was convinced of Hiss' guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/mccarthy/83869.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004), cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|Communist lawyer]] [[John Abt]] would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/assassins/jfk/7.html the communist] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. Pamela J. Ray with James E. Files,''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MvyLBI6yZ4sC Interview with History: The JFK Assassination]'' (AuthorHouse, 2007) ISBN 142595992X, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, to my knowledge, for [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html stealing documents from government agencies].” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”<br /> &lt;/ref&gt; a former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a source of agent information for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm merchants of death],&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to lead the [[United States|U.S.]] into war with [[Germany]]. One scholar has dubbed this a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Imperialism.pdf?id=bl0k_ZjcWZ8C&amp;output=pdf&amp;sig=OCSrlH_5acU7i3KlnOzxXFMBP20 Fabian]-[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist] [http://socyberty.com/history/imperial-capitalism-the-hobson-lenin-thesis/ theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, [http://www.stopthenorthamericanunion.com/DotsImages/AlgerHiss.jpg badgering] witnesses such as [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], reportedly the first man to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5. Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;He was the [http://faculty.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement, who investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb,&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vUnAHQAACAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. According to Chambers, they were introduced by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; and veteran of the [[Bela Kuhn]] revolution,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-3testimony.html Testimony of Whittaker Chambers] before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (August 3, 1948).&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52| Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story.<br /> <br /> [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss' friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists].&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19970217/langer a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss' 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt; &quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1056 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] questions about his role in the transfer or the [[Communist Party]] on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss' attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch, told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too but did not say so expressly.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own, notarized by Hiss' [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss' signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would plunge down a five-story Justice Department stairwell to his [[death]]; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss' [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate; Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (whom she refers to by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]], Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss' real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/timeline/ImageDisplay.asp?ID=37 son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, at the funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the [http://www.yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/pearson/pearson_18.html Afterward]; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S., had given Chambers $800 to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996,&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May-June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] [[historian]] [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (whose victims would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to [http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/newsarchive2005/gordievsky.html Oleg Gordievsky], the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;Peter B. Niblo, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kksbT33Cb6wC Influence: The Soviet Task Leading to Pearl Harbor, the Iron Curtain, and the Cold War]'' (Oakland, Ore.: Elderberry Press, 2002) ISBN 1930859147, p. 65. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss' real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a car, using $400 [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss' Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [http://ia360633.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government, Part Two], Hearings pursuant to Public Law 601, Section 121, Subsection Q (2), Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 80th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 1452 (PDF p. 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck told him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''The Daily Worker'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to ''Daily Worker'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russian]] emigré [http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=levine700_102547 Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned his friends that if he were to be found dead, then [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html he had been murdered], his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/8138382.html corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the [[Russian]] [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In 1952, Berle wrote, “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/links/indx-act.html Foreign Agents Registration Act] [FARA], which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” of this matter were in fact mistaken; FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) In his 1973 memoir, Levine wrote that he later asked Berle how FDR responded: “To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/expletive expletive] remark on this order: ‘Oh, forget it, Adolf.’”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/print.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/dd.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/ilgwu.htm International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/news/walterwinchell.html Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when the question of Hiss was raised before Roosevelt, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/thompson-dorothy.htm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/interviews.html#B Spruille Braden, Oral Interview], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/index.html Oral History Research Office], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/butler/index.html Nicholas Murray Butler Library], Columbia University, quoted in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In consequence, Hiss would rise unimpeded through the ranks, in 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [http://secint50.un.org/aboutun/charter/history/dumbarton.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. (Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' [Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001] ISBN 0807849502, p. 67)&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, found his [[State Department]] career soon over. By 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the [[Russians]]. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss' hands and [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 the leaks stopped].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://ia331327.us.archive.org/1/items/odysseyofafriend001922mbp/odysseyofafriend001922mbp.pdf Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the [[Russian]]s were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” (Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 [PDF pp. 1-2])&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> By 1940 Hiss was among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss' wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287&lt;/ref&gt; In 1941, Hiss first came to the attention of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. [[HUAC]] had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook,&quot;] who, under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; was secretly paid by Moscow (during the Great Depression) more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet refugees] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/v011/11.3.fox.pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies] (D-Tex.), included in its probes Communists as well.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|FBI chart illustrating the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/foiaindex.htm FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss' former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the FBI sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKrwQAAACAAJ In Re Alger Hiss Volume II]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980), pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers repeated his identification of Hiss, among others, as a [[Communist]]. In 1943, the FBI obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from the controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]] (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; who was under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel B. Mikhailov,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> When the Nazi-Soviet alliance [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down], the FBI shifted from tracking Communists to focus resources on hunting for [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/nazi/nazi.htm Nazi and fascist agents]. In 1941, the U.S. expanded its Lend-Lease program to the UK to [http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/geust/aircraft_deliveries.htm include the Soviet Union]. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by officially dissolving the [[Comintern]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring its assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and top-secret [[U.S. government]] documents,&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]] (code-named &quot;Map&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; who boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten, a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; code-named ''Lyre''&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WCowSW6ZrywC Brotherhood of the Bomb]'' (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0805065881, p. 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; (and mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]]), and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=1&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brotherhoodofthebomb.com%2Fbhbmedia%2Fnotes_chap6.doc&amp;ei=GjZfSqfFCcH7tgfb15jgAw&amp;rct=j&amp;q=notes+chapter+6+%22black+suitcases%22&amp;usg=AFQjCNHIVVq-2CkXrloDTagYMB4uLzQGhw black suitcases] (sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate,” hence protected by diplomatic immunity from FBI searches) to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p 1. Cf. Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, pp. 206-208&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] recommended to Roosevelt that Kravchenko be forcibly returned to the Soviet Union, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his son Andrew maintains that he was executed by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins]] (whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States,&quot; according to Gordievsky)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. According to the Secretary, [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity, but he felt Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. Among those whose brains Stettinius had the ability to use was his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [[#refLindPump|brilliant]] Alger Hiss. According to [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, &quot;Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]With less than three months to live, Roosevelt suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot; According to one source, &quot;At Yalta [Roosevelt] could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; Sometimes it appears as if he has no thought-out recipe for anything beyond his troubles with Congress.&quot; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage, so that I give him only a few months to live. But men shut their eyes when they do not want to see, and the Americans here cannot bring themselves to believe that he is finished. His daughter thinks he is not really ill, and his doctor backs her up.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Privately, Roosevelt's cardiologist was more candid: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to Stettinius, &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record uses the passive voice to expunge Hiss' role in this maneuver: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press accounts relying on this bowdlerized official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that would prove [http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?1c1d76bb-290c-447b-82dd-e295ff0d3d59 catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://www.harpercollins.com/harperimages/ommoverride/teacher_guide_wild_swans.pdf member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ultimately, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944, [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists] I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Soviets bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes,&quot; write [http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Robert Louis Benson] and [[#refBenson95|Cecil Phillips]], &quot;through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sudoplatov, &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein (deputy director of the GRU), revealing not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> When [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9140-17.cfm essentially ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]], the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the &quot;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E8A8-96B6-175C-955B60FB1DA40BCC&amp;sort=Coverage&amp;item=Soviet%20Union secret protocols]&quot; of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest, writing, &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes: To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Another secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; gave the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] (who would be dead in less than a month) to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; This agreement would [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Yalta_Conference.aspx not be disclosed] until 1947.<br /> <br /> According to [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/byrnes-james.htm James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon Stalin requested the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[File:Buzuluk.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Polish children in the Soviet concentration camp at Buzuluk, in the Southern Urals. The photo is dated 1945,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lietuvos.org/istorija/communism/ Communism - face of the ideology], Lietuvos.net, Retrieved 1 February 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; the same year as the Repatriation Agreement, sending millions of refugees in American and British hands to a similiar fate in the Soviet Gulag system.]]<br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; That agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As William Henry Chamberlin, a one-time [http://www.providence.edu/library/archives/chamberlin/rppc_mswilliamhenrychamberlin.html supporter of the Bolshevik regime], concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlain, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/history/foxpaper.htm to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/academic_staff/further_details/andrew.html Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article6723449.ece Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://frwebgate5.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/PDFgate.cgi?WAISdocID=065346201217+0+2+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been continuously working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;; that they were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the National Security Agency have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v46i4a08p.htm John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss' links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.) wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/static/17/1/3/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf what he would do with Alger],&quot; who was already under FBI suspicion. Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy,&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which was [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===[[Venona project|VENONA]] and ''[[Amerasia]]''===<br /> The first breakthrough in decrypting the [[USSR|Soviet]] code had come in 1943.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; In November 1944, the [[OSS]] mission in Stockholm was approached by Finnish intelligence officers with an offer to sell some 1,500 pages of material relating to Soviet codes, including a code used by the [[NKVD]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt; Finnish troops had found the scorched codebooks and cryptographic materials in June 1941, in the [[USSR]]'s consulate at Petsamo.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius told OSS Director [[William J. Donovan|Donovan]] to reject the offer on the grounds that [[Russia]] was an ally, but the OSS purchased the material anyway. At the instigation of the [[State Department]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ordered Donovan to return the material to the Soviets forthwith. After a failed attempt to deliver it to [[Pavel Fitin]], head of NKVD foreign intelligence, the material was finally handed over to Soviet Ambassador to the U.S. Andrei Gromyko.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the application of this material to decrypting the Venona traffic would be delayed until 1953.&lt;ref&gt;National Security Agency, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After November 1944, “decrypts of messages were shown to President Roosevelt by a United States Naval Officer whose duty it was to take the decrypts to the White House.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; In May 1945 a U.S. Army intelligence team discovered a second codebook at a German signals intelligence archive in Saxony, in territory assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. Only a day or so prior to Soviet occupation of the area, the team removed the material, which then made its way to the Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS).&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0305&amp;week=c&amp;msg=22Pqnm844qaMxYtDmAjBPg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Venona Codebooks], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, May 19, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; But several months before the war would end on August 14, 1945, Brigadier General Carter Clarke of Army G-2 (Intelligence) would notify SIS that he had received instructions from the [[White House]] to &quot;cease any effort against the [[Soviet]] problem.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNSA95|NSA 1995]]: 159 (PDF 172) This report goes on to say that it was later discovered that the [[White House]] staff had been infiltrated by a [[Communist]] or &quot;[[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On June 4, 1945, six weeks after becoming [[President]], [[Harry Truman]] was briefed about [[Venona project|Venona]], according to former [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) officer Oliver Kirby, deputy director of the [[Russian]] code-breaking project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt; Based on notes Kirby made at the time, Jerrold Schecter, former National Security Council spokesman for the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, reported that Clarke, chief of the then-new Army Security Agency (precursor of the NSA), advised President Truman that the code-breakers were decrypting messages that revealed massive [[Soviet]] intelligence operations in the [[United States]], though it was too early to identify operatives or operations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 110. Truman's appointment calendar [http://trumanlibrary.org/calendar/main.php?currYear=1945&amp;currMonth=6&amp;currDay=4 confirms the meeting] with Clarke.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kirby, Clarke described this meeting as [[#refNovak03|&quot;NDG&quot; (no damn good)]], the president telling the general that his account of code-breaking sounded &quot;[[#refRusher04|like a fairy story]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, [[GRU]] code clerk [[Igor Gouzenko]] defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guozenko), reproduced (as Document 14) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 67&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. As Weinstein notes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar notes, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; (William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' [Washington: Regnery, 1954] ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 [PDF p. 23])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who repeated that Hiss' assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department].” She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://www.mediaresearch.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in a speech regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']][[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the [[FBI]] that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. ([http://ia341033.us.archive.org/1/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17-18, 1953 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953], p. 16 [PDF p. 20]; cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B])&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the leak. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 nothing to do] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.”<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss' desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Vladimir Petrov (defected from Soviet Embassy, Canberra, 1954), [http://ia341032.us.archive.org/0/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of Hiss, [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944]; &lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed],&quot; PBS, 1999<br /> ISBN 0-7806-2796-2; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf 1606(a) New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf 1340 New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover asked President Harry S. Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program]&quot;&amp;mdash;despite which, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 cases] there the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration was planning to subvert the grand jury process to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo would report that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury convened on July 22, 1947; nearly a year later, on July 20, 1948 (never having heard Whittaker Chambers' testimony) it handed down indictments&amp;mdash;not of any federal employees, but of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia360613.us.archive.org/3/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss' HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [[#refTLS09|reported to the chairman of Soviet intelligence]] about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> That day, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss’ FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].” (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would die from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie admitted to the FBI that he knew Hiss. (FBI report: Institute of Pacific Relations, April 7, 1950. FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR06.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 6], p. 36 [PDF p. 31])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss' side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss' denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;''[http://ia331329.us.archive.org/3/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss' &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> In his first statement, Hiss had suggested that Chambers was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[HUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; Now, Hiss demanded that the committee ask Chambers if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19480904/sanction I have not, period].&quot; Truman aide George Elsie wrote to White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford], &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury, but a handwritten insertion advised &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif confinement in a mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 117. On August 20, [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss' mental health history might be subject to investigation.) In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss also [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, adding, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Within ten days,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 61&lt;/ref&gt; on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' Chambers called Hiss' bluff, saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss' supporters as weeks dragged by and still no suit was filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post'' began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,888461,00.html put up or shut up] ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss' suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss' attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 10&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss' attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss' own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [http://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/1625/?record=1625 National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hiss' attorneys turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. While proceeding with its plans of &quot;bringing an indictment against Chambers for perjury,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 6, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; Truman Justice continued to formulate no such plans regarding Hiss. On December 1, the Washington ''Daily News'' reported that &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The next day, on an FBI memorandum detailing the perjury investigation of Chambers ordered by Justice, Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; [[HUAC]] attempted to get copies of the documents from Justice, but the Truman administration continued to stonewall. In desperation, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On December 2, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51.&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss' handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss' attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss' 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss' lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss continued to swear under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]].<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss' typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss' attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss' machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss' typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, ex-[[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; Even after ending his formal membership, Lippmann remained a loyal [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]: In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]'s [[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]]&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Lippman (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia311343.us.archive.org/2/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/stevenson-adlai.htm Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis]. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss' 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss' [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss' Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense called a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc.&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers.&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 19, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’s sexual preference in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Hiss himself dictated for the record] a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.” Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss' friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;initially had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; later concluded that &quot;[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/87.1/letters.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss' own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]The first trial ended [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]] in a hung jury, with eight for conviction and four against. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury returned a unanimous verdict: [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html Guilty on both counts].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]''&lt;/ref&gt; In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot;<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss' appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+faithful+traitor:+Alger+Hiss%27s+refusal+to+recant+helped+create...-a019100539 orchestrated by] long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was Leonard Boudin, [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by the communist (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20716FA3B5B177B93C5A9178CD85F448585F9 Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.”<br /> <br /> == Later Life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26929 lies and cover-ups],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to sacrifice us all on the altar of his vindication.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 Portrait of an American Traitor],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, September 24, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a landslide&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;How can that be? [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB111687989866640898.html No one I know voted for Nixon].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KagnAAAACAAJ It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss' petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by [http://www.joelkovel.org/joelkovel.html socialist]&lt;ref&gt;Kovel advocates what he calls &quot;ecosocialism,&quot; which he defines as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.org/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating 49-state landslide defeat by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss' conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/Ning/archive/archive/096/65.PDF public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss' guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 Vassiliev's notebooks] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.], ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.h-net.org/people/editors/show.cgi?ID=124585 Library of Congress Cold War historian John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/faculty%20pages/klehr.htm Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss' guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v38i5a10p.htm ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School]&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040621/editors2/ professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]==<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]==<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053, p. 287&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDilling77&gt;Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w7MOv0bujK8C The Red Network: A &quot;Who's Who&quot; and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots]'' (Salem, N.H.: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099460&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLoughery97&gt;John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' (New York: H. Holt, 1997) ISBN 0805052216&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://www.yellowdocuments.com/2332275-whittaker-chambers-and-alger-h Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; 27 ''[http://www.internationalsocietyofbarristers.org/journal.html International Society of Barristers Journal]'' 355 (1992); ''Federal Bar Journal'' 96 (1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, &quot;A Word About the Covernames,&quot; Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=Yalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev%20Notebooks%20Concordance2.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::*&lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;Black Notebook, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Translated1.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;White Notebook #3, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;Yellow Notebook #2, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://unyearbook.un.org/1946-47YUN/1946-47_P1_CH1.pdf Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia360609.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Espionage in the U.S. Government]: Hearings under Public Law 601, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[http://ia360643.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia360635.us.archive.org/3/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia311319.us.archive.org/0/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia360607.us.archive.org/1/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia360610.us.archive.org/0/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia341034.us.archive.org/3/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss' and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss' innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://ia331309.us.archive.org/3/items/instalinssecrets008248mbp/instalinssecrets008248mbp.pdf In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/printtranscript.asp?EventId=635 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May-June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1988/7/1988_7_18.shtml Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network, March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/22491229/The-Yalta-Myth The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan/print Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''National Review''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n1_v45/ai_13366253 Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss],&quot; January 18, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238/ Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_47_17/ai_80900413/ Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=753745 2010-02-12T15:28:07Z

<p>Mark01: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */ added address of easy to read HTML version of PDF</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; [[U.S. State Department]] official and Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the founding conference of the [[United Nations]]. Hiss was [[conviction|convicted]] of [[perjury]] in 1950, after denying involvement in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. For decades, a great number of Americans saw Hiss, a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Hiss referred to &quot;liberals like myself,&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. Alger Hiss, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html Draft of a Chapter on the Foundations of His Liberalism], Small Manuscript Collection, Special Collections, Harvard Law School Library&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia''. Hiss had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties to the Democratic Party]]&amp;mdash;not just [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but others in it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism].&lt;ref&gt;Some have depicted Hiss as the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important,&quot; wrote [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]), who was instrumental in the declassification of [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts and [[FBI]] files on the case,&lt;ref&gt;“Moynihan asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6&lt;/ref&gt; which had been classified for half a century. &quot;Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt,&quot; concluded the liberal Democrat&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1998, &quot;but they never told.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a financially comfortable upper-middle-class&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss was born... in an [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]... family... The Hiss family was [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]]...&quot; The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) Contrary to [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/bookend/bookend.html ex-Communist] ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 3) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. Alger's father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss' father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when the boy was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss' son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss' father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; [[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; ''[http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 The New Yorker]'', May 13, 1950; Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss' favorite [[instructor|instructors]] included [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4)&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) [[H.L. Mencken]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] and [[Theodore Dreiser]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder|murderers]] [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution|revolutionary]] [[terrorist|terrorists]] who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101. Hiss' Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot; ([[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 199)&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate].&lt;ref&gt;New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]; cf. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/06/wallstreetbomb,0115-6.htm Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/sept07/wallstreet091307.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Charles Poggi, Frank Maffi said the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of his uncle, a Galleanist named Mario Buda. ([[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133)&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1374/article_detail.asp an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 24&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss [[marriage|married]] the former Mrs. [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/hobson.bio.html Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; but since then she'd had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to prestigious&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. Hiss joined Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart in Boston; [[#refMHSL|after two years he moved to]] Cotton &amp; Franklin in New York.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firms] in [[Boston]] and [[New York City|New York]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']]By 1932, Priscilla Hiss had [[#refChronology|registered as a member]] of [[#refNoe9|the Socialist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; and was an active member of American Labor Associates. Alger was becoming &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; joining (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; the International Juridical Association (IJA), which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia360638.us.archive.org/2/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss' letters to his wife reflected his increasing [[radical|radicalism]]. In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005] ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist|socialistic]] (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist|Communistic]]') cheek.&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=14B3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281, pp. 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join the [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the Inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote that he thought the film “would help the country.”&lt;/ref&gt; administration of [[President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; as assistant general counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot; [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot; [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Arthur Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456. In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Progressive]] Party ticket, finally recanting [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;Had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, [[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] would have become President; Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]], already at the agency, wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA (Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mother of seven children without food, California, ca. February 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At AAA, Hiss reunited with [[Henry Collins|Collins]], as well as IJA colleagues [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) &lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; and became acquainted with [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/WarCom.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;[[Harold Ware|Ware]], the son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]], reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; AAA administrator George Peek resigned in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers on settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss' colleagues at the AAA would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal|New Dealer]] [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano (who covered the Hiss trials for ''Newsweek'') and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for the ''New York World-Telegram''): &quot;When Hiss' lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss' laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss merely replied, &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was convinced of Hiss' guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/mccarthy/83869.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004), cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|Communist lawyer]] [[John Abt]] would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/assassins/jfk/7.html the communist] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. Pamela J. Ray with James E. Files,''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MvyLBI6yZ4sC Interview with History: The JFK Assassination]'' (AuthorHouse, 2007) ISBN 142595992X, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, to my knowledge, for [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html stealing documents from government agencies].” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”<br /> &lt;/ref&gt; a former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a source of agent information for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm merchants of death],&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to lead the [[United States|U.S.]] into war with [[Germany]]. One scholar has dubbed this a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Imperialism.pdf?id=bl0k_ZjcWZ8C&amp;output=pdf&amp;sig=OCSrlH_5acU7i3KlnOzxXFMBP20 Fabian]-[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist] [http://socyberty.com/history/imperial-capitalism-the-hobson-lenin-thesis/ theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, [http://www.stopthenorthamericanunion.com/DotsImages/AlgerHiss.jpg badgering] witnesses such as [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], reportedly the first man to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5. Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;He was the [http://faculty.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement, who investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb,&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vUnAHQAACAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. According to Chambers, they were introduced by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; and veteran of the [[Bela Kuhn]] revolution,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-3testimony.html Testimony of Whittaker Chambers] before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (August 3, 1948).&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52| Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story.<br /> <br /> [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss' friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists].&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19970217/langer a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss' 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt; &quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1056 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] questions about his role in the transfer or the [[Communist Party]] on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss' attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch, told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too but did not say so expressly.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own, notarized by Hiss' [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss' signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would plunge down a five-story Justice Department stairwell to his [[death]]; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss' [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate; Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (whom she refers to by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]], Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss' real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/timeline/ImageDisplay.asp?ID=37 son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, at the funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the [http://www.yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/pearson/pearson_18.html Afterward]; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S., had given Chambers $800 to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996,&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May-June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] [[historian]] [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (whose victims would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to [http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/newsarchive2005/gordievsky.html Oleg Gordievsky], the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;Peter B. Niblo, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kksbT33Cb6wC Influence: The Soviet Task Leading to Pearl Harbor, the Iron Curtain, and the Cold War]'' (Oakland, Ore.: Elderberry Press, 2002) ISBN 1930859147, p. 65. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss' real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a car, using $400 [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss' Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [http://ia360633.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government, Part Two], Hearings pursuant to Public Law 601, Section 121, Subsection Q (2), Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 80th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 1452 (PDF p. 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck told him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''The Daily Worker'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to ''Daily Worker'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russian]] emigré [http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=levine700_102547 Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned his friends that if he were to be found dead, then [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html he had been murdered], his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/8138382.html corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the [[Russian]] [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In 1952, Berle wrote, “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/links/indx-act.html Foreign Agents Registration Act] [FARA], which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” of this matter were in fact mistaken; FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) In his 1973 memoir, Levine wrote that he later asked Berle how FDR responded: “To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/expletive expletive] remark on this order: ‘Oh, forget it, Adolf.’”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/print.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/dd.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/ilgwu.htm International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/news/walterwinchell.html Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when the question of Hiss was raised before Roosevelt, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/thompson-dorothy.htm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/interviews.html#B Spruille Braden, Oral Interview], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/index.html Oral History Research Office], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/butler/index.html Nicholas Murray Butler Library], Columbia University, quoted in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In consequence, Hiss would rise unimpeded through the ranks, in 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [http://secint50.un.org/aboutun/charter/history/dumbarton.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. (Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' [Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001] ISBN 0807849502, p. 67)&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, found his [[State Department]] career soon over. By 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the [[Russians]]. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss' hands and [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 the leaks stopped].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://ia331327.us.archive.org/1/items/odysseyofafriend001922mbp/odysseyofafriend001922mbp.pdf Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the [[Russian]]s were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” (Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 [PDF pp. 1-2])&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> By 1940 Hiss was among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss' wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287&lt;/ref&gt; In 1941, Hiss first came to the attention of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. [[HUAC]] had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook,&quot;] who, under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; was secretly paid by Moscow (during the Great Depression) more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet refugees] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/v011/11.3.fox.pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies] (D-Tex.), included in its probes Communists as well.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|FBI chart illustrating the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/foiaindex.htm FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss' former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the FBI sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKrwQAAACAAJ In Re Alger Hiss Volume II]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980), pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers repeated his identification of Hiss, among others, as a [[Communist]]. In 1943, the FBI obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from the controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]] (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; who was under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel B. Mikhailov,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> When the Nazi-Soviet alliance [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down], the FBI shifted from tracking Communists to focus resources on hunting for [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/nazi/nazi.htm Nazi and fascist agents]. In 1941, the U.S. expanded its Lend-Lease program to the UK to [http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/geust/aircraft_deliveries.htm include the Soviet Union]. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by officially dissolving the [[Comintern]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring its assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and top-secret [[U.S. government]] documents,&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]] (code-named &quot;Map&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; who boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten, a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; code-named ''Lyre''&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WCowSW6ZrywC Brotherhood of the Bomb]'' (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0805065881, p. 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; (and mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]]), and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=1&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brotherhoodofthebomb.com%2Fbhbmedia%2Fnotes_chap6.doc&amp;ei=GjZfSqfFCcH7tgfb15jgAw&amp;rct=j&amp;q=notes+chapter+6+%22black+suitcases%22&amp;usg=AFQjCNHIVVq-2CkXrloDTagYMB4uLzQGhw black suitcases] (sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate,” hence protected by diplomatic immunity from FBI searches) to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p 1. Cf. Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, pp. 206-208&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] recommended to Roosevelt that Kravchenko be forcibly returned to the Soviet Union, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his son Andrew maintains that he was executed by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins]] (whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States,&quot; according to Gordievsky)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. According to the Secretary, [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity, but he felt Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. Among those whose brains Stettinius had the ability to use was his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [[#refLindPump|brilliant]] Alger Hiss. According to [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, &quot;Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]With less than three months to live, Roosevelt suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot; According to one source, &quot;At Yalta [Roosevelt] could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; Sometimes it appears as if he has no thought-out recipe for anything beyond his troubles with Congress.&quot; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage, so that I give him only a few months to live. But men shut their eyes when they do not want to see, and the Americans here cannot bring themselves to believe that he is finished. His daughter thinks he is not really ill, and his doctor backs her up.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Privately, Roosevelt's cardiologist was more candid: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to Stettinius, &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record uses the passive voice to expunge Hiss' role in this maneuver: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press accounts relying on this bowdlerized official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that would prove [http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?1c1d76bb-290c-447b-82dd-e295ff0d3d59 catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://www.harpercollins.com/harperimages/ommoverride/teacher_guide_wild_swans.pdf member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ultimately, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944, [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists] I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Soviets bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes,&quot; write [http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Robert Louis Benson] and [[#refBenson95|Cecil Phillips]], &quot;through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sudoplatov, &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein (deputy director of the GRU), revealing not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> When [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9140-17.cfm essentially ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]], the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the &quot;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E8A8-96B6-175C-955B60FB1DA40BCC&amp;sort=Coverage&amp;item=Soviet%20Union secret protocols]&quot; of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest, writing, &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes: To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Another secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; gave the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] (who would be dead in less than a month) to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; This agreement would [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Yalta_Conference.aspx not be disclosed] until 1947.<br /> <br /> According to [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/byrnes-james.htm James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon Stalin requested the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[File:Buzuluk.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Polish children in the Soviet concentration camp at Buzuluk, in the Southern Urals. The photo is dated 1945,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lietuvos.org/istorija/communism/ Communism - face of the ideology], Lietuvos.net, Retrieved 1 February 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; the same year as the Repatriation Agreement, sending millions of refugees in American and British hands to a similiar fate in the Soviet Gulag system.]]<br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; That agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As William Henry Chamberlin, a one-time [http://www.providence.edu/library/archives/chamberlin/rppc_mswilliamhenrychamberlin.html supporter of the Bolshevik regime], concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlain, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/history/foxpaper.htm to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/academic_staff/further_details/andrew.html Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article6723449.ece Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://frwebgate5.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/PDFgate.cgi?WAISdocID=065346201217+0+2+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been continuously working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;; that they were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the National Security Agency have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v46i4a08p.htm John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss' links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.) wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/static/17/1/3/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf what he would do with Alger],&quot; who was already under FBI suspicion. Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy,&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which was [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===[[Venona project|VENONA]] and ''[[Amerasia]]''===<br /> The first breakthrough in decrypting the [[USSR|Soviet]] code had come in 1943.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; In November 1944, the [[OSS]] mission in Stockholm was approached by Finnish intelligence officers with an offer to sell some 1,500 pages of material relating to Soviet codes, including a code used by the [[NKVD]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt; Finnish troops had found the scorched codebooks and cryptographic materials in June 1941, in the [[USSR]]'s consulate at Petsamo.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius told OSS Director [[William J. Donovan|Donovan]] to reject the offer on the grounds that [[Russia]] was an ally, but the OSS purchased the material anyway. At the instigation of the [[State Department]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ordered Donovan to return the material to the Soviets forthwith. After a failed attempt to deliver it to [[Pavel Fitin]], head of NKVD foreign intelligence, the material was finally handed over to Soviet Ambassador to the U.S. Andrei Gromyko.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the application of this material to decrypting the Venona traffic would be delayed until 1953.&lt;ref&gt;National Security Agency, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After November 1944, “decrypts of messages were shown to President Roosevelt by a United States Naval Officer whose duty it was to take the decrypts to the White House.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; In May 1945 a U.S. Army intelligence team discovered a second codebook at a German signals intelligence archive in Saxony, in territory assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. Only a day or so prior to Soviet occupation of the area, the team removed the material, which then made its way to the Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS).&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0305&amp;week=c&amp;msg=22Pqnm844qaMxYtDmAjBPg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Venona Codebooks], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, May 19, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; But several months before the war would end on August 14, 1945, Brigadier General Carter Clarke of Army G-2 (Intelligence) would notify SIS that he had received instructions from the [[White House]] to &quot;cease any effort against the [[Soviet]] problem.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNSA95|NSA 1995]]: 159 (PDF 172) This report goes on to say that it was later discovered that the [[White House]] staff had been infiltrated by a [[Communist]] or &quot;[[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On June 4, 1945, six weeks after becoming [[President]], [[Harry Truman]] was briefed about [[Venona project|Venona]], according to former [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) officer Oliver Kirby, deputy director of the [[Russian]] code-breaking project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt; Based on notes Kirby made at the time, Jerrold Schecter, former National Security Council spokesman for the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, reported that Clarke, chief of the then-new Army Security Agency (precursor of the NSA), advised President Truman that the code-breakers were decrypting messages that revealed massive [[Soviet]] intelligence operations in the [[United States]], though it was too early to identify operatives or operations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 110. Truman's appointment calendar [http://trumanlibrary.org/calendar/main.php?currYear=1945&amp;currMonth=6&amp;currDay=4 confirms the meeting] with Clarke.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kirby, Clarke described this meeting as [[#refNovak03|&quot;NDG&quot; (no damn good)]], the president telling the general that his account of code-breaking sounded &quot;[[#refRusher04|like a fairy story]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, [[GRU]] code clerk [[Igor Gouzenko]] defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guozenko), reproduced (as Document 14) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 67&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. As Weinstein notes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar notes, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; (William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' [Washington: Regnery, 1954] ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 [PDF p. 23])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who repeated that Hiss' assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department].” She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://www.mediaresearch.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in a speech regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']][[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the [[FBI]] that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. ([http://ia341033.us.archive.org/1/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17-18, 1953 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953], p. 16 [PDF p. 20]; cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B])&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the leak. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 nothing to do] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.”<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss' desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Vladimir Petrov (defected from Soviet Embassy, Canberra, 1954), [http://ia341032.us.archive.org/0/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of Hiss, [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944]; &lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed],&quot; PBS, 1999<br /> ISBN 0-7806-2796-2; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf 1606(a) New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf 1340 New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover asked President Harry S. Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program]&quot;&amp;mdash;despite which, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 cases] there the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration was planning to subvert the grand jury process to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo would report that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury convened on July 22, 1947; nearly a year later, on July 20, 1948 (never having heard Whittaker Chambers' testimony) it handed down indictments&amp;mdash;not of any federal employees, but of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia360613.us.archive.org/3/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss' HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [[#refTLS09|reported to the chairman of Soviet intelligence]] about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> That day, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss’ FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].” (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would die from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page1 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie admitted to the FBI that he knew Hiss. (FBI report: Institute of Pacific Relations, April 7, 1950. FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR06.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 6], p. 36 [PDF p. 31])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss' side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss' denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;''[http://ia331329.us.archive.org/3/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss' &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> In his first statement, Hiss had suggested that Chambers was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[HUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; Now, Hiss demanded that the committee ask Chambers if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19480904/sanction I have not, period].&quot; Truman aide George Elsie wrote to White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford], &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury, but a handwritten insertion advised &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif confinement in a mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 117. On August 20, [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss' mental health history might be subject to investigation.) In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss also [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, adding, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Within ten days,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 61&lt;/ref&gt; on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' Chambers called Hiss' bluff, saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss' supporters as weeks dragged by and still no suit was filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post'' began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,888461,00.html put up or shut up] ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss' suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss' attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 10&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss' attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss' own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [http://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/1625/?record=1625 National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hiss' attorneys turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. While proceeding with its plans of &quot;bringing an indictment against Chambers for perjury,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 6, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; Truman Justice continued to formulate no such plans regarding Hiss. On December 1, the Washington ''Daily News'' reported that &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The next day, on an FBI memorandum detailing the perjury investigation of Chambers ordered by Justice, Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; [[HUAC]] attempted to get copies of the documents from Justice, but the Truman administration continued to stonewall. In desperation, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On December 2, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51.&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss' handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss' attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss' 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss' lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss continued to swear under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]].<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss' typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss' attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss' machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss' typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, ex-[[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; Even after ending his formal membership, Lippmann remained a loyal [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]: In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]'s [[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]]&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Lippman (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia311343.us.archive.org/2/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/stevenson-adlai.htm Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis]. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss' 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss' [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss' Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense called a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc.&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers.&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 19, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’s sexual preference in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Hiss himself dictated for the record] a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.” Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss' friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;initially had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; later concluded that &quot;[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/87.1/letters.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss' own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]The first trial ended [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]] in a hung jury, with eight for conviction and four against. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury returned a unanimous verdict: [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html Guilty on both counts].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]''&lt;/ref&gt; In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot;<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss' appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+faithful+traitor:+Alger+Hiss%27s+refusal+to+recant+helped+create...-a019100539 orchestrated by] long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was Leonard Boudin, [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by the communist (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20716FA3B5B177B93C5A9178CD85F448585F9 Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.”<br /> <br /> == Later Life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26929 lies and cover-ups],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to sacrifice us all on the altar of his vindication.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 Portrait of an American Traitor],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, September 24, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a landslide&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;How can that be? [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB111687989866640898.html No one I know voted for Nixon].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KagnAAAACAAJ It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss' petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by [http://www.joelkovel.org/joelkovel.html socialist]&lt;ref&gt;Kovel advocates what he calls &quot;ecosocialism,&quot; which he defines as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.org/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating 49-state landslide defeat by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss' conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/Ning/archive/archive/096/65.PDF public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss' guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 Vassiliev's notebooks] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.], ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.h-net.org/people/editors/show.cgi?ID=124585 Library of Congress Cold War historian John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/faculty%20pages/klehr.htm Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss' guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v38i5a10p.htm ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School]&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040621/editors2/ professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]==<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]==<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053, p. 287&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDilling77&gt;Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w7MOv0bujK8C The Red Network: A &quot;Who's Who&quot; and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots]'' (Salem, N.H.: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099460&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLoughery97&gt;John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' (New York: H. Holt, 1997) ISBN 0805052216&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://www.yellowdocuments.com/2332275-whittaker-chambers-and-alger-h Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; 27 ''[http://www.internationalsocietyofbarristers.org/journal.html International Society of Barristers Journal]'' 355 (1992); ''Federal Bar Journal'' 96 (1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, &quot;A Word About the Covernames,&quot; Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=Yalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev%20Notebooks%20Concordance2.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::*&lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;Black Notebook, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Translated1.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;White Notebook #3, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;Yellow Notebook #2, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://unyearbook.un.org/1946-47YUN/1946-47_P1_CH1.pdf Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia360609.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Espionage in the U.S. Government]: Hearings under Public Law 601, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[http://ia360643.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia360635.us.archive.org/3/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia311319.us.archive.org/0/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia360607.us.archive.org/1/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia360610.us.archive.org/0/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia341034.us.archive.org/3/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss' and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss' innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://ia331309.us.archive.org/3/items/instalinssecrets008248mbp/instalinssecrets008248mbp.pdf In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/printtranscript.asp?EventId=635 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May-June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1988/7/1988_7_18.shtml Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network, March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/22491229/The-Yalta-Myth The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan/print Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''National Review''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n1_v45/ai_13366253 Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss],&quot; January 18, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238/ Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_47_17/ai_80900413/ Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=751961 2010-02-04T22:34:40Z

<p>Mark01: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; [[U.S. State Department]] official and Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the founding conference of the [[United Nations]]. Hiss was [[conviction|convicted]] of [[perjury]] in 1950, after denying involvement in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. For decades, a great number of Americans saw Hiss, a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Hiss referred to &quot;liberals like myself,&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. Alger Hiss, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html Draft of a Chapter on the Foundations of His Liberalism], Small Manuscript Collection, Special Collections, Harvard Law School Library&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia''. Hiss had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties to the Democratic Party]]&amp;mdash;not just [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but others in it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism].&lt;ref&gt;Some have depicted Hiss as the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important,&quot; wrote [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]), who was instrumental in the declassification of [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts and [[FBI]] files on the case,&lt;ref&gt;“Moynihan asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6&lt;/ref&gt; which had been classified for half a century. &quot;Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt,&quot; concluded the liberal Democrat&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1998, &quot;but they never told.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a financially comfortable upper-middle-class&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss was born... in an [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]... family... The Hiss family was [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]]...&quot; The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) Contrary to [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/bookend/bookend.html ex-Communist] ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 3) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. Alger's father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss' father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when the boy was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss' son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss' father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; [[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; ''[http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 The New Yorker]'', May 13, 1950; Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss' favorite [[instructor|instructors]] included [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4)&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) [[H.L. Mencken]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] and [[Theodore Dreiser]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder|murderers]] [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution|revolutionary]] [[terrorist|terrorists]] who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101. Hiss' Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot; ([[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 199)&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate].&lt;ref&gt;New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]; cf. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/06/wallstreetbomb,0115-6.htm Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/sept07/wallstreet091307.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Charles Poggi, Frank Maffi said the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of his uncle, a Galleanist named Mario Buda. ([[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133)&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1374/article_detail.asp an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 24&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss [[marriage|married]] the former Mrs. [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/hobson.bio.html Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; but since then she'd had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to prestigious&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. Hiss joined Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart in Boston; [[#refMHSL|after two years he moved to]] Cotton &amp; Franklin in New York.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firms] in [[Boston]] and [[New York City|New York]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']]By 1932, Priscilla Hiss had [[#refChronology|registered as a member]] of [[#refNoe9|the Socialist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; and was an active member of American Labor Associates. Alger was becoming &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; joining (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; the International Juridical Association (IJA), which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia360638.us.archive.org/2/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss' letters to his wife reflected his increasing [[radical|radicalism]]. In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005] ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist|socialistic]] (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist|Communistic]]') cheek.&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=14B3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281, pp. 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join the [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the Inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote that he thought the film “would help the country.”&lt;/ref&gt; administration of [[President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; as assistant general counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot; [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot; [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Arthur Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456. In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Progressive]] Party ticket, finally recanting [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;Had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, [[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] would have become President; Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]], already at the agency, wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA (Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mother of seven children without food, California, ca. February 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At AAA, Hiss reunited with [[Henry Collins|Collins]], as well as IJA colleagues [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) &lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; and became acquainted with [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/WarCom.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;[[Harold Ware|Ware]], the son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]], reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; AAA administrator George Peek resigned in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers on settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss' colleagues at the AAA would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal|New Dealer]] [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano (who covered the Hiss trials for ''Newsweek'') and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for the ''New York World-Telegram''): &quot;When Hiss' lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss' laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss merely replied, &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was convinced of Hiss' guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/mccarthy/83869.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004), cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|Communist lawyer]] [[John Abt]] would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/assassins/jfk/7.html the communist] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. Pamela J. Ray with James E. Files,''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MvyLBI6yZ4sC Interview with History: The JFK Assassination]'' (AuthorHouse, 2007) ISBN 142595992X, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, to my knowledge, for [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html stealing documents from government agencies].” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”<br /> &lt;/ref&gt; a former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a source of agent information for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm merchants of death],&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to lead the [[United States|U.S.]] into war with [[Germany]]. One scholar has dubbed this a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Imperialism.pdf?id=bl0k_ZjcWZ8C&amp;output=pdf&amp;sig=OCSrlH_5acU7i3KlnOzxXFMBP20 Fabian]-[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist] [http://socyberty.com/history/imperial-capitalism-the-hobson-lenin-thesis/ theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, [http://www.stopthenorthamericanunion.com/DotsImages/AlgerHiss.jpg badgering] witnesses such as [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], reportedly the first man to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5. Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;He was the [http://faculty.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement, who investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb,&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vUnAHQAACAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. According to Chambers, they were introduced by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; and veteran of the [[Bela Kuhn]] revolution,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-3testimony.html Testimony of Whittaker Chambers] before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (August 3, 1948).&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52| Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story.<br /> <br /> [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss' friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists].&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19970217/langer a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss' 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt; &quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1056 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] questions about his role in the transfer or the [[Communist Party]] on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss' attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch, told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too but did not say so expressly.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own, notarized by Hiss' [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss' signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would plunge down a five-story Justice Department stairwell to his [[death]]; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss' [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate; Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (whom she refers to by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]], Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss' real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/timeline/ImageDisplay.asp?ID=37 son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, at the funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the [http://www.yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/pearson/pearson_18.html Afterward]; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S., had given Chambers $800 to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996,&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May-June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] [[historian]] [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (whose victims would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to [http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/newsarchive2005/gordievsky.html Oleg Gordievsky], the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;Peter B. Niblo, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kksbT33Cb6wC Influence: The Soviet Task Leading to Pearl Harbor, the Iron Curtain, and the Cold War]'' (Oakland, Ore.: Elderberry Press, 2002) ISBN 1930859147, p. 65. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss' real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a car, using $400 [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss' Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [http://ia360633.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government, Part Two], Hearings pursuant to Public Law 601, Section 121, Subsection Q (2), Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 80th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 1452 (PDF p. 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck told him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''The Daily Worker'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to ''Daily Worker'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russian]] emigré [http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=levine700_102547 Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned his friends that if he were to be found dead, then [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html he had been murdered], his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/8138382.html corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the [[Russian]] [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In 1952, Berle wrote, “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/links/indx-act.html Foreign Agents Registration Act] [FARA], which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” of this matter were in fact mistaken; FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) In his 1973 memoir, Levine wrote that he later asked Berle how FDR responded: “To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/expletive expletive] remark on this order: ‘Oh, forget it, Adolf.’”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/print.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/dd.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/ilgwu.htm International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/news/walterwinchell.html Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when the question of Hiss was raised before Roosevelt, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/thompson-dorothy.htm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/interviews.html#B Spruille Braden, Oral Interview], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/index.html Oral History Research Office], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/butler/index.html Nicholas Murray Butler Library], Columbia University, quoted in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In consequence, Hiss would rise unimpeded through the ranks, in 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [http://secint50.un.org/aboutun/charter/history/dumbarton.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. (Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' [Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001] ISBN 0807849502, p. 67)&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, found his [[State Department]] career soon over. By 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the [[Russians]]. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss' hands and [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 the leaks stopped].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://ia331327.us.archive.org/1/items/odysseyofafriend001922mbp/odysseyofafriend001922mbp.pdf Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the [[Russian]]s were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” (Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 [PDF pp. 1-2])&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> By 1940 Hiss was among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss' wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287&lt;/ref&gt; In 1941, Hiss first came to the attention of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. [[HUAC]] had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook,&quot;] who, under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; was secretly paid by Moscow (during the Great Depression) more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet refugees] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/v011/11.3.fox.pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies] (D-Tex.), included in its probes Communists as well.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|FBI chart illustrating the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/foiaindex.htm FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss' former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the FBI sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKrwQAAACAAJ In Re Alger Hiss Volume II]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980), pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers repeated his identification of Hiss, among others, as a [[Communist]]. In 1943, the FBI obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from the controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]] (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; who was under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel B. Mikhailov,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> When the Nazi-Soviet alliance [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down], the FBI shifted from tracking Communists to focus resources on hunting for [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/nazi/nazi.htm Nazi and fascist agents]. In 1941, the U.S. expanded its Lend-Lease program to the UK to [http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/geust/aircraft_deliveries.htm include the Soviet Union]. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by officially dissolving the [[Comintern]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring its assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and top-secret [[U.S. government]] documents,&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]] (code-named &quot;Map&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; who boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten, a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; code-named ''Lyre''&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WCowSW6ZrywC Brotherhood of the Bomb]'' (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0805065881, p. 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; (and mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]]), and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=1&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brotherhoodofthebomb.com%2Fbhbmedia%2Fnotes_chap6.doc&amp;ei=GjZfSqfFCcH7tgfb15jgAw&amp;rct=j&amp;q=notes+chapter+6+%22black+suitcases%22&amp;usg=AFQjCNHIVVq-2CkXrloDTagYMB4uLzQGhw black suitcases] (sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate,” hence protected by diplomatic immunity from FBI searches) to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p 1. Cf. Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, pp. 206-208&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] recommended to Roosevelt that Kravchenko be forcibly returned to the Soviet Union, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his son Andrew maintains that he was executed by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins]] (whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States,&quot; according to Gordievsky)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. According to the Secretary, [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity, but he felt Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. Among those whose brains Stettinius had the ability to use was his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [[#refLindPump|brilliant]] Alger Hiss. According to [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, &quot;Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]With less than three months to live, Roosevelt suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot; According to one source, &quot;At Yalta [Roosevelt] could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; Sometimes it appears as if he has no thought-out recipe for anything beyond his troubles with Congress.&quot; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage, so that I give him only a few months to live. But men shut their eyes when they do not want to see, and the Americans here cannot bring themselves to believe that he is finished. His daughter thinks he is not really ill, and his doctor backs her up.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Privately, Roosevelt's cardiologist was more candid: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to Stettinius, &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record uses the passive voice to expunge Hiss' role in this maneuver: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press accounts relying on this bowdlerized official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that would prove [http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?1c1d76bb-290c-447b-82dd-e295ff0d3d59 catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://www.harpercollins.com/harperimages/ommoverride/teacher_guide_wild_swans.pdf member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ultimately, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944, [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists] I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Soviets bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes,&quot; write [http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Robert Louis Benson] and [[#refBenson95|Cecil Phillips]], &quot;through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sudoplatov, &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein (deputy director of the GRU), revealing not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> When [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9140-17.cfm essentially ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]], the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the &quot;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E8A8-96B6-175C-955B60FB1DA40BCC&amp;sort=Coverage&amp;item=Soviet%20Union secret protocols]&quot; of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest, writing, &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes: To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Another secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; gave the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] (who would be dead in less than a month) to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; This agreement would [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Yalta_Conference.aspx not be disclosed] until 1947.<br /> <br /> According to [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/byrnes-james.htm James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon Stalin requested the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[File:Buzuluk.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Polish children in the Soviet concentration camp at Buzuluk, in the Southern Urals. The photo is dated 1945,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lietuvos.org/istorija/communism/ Communism - face of the ideology], Lietuvos.net, Retrieved 1 February 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; the same year as the Repatriation Agreement, sending millions of refugees in American and British hands to a similiar fate in the Soviet Gulag system.]]<br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave] [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf labor] or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; That agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As William Henry Chamberlin, a one-time [http://www.providence.edu/library/archives/chamberlin/rppc_mswilliamhenrychamberlin.html supporter of the Bolshevik regime], concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlain, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/history/foxpaper.htm to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/academic_staff/further_details/andrew.html Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article6723449.ece Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://frwebgate5.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/PDFgate.cgi?WAISdocID=065346201217+0+2+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been continuously working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;; that they were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the National Security Agency have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v46i4a08p.htm John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss' links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.) wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/static/17/1/3/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf what he would do with Alger],&quot; who was already under FBI suspicion. Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy,&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which was [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===[[Venona project|VENONA]] and ''[[Amerasia]]''===<br /> The first breakthrough in decrypting the [[USSR|Soviet]] code had come in 1943.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; In November 1944, the [[OSS]] mission in Stockholm was approached by Finnish intelligence officers with an offer to sell some 1,500 pages of material relating to Soviet codes, including a code used by the [[NKVD]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt; Finnish troops had found the scorched codebooks and cryptographic materials in June 1941, in the [[USSR]]'s consulate at Petsamo.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius told OSS Director [[William J. Donovan|Donovan]] to reject the offer on the grounds that [[Russia]] was an ally, but the OSS purchased the material anyway. At the instigation of the [[State Department]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ordered Donovan to return the material to the Soviets forthwith. After a failed attempt to deliver it to [[Pavel Fitin]], head of NKVD foreign intelligence, the material was finally handed over to Soviet Ambassador to the U.S. Andrei Gromyko.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the application of this material to decrypting the Venona traffic would be delayed until 1953.&lt;ref&gt;National Security Agency, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After November 1944, “decrypts of messages were shown to President Roosevelt by a United States Naval Officer whose duty it was to take the decrypts to the White House.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; In May 1945 a U.S. Army intelligence team discovered a second codebook at a German signals intelligence archive in Saxony, in territory assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. Only a day or so prior to Soviet occupation of the area, the team removed the material, which then made its way to the Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS).&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0305&amp;week=c&amp;msg=22Pqnm844qaMxYtDmAjBPg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Venona Codebooks], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, May 19, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; But several months before the war would end on August 14, 1945, Brigadier General Carter Clarke of Army G-2 (Intelligence) would notify SIS that he had received instructions from the [[White House]] to &quot;cease any effort against the [[Soviet]] problem.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNSA95|NSA 1995]]: 159 (PDF 172) This report goes on to say that it was later discovered that the [[White House]] staff had been infiltrated by a [[Communist]] or &quot;[[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On June 4, 1945, six weeks after becoming [[President]], [[Harry Truman]] was briefed about [[Venona project|Venona]], according to former [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) officer Oliver Kirby, deputy director of the [[Russian]] code-breaking project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt; Based on notes Kirby made at the time, Jerrold Schecter, former National Security Council spokesman for the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, reported that Clarke, chief of the then-new Army Security Agency (precursor of the NSA), advised President Truman that the code-breakers were decrypting messages that revealed massive [[Soviet]] intelligence operations in the [[United States]], though it was too early to identify operatives or operations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 110. Truman's appointment calendar [http://trumanlibrary.org/calendar/main.php?currYear=1945&amp;currMonth=6&amp;currDay=4 confirms the meeting] with Clarke.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kirby, Clarke described this meeting as [[#refNovak03|&quot;NDG&quot; (no damn good)]], the president telling the general that his account of code-breaking sounded &quot;[[#refRusher04|like a fairy story]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, [[GRU]] code clerk [[Igor Gouzenko]] defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guozenko), reproduced (as Document 14) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 67&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://wapedia.mobi/en/Norman_Robertson Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. As Weinstein notes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar notes, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; (William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' [Washington: Regnery, 1954] ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 [PDF p. 23])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who repeated that Hiss' assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department].” She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://www.mediaresearch.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in a speech regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']][[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the [[FBI]] that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. ([http://ia341033.us.archive.org/1/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17-18, 1953 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953], p. 16 [PDF p. 20]; cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B])&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the leak. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 nothing to do] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.”<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss' desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Vladimir Petrov (defected from Soviet Embassy, Canberra, 1954), [http://ia341032.us.archive.org/0/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of Hiss, [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944]; &lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed],&quot; PBS, 1999<br /> ISBN 0-7806-2796-2; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf 1606(a) New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf 1340 New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover asked President Harry S. Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program]&quot;&amp;mdash;despite which, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 cases] there the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration was planning to subvert the grand jury process to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo would report that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury convened on July 22, 1947; nearly a year later, on July 20, 1948 (never having heard Whittaker Chambers' testimony) it handed down indictments&amp;mdash;not of any federal employees, but of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia360613.us.archive.org/3/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss' HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [[#refTLS09|reported to the chairman of Soviet intelligence]] about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> That day, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss’ FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].” (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ The Willcutts Report], photocopy page 22&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie admitted to the FBI that he knew Hiss. (FBI report: Institute of Pacific Relations, April 7, 1950. FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR06.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 6], p. 36 [PDF p. 31])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss' side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss' denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;''[http://ia331329.us.archive.org/3/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss' &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> In his first statement, Hiss had suggested that Chambers was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed [[#refQA|is he a man of sanity?]]&quot; Now, Hiss demanded that the committee ask Chambers if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19480904/sanction I have not, period].&quot; Truman aide George Elsie wrote to White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford], &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury, but a handwritten insertion advised &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif confinement in a mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 117. On August 20, [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss' mental health history might be subject to investigation.) In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss also [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, adding, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Within ten days,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 61&lt;/ref&gt; on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' Chambers called Hiss' bluff, saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss' supporters as weeks dragged by and still no suit was filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post'' began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,888461,00.html put up or shut up] ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss' suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss' attorney William L. Marbury told Chambers to produce &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the [[#refBerresford92|most disastrous questions ever asked]] at a deposition.&quot; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss' attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss' own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [http://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/1625/?record=1625 National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hiss' attorneys turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. While proceeding with its plans of &quot;bringing an indictment against Chambers for perjury,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 6, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; Truman Justice continued to formulate no such plans regarding Hiss. On December 1, the Washington ''Daily News'' reported that &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The next day, on an FBI memorandum detailing the perjury investigation of Chambers ordered by Justice, Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; [[HUAC]] attempted to get copies of the documents from Justice, but the Truman administration continued to stonewall. In desperation, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On December 2, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51.&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss' handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss' attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss' 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss' lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss continued to swear under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]].<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss' typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss' attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss' machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss' typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, ex-[[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; Even after ending his formal membership, Lippmann remained a loyal [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]: In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]'s [[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]]&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Lippman (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia311343.us.archive.org/2/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/stevenson-adlai.htm Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis]. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss' 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss' [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss' Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense called a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc.&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers.&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been [[#refBerresford92|used as a model]] to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’s sexual preference in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Hiss himself dictated for the record] a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.” Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss' friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;initially had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; later concluded that &quot;[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/87.1/letters.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss' own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]The first trial ended [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]] in a hung jury, with eight for conviction and four against. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury returned a unanimous verdict: [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html Guilty on both counts].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]''&lt;/ref&gt; In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot;<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss' appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+faithful+traitor:+Alger+Hiss%27s+refusal+to+recant+helped+create...-a019100539 orchestrated by] long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was Leonard Boudin, [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by the communist (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20716FA3B5B177B93C5A9178CD85F448585F9 Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.”<br /> <br /> == Later Life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26929 lies and cover-ups],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to sacrifice us all on the altar of his vindication.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 Portrait of an American Traitor],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, September 24, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a landslide&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;How can that be? [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB111687989866640898.html No one I know voted for Nixon].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KagnAAAACAAJ It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss' petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by [http://www.joelkovel.org/joelkovel.html socialist]&lt;ref&gt;Kovel advocates what he calls &quot;ecosocialism,&quot; which he defines as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.org/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating 49-state landslide defeat by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss' conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/Ning/archive/archive/096/65.PDF public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss' guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 Vassiliev's notebooks] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.], ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.h-net.org/people/editors/show.cgi?ID=124585 Library of Congress Cold War historian John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/faculty%20pages/klehr.htm Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss' guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v38i5a10p.htm ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School]&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040621/editors2/ professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]==<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]==<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053, p. 287&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDilling77&gt;Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w7MOv0bujK8C The Red Network: A &quot;Who's Who&quot; and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots]'' (Salem, N.H.: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099460&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLoughery97&gt;John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' (New York: H. Holt, 1997) ISBN 0805052216&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide,&quot; 27 ''[http://www.internationalsocietyofbarristers.org/journal.html International Society of Barristers Journal]'' 355 (1992); ''Federal Bar Journal'' 96 (1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, &quot;A Word About the Covernames,&quot; Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=Yalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev%20Notebooks%20Concordance2.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::*&lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;Black Notebook, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Translated1.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;White Notebook #3, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;Yellow Notebook #2, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://unyearbook.un.org/1946-47YUN/1946-47_P1_CH1.pdf Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia360609.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Espionage in the U.S. Government]: Hearings under Public Law 601, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[http://ia360643.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia360635.us.archive.org/3/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia311319.us.archive.org/0/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia360607.us.archive.org/1/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia360610.us.archive.org/0/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia341034.us.archive.org/3/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss' and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss' innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://ia331309.us.archive.org/3/items/instalinssecrets008248mbp/instalinssecrets008248mbp.pdf In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/printtranscript.asp?EventId=635 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May-June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1988/7/1988_7_18.shtml Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network, March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/22491229/The-Yalta-Myth The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan/print Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''National Review''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n1_v45/ai_13366253 Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss],&quot; January 18, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238/ Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_47_17/ai_80900413/ Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=751960 2010-02-04T22:32:10Z

<p>Mark01: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */ reference HTML version of Willcutts report</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; [[U.S. State Department]] official and Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the founding conference of the [[United Nations]]. Hiss was [[conviction|convicted]] of [[perjury]] in 1950, after denying involvement in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. For decades, a great number of Americans saw Hiss, a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Hiss referred to &quot;liberals like myself,&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. Alger Hiss, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html Draft of a Chapter on the Foundations of His Liberalism], Small Manuscript Collection, Special Collections, Harvard Law School Library&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia''. Hiss had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties to the Democratic Party]]&amp;mdash;not just [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but others in it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism].&lt;ref&gt;Some have depicted Hiss as the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important,&quot; wrote [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]), who was instrumental in the declassification of [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts and [[FBI]] files on the case,&lt;ref&gt;“Moynihan asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6&lt;/ref&gt; which had been classified for half a century. &quot;Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt,&quot; concluded the liberal Democrat&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1998, &quot;but they never told.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a financially comfortable upper-middle-class&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss was born... in an [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]... family... The Hiss family was [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]]...&quot; The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) Contrary to [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/bookend/bookend.html ex-Communist] ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 3) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. Alger's father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss' father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when the boy was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss' son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss' father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; [[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; ''[http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 The New Yorker]'', May 13, 1950; Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss' favorite [[instructor|instructors]] included [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4)&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) [[H.L. Mencken]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] and [[Theodore Dreiser]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder|murderers]] [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution|revolutionary]] [[terrorist|terrorists]] who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101. Hiss' Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot; ([[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 199)&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate].&lt;ref&gt;New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]; cf. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/06/wallstreetbomb,0115-6.htm Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/sept07/wallstreet091307.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Charles Poggi, Frank Maffi said the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of his uncle, a Galleanist named Mario Buda. ([[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133)&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1374/article_detail.asp an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 24&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss [[marriage|married]] the former Mrs. [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/hobson.bio.html Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; but since then she'd had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to prestigious&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. Hiss joined Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart in Boston; [[#refMHSL|after two years he moved to]] Cotton &amp; Franklin in New York.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firms] in [[Boston]] and [[New York City|New York]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']]By 1932, Priscilla Hiss had [[#refChronology|registered as a member]] of [[#refNoe9|the Socialist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; and was an active member of American Labor Associates. Alger was becoming &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; joining (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; the International Juridical Association (IJA), which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia360638.us.archive.org/2/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss' letters to his wife reflected his increasing [[radical|radicalism]]. In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005] ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist|socialistic]] (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist|Communistic]]') cheek.&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=14B3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281, pp. 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join the [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the Inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote that he thought the film “would help the country.”&lt;/ref&gt; administration of [[President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; as assistant general counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot; [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot; [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Arthur Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456. In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Progressive]] Party ticket, finally recanting [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;Had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, [[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] would have become President; Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]], already at the agency, wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA (Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mother of seven children without food, California, ca. February 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At AAA, Hiss reunited with [[Henry Collins|Collins]], as well as IJA colleagues [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) &lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; and became acquainted with [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/WarCom.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;[[Harold Ware|Ware]], the son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]], reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; AAA administrator George Peek resigned in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers on settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss' colleagues at the AAA would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal|New Dealer]] [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano (who covered the Hiss trials for ''Newsweek'') and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for the ''New York World-Telegram''): &quot;When Hiss' lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss' laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss merely replied, &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was convinced of Hiss' guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/mccarthy/83869.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004), cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|Communist lawyer]] [[John Abt]] would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/assassins/jfk/7.html the communist] [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. Pamela J. Ray with James E. Files,''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MvyLBI6yZ4sC Interview with History: The JFK Assassination]'' (AuthorHouse, 2007) ISBN 142595992X, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, to my knowledge, for [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html stealing documents from government agencies].” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.”<br /> &lt;/ref&gt; a former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a source of agent information for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm merchants of death],&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to lead the [[United States|U.S.]] into war with [[Germany]]. One scholar has dubbed this a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Imperialism.pdf?id=bl0k_ZjcWZ8C&amp;output=pdf&amp;sig=OCSrlH_5acU7i3KlnOzxXFMBP20 Fabian]-[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist] [http://socyberty.com/history/imperial-capitalism-the-hobson-lenin-thesis/ theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, [http://www.stopthenorthamericanunion.com/DotsImages/AlgerHiss.jpg badgering] witnesses such as [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], reportedly the first man to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5. Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;He was the [http://faculty.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement, who investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb,&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vUnAHQAACAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. According to Chambers, they were introduced by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; and veteran of the [[Bela Kuhn]] revolution,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-3testimony.html Testimony of Whittaker Chambers] before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (August 3, 1948).&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52| Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story.<br /> <br /> [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss' friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists].&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19970217/langer a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss' 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt; &quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1056 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] questions about his role in the transfer or the [[Communist Party]] on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss' attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch, told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too but did not say so expressly.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own, notarized by Hiss' [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss' signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would plunge down a five-story Justice Department stairwell to his [[death]]; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss' [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate; Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (whom she refers to by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]], Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss' real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/timeline/ImageDisplay.asp?ID=37 son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, at the funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the [http://www.yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/pearson/pearson_18.html Afterward]; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S., had given Chambers $800 to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996,&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May-June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] [[historian]] [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (whose victims would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to [http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/newsarchive2005/gordievsky.html Oleg Gordievsky], the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;Peter B. Niblo, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kksbT33Cb6wC Influence: The Soviet Task Leading to Pearl Harbor, the Iron Curtain, and the Cold War]'' (Oakland, Ore.: Elderberry Press, 2002) ISBN 1930859147, p. 65. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss' real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a car, using $400 [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss' Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [http://ia360633.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government, Part Two], Hearings pursuant to Public Law 601, Section 121, Subsection Q (2), Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 80th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 1452 (PDF p. 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck told him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''The Daily Worker'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to ''Daily Worker'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russian]] emigré [http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=levine700_102547 Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned his friends that if he were to be found dead, then [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html he had been murdered], his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/8138382.html corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the [[Russian]] [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In 1952, Berle wrote, “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/links/indx-act.html Foreign Agents Registration Act] [FARA], which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” of this matter were in fact mistaken; FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) In his 1973 memoir, Levine wrote that he later asked Berle how FDR responded: “To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/expletive expletive] remark on this order: ‘Oh, forget it, Adolf.’”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/print.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/dd.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/ilgwu.htm International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/news/walterwinchell.html Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when the question of Hiss was raised before Roosevelt, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/thompson-dorothy.htm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/interviews.html#B Spruille Braden, Oral Interview], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/oral/index.html Oral History Research Office], [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/butler/index.html Nicholas Murray Butler Library], Columbia University, quoted in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In consequence, Hiss would rise unimpeded through the ranks, in 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [http://secint50.un.org/aboutun/charter/history/dumbarton.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. (Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' [Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001] ISBN 0807849502, p. 67)&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, found his [[State Department]] career soon over. By 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the [[Russians]]. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss' hands and [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 the leaks stopped].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://ia331327.us.archive.org/1/items/odysseyofafriend001922mbp/odysseyofafriend001922mbp.pdf Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the [[Russian]]s were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” (Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 [PDF pp. 1-2])&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> By 1940 Hiss was among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss' wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287&lt;/ref&gt; In 1941, Hiss first came to the attention of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. [[HUAC]] had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook,&quot;] who, under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; was secretly paid by Moscow (during the Great Depression) more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet refugees] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/v011/11.3.fox.pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies] (D-Tex.), included in its probes Communists as well.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|FBI chart illustrating the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/foiaindex.htm FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss' former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the FBI sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKrwQAAACAAJ In Re Alger Hiss Volume II]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980), pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers repeated his identification of Hiss, among others, as a [[Communist]]. In 1943, the FBI obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from the controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]] (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; who was under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel B. Mikhailov,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> When the Nazi-Soviet alliance [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down], the FBI shifted from tracking Communists to focus resources on hunting for [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/nazi/nazi.htm Nazi and fascist agents]. In 1941, the U.S. expanded its Lend-Lease program to the UK to [http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/geust/aircraft_deliveries.htm include the Soviet Union]. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by officially dissolving the [[Comintern]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring its assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and top-secret [[U.S. government]] documents,&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]] (code-named &quot;Map&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; who boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten, a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; code-named ''Lyre''&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WCowSW6ZrywC Brotherhood of the Bomb]'' (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0805065881, p. 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; (and mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]]), and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=1&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brotherhoodofthebomb.com%2Fbhbmedia%2Fnotes_chap6.doc&amp;ei=GjZfSqfFCcH7tgfb15jgAw&amp;rct=j&amp;q=notes+chapter+6+%22black+suitcases%22&amp;usg=AFQjCNHIVVq-2CkXrloDTagYMB4uLzQGhw black suitcases] (sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate,” hence protected by diplomatic immunity from FBI searches) to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p 1. Cf. Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, pp. 206-208&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] recommended to Roosevelt that Kravchenko be forcibly returned to the Soviet Union, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his son Andrew maintains that he was executed by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins]] (whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States,&quot; according to Gordievsky)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. According to the Secretary, [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity, but he felt Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. Among those whose brains Stettinius had the ability to use was his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [[#refLindPump|brilliant]] Alger Hiss. According to [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, &quot;Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]With less than three months to live, Roosevelt suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot; According to one source, &quot;At Yalta [Roosevelt] could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; Sometimes it appears as if he has no thought-out recipe for anything beyond his troubles with Congress.&quot; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage, so that I give him only a few months to live. But men shut their eyes when they do not want to see, and the Americans here cannot bring themselves to believe that he is finished. His daughter thinks he is not really ill, and his doctor backs her up.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Privately, Roosevelt's cardiologist was more candid: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to Stettinius, &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record uses the passive voice to expunge Hiss' role in this maneuver: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press accounts relying on this bowdlerized official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that would prove [http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?1c1d76bb-290c-447b-82dd-e295ff0d3d59 catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://www.harpercollins.com/harperimages/ommoverride/teacher_guide_wild_swans.pdf member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ultimately, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944, [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists] I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Soviets bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes,&quot; write [http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Robert Louis Benson] and [[#refBenson95|Cecil Phillips]], &quot;through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sudoplatov, &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein (deputy director of the GRU), revealing not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> When [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9140-17.cfm essentially ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]], the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the &quot;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E8A8-96B6-175C-955B60FB1DA40BCC&amp;sort=Coverage&amp;item=Soviet%20Union secret protocols]&quot; of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest, writing, &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes: To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Another secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; gave the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] (who would be dead in less than a month) to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; This agreement would [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Yalta_Conference.aspx not be disclosed] until 1947.<br /> <br /> According to [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/byrnes-james.htm James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon Stalin requested the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[File:Buzuluk.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Polish children in the Soviet concentration camp at Buzuluk, in the Southern Urals. The photo is dated 1945,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lietuvos.org/istorija/communism/ Communism - face of the ideology], Lietuvos.net, Retrieved 1 February 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; the same year as the Repatriation Agreement, sending millions of refugees in American and British hands to a similiar fate in the Soviet Gulag system.]]<br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave] [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf labor] or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; That agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As William Henry Chamberlin, a one-time [http://www.providence.edu/library/archives/chamberlin/rppc_mswilliamhenrychamberlin.html supporter of the Bolshevik regime], concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlain, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/history/foxpaper.htm to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/academic_staff/further_details/andrew.html Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article6723449.ece Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://frwebgate5.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/PDFgate.cgi?WAISdocID=065346201217+0+2+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been continuously working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;; that they were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the National Security Agency have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v46i4a08p.htm John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss' links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.) wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/static/17/1/3/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf what he would do with Alger],&quot; who was already under FBI suspicion. Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy,&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which was [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===[[Venona project|VENONA]] and ''[[Amerasia]]''===<br /> The first breakthrough in decrypting the [[USSR|Soviet]] code had come in 1943.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; In November 1944, the [[OSS]] mission in Stockholm was approached by Finnish intelligence officers with an offer to sell some 1,500 pages of material relating to Soviet codes, including a code used by the [[NKVD]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt; Finnish troops had found the scorched codebooks and cryptographic materials in June 1941, in the [[USSR]]'s consulate at Petsamo.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPrefaceBW96|Preface, NSA/CIA 1996]]&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius told OSS Director [[William J. Donovan|Donovan]] to reject the offer on the grounds that [[Russia]] was an ally, but the OSS purchased the material anyway. At the instigation of the [[State Department]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ordered Donovan to return the material to the Soviets forthwith. After a failed attempt to deliver it to [[Pavel Fitin]], head of NKVD foreign intelligence, the material was finally handed over to Soviet Ambassador to the U.S. Andrei Gromyko.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the application of this material to decrypting the Venona traffic would be delayed until 1953.&lt;ref&gt;National Security Agency, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After November 1944, “decrypts of messages were shown to President Roosevelt by a United States Naval Officer whose duty it was to take the decrypts to the White House.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; In May 1945 a U.S. Army intelligence team discovered a second codebook at a German signals intelligence archive in Saxony, in territory assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. Only a day or so prior to Soviet occupation of the area, the team removed the material, which then made its way to the Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS).&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0305&amp;week=c&amp;msg=22Pqnm844qaMxYtDmAjBPg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Venona Codebooks], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, May 19, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; But several months before the war would end on August 14, 1945, Brigadier General Carter Clarke of Army G-2 (Intelligence) would notify SIS that he had received instructions from the [[White House]] to &quot;cease any effort against the [[Soviet]] problem.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNSA95|NSA 1995]]: 159 (PDF 172) This report goes on to say that it was later discovered that the [[White House]] staff had been infiltrated by a [[Communist]] or &quot;[[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On June 4, 1945, six weeks after becoming [[President]], [[Harry Truman]] was briefed about [[Venona project|Venona]], according to former [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) officer Oliver Kirby, deputy director of the [[Russian]] code-breaking project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt; Based on notes Kirby made at the time, Jerrold Schecter, former National Security Council spokesman for the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, reported that Clarke, chief of the then-new Army Security Agency (precursor of the NSA), advised President Truman that the code-breakers were decrypting messages that revealed massive [[Soviet]] intelligence operations in the [[United States]], though it was too early to identify operatives or operations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 110. Truman's appointment calendar [http://trumanlibrary.org/calendar/main.php?currYear=1945&amp;currMonth=6&amp;currDay=4 confirms the meeting] with Clarke.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kirby, Clarke described this meeting as [[#refNovak03|&quot;NDG&quot; (no damn good)]], the president telling the general that his account of code-breaking sounded &quot;[[#refRusher04|like a fairy story]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, [[GRU]] code clerk [[Igor Gouzenko]] defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guozenko), reproduced (as Document 14) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 67&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://wapedia.mobi/en/Norman_Robertson Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. As Weinstein notes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar notes, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; (William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' [Washington: Regnery, 1954] ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 [PDF p. 23])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who repeated that Hiss' assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department].” She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://www.mediaresearch.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson/NSA]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in a speech regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']][[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the [[FBI]] that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. ([http://ia341033.us.archive.org/1/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17-18, 1953 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953], p. 16 [PDF p. 20]; cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B])&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the leak. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 nothing to do] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.”<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss' desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Vladimir Petrov (defected from Soviet Embassy, Canberra, 1954), [http://ia341032.us.archive.org/0/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of Hiss, [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944]; &lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed],&quot; PBS, 1999<br /> ISBN 0-7806-2796-2; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf 1606(a) New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf 1340 New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/ref&gt; FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover asked President Harry S. Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program]&quot;&amp;mdash;despite which, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 cases] there the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration was planning to subvert the grand jury process to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo would report that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury convened on July 22, 1947; nearly a year later, on July 20, 1948 (never having heard Whittaker Chambers' testimony) it handed down indictments&amp;mdash;not of any federal employees, but of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia360613.us.archive.org/3/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss' HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [[#refTLS09|reported to the chairman of Soviet intelligence]] about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> That day, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss’ FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].” (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/ Thw Willcutts Report], photocopy page 22&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie admitted to the FBI that he knew Hiss. (FBI report: Institute of Pacific Relations, April 7, 1950. FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR06.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 6], p. 36 [PDF p. 31])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss' side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss' denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;''[http://ia331329.us.archive.org/3/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss' &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> In his first statement, Hiss had suggested that Chambers was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed [[#refQA|is he a man of sanity?]]&quot; Now, Hiss demanded that the committee ask Chambers if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/19480904/sanction I have not, period].&quot; Truman aide George Elsie wrote to White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford], &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury, but a handwritten insertion advised &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif confinement in a mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|NSA/CIA 1996]]: 117. On August 20, [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss' mental health history might be subject to investigation.) In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss also [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, adding, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Within ten days,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 61&lt;/ref&gt; on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' Chambers called Hiss' bluff, saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss' supporters as weeks dragged by and still no suit was filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post'' began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,888461,00.html put up or shut up] ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss' suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss' attorney William L. Marbury told Chambers to produce &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the [[#refBerresford92|most disastrous questions ever asked]] at a deposition.&quot; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss' attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss' own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [http://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/1625/?record=1625 National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hiss' attorneys turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. While proceeding with its plans of &quot;bringing an indictment against Chambers for perjury,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 6, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; Truman Justice continued to formulate no such plans regarding Hiss. On December 1, the Washington ''Daily News'' reported that &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The next day, on an FBI memorandum detailing the perjury investigation of Chambers ordered by Justice, Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; [[HUAC]] attempted to get copies of the documents from Justice, but the Truman administration continued to stonewall. In desperation, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On December 2, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51.&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss' handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss' attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss' 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss' lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss continued to swear under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]].<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss' typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss' attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss' machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss' typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, ex-[[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; Even after ending his formal membership, Lippmann remained a loyal [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]: In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]'s [[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]]&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Lippman (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia311343.us.archive.org/2/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/stevenson-adlai.htm Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis]. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss' 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss' [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss' Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense called a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc.&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers.&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been [[#refBerresford92|used as a model]] to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’s sexual preference in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Hiss himself dictated for the record] a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.” Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss' friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;initially had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; later concluded that &quot;[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/87.1/letters.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss' own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]The first trial ended [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]] in a hung jury, with eight for conviction and four against. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury returned a unanimous verdict: [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html Guilty on both counts].&lt;ref&gt;''[[#refHissAppellate|U.S. v Hiss]]''&lt;/ref&gt; In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot;<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss' appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+faithful+traitor:+Alger+Hiss%27s+refusal+to+recant+helped+create...-a019100539 orchestrated by] long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was Leonard Boudin, [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by the communist (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20716FA3B5B177B93C5A9178CD85F448585F9 Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.”<br /> <br /> == Later Life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26929 lies and cover-ups],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to sacrifice us all on the altar of his vindication.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 Portrait of an American Traitor],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, September 24, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a landslide&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;How can that be? [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB111687989866640898.html No one I know voted for Nixon].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KagnAAAACAAJ It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss' petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by [http://www.joelkovel.org/joelkovel.html socialist]&lt;ref&gt;Kovel advocates what he calls &quot;ecosocialism,&quot; which he defines as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.org/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating 49-state landslide defeat by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss' conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/Ning/archive/archive/096/65.PDF public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss' guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 Vassiliev's notebooks] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.], ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.h-net.org/people/editors/show.cgi?ID=124585 Library of Congress Cold War historian John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/faculty%20pages/klehr.htm Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss' guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v38i5a10p.htm ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School]&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040621/editors2/ professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]==<br /> <br /> ==See Related Article: [[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]==<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053, p. 287&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDilling77&gt;Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w7MOv0bujK8C The Red Network: A &quot;Who's Who&quot; and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots]'' (Salem, N.H.: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099460&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLoughery97&gt;John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' (New York: H. Holt, 1997) ISBN 0805052216&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide,&quot; 27 ''[http://www.internationalsocietyofbarristers.org/journal.html International Society of Barristers Journal]'' 355 (1992); ''Federal Bar Journal'' 96 (1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, &quot;A Word About the Covernames,&quot; Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=Yalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev%20Notebooks%20Concordance2.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::*&lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;Black Notebook, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%20Notebook%20Translated1.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;White Notebook #3, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;Yellow Notebook #2, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Original.pdf Original]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Translated.pdf Translated]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://unyearbook.un.org/1946-47YUN/1946-47_P1_CH1.pdf Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia360609.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Espionage in the U.S. Government]: Hearings under Public Law 601, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[http://ia360643.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia360635.us.archive.org/3/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia311319.us.archive.org/0/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia360607.us.archive.org/1/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia360610.us.archive.org/0/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia341034.us.archive.org/3/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss' and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss' innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://ia331309.us.archive.org/3/items/instalinssecrets008248mbp/instalinssecrets008248mbp.pdf In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/printtranscript.asp?EventId=635 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May-June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1988/7/1988_7_18.shtml Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network, March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/22491229/The-Yalta-Myth The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan/print Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''National Review''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n1_v45/ai_13366253 Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss],&quot; January 18, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238/ Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_47_17/ai_80900413/ Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Ayn_Rand&diff=676492 2009-06-19T16:33:36Z

<p>Mark01: /* External Links */ removed reference to National Review -- it doesn't belong here, purely tangential</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Jhyu65.jpg|right|thumb]]<br /> '''Ayn Rand''' (&quot;Ayn&quot; rhymes with &quot;mine&quot;), born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' (1905-1982) was a [[Russian]]-born [[philosopher]], screenwriter, and novelist, who began her career in Hollywood. She used her novels to promote her philosophy, known as [[Objectivism]]. Her best-known novels are [[Atlas_Shrugged|''Atlas Shrugged'']] and ''[[The Fountainhead]]''.<br /> ==Her views==<br /> {{Main|Objectivism}}<br /> <br /> Ayn Rand attracted a following based on her opposition to [[collectivism]], as articulated in her novels, particularly ''Atlas Shrugged''. Her followers today tend to be [[libertarians]] and predominantly unmarried men, many of whom are drawn to a self-indulgent lifestyle consistent with Rand's philosophy. Rand often called herself a &quot;radical for capitalism,&quot; by which she meant the pure, ''laissez-faire'' variety. <br /> <br /> Rand's philosophy was anti-Christian to the point of even declaring that &quot;faith, as such, is extremely detrimental to human life: it is the negation of reason.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=media_topic_religion&lt;/ref&gt; The movement she founded supports an &quot;absolute right&quot; to [[abortion]] at any time during pregnancy,&lt;ref&gt;http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&amp;id=5105&lt;/ref&gt; including partial-birth abortion.<br /> <br /> Ayn Rand's philosophy and followers also support a &quot;right&quot; to have same-sex marriage, and opposed California's [[Proposition 8]] defining marriage as between one man and woman.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&amp;id=21821&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Rand had very little in common with [[conservatives]] except for a mutual opposition to communism and socialism. Rand was an [[atheism|atheist]] and opponent of traditional [[family]] values, who personally adhered more to [[Hollywood Values]] than conservative ones.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html&lt;/ref&gt; She was a strident opponent of altruism.<br /> <br /> ==Quotes==<br /> &quot;We are fast approaching the stage of the ultimate inversion: The stage where the government is free to do anything it pleases, while the citizens may act only by permission – which is the stage of the darkest periods of [[human]] history, the stage of rule by brute force.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=45735 WorldNetDaily.com Should Democratic Party merge with Communist Party?, August 12, 2005&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Books Written==<br /> *''We the Living''<br /> *''[[Anthem (book)|Anthem]]''<br /> *''The Fountainhead''<br /> *''Atlas Shrugged''<br /> *''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal''<br /> *''The Romantic Manifesto''<br /> *''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution''<br /> *''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> Doherthy, Brian. 'Radicals for Capitalism a Freewheeling History of the Modern Libertarian Movement.' New York: Public Affairs, 2007.<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==External Links==<br /> *[http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer Ayn Rand Institute]<br /> *[http://www.ARIwatch.com ARI Watch] — argues that the above misrepresents Ayn Rand.<br /> *[http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society — home of The Objectivist Center]<br /> *[http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/wiki/Main_Page Objectivism Wiki]<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Women Authors]]<br /> [[Category:Atheists]]<br /> [[Category:Libertarianism]]<br /> [[Category:Conservatives]]</div>

Mark01 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Thomas_Edison&diff=412401 2008-03-25T00:24:16Z

<p>Mark01: /* External links */ added link to TE's diary</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:875997.jpg|right|thumb|Thomas Alva Edison]]<br /> <br /> '''Thomas Alva Edison''' (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) is considered one of the greatest inventors in [[history]]. Some of his best known inventions are the light bulb, the mimeograph and phonograph. He patented over 1,000 inventions in his lifetime. <br /> <br /> ==Childhood==<br /> <br /> Thomas Alva Edison was born on Feb 11, 1847 in Milan, [[Ohio]]. His parents, Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott, had seven children, Thomas was the youngest.<br /> <br /> In 1854, his family moved to Port Huron, [[Michigan]], where the family remained while Thomas was growing up. <br /> <br /> Edison's mother, Nancy, was born in [[New York]] and raised in [[New England]]. Her family were Presbyterians, her father was a minister in their church. They stressed the importance of education to young Nancy, who went on to earn a teaching degree.<br /> <br /> ==Education==<br /> <br /> At the age of 7 years, Edison was sent to the local public school, a one-room schoolhouse with 38 other students. Edison had some congenital hearing loss which became worse after a bout of scarlet fever, which hindered his being able to hear the teacher in the noisy classroom. The teacher became irritated by Edison's constant curiosity and questions, and annoyed by his not following directions due to his inability to hear them, and insisted he was incapable of learning. <br /> <br /> Edison's mother did not accept the teacher's evaluation of her son, and after he had spent 3 months in the school, chose to remove him from public school and educate him at home. <br /> <br /> She taught him to read from the [[Bible]], and his father encouraged him to read classical works. Edison was an avid reader and regularly frequented his local library. He took an interest in poetry, especially the works of [[Shakespeare]] and excelled in world history and English. Around the age of 12 he became exceedingly interested in [[Science]] and [[Chemistry]], especially the works of [[Isaac Newton]]. When he began to ask complex questions about [[Physics]] and Science concepts his parents decided to hire a tutor for him.<br /> <br /> ==Young Adulthood==<br /> <br /> Edison was also an entrepreneur, and as a child made spending money by selling newspapers, candy, and fresh produce. As a teenager, in 1860, he decided to publish his own newspaper, ''&quot;The Weekly Herald&quot;'' which made a profit it's first edition and each one thereafter, and focused on political news and the United States Presidential debates between [[Abraham Lincoln]] and Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]]. Edison agreed with Lincoln's stance on emancipation, and volunteered to work for his campaign office, distributing campaign literature on his behalf. <br /> <br /> Thomas was used to taking the initiative to learn on his own, and had a very inquisitive nature, a strong desire to learn, an excellent memory, and the ability to understand complex concepts. He considered his hearing loss to work in his favor, as he was not distracted by outside noises and able to concentrate on his own thoughts. His hearing loss increased over time, and in later years he lost all hearing in his left ear and about 80% of the hearing in his right ear. <br /> <br /> At 15 years of age, Edison learned [[Morse Code|Morse code]] and was hired as a telegraph operator. There were jobs available for workers of all ages, including youngsters, as many adult men were now engaged in fighting in the [[Civil War]].<br /> <br /> He worked in several telegraph offices, then decided to accept a job offer from the [[Western Union]] Company in Boston. He chose to move far from home as he felt Boston had a strong scientific community. He was known as a hard worker and routinely worked 12 hour days, 6 days a week. In the evenings after work, he developed his own inventions.<br /> <br /> ==Adulthood==<br /> <br /> He obtained his first patent on his first &quot;real&quot; invention, an automatic vote-recording machine. However, as with many inventors first attempts, it was not well received and turned out to be unmarketable. This was not because it did not work; it worked well, it was because the market was not receptive to the invention.<br /> <br /> While in [[Boston]], Edison attended several lectures at Boston Tech, which would later be renamed the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], also known as [[MIT]]. In 1869, after a year and a half in Boston, Edison decided to relocate to New York.<br /> <br /> Due to his exceptional mechanical ability and knowledge he was able to find work as a repairman of automated devices for a financial firm. After work, he continued to thinker and experiment with mechanical devices. He had some success and was able to sell some of his inventions. The most important and profitable was a stock ticker he named the &quot;Universal Stock Printer&quot;, which he sold for $40,000. <br /> <br /> With the profits he established a laboratory in Newark, [[New Jersey]], where he continued to develop his inventions. In his experiments, he always took a &quot;hands-on&quot; approach, and took nothing for granted, insisting on performing tests himself to compare his outcomes with previously recorded results.<br /> <br /> He met and married Mary Stilwell, &lt;ref&gt;They were married on Christmas Day, 1871, when Mary was sixteen. [http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/edison/terms/char_6.html (Spark Notes)] &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> and they had three children, Marion Estelle, Thomas Alva Jr, and William. (Later after Mary's death in 1884, he remarried. He wed his 2nd wife Mina Miller in 1886, they had 3 children, Madelene, Charles and Theodore, and remained together until his death).<br /> <br /> His first daughter was nicknamed &quot;Dot&quot;, and his first son &quot;Dash&quot; (see [[Morse Code]]). &lt;ref&gt; [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtime.html Edison: Timeline for Inventing Entertainment], Library of Congress &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Religious Viewpoints==<br /> Thomas Edison was heavily influenced by Thomas Paine's Age of Reason, and can be considered an adherent of Deism.<br /> <br /> Remarks made by Edison in advocacy of Deism;<br /> &quot;Nature is what we know. We do not know the gods of religions. And nature is not kind, or merciful, or loving. If God made me -- the fabled God of the three qualities of which I spoke: mercy, kindness, love -- He also made the fish I catch and eat. And where do His mercy, kindness, and love for that fish come in? No; nature made us -- nature did it all -- not the gods of the religions&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Inventions==<br /> <br /> In 1876 Edison left his Newark lab and established a laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where he earned the nickname ''&quot;The Wizard of Menlo Park&quot;''. The following year, in 1877, he invented the first [[phonograph]]. The tin foil phonograph was the first machine that could record and reproduce sound. This invention brought him worldwide recognition and acclaim and he was invited to meet U.S. President [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] in the [[White House]].<br /> <br /> 2 years later, in 1879, he developed the first working incandescent electric light bulb. The original idea for the light bulb had already been proposed, and different versions attempted, but no one had yet been able to develop an electric lighting system that was practical and economical enough for common use. <br /> <br /> By 1882 Edison had established the first commercial power station, and began providing light and power to customers. In 1887, he established an electrical research and development center in West Orange, New Jersey, where he continued to work on electrical inventions and to developing technology that led to the first (silent) motion pictures. He concurrently worked on developing, then improving the phonograph, and recording equipment.<br /> <br /> In 1890 Thomas Edison established the Edison General Electric Company, and in 1892 Edison's company and the Thomson-Houston Company combined to form the [[General Electric]] Company, which is a large and profitable company today, commonly known as GE.<br /> <br /> Edison gained worldwide acclaim for his inventions. He continued working even with advancing age and in frail health, amassing a total of 1093 patents, more than any other inventor at that time. His last patent was obtained at age 83. He died at age 84, Oct 18th, 1931 in New Jersey. His inventions live on in everyday use by millions of people worldwide. <br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> <br /> *[http://edison.rutgers.edu/patents.htm Edison’s Patents]<br /> *[http://ariwatch.com/VS/TheDiaryOfThomasEdison.htm The Diary of Thomas Edison] – complete text, with explanatory footnotes.<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edbiohm.html<br /> <br /> http://edison.rutgers.edu/biogrphy.htm<br /> <br /> http://www.projectshum.org/Edison/<br /> <br /> http://www.gelighting.com/na/home_lighting/gela/students/history_bio_edison.htm<br /> <br /> http://www.famous-inventors.com/thomas-edison-biography.html<br /> <br /> http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/edison<br /> <br /> http://www.nps.gov/archive/edis/edisonia.htm<br /> <br /> [[Category:Inventors|Edison, Thomas Alva]] [[Category:Homeschooled persons]]</div>

Mark01