Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Tyre

2007-07-07T21:00:46Z

Lordration: New page: The old city of Tyre was the capital of the Phoenician Empire Tyre has 59 biblical referenceshttp://www.biblegateway.com/quicksearch/?quicksearch=Tyre&qs_version=31. <gallery> Imag...

The old city of Tyre was the capital of the [[Phoenician Empire]]
Tyre has 59 biblical references[[http://www.biblegateway.com/quicksearch/?quicksearch=Tyre&qs_version=31]].
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Image:http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9805/09/lebanon.tyre/lebanon.tyre.jpg
Image:http://pictures.exploitz.com/Tyre-from-sky-photo---_smgpx10001x15027x17af71663.jpg
</gallery>

==History==
Founded in the third millennium B.C. Tyre originally consisted of a mainland settlement and a modest island city that lay a short distance off shore. But it was not until the first millennium B.C. that the city experienced its golden age. Phoenician expansion began about 815 B.C. when traders from Tyre founded Carthage in North Africa. Eventually its colonies spread around the Mediterranean and Atlantic, bringing to the city a flourishing maritime trade. But prosperity and power make their own enemies. Early in the sixth century B.C. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, laid siege to the walled city for thirteen years. Tyre held out, but it was probable that at this time the residents of the mainland city abandoned it for the safety of the island.

In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great set out to conquer this strategic coastal base in the war between the Greeks and the Persians. Unable to storm the city, he blockaded Tyre for several months. Again Tyre held on. But the conqueror used the debris of the abandoned mainland city to build a causeway and once within reach of the city walls, Alexander used his siege engines to batter and finally breach the fortifications. It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyre’s defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. The town's 30,000 residents were massacred or sold into slavery. Tyre and the whole of ancient Syria fell under Roman rule in 64 B.C..
The Romans built great important monuments in the city, including an aqueduct, a triumphal arch and the largest hippodrome in antiquity.

Taken by the Islamic armies in 634, the city offered no resistance and continued to prosper under its new rulers, exporting sugar as well as objects made of pearl and glass.
With the decline of the Abbasid caliphate, Tyre acquired some independence under the dynasty of Banu 'Aqil, vassals of the Egyptian Fatimides.
Thanks to Tyre's strong fortifications it was able to resist to onslaught of the Crusaders until 1124. After about 180 years of Crusader rule, the Mamlukes retook the city in 1291, then it passed on to the Ottomans at the start of the 16th century.
With the end of the World War I Tyre was integrated into the new nation of Lebanon.

Monera

2007-06-07T21:31:03Z

Lordration:

The Monerans are the most numerous and widespread organisms on earth.

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[[Image:http://sps.k12.ar.us/massengale/images/Image263.gif]]
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They comprise the only kingdom of prokaryotic organisms, those which lack a nucleus or other membrane-bounded organelles. External to the plasma membrane, most bacteria have a cell wall partially composed of peptidoglycan, a complex structural molecule not found in eukaryotic cells.[[http://fig.cox.miami.edu/Faculty/Dana/monera.html]]
''Kingdom Monera'' is a Biological Classification [[http://www.conservapedia.com/Biological_classification]].
The Kingdom Monera consists entirely of the bacteria - very small one-celled organisms. To get an idea of just how small bacteria are, take a look at the width of a millimeter - the smallest units on the metric side of a ruler. A thousand bacteria can sit side by side in just 1 tiny millimeter! Despite their small size, bacteria are the most abundant of any organism on Earth. And they're everywhere! Bacteria can be found in the air, soil, water, on you, and inside you. In fact, there are more bacterial cells inside your gut and on your skin than there are cells in your entire body - no matter how many times you try to wash them off.[[http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/life/monera.html]]
<blockquote>

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[[Image:http://www.helsinki.fi/~pjojala/Monera.jpg]]
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The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition defines Monera as: Taxonomic kingdom that comprises the prokaryotes (bacteria and cyanobacteria). Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and usually lack membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts; see cell, in biology). They have a small ring of DNA as their genetic material and reproduce asexually. A recently proposed system classifies these organisms in two major groupings called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, or archaea. Monera has been contrasted with the kingdoms of eukaryotic organisms (protists, fungi, plants, and animals; see eukaryote). [[http://www.bartleby.com/65/mo/Monera.html]]
</blockquote>

Monera

2007-06-07T21:29:45Z

Lordration: New page: The Monerans are the most numerous and widespread organisms on earth. Image:http://sps.k12.ar.us/massengale/images/Image263.gif They comprise the only kingdom of prokaryotic organism...

The Monerans are the most numerous and widespread organisms on earth.

[[Image:http://sps.k12.ar.us/massengale/images/Image263.gif]]

They comprise the only kingdom of prokaryotic organisms, those which lack a nucleus or other membrane-bounded organelles. External to the plasma membrane, most bacteria have a cell wall partially composed of peptidoglycan, a complex structural molecule not found in eukaryotic cells.[[http://fig.cox.miami.edu/Faculty/Dana/monera.html]]
''Kingdom Monera'' is a Biological Classification [[http://www.conservapedia.com/Biological_classification]].
The Kingdom Monera consists entirely of the bacteria - very small one-celled organisms. To get an idea of just how small bacteria are, take a look at the width of a millimeter - the smallest units on the metric side of a ruler. A thousand bacteria can sit side by side in just 1 tiny millimeter! Despite their small size, bacteria are the most abundant of any organism on Earth. And they're everywhere! Bacteria can be found in the air, soil, water, on you, and inside you. In fact, there are more bacterial cells inside your gut and on your skin than there are cells in your entire body - no matter how many times you try to wash them off.[[http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/life/monera.html]]
<blockquote>

[[Image:http://www.helsinki.fi/~pjojala/Monera.jpg]]

The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition defines Monera as: Taxonomic kingdom that comprises the prokaryotes (bacteria and cyanobacteria). Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and usually lack membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts; see cell, in biology). They have a small ring of DNA as their genetic material and reproduce asexually. A recently proposed system classifies these organisms in two major groupings called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, or archaea. Monera has been contrasted with the kingdoms of eukaryotic organisms (protists, fungi, plants, and animals; see eukaryote). [[http://www.bartleby.com/65/mo/Monera.html]]
</blockquote>

Biological classification

2007-06-07T21:19:06Z

Lordration:

In biological classification, a species is assigned a two-part name, treated as [[Latin]]. The genus is listed first (with its leading letter capitalized), followed by a second term. For example, [[gray wolves]] belong to the species ''Canis lupus'', [[coyote]]s to ''Canis latrans'', [[golden jackal]]s to ''Canis aureus'', etc.; and all of these belong to the genus ''[[Canis]]'' (which also contains many other species). The name of the species is the whole binomial, not just the second term (which may be called specific epithet for animals, or specific name for animals).

The binomial naming convention, later formalized in the biological codes of nomenclature, was first used by [[Leonhart Fuchs]] and introduced as the standard by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in the 1700s and as a result is sometimes called the "binomial nomenclature". At this time, the chief biological theory was that species represented independent acts of creation by God, and were therefore considered objectively real and immutable.

The classification system that must people use is multi-leveled. It starts by splitting all organisms up into five different groups known as ''kingdoms''. The organisms within each kingdom can then be further divided into different groups called ''phyla'' (fie' luh), the singular of which is ''phylum'' (fie' lum) . Each phylum can be further divided into ''classes'', which can be further divided into ''orders'' . Within an order, organisms can be divided into families , which can be further divided into genera (jon' ruh), the singular of which is ''genus'' (jee' nus) , which can finally be broken down into species. The names of these kingdoms are Monera (muh nihr' uh) , Protista (pruh tist' uh) , Fungi (fun' jye) , Plantae, and Animalia . The proper names of all our classification groups are Latin, and when we use those names, we capitalize them to emphasize that these are proper classification names.

A good mnemonic to remember this is: ''K''ing ''P''hilip ''C''ried ''O''ut ''F''or ''G''oodness ''S''ake.

==Species==
{{main|species}}

In [[biology]], a '''species''' is one of the basic units of biological classification (see the diagram at the side - a [[genus]] contains one or more species, etc.) A usable definition of the word "species" and reliable methods of identifying particular species are essential for stating and testing biological theories and for measuring [[biodiversity]]. A species consists of individual organisms which are very similar in appearance, anatomy, physiology and genetics. Traditionally, multiple examples of a proposed species must be studied for unifying characters before it can be regarded as a species.

The commonly used names for types of animal in English and many other languages often do not correspond to species. For example: [[dog| dogs]] are a sub-species of [[wolf]]; but the word "[[deer]]" refers to a family of 34 species, such as the [[Red Deer| red deer]] and [[Mule Deer| mule deer]].

==Abbreviation==
Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully and use the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." in the plural in the place of the specific epithet, for example ''Canis'' sp. This commonly occurs in the following types of situation:

The authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong. This is particularly common in [[paleontology]].
The authors use the "spp." as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but do not wish say that it applies to all species within that genus. If scientists mean that something applies to all species inside a genus, they use the genus name without the specific epithet.
In books and articles which use the Latin alphabet, genus and species names are usually printed in italics.

[[Category:Biology]]

Talk:Brazil

2007-06-07T21:01:24Z

Lordration:

This article is wrong. (March 8th)

:I tried to improve it. --[[User:Fernando.correia|Fernando.correia]] 10:53, 11 March 2007 (EDT)

There is a great deal of information missing about Brazil, so I have marked it as a stub for the moment. --[[User:Atomicwaist|Atomicwaist]] 12:21, 13 March 2007 (EDT)

It would be great to have a picture of the flag Of Brazil (I do not know how to do that)

Talk:Scientific method

2007-06-04T18:05:37Z

Lordration:

An example of an excellent, useful article. Will it be deleted for failing one of ASchlafly's tests? I ask not to be a pain, but because accepting this entry should cause the rejection of a large percentage of articles currently here.
[[User:Palmd001|Palmd001]] 22:41, 18 March 2007 (EDT)

:It won't be deleted, if I have any say in the matter. But item #3 is incomplete and has a poor example.

==Poverty of this definition==

Totally diagaree. This is a very inadequate section, which does not at all address what the scientific method actually does , or tries to do, not the depth of verifiability required in accepting theory. Compare what is written here with the Wikipedia entry:

''Elements of scientific method''
There are multiple ways of outlining the basic method shared by all of the fields of scientific inquiry. The following examples are typical classifications of the most important components of the method on which there is very wide agreement in the [[scientific community]] and among [[Philosophy of science|philosophers of science]], each of which are subject only to marginal disagreements about a few very specific aspects.

<div class="boilerplate metadata" id="attention" style="background-color: #FFFCE6; margin: 0 2.5%; padding: 0 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa;">
The scientific method involves the following basic facets:
* '''Observation'''. A constant feature of scientific inquiry.

* '''Description'''. Information must be reliable, i.e., replicable (repeatable) as well as valid (relevant to the inquiry).

* '''Prediction'''. Information must be valid for observations past, present, and future of given phenomena, i.e., purported "one shot" phenomena do not give rise to the capability to predict, nor to the ability to repeat an experiment.

* '''Control'''. Actively and fairly sampling the range of ''possible'' occurrences, whenever possible and proper, as opposed to the passive acceptance of opportunistic data, is the best way to control or counterbalance the risk of empirical bias.

* '''Falsifiability''', or the elimination of plausible alternatives. This is a gradual process that requires repeated experiments by multiple researchers who must be able to replicate results in order to corroborate them. This requirement, one of the most frequently contended, leads to the following: ''All hypotheses and theories are in principle subject to disproof''. Thus, there is a point at which there might be a consensus about a particular hypothesis or theory, yet it must in principle remain tentative. As a body of knowledge grows and a particular hypothesis or theory repeatedly brings predictable results, confidence in the hypothesis or theory increases.

* '''Causal explanation'''. Many scientists and theorists on scientific method argue that concepts of causality are not obligatory to science, but are in fact well-defined only under particular, admittedly widespread conditions.{{Who|Date=March 2007}} Under these conditions the following requirements are generally regarded as important to scientific understanding:

:* '''Identification of causes'''. Identification of the causes of a particular phenomenon to the best achievable extent.
:* '''Covariation of events'''. The hypothesized causes must [[correlate]] with observed effects.
:* '''Time-order relationship'''. The hypothesized causes must precede the observed effects in time.
</div>

The following is a more thorough description of the method. This set of methodological elements and organization of procedures will in general tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences and experimental psychology than of disciplines commonly categorized as social sciences. Among the latter, methods of verification and testing of hypotheses may involve less stringent mathematical and statistical interpretations of these elements within the respective disciplines. Nonetheless the cycle of hypothesis, verification and formulation of new hypotheses will tend to resemble the basic cycle described below.
<div class="boilerplate metadata" id="attention" style="background-color: #FFFCE6; margin: 0 2.5%; padding: 0 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa;">
The essential elements of a scientific method are [[iteration]]s, [[recursion]]s, [[interleaving]]s, and [[Partially ordered set|orderings]] of the following:
*[[#Characterizations|Characterizations]] (Quantifications, observations, and measurements)
*[[#Hypothesis development|Hypotheses]] (theoretical, hypothetical [[explanation]]s of observations and measurements)
*[[#Predictions from the hypothesis|Predictions]] ([[reasoning]] including [[logic]]al [[deduction]] from [[hypothesis]] and [[theory]])
*[[#Experiments|Experiments]] ([[Experiment|test]]s of all of the above) </div>

An alternative way to explain scientific method is the "operational":
<div class="boilerplate metadata" id="attention" style="background-color: #FFFCE6; margin: 0 2.5%; padding: 0 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa;">
The essential elements of a scientific method are [[operation]]s, [[observation]]s, [[scientific modeling|model]]s, and a [[utility function]] for evaluating models.
*[[Operation]] - Some action done to the system being investigated
*[[Observation]] - What happens when the operation is done to the system
*[[Scientific_modeling|Model]] - A [[fact]], [[hypothesis]], [[theory]], or the phenomenon itself at a certain moment
*[[Utility_function|Utility Function]] - A measure of the usefulness of the model to explain, predict, and control, and of the cost of use of it

One of the elements of any scientific utility function is the [[Scientific_modeling|refutability]] of the model. Another is its [[simplicity]], on the [[Principle of Parsimony]] also known as [[Occam's Razor]].</div>

I would suggest that what is required her is either to use a reference to Wikipedia OR to incorparate some of these elements.

--[[User:CatWatcher|CatWatcher]] 15:11, 4 April 2007 (EDT)

== Uncle Ed's two cents ==

Has anyone seen this 4-step formulation?

*Proper scientific methodology usually requires four steps:
*#Observation. Objectivity is very important at this stage.
*#The inducement of general [[hypotheses]] or possible explanations for what has been observed. Here one must be imaginative yet [[logic]]al. [[Occam's Razor]] should be considered but need not be strictly applied: ''Entia non sunt multiplicanda'', or as it is usually paraphrased, the simplest hypothesis is the best. Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily.
*#The [[deduction]] of [[corollary]] assumptions that must be true if the hypothesis is true. Specific testable [[prediction]]s are made based on the initial hypothesis.
*#Testing the hypothesis by investigating and confirming the deduced [[implication]]s. [[Observation]] is repeated and data is gathered with the goal of confirming or [[falsifying]] the initial hypothesis.
*[[Pseudoscience]] often omits the last two steps above. [http://www.catchpenny.org/patho.html]

The difference between this 4-step process and what the article says, is that this one recommends drawing [[conclusion]]s from the hypothesis. The [[scientist]] then compares each conclusion with the facts. Any facts which contradict a conclusion invalidate the hypothesis.

Logically, it works like this:

*Hypothesis: the [[moon]] is made of green cheese.
*#If this is true, then the [[spectrum]] of light coming from the moon should match the spectrum for green cheese.
*#[[Astronomer]] X did a spectral analysis of [[moonlight]] and found that it did not match green cheese.
*#Therefore, the hypothesis is untrue.

If you want an example that isn't so light-hearted, we could list the [[criteria]] used by medical [[researcher]]s to determine whether a particular [[germ]] causes a [[disease]]. Such factors as:
*Does the disease ever occur without the presence of the germ (or at least [[antibodies]] indicating its presence)?
*Does the germ ever appear without the disease manifesting? If so, how much? Is there a [[threshold]]?

I think this was used in determining whether ''[[e. coli]]'' [[bacteria]] in [[water]] makes people sick.

Sorry I don't have all the details at hand - I'm not a card-carrying scientist - but I think I've captured the essentials. Can we work together as "[[science writer]]s" to fix up the [[Conservapedia:article|article]]? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 09:45, 6 April 2007 (EDT)

----
It has been nearly 3 weeks, and '''none''' of the writers clamoring and carping about the supposed "bias" of this site re: [[theory of evolution]] have bothered to comment on [[scientific methodology]] here. Does this mean that evolution is indeed a matter of [[dogma]] to them, as [[Ann Coulter]] claims in ''[[Godless]]''?

[[Psychology]] studies invisible events which cannot be measured by any "[[natural]]" means. We can only ask people to report to us, in their own words, what they were thinking or feeling. Yet it is considered a [[science]]. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 06:52, 24 April 2007 (EDT)

:On the other hand, it might be because we have been banned for pointing out that many of the other entries on this site are in need of citation and evidence to back up statements, and did not have the opportunity to contribute. :P --[[User:CatWatcher|CatWatcher]] 07:39, 24 April 2007 (EDT)

::If this were true, somebody would have pointed out an example by now. I've been here 5 weeks, and ideological bans simply do not happen. Do not spread false rumors, or I will suspend your account. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 07:45, 24 April 2007 (EDT)

Ah, you mean like the following interchange on A.Schafly's talk page just before I was banned...

<nowiki>== Response to accusations of ideology ==</nowiki>

<nowiki>This is quite an interesting accusation. I thought that I was simply pointing out that the entry as written was deficient, in that it contained no references and seemed to present an unjustified diatribe against what the author perceived to be 'liberals'. Not knowing any liberals, myself, I would like to know where i can find such information, so as to read about them, and convince myself that the statements are true. As to defacing, I did not change ONE ITEM of text that you wrote, hence I do not consider that defacement. --[[User:CatWatcher|CatWatcher]] 18:05, 20 April 2007 (EDT)</nowiki>

--[[User:CatWatcher|CatWatcher]] 07:52, 24 April 2007 (EDT)
----
You were not "banned" - you are still here. To "ban" means to exclude permanently from the project. Please don't use inflammatory language.

Your account was blocked for three days because of "sarcasm". You had said that you didn't know any liberals.

Instead of engaging me here in a low-traffic area of the site, perhaps you'd like to make your points in a more prominent place, such as [[Conservapedia:Has anyone ever been been banned for pointing out that many of the other entries on this site are in need of citation and evidence to back up statements?]]. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] 08:12, 24 April 2007 (EDT)

:[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] got blocked for criticising badly sourced stuff. It doesn't take rocket science to figure that the reasons given for such blocks are just excuses to stifle criticism - they can't be found in the rules.
:[[User:Auld Nick|Auld Nick]] 12:09, 24 April 2007 (EDT)

== Distinct from Scientific theory ==

Recently, this was made a redirect to [[scientific theory]] which is one stage of the scientific method. It does not talk about the method itself (observation, hypothesis, predictions, refinement, theory). If there are no objections, I intend to remove the redirect and rewrite the article. --[[User:Mtur|Mtur]] 16:03, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

Sorry Mtur - didn't mean to step on your toes - I saw the article had been redirected to scientific theory, which was obviously incorrect, so I wrote something for it to provide some kind of definition of the scientific method without looking at the discussion page. I expect other people will rewrite anything that looks incorrect. There should be no ideological struggles over this since an understanding of the scientific method is universally accepted by scientists, though it may be phrased differently by different people.--[[User:Britinme|Britinme]] 16:22, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

:Seems the only contributors to the old entry were amongst a cabal of vandals. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 16:24, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

:No toes stepped on - just that they are two distinct concepts that need distinct pages. If the old page was substandard then a new one should be written. I'm just making sure that ''I'm'' not stepping on any sensitive sysop toes by suggesting this. --[[User:Mtur|Mtur]] 16:27, 17 May 2007 (EDT)
::Please go ahead. We do have some questionable material in some entries, so I just had to remove all this since the ony two contributors have been blocked. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 16:35, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

::: Wouldn't it have been better to take the time to verify the content than to delete everything? Or ask another sysop who is familiar with the material to do so? --[[User:Mtur|Mtur]] 16:41, 17 May 2007 (EDT)

==Lord Ration's 2 cents==

Real science must conform to a system known as the scientific method . This system provides a framework in which scientists can analyze situations, explain certain phenomena, and answer certain questions. The scientific method starts with observation . Observation allows the scientist to collect data. Once enough data has been collected, the scientist forms a hypothesis that attempts to explain some facet of the data or attempts to answer a question that the scientist is trying to answer.

Hypothesis - An educated guess that attempts to explain an observation or answer a question

Once he or she forms a hypothesis, the scientist (typically with help from other scientists) then collects much more data in an effort to test the hypothesis. If data are found which are inconsistent with the hypothesis, the hypothesis might be discarded, or it might just be modified a bit until it is consistent with all data that has been collected. If a large amount of data is collected and the hypothesis is consistent with all of the data, then the hypothesis becomes a theory.

Theory - A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

Since a theory has been tested by a large amount of data, it is much more reliable than a hypothesis. As more and more data relevant to the theory gets collected, the theory can be tested over and over again. If several generations of collected data are all consistent with the theory, it eventually attains the status of a scientific law.

Scientific law - A theory that has been tested by and is consistent with generations of data

An example of the scientific method in action can be found in the life of Ignaz Semmelweis, a Viennese doctor who lived in the early-to-mid 1800's. He was put in charge of a ward in Vienna's most famous hospital, the Allegemeine Krakenhaus. He noticed that in his ward, patients were dying at a rate which far exceeded that of the other wards, even the wards with much sicker patients. Semmelweis observed the situation for several weeks, trying to figure out what was different about his ward as compared to all others in the hospital. He finally determined that the only noticeable difference was that his ward was the first one that the doctors and medical students visited after they performed autopsies on the dead.

Based on his observations, Semmelweis hypothesized that the doctors were carrying something deadly from the corpses upon which the autopsies were being performed to the patients in his ward. Thus, Dr. Semmelweis exercised the first step in the scientific method. He made some observations and then formed a hypothesis to explain those observations.

Semmelweis then developed a way to test his hypothesis. He instituted a rule that all doctors had to wash their hands after they finished their autopsies and before they entered his ward. Believe it or not, up to that point in history, doctors never thought to wash their hands before examining or even operating on a patient! Dr. Semmelweis hoped that by washing their hands, doctors would remove whatever was being carried from the corpses to the patients in his ward.

Well, the doctors did not like the new rule, but they grudgingly obeyed it, and the death rate in Dr. Semmelweis' ward decreased to the lowest in the hospital! This, of course, was good evidence that his hypothesis was right. You would think that the doctors would be overjoyed. They were not. In fact, they got so tired of having to wash their hands before entering Dr. Semmelweis' ward that they worked together to get him fired. His successor, anxious to win the approval of the doctors, rescinded Semmelweis' policy, and the death rate in the ward shot back up again.

Semmelweis spent the rest of his life doing more and more experiments to confirm his hypothesis that something unseen but nevertheless deadly can be carried from a dead person to a live person. Although Semmelweis' work was not appreciated until after his death, his hypothesis was eventually confirmed by enough experiments that it became a scientific theory. At that point, doctors began washing their hands before examinations and surgery.

As time went on, more and more data was gathered in support of Semmelweis' theory. With the advent of the microscope, scientists were finally able to see the deadly bacteria and germs that can be transmitted from person to person, and Semmelweis' theory became a scientific law. Nowadays, doctors do all that they can to completely sterilize their hands, clothes, and instruments before performing any medical procedure.

The scientific method provides a methodical, logical way to examine a situation or answer a question. If a theory survives the scientific method and becomes a law, it can be considered reasonably trustworthy. Even a scientific theory which has not been tested enough to be a law is still pretty reliable, because it is backed up by a lot of scientific data.

Figure 1.3

Scientific theory

2007-06-04T18:01:37Z

Lordration:

A '''scientific theory''' is more substantial than a conjecture or [[hypothesis]], but may not be verified as consistent with empirical data. <ref>For example, scientists may refer to phlogiston theory or ether theory, even though empirical verification was lacking.</ref>

It is a plausible and consistent explanation for observable phenomena.

To be considered [[science|scientific]], a theory must be [[falsifiable]].
This means that there must be some way to do experiments that could counter the theory's predictions, thus disproving the current theory.
<ref>"A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of what they should observe if a theory is true. Scientific theories are testable. New evidence should be compatible with a theory. If it isn't, the theory is refined or rejected." [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution/theory.php] </ref>

Generally accepted scientific theories have been tested and survived over time, have evolved when appropriate, and modified toward consistency with newly discovered data, have not been shown to be false and can make predictions about natural phenomena. <ref>http://www.thefreedictionary.com/theory </ref> Scientific theories can sometimes be used as the basis for industrial and technical developments.

A scientific theory does not necessarily have to have strong experimental support or accepted by the scientific community. Scientists often refer to untested theories and competing theories. Theories can be extremely well-confirmed, such as conservation of energy, or speculative, such as [[String Theory]].

Although Science can not in actuality prove anything to be true for ''sure'' all it can say is the the preponderance of evidence shows that to be the most likely answer.

== Common usage ==
Evolutionists frequently argue that the word "theory" means very different things to scientists and non-scientists. For example, a PBS TV show says: <ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/11/2/e_s_1.html</ref>
:''When we use the word "theory" in everyday life, we usually mean an idea or a guess, but the word has a much different meaning in science. This video examines the vocabulary essential for understanding the nature of science and evolution and illustrates how evolution is a powerful, well-supported scientific explanation for the relatedness of all life.''

The American Museum of Natural History exhibit on Darwin says: <ref>http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution/theory.php</ref>
:''In everyday use, the word "theory" often means an untested hunch, or a guess without supporting evidence. But for scientists, a theory has nearly the opposite meaning. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts.''

In science a theory is something that ties together facts. For example, an apple falling to the ground when you let go of it is a fact. From this we can draw the conclusion that there is some force pulling it down. This theory is called the theory of gravity.

==Notes and references==
<references/>

[[Category:Science]]

Talk:People's Republic of China

2007-06-04T17:46:55Z

Lordration:

I merged the "China" article into this one. Better form and no point in having 2 articles.--[[User:Elamdri|Elamdri]] 01:59, 10 April 2007 (EDT)

:You have got to be joking. This infantile 1 page drivel is the result of "merging" 2 articles? And you go to University??!! Where you do politics and philosophy. You could write everything about China here on a single lavatory tile.

:All you have done is deleted my excellent critique of this mess. You should stop any 12 year old in the street and give him $10 and he/she will do better than this. --[[User:MylesP|MylesP]] 19:59, 12 April 2007 (EDT)

Doesn't the PRC refer to Taiwan? Man, it's confusing. [[User:GodlessLiberal|GodlessLiberal]] 15:08, 29 April 2007 (EDT)
:Nevermind. Should there be some sort of clarification in this article about the PRC/ROC naming debate? Like, how each got its name during the [[Chinese Civil War]]? [[User:GodlessLiberal|GodlessLiberal]] 15:09, 29 April 2007 (EDT)

::The Chinese claim Taiwan, but Taiwan claims independence and the US backs it.--[[User:Elamdri|Elamdri]] 02:36, 1 May 2007 (EDT)
:::The US definitely does not back Taiwan, and Taiwan does not claim independence. Actually, Taiwanese independence is one of the 4 noes - si bu - that the administration on Taiwan promise not to ever claim so long as the PRC doesn't threaten the ROC. And in fact, the Republic of China claims the whole of mainland China, as well as Tibet AND the republic of Mongolia, which is not claimed by the PRC. By the way, there are also several kinds of concept called "Taiwanese independence".

- that is complete nonsense.

About History I think That we should have much more including a list of dynasties (it would be really nice if we could have a section about each one).
Also the amount of space we give to each article is not at all even we should have a link to another article talking about the Leader and much more about the Government in General. Lord Ration

Mars

2007-06-01T19:42:38Z

Lordration:

[[Image:Mars Viking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Mars photographed by [[Viking Orbiter]]s]]
{{Solarsystem}}
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet" because of its reddish appearance as seen from Earth.

A terrestrial planet, Mars has a thin atmosphere and surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. It is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the solar system, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. In addition to its geographical features, Mars’ rotational period and seasonal cycles are likewise similar to those of the Earth.

Until the first flyby of Mars by Mariner 4 in 1965, it was speculated that there might be liquid water on the planet. This was based on observations of periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which looked like seas and continents, while long, dark striations were interpreted by some observers as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later proven not to exist and were instead explained as optical illusions. Still, of all the planets in our solar system, Mars is the most likely, other than Earth, to harbor liquid water, and perhaps life.

Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This is more than any planet except Earth. The surface is also home to the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity). Geological evidence gathered by these and preceding missions suggests that Mars previously had large-scale water coverage, while observations also indicate that small geyser-like water flows have occurred in recent years.[3] Observations by NASA's Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.[4]

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.9, a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, though for much of the year Jupiter may appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars.

==Physical characteristics==
Mars has half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass, being less dense, but its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.[5] While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in a slightly stronger gravitational force at Mercury's surface. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust.
'''Geology'''
Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection, the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic stones on Earth; however, these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by a fine iron(III) oxide dust that has the consistency of talcum powder.

Although Mars has no intrinsic magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized. This paleomagnetism of magnetically-susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth.
One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars 4 billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function (and, thus, the magnetic field).Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region approximately 1,480 kilometres (920 mi) in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 15–17% sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at the Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km (31 mi), with a maximum thickness of 125 km (78 mi). Earth's crust, averaging 40 km (25 mi), is only a third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.
[[Image:MarsTopoMap-PIA02031 modest.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Topographic map of Mars.]]

[[Category:Planets]][[Category:Astrology]]

Mars

2007-06-01T19:42:21Z

Lordration:

[[Image:Mars Viking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Mars photographed by [[Viking Orbiter]]s]]
{{Solarsystem}}
Mars (IPA: /ˈmɑrz/) is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet" because of its reddish appearance as seen from Earth.

A terrestrial planet, Mars has a thin atmosphere and surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. It is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the solar system, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. In addition to its geographical features, Mars’ rotational period and seasonal cycles are likewise similar to those of the Earth.

Until the first flyby of Mars by Mariner 4 in 1965, it was speculated that there might be liquid water on the planet. This was based on observations of periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which looked like seas and continents, while long, dark striations were interpreted by some observers as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later proven not to exist and were instead explained as optical illusions. Still, of all the planets in our solar system, Mars is the most likely, other than Earth, to harbor liquid water, and perhaps life.

Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This is more than any planet except Earth. The surface is also home to the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity). Geological evidence gathered by these and preceding missions suggests that Mars previously had large-scale water coverage, while observations also indicate that small geyser-like water flows have occurred in recent years.[3] Observations by NASA's Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.[4]

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.9, a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, though for much of the year Jupiter may appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars.

==Physical characteristics==
Mars has half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass, being less dense, but its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.[5] While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in a slightly stronger gravitational force at Mercury's surface. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust.
'''Geology'''
Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection, the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic stones on Earth; however, these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by a fine iron(III) oxide dust that has the consistency of talcum powder.

Although Mars has no intrinsic magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized. This paleomagnetism of magnetically-susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth.
One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars 4 billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function (and, thus, the magnetic field).Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region approximately 1,480 kilometres (920 mi) in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 15–17% sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at the Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km (31 mi), with a maximum thickness of 125 km (78 mi). Earth's crust, averaging 40 km (25 mi), is only a third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.
[[Image:MarsTopoMap-PIA02031 modest.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Topographic map of Mars.]]

[[Category:Planets]][[Category:Astrology]]

American Revolution

2007-05-30T20:02:03Z

Lordration:

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence,[1] was a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the thirteen "United Colonies" which expelled royal officials in 1775, set up the Second Continental Congress, formed an army, and declared their independence as a new nation, the United States of America, in 1776. The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby the colonists overthrew British rule. By 1778 major European powers had joined against Britain. American Indians fought for both British and American sides.

Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where 90% of the population lived) largely eluded them. After an American victory at Saratoga in 1777, France, with Spain and the Netherlands as its allies, entered the war against Britain. French involvement proved decisive, with a French naval victory in the Chesapeake leading to the surrender of a British army at Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by what is now Canada to the North, Florida to the South, and the Mississippi River to the west.

The '''American Revolutionary War''' began in 1775, when [[Paul Revere]]'s midnight ride alerted the [[Massachusetts]] militia that [[British]] troops were moving to seize an arms depot in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. The militia held a bridge at nearby [[Lexington]], and the "Shot heard 'round the world" was fired. After this short skirmish, and the subsequent [[Battle of Lexington]], delegates from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] met in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] and drafted a [[Declaration of Independence]] on July 4 of the following year. The war concluded with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, granting independence to the colonies.

==Massachusetts==
Before the war, Boston had been the scene of much revolutionary activity, leading to the Massachusetts Government Act that ended home rule as a punishment in 1774. Popular resistance to these measures, however, compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, the British Commander-in-Chief, North America, commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries.On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Riders including Paul Revere alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered Lexington on the morning of April 19, they found 77 minutemen formed up on the village green. Shots were exchanged, killing several minutemen. The British moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three companies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the roads, inflicting great damage before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the war had begun.

The militia converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General William Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The Americans fell back, but British losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British commander-in-chief.

In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly from France.

The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the Patriots had captured at Fort Ticonderoga were placed on Dorchester Heights by General Henry Knox. Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions, Howe's situation was untenable, and the British evacuated the city on March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia[2]. Washington then moved most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

==Canada==
During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited the French Canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, Congress authorized an invasion of Canada. The goal was to remove British rule from the primarily francophone province of Quebec (comprising present-day Quebec).

Two Canada-bound expeditions were undertaken. On September 16, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing Montreal on November 13. General Guy Carleton, the governor of Canada, escaped to Quebec City. The second expedition, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, was a logistical nightmare, with many men succumbing to smallpox. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Montgomery's force joined Arnold's, and they attacked Quebec City on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew.

Another attempt was made by the Americans to push back towards Quebec, but they failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as a disaster for the Americans, but Arnold's efforts in 1776 delayed a full-scale British counteroffensive until the Saratoga campaign of 1777.

The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in British public opinion, "So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country."

==New York and New Jersey==

Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe now focused on capturing New York City. To defend the city, General Washington divided his 20,000 soldiers between Long Island and Manhattan. While British troops were assembling on Staten Island for the campaign, Washington had the newly issued Declaration of American Independence read to his men. No longer was there any possibility of compromise. On August 27, 1776, after landing about 22,000 men on Long Island, the British drove the Americans back to Brooklyn Heights in the largest battle of the entire Revolution. Howe then laid siege to fortifications there, but Washington managed to evacuate his army to Manhattan.

On September 15, Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Americans again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28. Once more Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking about 2,000 prisoners (with an additional 1,000 having been captured during the battle for Long Island). Thus began the infamous "prison ships" system the British maintained in New York for the remainder of the war, in which more American soldiers and sailors died of neglect than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.

General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing American army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans.

The outlook of the Continental Army was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair, although popular resistance to British occupation was growing in the countryside.

Washington decided to take the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on Christmas night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777. Washington then entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, having given a morale boost to the American cause. New Jersey militia continued to harass British and Hessian forces throughout the winter, forcing the British to retreat to their base in and around New York City.

At every stage the British strategy assumed a large base of Loyalist supporters who would rally to the King given some military support. In February 1776 Clinton took 2,000 men and a naval squadron to invade North Carolina, which he called off when he learned the Loyalists had been crushed at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. In June he tried to seize Charleston, South Carolina, the leading port in the South, hoping for a simultaneous rising in South Carolina. It seemed a cheap way of waging the war but it failed as the naval force was defeated by the forts and because no local Loyalists attacked the town from behind. The loyalists were too poorly organized to be effective, but as late as 1781 senior officials in London, misled by Loyalist exiles, placed their confidence in their rising.

==An international war==, 1778–1783

In 1778, the rebellion in North America became an international war. After learning of the American victory at Saratoga, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with the United States on February 6, 1778. Spain entered the war as an ally of France in June 1779, a renewal of the Bourbon Family Compact. Unlike France, however, Spain initially refused to recognize the independence of the United States—Spain was not keen on encouraging similar anti-colonial rebellions in the Spanish Empire. The Netherlands also became a combatant in 1780. All three countries had quietly provided financial assistance to the Americans since the beginning of the war, hoping to dilute British power.

In London King George III gave up hope of subduing America by more armies. "It was a joke," he said, "to think of keeping Pennsylvania." There was no hope of ever recovering New England. But the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[14] His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, in Canada, and in Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along the coast (like New London, Connecticut), and turn loose the Indians to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the Congress; and "would keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse" and they would beg to return to his authority.[15] The plan meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an armada to invade the British isles and seize London.

[[Category:American Revolutionary War| ]]

American Revolution

2007-05-30T20:00:51Z

Lordration: /* Canada */

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence,[1] was a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the thirteen "United Colonies" which expelled royal officials in 1775, set up the Second Continental Congress, formed an army, and declared their independence as a new nation, the United States of America, in 1776. The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby the colonists overthrew British rule. By 1778 major European powers had joined against Britain. American Indians fought for both British and American sides.

Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where 90% of the population lived) largely eluded them. After an American victory at Saratoga in 1777, France, with Spain and the Netherlands as its allies, entered the war against Britain. French involvement proved decisive, with a French naval victory in the Chesapeake leading to the surrender of a British army at Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by what is now Canada to the North, Florida to the South, and the Mississippi River to the west.

The '''American Revolutionary War''' began in 1775, when [[Paul Revere]]'s midnight ride alerted the [[Massachusetts]] militia that [[British]] troops were moving to seize an arms depot in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. The militia held a bridge at nearby [[Lexington]], and the "Shot heard 'round the world" was fired. After this short skirmish, and the subsequent [[Battle of Lexington]], delegates from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] met in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] and drafted a [[Declaration of Independence]] on July 4 of the following year. The war concluded with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, granting independence to the colonies.

==Massachusetts==
Before the war, Boston had been the scene of much revolutionary activity, leading to the Massachusetts Government Act that ended home rule as a punishment in 1774. Popular resistance to these measures, however, compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, the British Commander-in-Chief, North America, commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries.On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Riders including Paul Revere alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered Lexington on the morning of April 19, they found 77 minutemen formed up on the village green. Shots were exchanged, killing several minutemen. The British moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three companies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the roads, inflicting great damage before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the war had begun.

The militia converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General William Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The Americans fell back, but British losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British commander-in-chief.[9]

In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly from France.[10]

The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the Patriots had captured at Fort Ticonderoga were placed on Dorchester Heights by General Henry Knox. Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions, Howe's situation was untenable, and the British evacuated the city on March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia[2]. Washington then moved most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

==Canada==
During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited the French Canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, Congress authorized an invasion of Canada. The goal was to remove British rule from the primarily francophone province of Quebec (comprising present-day Quebec).

Two Canada-bound expeditions were undertaken. On September 16, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing Montreal on November 13. General Guy Carleton, the governor of Canada, escaped to Quebec City. The second expedition, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, was a logistical nightmare, with many men succumbing to smallpox. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Montgomery's force joined Arnold's, and they attacked Quebec City on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew.

Another attempt was made by the Americans to push back towards Quebec, but they failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as a disaster for the Americans, but Arnold's efforts in 1776 delayed a full-scale British counteroffensive until the Saratoga campaign of 1777.

The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in British public opinion, "So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country."

==New York and New Jersey==

Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe now focused on capturing New York City. To defend the city, General Washington divided his 20,000 soldiers between Long Island and Manhattan. While British troops were assembling on Staten Island for the campaign, Washington had the newly issued Declaration of American Independence read to his men. No longer was there any possibility of compromise. On August 27, 1776, after landing about 22,000 men on Long Island, the British drove the Americans back to Brooklyn Heights in the largest battle of the entire Revolution. Howe then laid siege to fortifications there, but Washington managed to evacuate his army to Manhattan.

On September 15, Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Americans again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28. Once more Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking about 2,000 prisoners (with an additional 1,000 having been captured during the battle for Long Island). Thus began the infamous "prison ships" system the British maintained in New York for the remainder of the war, in which more American soldiers and sailors died of neglect than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.

General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing American army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans.

The outlook of the Continental Army was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair, although popular resistance to British occupation was growing in the countryside.

Washington decided to take the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on Christmas night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777. Washington then entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, having given a morale boost to the American cause. New Jersey militia continued to harass British and Hessian forces throughout the winter, forcing the British to retreat to their base in and around New York City.

At every stage the British strategy assumed a large base of Loyalist supporters who would rally to the King given some military support. In February 1776 Clinton took 2,000 men and a naval squadron to invade North Carolina, which he called off when he learned the Loyalists had been crushed at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. In June he tried to seize Charleston, South Carolina, the leading port in the South, hoping for a simultaneous rising in South Carolina. It seemed a cheap way of waging the war but it failed as the naval force was defeated by the forts and because no local Loyalists attacked the town from behind. The loyalists were too poorly organized to be effective, but as late as 1781 senior officials in London, misled by Loyalist exiles, placed their confidence in their rising.

==An international war==, 1778–1783

In 1778, the rebellion in North America became an international war. After learning of the American victory at Saratoga, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with the United States on February 6, 1778. Spain entered the war as an ally of France in June 1779, a renewal of the Bourbon Family Compact. Unlike France, however, Spain initially refused to recognize the independence of the United States—Spain was not keen on encouraging similar anti-colonial rebellions in the Spanish Empire. The Netherlands also became a combatant in 1780. All three countries had quietly provided financial assistance to the Americans since the beginning of the war, hoping to dilute British power.

In London King George III gave up hope of subduing America by more armies. "It was a joke," he said, "to think of keeping Pennsylvania." There was no hope of ever recovering New England. But the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[14] His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, in Canada, and in Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along the coast (like New London, Connecticut), and turn loose the Indians to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the Congress; and "would keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse" and they would beg to return to his authority.[15] The plan meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an armada to invade the British isles and seize London.

[[Category:American Revolutionary War| ]]

American Revolution

2007-05-30T19:59:48Z

Lordration:

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence,[1] was a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the thirteen "United Colonies" which expelled royal officials in 1775, set up the Second Continental Congress, formed an army, and declared their independence as a new nation, the United States of America, in 1776. The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby the colonists overthrew British rule. By 1778 major European powers had joined against Britain. American Indians fought for both British and American sides.

Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where 90% of the population lived) largely eluded them. After an American victory at Saratoga in 1777, France, with Spain and the Netherlands as its allies, entered the war against Britain. French involvement proved decisive, with a French naval victory in the Chesapeake leading to the surrender of a British army at Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by what is now Canada to the North, Florida to the South, and the Mississippi River to the west.

The '''American Revolutionary War''' began in 1775, when [[Paul Revere]]'s midnight ride alerted the [[Massachusetts]] militia that [[British]] troops were moving to seize an arms depot in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. The militia held a bridge at nearby [[Lexington]], and the "Shot heard 'round the world" was fired. After this short skirmish, and the subsequent [[Battle of Lexington]], delegates from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] met in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] and drafted a [[Declaration of Independence]] on July 4 of the following year. The war concluded with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, granting independence to the colonies.

==Massachusetts==
Before the war, Boston had been the scene of much revolutionary activity, leading to the Massachusetts Government Act that ended home rule as a punishment in 1774. Popular resistance to these measures, however, compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, the British Commander-in-Chief, North America, commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries.On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Riders including Paul Revere alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered Lexington on the morning of April 19, they found 77 minutemen formed up on the village green. Shots were exchanged, killing several minutemen. The British moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three companies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the roads, inflicting great damage before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the war had begun.

The militia converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General William Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The Americans fell back, but British losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British commander-in-chief.[9]

In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly from France.[10]

The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the Patriots had captured at Fort Ticonderoga were placed on Dorchester Heights by General Henry Knox. Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions, Howe's situation was untenable, and the British evacuated the city on March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia[2]. Washington then moved most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

==Canada==
During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited the French Canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, Congress authorized an invasion of Canada. The goal was to remove British rule from the primarily francophone province of Quebec (comprising present-day Quebec).

Two Canada-bound expeditions were undertaken. On September 16, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing Montreal on November 13. General Guy Carleton, the governor of Canada, escaped to Quebec City. The second expedition, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, was a logistical nightmare, with many men succumbing to smallpox. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Montgomery's force joined Arnold's, and they attacked Quebec City on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew.

Another attempt was made by the Americans to push back towards Quebec, but they failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as a disaster for the Americans, but Arnold's efforts in 1776 delayed a full-scale British counteroffensive until the Saratoga campaign of 1777.

The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in British public opinion, "So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country."[11]

==New York and New Jersey==

Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe now focused on capturing New York City. To defend the city, General Washington divided his 20,000 soldiers between Long Island and Manhattan. While British troops were assembling on Staten Island for the campaign, Washington had the newly issued Declaration of American Independence read to his men. No longer was there any possibility of compromise. On August 27, 1776, after landing about 22,000 men on Long Island, the British drove the Americans back to Brooklyn Heights in the largest battle of the entire Revolution. Howe then laid siege to fortifications there, but Washington managed to evacuate his army to Manhattan.

On September 15, Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Americans again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28. Once more Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking about 2,000 prisoners (with an additional 1,000 having been captured during the battle for Long Island). Thus began the infamous "prison ships" system the British maintained in New York for the remainder of the war, in which more American soldiers and sailors died of neglect than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.

General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing American army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans.

The outlook of the Continental Army was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair, although popular resistance to British occupation was growing in the countryside.

Washington decided to take the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on Christmas night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777. Washington then entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, having given a morale boost to the American cause. New Jersey militia continued to harass British and Hessian forces throughout the winter, forcing the British to retreat to their base in and around New York City.

At every stage the British strategy assumed a large base of Loyalist supporters who would rally to the King given some military support. In February 1776 Clinton took 2,000 men and a naval squadron to invade North Carolina, which he called off when he learned the Loyalists had been crushed at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. In June he tried to seize Charleston, South Carolina, the leading port in the South, hoping for a simultaneous rising in South Carolina. It seemed a cheap way of waging the war but it failed as the naval force was defeated by the forts and because no local Loyalists attacked the town from behind. The loyalists were too poorly organized to be effective, but as late as 1781 senior officials in London, misled by Loyalist exiles, placed their confidence in their rising.

==An international war==, 1778–1783

In 1778, the rebellion in North America became an international war. After learning of the American victory at Saratoga, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with the United States on February 6, 1778. Spain entered the war as an ally of France in June 1779, a renewal of the Bourbon Family Compact. Unlike France, however, Spain initially refused to recognize the independence of the United States—Spain was not keen on encouraging similar anti-colonial rebellions in the Spanish Empire. The Netherlands also became a combatant in 1780. All three countries had quietly provided financial assistance to the Americans since the beginning of the war, hoping to dilute British power.

In London King George III gave up hope of subduing America by more armies. "It was a joke," he said, "to think of keeping Pennsylvania." There was no hope of ever recovering New England. But the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[14] His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, in Canada, and in Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along the coast (like New London, Connecticut), and turn loose the Indians to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the Congress; and "would keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse" and they would beg to return to his authority.[15] The plan meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an armada to invade the British isles and seize London.

[[Category:American Revolutionary War| ]]

American Revolution

2007-05-30T19:56:13Z

Lordration:

American Revolution

2007-05-30T19:55:49Z

Lordration:

Jiang Jieshi

2007-05-25T21:58:34Z

Lordration: /* The Sino-Japanese War */

'''Jiang Jieshi''' (Chiang Kai-shek) (1887-1975) was the autocratic military leader of the [[Guomindang]] from 1925 following the death of [[Sun Yixian]] (Sun Yat-sen), and from 1928 until his death in 1975 was the paramount leader and (with brief interruptions) President of the [[Republic of China]].

=== Early life ===

Jiang was born in the port city of [[Ningbo]] ([[Wade-Giles]]: Ningpo) in [[Zhejiang]] province in 1887, and like many educated and patriotically-minded youths in the dying days of the [[Qing]] dynasty chose to follow a military career. He studied at a military academy in [[Japan]] between 1908 and 1910, where Jiang joined the Tongmenghui (United League) - which was shortly to merge with other revolutionary groups to become the [[Guomindang]] or Nationalist Party. At the time of the 1911 revolution Jiang was based in [[Shanghai]] and at that time became involved with the local secret societies and gangs who were to aid him later in his career. During the 'Second Revolution' of 1913 (against the reactionary rule of [[Yuan Shikai]]) Jiang led an attack on the Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai but the bungled operation was a disastrous failure and Jiang was forced to flee. He attached himself to the entourage of the Guomindang leader [[Sun Yat-sen]] and to the ramshackle Guomindang government which Sun set up in the southern metropolis of [[Guangzhou]] (Canton). When Sun concluded an alliance with the [[Comintern]] in 1923, brokered by the Soviet agent Adolph Joffe (the 'Sun-Joffe Agreement'), Jiang Jieshi was appointed commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy at Guangzhou, established with Soviet aid and with Soviet and other foreign communist advisers. The purpose of the Academy was to train a Nationalist army capable of uniting China under Guomindang rule.

=== Northern Expedition ===

As commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy, Jiang had to work closely with Soviet advisors and [[Chinese Communist Party]] officials (the Guomindang and the CCP had formed a 'united front' as a result of the Sun-Joffe Agreement, the CCP existing as 'bloc within' the Guomindang). [[Zhou Enlai]] (Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai) was a senior political commissar at the academy. However, Jiang was very suspicious of his Communist allies. Following the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Jiang became the most powerful individual Guomindang leader, and on March 11 1926 launched a limited purge of communists in Guangzhou (the so-called 'Canton Coup'), as a result of which all his Soviet advisors were expelled. However, he did not dissolve the united front, and the CCP, under orders from Moscow, also continued to maintain the status quo.

On July 1, 1926, Jiang launched the Northern Expedition. Guomindang armies marched north from Guangzhou in a bid to free China from the warring warlord factions which had been the sole fluctuating authority in the country since the death of [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1916, and to unify the country under Guomindang rule. However, Jiang was aided by the 'Guangxi Clique' of nationally-minded warlords; and the northern progress of the expedition was aided by carefully-timed popular uprisings planned by the CCP against local warlords. By September 1926 the Guomindang had captured [[Wuhan]] on the middle [[Yangtse]], and a Guomindang government was established there. Instead of continuing to press north, Jiang turned east and in March 1927 occupied [[Nanjing]], which was to become the Nationalist's capital city, and [[Shanghai]].

On April 12, 1927 Jiang again turned on the communists in the 'Shanghai Coup'. Aided by the police of the International Settlement and the French Concession in the city, and by gunmen of the influential 'Green Gang' criminal network, Jiang's troops and police rounded up and executed hundred of communists and trade unionists; in the weeks to come thousands more communists and other left-wingers were killed. The Guomindang government at Wuhan, led by Sun Yat-sen's widow [[Song Qingling]] and by [[Wang Jingwei]] initially protested at Jiang's actions but by the autumn of 1927 they, too, dissolved the united front. Jiang was now the undisputed leader of the Guomindang and the most powerful man in China. In 1928 two northern warlords, [[Yan Xishan]] and [[Feng Yuxiang]], pledged their loyalty to him, and Yan's troops drove the last major warlord opponent, [[Zhang Zuolin]], out of [[Beijing]]. The Northern Expedition was over, and Jiang was master of China.

=== President of the Republic of China ===

The period of the 'Nanjing Republic' (1928-37) was too short and too troubled to enable a full assessment of what established Guomindang rule might have brought China. Jiang was faced by a series of serious internal and external problems:
* Although President of China, his direct rule only extended to the lower Yangtse provinces; the rest of China continued to be ruled by warlords expressing greater or lesser degrees of loyalty to Jiang. In 1929-30 his erstwhile allies Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan rebelled against him and his rule was saved by the intervention of Zhang Xueliang.
* The communists, defeated in April 1927 and in a number of ill-planned urban uprisings later that year, had regrouped in the countryside and established a number of 'base areas' (most notably that of [[Mao Zedong]] in southern [[Jiangxi]] province). These bases were expanding, and efforts to eliminate the Jiangxi Soviet in a series of 'encirclement campaigns' in the early 1930s had failed. The fifth encirclement campaign of 1933-34 succeeded in destroying the Jiangxi base, but not the communist Red Army, which broke thorough government lines and embarked on the [[Long March]].
* China was increasingly threatened by Japanese expansionism in this period. Jiang had backed down from confrontation with Japan during the 1928 [[Jinan]] incident; he forbade resistance to Japan during the Japanese occupation of [[Manchuria]] in 1931. In 1932 the armed resistance in [[Shanghai]] to Japanese aggression took place against his orders; in 1933 he acquiesced in the Japanese occupation of [[Rehe]]. While Jiang expressed the view that 'communism was a disease of the internal organs, the Japanese a disease of the skin', and that to build a strong China it was necessary to defeat communism first, to an increasing number of Chinese his attitude appeared capitulationist and unpatriotic.
* Jiang became increasingly distanced from the Guomindang and increasingly autocratic. He became reliant on a small clique of wealthy supporters, particularly the Song (Soong)family, into which he had married (his wife, Song Meiling (1897-2003), was the sister of Sun Yat-sen's leftist widow, Song Qingling (1892-1981)). One brother in law, T.V. Soong, was his Finance Minister. In 1932 Jiang founded a quasi-fascistic 'Blue Shirts' organisation, and in 1934 Jiang launched the 'New Life Movement', emulating fascist developments in Italy and Germany. this sought to make China strong by stressing traditional virtues, banning spitting, and so on; in the face of Japanese aggression and rampant corruption it seemed a ludicrous distraction and was widely derided where it was not ignored.

=== The Xi'an Incident and the Second United Front ===

=== The Sino-Japanese War ===
List of all battles fought in the Sino-Japanese War.
• Mukden September 1931
• Invasion of Manchuria September 1931
o Jiangqiao Campaign October 1931
 Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge November 1931
o Chinchow Operation December 1931
o Defense of Harbin January 1932
• Shanghai (1932) January 1932
• Pacification of Manchukuo March 1932
o Manchukuoan Anti Bandit Operations March 1932
• Operation Nekka January 1933
o Great Wall January 1933
o Battle of Rehe February 1933
• Actions in Inner Mongolia(1933-36)
o Suiyuan October 1936
• Battle of Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge Incident) July 1937
• Beiping-Tianjin July 1937
• Chahar August 1937
• Battle of Shanghai August 1937
• Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation August 1937
• Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation August 1937
• Taiyuan September 1937
o Battle of Pingxingguan September 1937
o Battle of Xinkou September 1937
• Battle of Nanjing December 1937
• Battle of Xuzhou December 1937
o Battle of Taierzhuang March 1938
• Northern and Eastern Honan 1938 January 1938
o Battle of Lanfeng May 1938
• Amoy Operation May 1938
• Battle of Wuhan June 1938
• Canton Operation October 1938
• Hainan Island Operation February 1939
• Battle of Nanchang March 1939
o Battle of Xiushui River March 1939
• Battle of Suixian-Zaoyang May 1939
• Swatow Operation June 1939
• Battle of Changsha (1939) September 1939
• Battle of South Guangxi November 1939
o Battle of Kunlun Pass December 1939
• 1939-40 Winter Offensive November 1939
o Battle of Wuyuan March 1940
• Battle of Zaoyang-Yichang May 1940
• Hundred Regiments Offensive August 1940
• Indochina Expedition September 1940
• Central Hopei Operation November 1940
• Battle of South Henan January 1941
• Western Hopei Operation March 1941
• Battle of Shanggao March 1941
• Battle of South Shanxi May 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1941) September 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1942) January 1942
• Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road March 1942
o Battle of Yenangyaung
• Battle of Zhejiang-Jiangxi April 1942
• Battle of West Hubei May 1943
• Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan October 1943
• Battle of Changde November 1943
• Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi April 1944
• Battle of Changsha (1944) August 1944
• Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou August 1944
• Battle of West Hunan April - June, 1945
• Operation August Storm August – September, 1945
[edit] Japanese invasion and planned operations
• Sczechwan Invasion
• Kuolichi-Taierhchuang Operation
• CHE-KIANG Operation
• Peiping-Hankow Operation
• Siang-Kwei Operation
• Canton-Hankow Operation
• Kiangsi-Fukien Operation
• Kwanchow-Wan Occupation
• Laohokow Operation
• Chichiang Operation
• Disembarc in Tsingtao
List of Japanese political and military incidents
[edit] Battles in Burma Campaign
• Battle of Oktwin Mar. 20 - 23, 1942
• Battle of Toungoo Mar. 24-28, 1942
• Battle of Yedahe Apr. 5-8, 1942
• Battle of Szuwa River Apr. 10-16, 1942
• Battle of Pyinmana April 17-20, 1942
• Battle of Yenangyaung Apr. 17-19 1942
• Battle of Mawache and Yato Early April 1942
• Battle of Bawlake April 17,1942
• Battle of Hopong - Taunggyi April 20-24, 1942
• Battle of Loliem April 25, 1942
• Battle of Lashio (1942) April 29, 1942
• Battle of Hsenwe May 1, 1942
• Battle of Salween River May 6-31, 1942
• Battle of Hsipaw-Mogok Highway May 23, 1942
• Battle of Yupang Oct. - Dec. 1943
• Battle of Lashio Jan 1944
• Battle of Maingkwan Feb.- 5 Mar. 1944
• Battle of Mogaung Mar. 1944
• Battle of Myitkyina Apr. - Aug. 1944
• Battle of Mongyu Dec.1944 - Jan. 1945
• Battle of Lashio (1945) Mar. 1945
• Battle of Hsipaw Mar.1945

=== The Civil War and Jiang's flight to Taiwan ===

He ostensibly converted to [[Christianity]] (specifically, to [[Methodism]]) on his marriage to [[Song Meiling]] and was a fierce opponent of [[Communism]].

When the [[Japan]]ese invaded [[Manchuria]] in 1931, Jiang gave precedence to defeating the internal threat posed by the Chinese communists over resisting the Japanese invasion. However the communists managed to evade final destruction, by fleeing from loyal forces on the [[Long March]] of 1934. Subsequent to [[World War II]], the resurgence of Communism under [[Mao Zedong]] resulted in civil war, and Jiang had to depart the Chinese mainland for the island of [[Taiwan]] in 1949, where he resumed his position as president, albeit of a massively reduced territory. The new government was a [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] and repressive [[dictatorship]], but at least it was [[right-wing]] and friendly to the [[US]].

== Poetry ==

Jiang was also known for his poetry. He wrote a poem expressing exultation after his victory over the Communist Party, in 1928:

The yellow crane has long since gone away,<br>
All that here remains is Yellow Crane Tower.<br>
The yellow crane once gone does not return,<br>
White clouds drift slowly for a thousand years.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:China]]

Talk:Mao Zedong

2007-05-25T21:54:45Z

Lordration:

Actually, the "Mao" family name is "hair", not "cat." Even the tone is different between the two syllables - mao2 is hair, mao1 is cat. His family name is quite common in Hunan, I believe. An odd mistake to make. The given name is, "Zedong", means, "Enrich East." The character, "ze2", can also mean, "a marsh." This artical needs to talk about the Communist revolution in China.

Talk:United States of America

2007-05-25T21:49:51Z

Lordration:

==Freedom of religion==
The thing on freedom of religion should be improved, as most people interpret it primarily as freedom of belief first, government noninterference second. I'm thinking an article on freedom of religion would probably be warranted, as that's a major issue in the world today. --[[User:John|John]] 14:13, 5 March 2007 (EST)

::Shouldn't that go under Bill of Rights or US Constitution?--[[User:Sub Zenyth|Sub Zenyth]] 23:28, 6 March 2007 (EST)

==Spreading democracy==
The part about spreading democracy is empirically not true. There were much more significant increases, especially throughout the 1990s after the fall of the Soviet Union. The spreading of democracy has been a stated goal of the United States throughout its entire history. So I have deleted the last line because it just sounds like speechwriter hyperbole. --[[User:Jack|Jack]] 17:20, 17 March 2007 (EDT)

This article needs to be cleaned up

=="greatest"==
The part of the introduction "is widely considered one of the greatest and most powerful nations on Earth" is a personal perspective, and should be changed to "is widely considered one of the most INFLUENTIAL and powerful nations on Earth". The word greatest symbolises arrogance, as most people would deem there own country the 'greatest'. --[[User:Joobs|Joobs]] 16:35, 21 March 2007 (EDT)

:Changed. --<font color="#0000CC" face="Comic Sans MS">[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']]</font><sup><font color="00FFAA">[[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]]</font></sup> 16:55, 21 March 2007 (EDT)

==PGA==
I think this is a pretty good article (are there noms for pretty good articles here on CP?). I just added a quick blurb about Lewis and Clark to the LA territory paragraph, can someone add years and the President who commissioned them to do the job? [[User:Human|Human]] 18:35, 21 April 2007 (EDT)
:Jefferson, 1804-1806. --<font color="#0000CC" face="Comic Sans MS">[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']]</font><sup><font color="00FFAA">[[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]]</font></sup> 18:35, 21 April 2007 (EDT)
::Thanks, I, the lazy person, added that. [[User:Human|Human]] 20:01, 21 April 2007 (EDT)

== Political Parties ==

The article says the US has been governed by one of two parties since JQA. Then it goes on to say that one of the two was founded in 1854. If the 'two parties' isn't referring to any two particular parties, wouldn't it be from the first Adams? Even during the Era of Good Feelings, the Federalists had a big chunk of Congress from New England. I think. [[User:GodlessLiberal|GodlessLiberal]] 19:48, 29 April 2007 (EDT)
:It doesn't make real sense anyway - the US has often been "governed" (if we take the exec and leg branches to be the governing bodies) by the two parties together - ie, a president from one party and congress run half or all by the other party ("[[divided government]]"). Now it is true that the two houses and the presidency have been controlled by one of the two major parties, I guess. Since when, I don't know. Maybe an article on [[Political Parties in the U.S.]] would be a good thing? [[User:Human|Human]] 20:05, 29 April 2007 (EDT)

== Background ==

After reading the main page, and your above comments on GOD, Political parties, Constitutional documents and such, I have made an attempt to consolidate all that you have said into a revised section that I have named: "Background, GOD, The Constitution, and Political Parties". I tried to essentially rewrite what was already there, but re-arranged in a more "logical flow" , and to make it easier to read. I did my did my best. Hope you like it. [[User:Starfleet7|Starfleet7]] 16:45, May 5, 2007 (EDT)
:I'm glad someone already fixed the "allcaps" words. I split the section in two, since the first half was about one thing, and then in the middle the religion issue is introduced and discussed. I hope I have not offended anyone with my decision to do this. [[User:Human|Human]] 19:52, 5 May 2007 (EDT)
::The section needed a rewrite. I tried to make the section a bit more balanced, while still staying on the conservative side of balance. [[User:Stile4aly|Stile4aly]] 23:12, 5 May 2007 (EDT)
:::By the way, "In America today, an individual's party affiliation is often determined by their personal view of the relationship between religion and government." is insane and completely ignores why many people choose how to vote. It is a completely strange POV. Of course, ''some'' people decide how to vote based on that criterion - but not many. Often? That's pushing it. Can this we reworded to perhaps show how the energization of the Christian right wing is related to it (this site, for example)? [[User:Human|Human]] 00:08, 6 May 2007 (EDT)
::::I completely agree with you, but I was afraid I might face a ban for suggesting this isn't a Christian nation being overrun by the pagan hordes.[[User:Stile4aly|Stile4aly]] 07:04, 6 May 2007 (EDT)
===Reversion of this section by RobS?===
I don't know why, but the cleaning up we just did was reverted back to Starfleet's version by RobS. 1. It clearly is two sections, the first part has nothing to do with the religion in government. 2. The use of allcaps is very distracting, I do believe it is "God", not "GOD". There's no need to shout, right? 3. The section(s) were beginning to get very clear and wll written, after Starfleets bringing them together logically. Would someone with either the nerve or the rank please undo this reversion? I'm not going to war with a sysop, even if I think I'm generally correct here. I like not being blocked. [[User:Human|Human]] 13:11, 6 May 2007 (EDT)
:User:Stile4aly was infintely blocked for trolling. [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Gender&diff=prev&oldid=144719] All his edits are suspect. The removal of this information, [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=United_States_of_America&diff=145528&oldid=144493] had not been properly vetted yet, and Stile4aly replacement of it with this,
:*"A contentious issue in modern politics is the role of religion in public life and particularly government entanglement in religious affairs. Some groups that self identify as Republican, or in some cases '''Dominionist''', argue that the US was founded on Christian principles and that the modern US Government should be more lenient with regards to entanglement of Christianity with politics.
:confirms those suspicions. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 13:40, 6 May 2007 (EDT)
::Ah, thank you for the clarification. Do you mind if I do that reformatting again, then? All I am going to do is split that section in two, as I did before, and get rid of the allcaps stuff. I doubt I'll touch any text, except maybe to make bigger paragraphs. I knew there had to a be a reason... [[User:Human|Human]] 13:51, 6 May 2007 (EDT)
:::This paragraph,
::::"The Declaration of Independence acknowledges the existence of a [[God]] when it refers to "the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God" and says all men "are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights," though the latter statement was made by [[Thomas Jefferson]], whose religious beliefs had far more in common with Unitarianism then traditional Christianity. Some Christians argued that since many of the Founding Fathers were Christians (although the majority of them could actually be qualified as Deists) and that, explicitly or not, the United States was founded upon the principles and ideals of Christianity. However, the freedom of (and from) religion (stating that the government cannot interfere in the conduct of religious groups, or vice versa) is a fundamental aspect of the [[First Amendment]] to the Constitution. This separation is a continuing source of conflict in American society, generally between those attempting to exert their own religious or anti-religious views over others. This [[Free Exercise Clause]] of the Amendment began increasingly to be tested and interpreted by the [[judiciary]] in the late 19th century as a result of the increasing population of religious [[minorities]] in the United States.
:::appears to be entirely removed or rewritten by Starfleet and Stile4aly, and I haven't had the time to review both their contributions yet.Feel free to work on it, but i still have to go over whats been preserved and what's been lost. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 14:03, 6 May 2007 (EDT)

===Good Evenning RobS===

Thank you for taking the time to review this.

As you can see in the above notes, yesterday, I rewrote / re-arranged the BACKGROUND paragraph that you have listed above. I did not change very much, but simply rewrote what was already there, and made it easier to read, and a bit more logically arranged. I tried to make it read more smoothly. I did that based on the previous comments of the other readers who complained that it was confusing, and rambled.

However, Stile4aly is wrong to state that the paragraph should be split in two. It is quite obvious from reading the orginal paragraph, that the INTENT of the original writer was to show the "cause and effect" relationship between the first issue ( the transition in governing documents to an "all powerful" US Constitution ) and how the interference / re-interpretation of that ( all powerful document ) US Constitution in recent decades by the current US Supreme Court has caused the second issue ( Church and State ) to become such a prominent and divisive issue in US political life today. Time is important. This country is 231 years old, and for the first 190 years of this country, the US Supreme Court held the exact opposite view on the "Church / State" issue than that which the current Court has held for only the last 45 years or so.

I tried to help the original writer make his case, by re-arranging what he wrote in a more "logical" form.

Next, in regards to capital letters. ? I capitalized only one word. GOD. Please do not be confused by the current internet / chatroom opinion that "all caps" is yelling. This is an Encyclopedia. It is not a chat room, or a forum !!! The use of "all caps" in an encyclopedia is quite appropriate for the word GOD. The word GOD is printed in "all caps" by most religions, and periodicals to differentiate between the one, all powerful GOD, and the other lesser Gods of Greek mythology, etc. In addition, the word GOD is in all caps in the Declaration of Independence if I recall. Perhaps Mr. Stile4aly would like to re-write it too ?

Finally, there was one sentence that I did remove from the paragraph, you included it above: "generally between those attempting to exert their own religious or anti-religious views over others." That sentence appears to be a slap, and un-necessary one at that. This is an Encyclopedia!! we shouldn't go around insulting each other's motives.

I hope this explanation helps you make your decision as to what you keep. Have a nice day.
[[User:Starfleet7|Starfleet7]] 21:08, May 6, 2007 (EDT)

== Earlier history ==
History before 1600 totally missing. --[[User:Aulis Eskola|Aulis Eskola]] 17:57, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

I assume it is missing because events prior to 1783 predate the United States. Perhaps it should be a new article on colonial North America?--[[User:1048247|1048247]] 18:00, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

== Hello RobS & CPAdmin==
Corrected some minor typo's, and placed the term "American" in the place of "United Statesians" that someone had inserted. Corrected two run-on sentences. Hope this helps. [[User:Starfleet7|Starfleet7]] 10:45, May 9, 2007 (EDT)

== Map? ==

It seems to be rather missing? [[User:Human|Human]] 18:20, 12 May 2007 (EDT)

*Map? I don't even see it in the page history. Explain. --[[User:TK|<small>Sysop-</small>TK]] <sub>[[User_talk:TK|/MyTalk]]</sub> 20:08, 12 May 2007 (EDT)
::A map , you know, a diagram showing where the United States is. The 48 + 2, + territories, perhaps? If I had a good one in my files I would have uploaded it... This comment needed ''explaining''?[[User:Human|Human]] 21:21, 12 May 2007 (EDT)

*Yes, because your post infered, to me, that there was one at some point, and was now "missing". You were not clear, and I was asking what you meant. Then you respond with your usual nastiness. --[[User:TK|<small>Sysop-</small>TK]] <sub>[[User_talk:TK|/MyTalk]]</sub> 21:52, 12 May 2007 (EDT)
:: Sorry if my original style was opaque. Let me rephrase: "Where is a map of the country?"!!! I think you infer nastiness where constructivism is intended. After all, ''wouldn't this article be better'' with a map? And as I said, I would have added it, if I had a decent PD one on hand. [[User:Human|Human]] 22:30, 12 May 2007 (EDT)

*Now, suggest a place to squeeze the map into! --[[User:TK|<small>Sysop-</small>TK]] <sub>[[User_talk:TK|/MyTalk]]</sub> 22:57, 12 May 2007 (EDT)

Specifics about each state
I think we need to have specifics info about each of the 50 states or at least links to them.