Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Tobruk

2010-01-05T02:39:03Z

Levitican:

'''Tobruk''' is a port city in [[Libya]], close to the [[Egypt]]ian border. Due to its good harbour, it was of considerable strategic importance during the North African campaign of [[World War II]].

Captured by British forces from the Italians in 1941, it was then besieged by the newly arrived German [[Afrika Korps]]. British forces mounted [[Operation Compass]] to raise the siege in December 1941, but was then taken by an Axis surprise attack in June 1942. An equally long siege by the British forces lasted until November, and the city was only recaptured with the surrender of German forces in Africa.

[[category:World War II]]
[[Category:Libya]]
[[Category:African Cities and Towns]]

Ballistic missile

2010-01-05T02:29:20Z

Levitican:

A '''ballistic missile''' is a [[missile]] which gets out of the earth's atmosphere and into space; its path is not strictly considered an orbit but is more of an arch.<ref>"After launch, a ballistic missiles arches up from one point, and lands at another point. [http://www.missilethreat.com/overview/pageID.154/default.asp What is a Ballistic Missile?]</ref>
Most ballistic missiles are ground-to-ground based, although they can also be launched from sea-based platforms (see:[[SLBM]]). Some have enough range to reach another continent; see [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]] (ICBM).

Ballistic missiles were first developed by the Germans during World War II.

Some ICBMs carry nuclear warheads.

==Notes==
<references />

[[Category:Weapons]]

Talk:Indonesia

2010-01-05T02:11:01Z

Levitican: Created page with 'Almost all of the history section of this article is copied from [http://www.traveldocs.com/id/history.htm here]. ~~~~'

Almost all of the history section of this article is copied from [http://www.traveldocs.com/id/history.htm here]. [[User:Levitican|Levitican]] 21:11, 4 January 2010 (EST)

Wales

2010-01-05T02:06:53Z

Levitican: /* Sport */

{{Country
|name =Cymru Wales
|map =
|flag =Flag of Wales.png
|arms =
|capital =Cardiff
|capital-raw =
|government =
|government-raw =
|language =Welsh, English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =8,022 sq mi
|pop =3,004,600
|pop-basis =2008
|gdp =$85.4 billion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$30,546
|currency =Pound Sterling
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Wales''' is a principality which is a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It occupies the peninsula of land between the [[Bristol Channel]] and the [[River Dee]], on the west side of southern [[Great Britain]]. [[Anglesey]], [[Holy Island]], and the bardic island of Bardsey are also part of Wales.

Althouh politically controlled by England for 800 years, throughout the centuries, a sense of national identity in Wales has manifested itself in a variety of ways: aspirations to statehood, a unique language, cultural distinctiveness, religious affiliation, sporting achievement, and, most recently, political devolution.

===Geography===
Much of Wales is mountainous; the [[Cambrian Mountains]] run the length of the country, from [[Snowdon]]ia in the north.

===Cities===
The largest city in Wales is [[Cardiff]], which was declared to be the capital city in 1955, against competition from [[Swansea]]. Other important locales include the ports of [[Holyhead]] and [[Milford Haven]]; the mining and industrial centres of Llanelli, Neath, Pontypridd, [[Rhondda]], Merthyr Tydfil and [[Wrexham]]; the ecclesiastical cities of [[St. Asaph]] and [[St. Davids]]; the resorts of Pwllheli, [[Llandudno]], Colwyn Bay, Rhyl and Prestatyn; the university towns of Bangor and [[Aberystwyth]]; and the villages of [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] (the longest place name in Britain) and [[Llanddewi Brefi]].
===Language===
see [[Welsh language]]

English is universally spoken in Wales - however, the ancestral Celtic language of [[Welsh Language|Welsh]] is still spoken as a first or second language by approximately a quarter of the population (In 2001, Apporximately 600,000 people claimed some knowledge of welsh). The long-term decline in Welsh-speakers has stabilised since the early 1990s owing to the introduction of compulsory Welsh language classes in schools.

The national emblems are the [[leek]] and the [[daffodil]]. The Welsh national day is March 1, [[Saint David]]'s day. The Welsh flag has a picture of a dragon, usually called Idris. The Welsh flag forms no part of the Union Flag as at the time the flag was first devised Wales was considered as part of the Kingdom of England.

==History==
===Medieval===
Wales emerged as a nation from the collapse of Romano-British Britannia following the invasions of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes from the fifth century AD onwards. What is now known as Wales was for a time known as 'North Wales', while [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] (in SW England) were 'West Wales' until their conquest. The Mercian king [[Offa]] (Mercia equates roughly to the English Midlands) created an substantial earthwork, [[Offa's Dyke]] running between the [[Irish Sea]] and the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary in the later eighth century to separate his kingdom from Welsh lands. The dyke broadly marks the Anglo-Welsh boundary to this day.

The [[Norman Conquest]] of England following 1066 gave rise to Norman attempts to occupy Wales; by the thirteenth century much of eastern and southern Wales were under Norman control in autonomous 'Marcher Lordships' owing loyalty to the English crown. What was left of independent Wales was not a unitary nation, but comprised a number of separate, often warring, principalities, and only late on, under English pressure, did these unite to acknowledge one 'Prince of Wales'. These princes were provided by the most powerful of the Welsh states, Gwynedd, in the mountainous NW of the country. Most notable was [[Llewelyn the Great]] (1173-1240; who unified the country, and gave it a code of laws).
===English conquest===
His grandson, [[Llewelyn ap Gruffydd]], was unable to resist a powerful invasion mounted by the English king [[Edward I]], and his death in battle in 1282 and the later execution of his brother Daffyd (executed for treason due to his betrayal of the English king, with whom he had previously been allied) marked the extinction of independent Wales.

A number of huge fortifications were built by Edward to pacify the country, notably that of [[Caernafon Castle]], and maintained by his successors. These castles wer known as the ''Iron Ring''.

A major revolt against English rule was mounted in the early fifteenth century led by [[Owain Glyndwr]], a member of the prosperous Welsh gentry who became embittered against the local English magnates for reasons which are uncertain, but probably owe as much to personal disputes as national sentiment. Glyndwr's rebellion achieved astonishing success, for a while. Beginning on Good Friday 1401, the rebels came to control much of the countryside and many Welsh towns, even advancing to [[Worcester]] in England. Glyndwr, who had been proclaimed Prince of Wales, held two parliaments at Machynlleth in mid Wales, and allied himself with the Duke of Northumberland and the Earl of Mortimer in a plan to dismember the English kingdom once Henry IV had been conclusively defeated. He made an alliance with [[France]], and created two (short-lived) universities, one each in north and South Wales. However, by 1408 the tide had turned. His Northumbrian allies had been defeated and English forces retook many Welsh towns. The rebels resorted to guerilla warfare but by 1410 Glyndwr was a fugitive and he disappears from history, his fate a mystery.

Much as Owain Glyndwr emerged from the ranks of the Welsh gentry, so too did Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who in 1485, as a somewhat tendentious claimant to the throne of England through the Lancastrian line, led an army of disaffected English magnates to victory over the Yorkist king [[Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]]. Henry became King [[Henry VII]] and the progenitor of the [[Tudor dynasty]], the first Welsh king of England. Henry's son, [[Henry VIII]], completed the absorption of Wales into England in 1536, when the remaining parts of Wales were formally annexed to England and 'shired' - that is, divided into counties (shires) with sheriffs and lords lieutenant, rather than being ruled as marcher lordships.

===Schools===
“Ragged schools” were schools for children in rags, that is for poor and destitute children. They were established in the newly industrialized towns of Wales in the mid-Victorian period, drawing widespread support from all levels of society and from all religious denominations. Promoters of ragged schools combined evangelical and charitable motives in an effort to rescue children from lives of immorality and crime, and, despite a lack of qualified teachers, they did provide an education for children denied opportunities because of poverty. The schools provided instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and often some industrial training, and the movement achieved remarkable results before declining with the gradual introduction of compulsory free elementary schooling from 1870 onward.<ref> Russell Grigg, "The Origins and Growth of Ragged Schools in Wales, 1847-c.1900," ''History of Education'' 2002 31(3): 227-243</ref>
===Soccer===
Soccer became enormously popular in northeast Wales during 1870-90, a development that resembled the growth of the sport in England and reflected aspects of Welsh national identity. During this period, soccer transformed from an informal game enjoyed mostly by schoolchildren into a regulated, professional, and spectator-friendly sport. The growing popularity and interclass participation was seen as an agent of social cohesion and Victorian values of health, though frequent outbreaks of fighting during matches was frowned on by some religious groups. Soccer maintained its popularity in northeast Wales, but industrial decline generally meant that local teams could not as easily draw the same crowds and attract talented players as those in the English Midlands.<ref> Martin Johnes, and Ian Garland, "'The New Craze': Football and Society in North-east Wales, c. 1870-90," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 278-304</ref> Soccer was easily the most popular sport in Wales throughout the whole of the twentieth century.

===Religion===
Wales is known for the strength of Nonconformist denominations, especially the Methodists. Nonconformist social and political activism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was based more on moral and economic concerns than theological principles. Public controversy over publication of R. J. Campbell's ''The New Theology'' in 1907 sparked the development of a theology-based activism that strengthened Nonconformist ties with the radical labor movement and Socialism. It was similar to the [[Social Gospel]] in the United States, but more radical and more inclined toward socialism as promoted by the [[Labour Party]].<ref> Robert Pope, "From New Theology to Social Gospel," ''Welsh Journal of Religious History'' 2007 2: 87-104, </ref>

The major Nonconformist groups were the Baptists, Congregationalists, and three varieties of Methodists (the Calvinistic, Primitive, and Wesleyan). Each combined communal (largely involuntary involvement) and associational (voluntary involvement) aspects among their members and adherents. The membership declined during the early 20th century. To a large degree that decline is attributable to each church body becoming more associational, bureaucratic, and denominational. Connections to local communities broke down and promoted secularization although revivalism occurred to roll back the secularization process on occasion.<ref>Peter Yalden, "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850-1930," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2004 55(2): 293-324 </ref>
====Revival of 1904-5====
From 1904 to 1905 Wales experienced a religious revival with a strong tone of what became [[Pentecostalism]]. It was most famously associated with Evan Roberts (1878-1951), but the movement was broad based with many leaders. Begun as an effort to kindle nondenominational, nonsectarian spirituality, the Welsh revival of 1904-05 coincided with the rise of the labor movement, socialism, and a general disaffection with religion among the working class and youths. While Roberts heavily emphasized the need for individual prayer in his revival, he also engaged in considerable preaching and, like other evangelists, acted spontaneously. Roberts's mental health was a topic of discussion among his followers and detractors at the time of the revival, a debate that has continued ever since. Evidence indicates he was not particularly stable prior to the revival, and that during the revival he claimed to possess various spiritual and supernatural powers. Not merely a Welsh phenomenon, the movement also spread to other countries. The revival produced some lasting effects including the establishment of Pentecostalism in Wales. Revivalists at firct condemned all activities not related to religion, prayer, and the service of God, it temporarily crippled the growing sport of rugby, itself an increasingly powerful element of Welsh identity. Within months, however, extremist views waned and innocuous pastimes and sport returned to Welsh daily life. International success for Wales in rugby matches in 1905 restored the sport's earlier standing and reinforced its place in the self-image of modern Wales. <ref> Robert Pope, "Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904-1905," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2006 57(3): 515-534</ref>

The revival lasted less than a year, but in that period 100,000 converts were made. The revival spread from south Wales to north Wales, then to Britain, and eventually to Los Angeles, California, where [[Pentecostalism]] flourished.<ref> Edward J. Gitre, "The 1904-05 Welsh Revival: Modernization, Technologies, and Techniques of the Self," ''Church History'' 2004 73(4): 792-827</ref>

==Prince of Wales==
[[Charles]], eldest son of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the current Prince of Wales, a title normally bestowed on the first-born son of the sovereign but implying no particular monarchical role in the Principality.

Even today in modern Wales, vestiges of anti-English sentiment remain strong in some parts; the Welsh Nationalist Party, [[Plaid Cymru]] typically returns several members to the British [[Parliament]], and with the unaffiliated Welsh terrorist group the [[Meibion Glyndwr]], ("the Sons of Glendower") conducting a sporadic campaign of arson against English-owned holiday homes in recent years.<ref>http://www.welshdragon.net/resources/Articles/arson.shtml</ref>

== Government ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Wales|Secretary of State]] || [[Peter Hain]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] || [[Rhodri Morgan]] AM
|}

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.

=== Devolution ===
[[File:Wales1.jpg|thumb|200px]]
A [[National Assembly for Wales]] as established under the ''Government of Wales Act of 1998''. The assembly consists of 60 ''Assembly Members'' or ''AM''s. The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the executive arm who have been delegated much of the powers of the Assembly.

== Industry ==

South Wales was formerly heavily industrialised, with [[coal]] mining and [[steel]]working, whereas North Wales is a pastoral area used mainly for [[sheep]]farming.

[[Coal]] mining in South Wales has undergone a recent resurgence due to the discovery of new energy resources, particularly in the Crumlin area.

== Sport ==

[[Soccer]] enjoys major popularity, despite an attempt by the English to introduce [[rugby union]] in the nineteenth century. In addition, as is common with many universities, both Cardiff and Aberystwyth Universities have their own American Football teams (the Cardiff Cobras and the Tarannau Aberystwyth), and there are other American Football teams in Wales<ref>http://www.southwaleswarriors.co.uk/cgi-bin/swwarriors/baseweb2.exe?vid=82057&src=794</ref> (indeed there are many other American Football teams in the whole of the UK<ref>http://www.bafa.org.uk/</ref>). Ice hockey is also extremely popular; major teams include the Cardiff Devils.

==See also==
* [[David Lloyd George]], powerful prime minister in World War I
* [[Welsh language]]

==Further reading==
* Davies, John. ''A History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Wales-John-Davies/dp/0140284753/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Chris. '''The Labyrinth of Flames': Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil'' (1993). 237 pp.
* Fagge, Roger. ''Power, Culture and Conflict in the Coalfields: West Virginia and South Wales, 1900-1922'' (1996). 290 pp.
* Francis, Hywel and Smith, David. ''The Fed: A History of the South Wales Miners in the Twentieth Century'' (1980). 530 pp.
* Gilbert, David. ''Class, Community, and Collective Action: Social Change in Two British Coalfields, 1850-1926'' (1992). 293 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''A Concise History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Wales-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521530717/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jenkins, Philip. ''A History of Modern Wales, 1536-1990'' (1992). 451 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. and Smith, J. Beverley, eds. ''Politics and Society in Wales, 1840-1922'' (1988). 201 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''The Foundations of Modern Wales: Wales, 1642-1780'' (1988). 490 pp.
* Jones, J. Barry, and Denis Balsom, eds. ''The Road to the National Assembly of Wales'' (2000)
* Jones, Gareth Elwyn. ''Modern Wales: A Concise History, c. 1485-1979'' (1985). 364 pp.
* Jones, J. Gwynfor. ''Early Modern Wales, c. 1525-1640'' (1994).
* Jones, J. Gwynfor, ed. ''Class, Community, and Culture in Tudor Wales'' (1989). 300 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Wales in British Politics: 1868-1922'' (1963)
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Modern Wales: Politics, Places, and People'' (1995). 492 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (History of Wales) (Vol 6)'' (1981)
* Neil Evans, "'When Men and Mountains Meet': Historians' Explanations of the History of Wales, 1890-1970," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 222-251
** The the thesis advanced by Owen Morgan Edwards c. 1900 stressed geographical determinism, and was similar to contemporary findings in the United States by [[Frederick Jackson Turner]]. TheEdwards model was augmented and revised by subsequent generations of historians, most notably by John Lloyd and William Stubbs in their work on preconquest Wales, which considered questions of race and political organization. In later decades, Edward A. Lewis and William Rees followed with similar approaches to modern Welsh social and economic history, while A. H. Dodd and Glanmor Williams focused on Welsh industrialization.
* Owen, Trefor. ''Customs and Traditions of Wales'' (1991) 108pp
* Pope, Robert, ed. ''Religion and National Identity: Wales and Scotland c. 1700-2000'' (2001)
* Smith, Dai. ''Aneurin Bevan and the World of South Wales.'' (1993). 359 pp. 20c coal mining and politics
* Stephens, Meic, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales.'' (1986). 682 pp.
* Wallace, Ryland. ''Organise! Organise! Organise! A Study of Reform Agitations in Wales, 1840-1886'' (1991). 267 pp.
* Weisser, Henry. ''Wales: An Illustrated History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wales-Illustrated-History-Hippocrene-Histories/dp/0781809363/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Glanmor. ''The History of Wales, Vol. 3: Recovery, Reorientation, and Reformation: Wales, c. 1415-1642'' (1987). 528 pp.

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wales| ]]
[[Category:British History]]

Wales

2010-01-05T02:04:04Z

Levitican: /* Geography */

{{Country
|name =Cymru Wales
|map =
|flag =Flag of Wales.png
|arms =
|capital =Cardiff
|capital-raw =
|government =
|government-raw =
|language =Welsh, English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =8,022 sq mi
|pop =3,004,600
|pop-basis =2008
|gdp =$85.4 billion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$30,546
|currency =Pound Sterling
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Wales''' is a principality which is a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It occupies the peninsula of land between the [[Bristol Channel]] and the [[River Dee]], on the west side of southern [[Great Britain]]. [[Anglesey]], [[Holy Island]], and the bardic island of Bardsey are also part of Wales.

Althouh politically controlled by England for 800 years, throughout the centuries, a sense of national identity in Wales has manifested itself in a variety of ways: aspirations to statehood, a unique language, cultural distinctiveness, religious affiliation, sporting achievement, and, most recently, political devolution.

===Geography===
Much of Wales is mountainous; the [[Cambrian Mountains]] run the length of the country, from [[Snowdon]]ia in the north.

===Cities===
The largest city in Wales is [[Cardiff]], which was declared to be the capital city in 1955, against competition from [[Swansea]]. Other important locales include the ports of [[Holyhead]] and [[Milford Haven]]; the mining and industrial centres of Llanelli, Neath, Pontypridd, [[Rhondda]], Merthyr Tydfil and [[Wrexham]]; the ecclesiastical cities of [[St. Asaph]] and [[St. Davids]]; the resorts of Pwllheli, [[Llandudno]], Colwyn Bay, Rhyl and Prestatyn; the university towns of Bangor and [[Aberystwyth]]; and the villages of [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] (the longest place name in Britain) and [[Llanddewi Brefi]].
===Language===
see [[Welsh language]]

English is universally spoken in Wales - however, the ancestral Celtic language of [[Welsh Language|Welsh]] is still spoken as a first or second language by approximately a quarter of the population (In 2001, Apporximately 600,000 people claimed some knowledge of welsh). The long-term decline in Welsh-speakers has stabilised since the early 1990s owing to the introduction of compulsory Welsh language classes in schools.

The national emblems are the [[leek]] and the [[daffodil]]. The Welsh national day is March 1, [[Saint David]]'s day. The Welsh flag has a picture of a dragon, usually called Idris. The Welsh flag forms no part of the Union Flag as at the time the flag was first devised Wales was considered as part of the Kingdom of England.

==History==
===Medieval===
Wales emerged as a nation from the collapse of Romano-British Britannia following the invasions of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes from the fifth century AD onwards. What is now known as Wales was for a time known as 'North Wales', while [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] (in SW England) were 'West Wales' until their conquest. The Mercian king [[Offa]] (Mercia equates roughly to the English Midlands) created an substantial earthwork, [[Offa's Dyke]] running between the [[Irish Sea]] and the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary in the later eighth century to separate his kingdom from Welsh lands. The dyke broadly marks the Anglo-Welsh boundary to this day.

The [[Norman Conquest]] of England following 1066 gave rise to Norman attempts to occupy Wales; by the thirteenth century much of eastern and southern Wales were under Norman control in autonomous 'Marcher Lordships' owing loyalty to the English crown. What was left of independent Wales was not a unitary nation, but comprised a number of separate, often warring, principalities, and only late on, under English pressure, did these unite to acknowledge one 'Prince of Wales'. These princes were provided by the most powerful of the Welsh states, Gwynedd, in the mountainous NW of the country. Most notable was [[Llewelyn the Great]] (1173-1240; who unified the country, and gave it a code of laws).
===English conquest===
His grandson, [[Llewelyn ap Gruffydd]], was unable to resist a powerful invasion mounted by the English king [[Edward I]], and his death in battle in 1282 and the later execution of his brother Daffyd (executed for treason due to his betrayal of the English king, with whom he had previously been allied) marked the extinction of independent Wales.

A number of huge fortifications were built by Edward to pacify the country, notably that of [[Caernafon Castle]], and maintained by his successors. These castles wer known as the ''Iron Ring''.

A major revolt against English rule was mounted in the early fifteenth century led by [[Owain Glyndwr]], a member of the prosperous Welsh gentry who became embittered against the local English magnates for reasons which are uncertain, but probably owe as much to personal disputes as national sentiment. Glyndwr's rebellion achieved astonishing success, for a while. Beginning on Good Friday 1401, the rebels came to control much of the countryside and many Welsh towns, even advancing to [[Worcester]] in England. Glyndwr, who had been proclaimed Prince of Wales, held two parliaments at Machynlleth in mid Wales, and allied himself with the Duke of Northumberland and the Earl of Mortimer in a plan to dismember the English kingdom once Henry IV had been conclusively defeated. He made an alliance with [[France]], and created two (short-lived) universities, one each in north and South Wales. However, by 1408 the tide had turned. His Northumbrian allies had been defeated and English forces retook many Welsh towns. The rebels resorted to guerilla warfare but by 1410 Glyndwr was a fugitive and he disappears from history, his fate a mystery.

Much as Owain Glyndwr emerged from the ranks of the Welsh gentry, so too did Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who in 1485, as a somewhat tendentious claimant to the throne of England through the Lancastrian line, led an army of disaffected English magnates to victory over the Yorkist king [[Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]]. Henry became King [[Henry VII]] and the progenitor of the [[Tudor dynasty]], the first Welsh king of England. Henry's son, [[Henry VIII]], completed the absorption of Wales into England in 1536, when the remaining parts of Wales were formally annexed to England and 'shired' - that is, divided into counties (shires) with sheriffs and lords lieutenant, rather than being ruled as marcher lordships.

===Schools===
“Ragged schools” were schools for children in rags, that is for poor and destitute children. They were established in the newly industrialized towns of Wales in the mid-Victorian period, drawing widespread support from all levels of society and from all religious denominations. Promoters of ragged schools combined evangelical and charitable motives in an effort to rescue children from lives of immorality and crime, and, despite a lack of qualified teachers, they did provide an education for children denied opportunities because of poverty. The schools provided instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and often some industrial training, and the movement achieved remarkable results before declining with the gradual introduction of compulsory free elementary schooling from 1870 onward.<ref> Russell Grigg, "The Origins and Growth of Ragged Schools in Wales, 1847-c.1900," ''History of Education'' 2002 31(3): 227-243</ref>
===Soccer===
Soccer became enormously popular in northeast Wales during 1870-90, a development that resembled the growth of the sport in England and reflected aspects of Welsh national identity. During this period, soccer transformed from an informal game enjoyed mostly by schoolchildren into a regulated, professional, and spectator-friendly sport. The growing popularity and interclass participation was seen as an agent of social cohesion and Victorian values of health, though frequent outbreaks of fighting during matches was frowned on by some religious groups. Soccer maintained its popularity in northeast Wales, but industrial decline generally meant that local teams could not as easily draw the same crowds and attract talented players as those in the English Midlands.<ref> Martin Johnes, and Ian Garland, "'The New Craze': Football and Society in North-east Wales, c. 1870-90," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 278-304</ref> Soccer was easily the most popular sport in Wales throughout the whole of the twentieth century.

===Religion===
Wales is known for the strength of Nonconformist denominations, especially the Methodists. Nonconformist social and political activism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was based more on moral and economic concerns than theological principles. Public controversy over publication of R. J. Campbell's ''The New Theology'' in 1907 sparked the development of a theology-based activism that strengthened Nonconformist ties with the radical labor movement and Socialism. It was similar to the [[Social Gospel]] in the United States, but more radical and more inclined toward socialism as promoted by the [[Labour Party]].<ref> Robert Pope, "From New Theology to Social Gospel," ''Welsh Journal of Religious History'' 2007 2: 87-104, </ref>

The major Nonconformist groups were the Baptists, Congregationalists, and three varieties of Methodists (the Calvinistic, Primitive, and Wesleyan). Each combined communal (largely involuntary involvement) and associational (voluntary involvement) aspects among their members and adherents. The membership declined during the early 20th century. To a large degree that decline is attributable to each church body becoming more associational, bureaucratic, and denominational. Connections to local communities broke down and promoted secularization although revivalism occurred to roll back the secularization process on occasion.<ref>Peter Yalden, "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850-1930," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2004 55(2): 293-324 </ref>
====Revival of 1904-5====
From 1904 to 1905 Wales experienced a religious revival with a strong tone of what became [[Pentecostalism]]. It was most famously associated with Evan Roberts (1878-1951), but the movement was broad based with many leaders. Begun as an effort to kindle nondenominational, nonsectarian spirituality, the Welsh revival of 1904-05 coincided with the rise of the labor movement, socialism, and a general disaffection with religion among the working class and youths. While Roberts heavily emphasized the need for individual prayer in his revival, he also engaged in considerable preaching and, like other evangelists, acted spontaneously. Roberts's mental health was a topic of discussion among his followers and detractors at the time of the revival, a debate that has continued ever since. Evidence indicates he was not particularly stable prior to the revival, and that during the revival he claimed to possess various spiritual and supernatural powers. Not merely a Welsh phenomenon, the movement also spread to other countries. The revival produced some lasting effects including the establishment of Pentecostalism in Wales. Revivalists at firct condemned all activities not related to religion, prayer, and the service of God, it temporarily crippled the growing sport of rugby, itself an increasingly powerful element of Welsh identity. Within months, however, extremist views waned and innocuous pastimes and sport returned to Welsh daily life. International success for Wales in rugby matches in 1905 restored the sport's earlier standing and reinforced its place in the self-image of modern Wales. <ref> Robert Pope, "Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904-1905," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2006 57(3): 515-534</ref>

The revival lasted less than a year, but in that period 100,000 converts were made. The revival spread from south Wales to north Wales, then to Britain, and eventually to Los Angeles, California, where [[Pentecostalism]] flourished.<ref> Edward J. Gitre, "The 1904-05 Welsh Revival: Modernization, Technologies, and Techniques of the Self," ''Church History'' 2004 73(4): 792-827</ref>

==Prince of Wales==
[[Charles]], eldest son of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the current Prince of Wales, a title normally bestowed on the first-born son of the sovereign but implying no particular monarchical role in the Principality.

Even today in modern Wales, vestiges of anti-English sentiment remain strong in some parts; the Welsh Nationalist Party, [[Plaid Cymru]] typically returns several members to the British [[Parliament]], and with the unaffiliated Welsh terrorist group the [[Meibion Glyndwr]], ("the Sons of Glendower") conducting a sporadic campaign of arson against English-owned holiday homes in recent years.<ref>http://www.welshdragon.net/resources/Articles/arson.shtml</ref>

== Government ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Wales|Secretary of State]] || [[Peter Hain]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] || [[Rhodri Morgan]] AM
|}

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.

=== Devolution ===
[[File:Wales1.jpg|thumb|200px]]
A [[National Assembly for Wales]] as established under the ''Government of Wales Act of 1998''. The assembly consists of 60 ''Assembly Members'' or ''AM''s. The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the executive arm who have been delegated much of the powers of the Assembly.

== Industry ==

South Wales was formerly heavily industrialised, with [[coal]] mining and [[steel]]working, whereas North Wales is a pastoral area used mainly for [[sheep]]farming.

[[Coal]] mining in South Wales has undergone a recent resurgence due to the discovery of new energy resources, particularly in the Crumlin area.

== Sport ==

[[Soccer]] enjoys major popularity, with [[rugby union]] being particularly popular in South Wales. In addition, as is common with many universities, both Cardiff and Aberystwyth Universities have their own American Football teams (the Cardiff Cobras and the Tarannau Aberystwyth), and there are other American Football teams in Wales<ref>http://www.southwaleswarriors.co.uk/cgi-bin/swwarriors/baseweb2.exe?vid=82057&src=794</ref> (indeed there are many other American Football teams in the whole of the UK<ref>http://www.bafa.org.uk/</ref>). Ice hockey is also extremely popular; major teams include the Cardiff Devils.

==See also==
* [[David Lloyd George]], powerful prime minister in World War I
* [[Welsh language]]

==Further reading==
* Davies, John. ''A History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Wales-John-Davies/dp/0140284753/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Chris. '''The Labyrinth of Flames': Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil'' (1993). 237 pp.
* Fagge, Roger. ''Power, Culture and Conflict in the Coalfields: West Virginia and South Wales, 1900-1922'' (1996). 290 pp.
* Francis, Hywel and Smith, David. ''The Fed: A History of the South Wales Miners in the Twentieth Century'' (1980). 530 pp.
* Gilbert, David. ''Class, Community, and Collective Action: Social Change in Two British Coalfields, 1850-1926'' (1992). 293 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''A Concise History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Wales-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521530717/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jenkins, Philip. ''A History of Modern Wales, 1536-1990'' (1992). 451 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. and Smith, J. Beverley, eds. ''Politics and Society in Wales, 1840-1922'' (1988). 201 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''The Foundations of Modern Wales: Wales, 1642-1780'' (1988). 490 pp.
* Jones, J. Barry, and Denis Balsom, eds. ''The Road to the National Assembly of Wales'' (2000)
* Jones, Gareth Elwyn. ''Modern Wales: A Concise History, c. 1485-1979'' (1985). 364 pp.
* Jones, J. Gwynfor. ''Early Modern Wales, c. 1525-1640'' (1994).
* Jones, J. Gwynfor, ed. ''Class, Community, and Culture in Tudor Wales'' (1989). 300 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Wales in British Politics: 1868-1922'' (1963)
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Modern Wales: Politics, Places, and People'' (1995). 492 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (History of Wales) (Vol 6)'' (1981)
* Neil Evans, "'When Men and Mountains Meet': Historians' Explanations of the History of Wales, 1890-1970," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 222-251
** The the thesis advanced by Owen Morgan Edwards c. 1900 stressed geographical determinism, and was similar to contemporary findings in the United States by [[Frederick Jackson Turner]]. TheEdwards model was augmented and revised by subsequent generations of historians, most notably by John Lloyd and William Stubbs in their work on preconquest Wales, which considered questions of race and political organization. In later decades, Edward A. Lewis and William Rees followed with similar approaches to modern Welsh social and economic history, while A. H. Dodd and Glanmor Williams focused on Welsh industrialization.
* Owen, Trefor. ''Customs and Traditions of Wales'' (1991) 108pp
* Pope, Robert, ed. ''Religion and National Identity: Wales and Scotland c. 1700-2000'' (2001)
* Smith, Dai. ''Aneurin Bevan and the World of South Wales.'' (1993). 359 pp. 20c coal mining and politics
* Stephens, Meic, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales.'' (1986). 682 pp.
* Wallace, Ryland. ''Organise! Organise! Organise! A Study of Reform Agitations in Wales, 1840-1886'' (1991). 267 pp.
* Weisser, Henry. ''Wales: An Illustrated History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wales-Illustrated-History-Hippocrene-Histories/dp/0781809363/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Glanmor. ''The History of Wales, Vol. 3: Recovery, Reorientation, and Reformation: Wales, c. 1415-1642'' (1987). 528 pp.

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wales| ]]
[[Category:British History]]

Prime Minister

2010-01-05T01:55:55Z

Levitican: /* Roles of a Prime Minister */

In a parliamentary system, the '''Prime Minister''' is the head of the [[government]], having been elected by the majority party or coalition in [[parliament]].

==First Prime Minister==

[[Robert Walpole]] is generally considered as the first prime minister. Walpole was the prime minister of [[Britain]] between 1721 - 42. The British prime ministry has served as a model for the heads of government in many [[Commonwealth]] countries, [[Europe]] and [[Japan]].

==Roles of a Prime Minister==

The prime minister has appointive powers and is responsible for the government's legislative program, budget, and other policies. His term of office lasts until the next scheduled election or until he loses legislative support by losing a vote in parliament. In [[France]] and [[Russia]], which have semipresidential systems with both a president and a prime minister, the [[president]] wields greater power but the prime minister controls the domestic legislative agenda.

==See also==

*[[Parliament]]
*[[Prime Minister of Canada]]

[[category:International Political Terms]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers]]

Milan

2010-01-05T01:50:21Z

Levitican:

'''Milan''' (Italian: Milano) is a large industrial and commercial city in northern [[Italy]]. It is the centre of the Italian fashion industry, and the headquarters of the Fiat auto company.
[[Category:Italian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Renaissance]]

Talk:Axiom of Infinity

2010-01-05T01:45:07Z

Levitican:

What? This article needs serious work, there is no debate among any mathematicians or philosophers that I've ever heard of that infinite sets exist - just take the set {1,2,3,...}. Where does that set end, then? [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 20:13, 4 January 2010 (EST)
:I'm not sure, but I think the debate is whether an infinite set only ''theoretically'' exists. [[User:Levitican|Levitican]] 20:45, 4 January 2010 (EST)

Cambridge

2010-01-05T01:39:51Z

Levitican:

:''For the US city, see [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].''
'''Cambridge''' is a famous [[England|English]] university city in the county of [[Cambridgeshire]]. It is located north of [[London]], and is surrounded by a number of smaller towns and villages. It is unusual in England in lying slightly below sea level, in the middle of the Fens region. People who attend the university are known as Cantabrigians and, having graduated, can put 'Cantab.' after their name and degree.

Cambridge is best known for the [[University of Cambridge]].

Cambridge has a non-student population of around 65,000, and that can double when students are present. Outside of the University it is most famous for its cathederal, seat of the Bishop of Cambridge.

[[Category:Towns in Cambridgeshire]]

Talk:Mennonite

2010-01-05T01:38:24Z

Levitican:

I wonder if "Old Order Mennonites" have wood burning computers? [[User:Cracker|Cracker]][[User_Talk:Cracker|talk]] 20:13, 17 March 2007 (EDT)

:Some have normal computers. [[User:Daphnea|Daphnea]] 20:21, 23 June 2008 (EDT)

Can Mennonites be considered conservative? On the face of it as Christians they should, but they seem to espouse some liberal values such as pacifism and rejection of wealth. [[User:Levitican|Levitican]] 20:38, 4 January 2010 (EST)

Soccer

2010-01-05T01:35:12Z

Levitican: /* Soccer Around the World */

[[Image:Soccer passing kick.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is Salomon Kalou, a striker for top English side Chelsea FC. The player, from [[Ivory Coast]], is in a Premiership game versus Reading]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular [[football sport]] played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ([[spherical]]) ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner. Infringements include playing the ball with any part of the body other than the feet or head; pushing or blocking an opposing player and stepping outside the playing area while the ball is in play.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>, much like "rugger" is slang for [[rugby|rugby]]. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[middle ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalisations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules. In the middle ages the game had no rules. The match was played between villages and the goals were in each village. The game was often violent and was banned by [[Edward III]] and [[Henry IV]] not for its violence but as it distracted archers from military work. Medieval football is still played in the East Midland city of [[Derby]] on [[Shrove Tuesday]].

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal. In the United States soccer was associated with communism during the Thirties, as several communist organisations used soccer in an attempt to recruit recent European immigrants to their cause.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, travelling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behaviour at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays amnd Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever centre halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Soccer

2010-01-05T01:33:05Z

Levitican: /* Rules of the Game */

[[Image:Soccer passing kick.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is Salomon Kalou, a striker for top English side Chelsea FC. The player, from [[Ivory Coast]], is in a Premiership game versus Reading]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular [[football sport]] played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ([[spherical]]) ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner. Infringements include playing the ball with any part of the body other than the feet or head; pushing or blocking an opposing player and stepping outside the playing area while the ball is in play.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>, much like "rugger" is slang for [[rugby|rugby]]. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[middle ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalisations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules. In the middle ages the game had no rules. The match was played between villages and the goals were in each village. The game was often violent and was banned by [[Edward III]] and [[Henry IV]] not for its violence but as it distracted archers from military work. Medieval football is still played in the East Midland city of [[Derby]] on [[Shrove Tuesday]].

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, travelling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behaviour at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays amnd Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever centre halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Anne Boleyn

2010-01-05T01:28:57Z

Levitican:

'''Anne Boleyn''' (1507 to 1536) was the second wife of King [[Henry VIII]] of [[England]]. Anne was brought to court by Henry while he was still married to the popular [[Catherine of Aragon]], and it is widely believed they had an affair during that time.Henry annulled his marriage with Catherine, in order to marry Anne. In order to do so he broke with the [[Catholic Church]] which would not agree to sanction such an action and set up the [[Church of England]] with himself as the head. Henry and Anne were married in 1533. They had a daughter together, [[Elizabeth I]], who would one day become queen. Anne's son with Henry was stillborn, helping to seal her fate.

Henry met Anne when visiting her father's house. He became infatuated with her, and arranged to have her brought to court, along with her friend, Lucy Maud, daughter of the Earl of Montgomery. However Catherine got wind of what was going on, and prevented Anne from staying at the palace. Instead she was put up at the house of Sir Thomas Erpingham, a little way into the country. Henry would visit the house regularly, and it is believed he conducted an affair with her, while he was still married.

By 1527 Henry had fallen for Anne Boleyn. She was not content to be a [[mistress]], which set about a chain of events that shook up the nation. Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother. The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused. This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed their acceptance. Henry then made the decision to break from the Catholic Church who he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir through Katherine. Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king over the Pope. Many could not sign -- and died. With Henry now head of the Church, his divorce was granted and he married Anne in 1533 - a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine. Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and not a son like Henry desired. She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. (In terms of shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential wife. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed
Never popular with the English people, Henry had tired of her as well. She was sent to the [[Tower of London]] and was executed after being convicted of adultery and incest on dubious evidence. She was executed by sword rather than the cleaner-cutting axe to indicate the extremity of her crimes, and her head was displayed to the public for three days rather than the normal one. It did, however, free the king to remarry again -- a course of action he would take four more times.

== Sources ==
* Bernard, G. W. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258 in Jstor]
* Erickson, Carolly. ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp. popular biography
* Ives, Eric. ''The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Death-Anne-Boleyn/dp/1405134631/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221528271&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Lindsey, Karen. ''Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/6981860?title=Divorced%2c%20Beheaded%2c%20Survived%3a%20A%20Feminist%20Reinterpretation%20of%20the%20Wives%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]
* Starkey, David. ''Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Six-Wives-Queens-Henry-VIII/dp/069401043X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1211115162&sr=1-9 excerpt and text search]
* ''The New American Desk Encyclopedia,'' Penguin Group, 1989
* Warnicke, Retha M. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]

[[Category:English History]]
[[Category:Queens]]

Anne Boleyn

2010-01-05T01:28:04Z

Levitican:

'''Anne Boleyn''' (1507 to 1536) was the second wife of King [[Henry VIII]] of [[England]]. Anne was brought to court by Henry while he was still married to the popular [[Catherine of Aragon]], and it is widely believed they had an affair during that time.Henry annulled his marriage with Catherine, in order to marry Anne. In order to do so he broke with the [[Catholic Church]] which would not agree to sanction such an action and set up the [[Church of England]] with himself as the head. Henry and Anne were married in 1533. They had a daughter together, [[Elizabeth I]], who would one day become queen. Anne's son with Henry was stillborn, helping to seal her fate.

Henry met Anne when visiting her father's house. He became infatuated with her, and arranged to have her brought to court, along with her friend, Lucy Maud, daughter of the Earl of Montgomery. However Catherine got wind of what was going on, and prevented Anne from staying at the palace. Instead she was put up at the house of Sir Thomas Erpingham, a little way into the country. Henry would visit the house regularly, and it is believed he conducted an affair with her, while he was still married.

By 1527 Henry had fallen for Anne Boleyn. She was not content to be a [[mistress]], which set about a chain of events that shook up the nation. Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother. The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused. This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed their acceptance. Henry then made the decision to break from the Catholic Church who he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir through Katherine. Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king over the Pope. Many could not sign -- and died. With Henry now head of the Church, his divorce was granted and he married Anne in 1533 - a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine. Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and not a son like Henry desired. She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. (In terms of shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential wife. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed
Never popular with the English people, Henry had tired of her as well. She was sent to the [[Tower of London]] and was executed after being convicted of adultery and incest on dubious evidence. She was executed by sword rather than the cleaner-cutting axe to indicate the extremity of her crimes. It did, however, free the king to remarry again -- a course of action he would take four more times.

== Sources ==
* Bernard, G. W. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258 in Jstor]
* Erickson, Carolly. ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp. popular biography
* Ives, Eric. ''The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Death-Anne-Boleyn/dp/1405134631/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221528271&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Lindsey, Karen. ''Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/6981860?title=Divorced%2c%20Beheaded%2c%20Survived%3a%20A%20Feminist%20Reinterpretation%20of%20the%20Wives%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]
* Starkey, David. ''Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Six-Wives-Queens-Henry-VIII/dp/069401043X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1211115162&sr=1-9 excerpt and text search]
* ''The New American Desk Encyclopedia,'' Penguin Group, 1989
* Warnicke, Retha M. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]

[[Category:English History]]
[[Category:Queens]]

Nuclear fusion

2010-01-05T01:24:48Z

Levitican:

'''Nuclear fusion''' is the process by which two or more nuclei fuse to make a larger nucleus.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Physical Science''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1999, 2000</ref> The successful fusion of two nuclei releases large amounts of [[energy]], but to start the reactions large amounts of energy must be input to overcome the repulsive electrostatic forces.

In the center of most stars, hydrogen fuses together to form helium. Fusion in stars releases so much heat that the process alone keeps their mass from collapsing in on itself due to [[gravity]]. It is the reason that stars are so stable as well. If the core of a star starts to collapse, more fusion reactions occur and it expands again from the heat. If the core expands too far, less fusion reactions occur and it collapses back down.

Scientists here on earth are trying to make nuclear fusion in the laboratory a useful energy source. One example is the European Toroidal Reactor near Cambridge in England. If successful fusion would supply a vast amount of clean energy, as the fuel would be derived from seawater and the by-product would be helium. Uncontrolled fusion causes thermonuclear explosions, which are used in the [[hydrogen bomb]].

== Sources ==
[http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/lib/glossary.html#fusion APOD Glossary]

==See Also ==
[[Nuclear fission]]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:physics]]

Nuclear fusion

2010-01-05T01:23:19Z

Levitican:

'''Nuclear fusion''' is the process by which two or more nuclei fuse to make a larger nucleus.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Physical Science''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1999, 2000</ref> The successful fusion of two nuclei releases large amounts of [[energy]], but to start the reactions large amounts of energy must be input to overcome the repulsive electrostatic forces.

In the center of most stars, hydrogen fuses together to form helium. Fusion in stars releases so much heat that the process alone keeps their mass from collapsing in on itself due to [[gravity]]. It is the reason that stars are so stable as well. If the core of a star starts to collapse, more fusion reactions occur and it expands again from the heat. If the core expands too far, less fusion reactions occur and it collapses back down.

Scientists here on earth are trying to make nuclear fusion in the laboratory a useful energy source. One example is the European Toroidal Reactor near Cambridge in England. Uncontrolled fusion causes thermonuclear explosions, which are used in the [[hydrogen bomb]].

== Sources ==
[http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/lib/glossary.html#fusion APOD Glossary]

==See Also ==
[[Nuclear fission]]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:physics]]

Toronto F.C.

2009-12-31T01:57:26Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Toronto F.C..jpg |thumb|300px|Team logo]]
'''Toronto F.C.''' is a Canadian soccer team currently playing in [[Major League Soccer|MLS]]. It is MLS's first Canadian franchise, as well as its newest (until the addition of an expansion in Seattle in 2009). Due to the youth of the team, no MLS Cups have come to [[Toronto]].

Toronto FC is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment. They played their first game in 2007.

==Roster==
===Goalkeepers===
*18 Brian Edwards
*1 Greg Sutton

===Defenders===
*29 Nana Attakora-Gyan
*12 Todd Dunivant
*5 Kevin Harmse
*4 Marco Velez
*16 Marvell Wynne
*2 Hunter Freeman
*27 Gabe Gala

===Midfielders===
*36 Kilian Elkinson
*17 Joey Melo
*11 Jim Brennan
*20 Amado Guevara
*10 Rohan Ricketts
*33 Carl Robinson
*15 Tyler Rosenlund

===Strikers===
*19 Chad Barrett
*- [[Dwayne De Rosario]]
*9 Danny Dichio
*26 Derek Gaudet
*7 [[Abdus Ibrahim]]
*14 Tyrone Marshall
*25 [[Carlos Ruiz]]
*28 Johann Smith

[[Category:Soccer teams]]
[[Category:Major League Soccer]]

Toronto F.C.

2009-12-31T01:56:40Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Toronto F.C..jpg |thumb|300px|Team logo]]
'''Toronto F.C.''' is a Canadian soccer team currently playing in [[Major League Soccer|MLS]]. It is MLS's first Canadian franchise, as well as its newest (until the addition of an expansion in Seattle in 2009). Due to the youth of the team, no MLS Cups have come to [[Toronto]].

Toronto FC is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment.

==Roster==
===Goalkeepers===
*18 Brian Edwards
*1 Greg Sutton

===Defenders===
*29 Nana Attakora-Gyan
*12 Todd Dunivant
*5 Kevin Harmse
*4 Marco Velez
*16 Marvell Wynne
*2 Hunter Freeman
*27 Gabe Gala

===Midfielders===
*36 Kilian Elkinson
*17 Joey Melo
*11 Jim Brennan
*20 Amado Guevara
*10 Rohan Ricketts
*33 Carl Robinson
*15 Tyler Rosenlund

===Strikers===
*19 Chad Barrett
*- [[Dwayne De Rosario]]
*9 Danny Dichio
*26 Derek Gaudet
*7 [[Abdus Ibrahim]]
*14 Tyrone Marshall
*25 [[Carlos Ruiz]]
*28 Johann Smith

[[Category:Soccer teams]]
[[Category:Major League Soccer]]

Toronto

2009-12-31T01:55:29Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Canada-cn-tower.jpg|right|thumb|Toronto's [[CN Tower]]]]
'''Toronto''' is the largest city in [[Canada]] and the capital of the Province of [[Ontario]]. In the 2006 Canadian census, the city's population is 2,503,281 and its census metropolitan area (CMA) has a population of 5,113,149.<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=203&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=25&CMA=535 2006 Canadian Census]</ref> This makes it the 5th largest city in North America, and has a population larger than some Canadian Provinces. With such a size the city is a leader in Canadian Industry, business and banking, communications, media, education, and health care. Toronto also has a strong tourism industry with numerous recreational and historical attractions, such as the [[CN Tower]], the Casa Loma, the Distillery District, Chinatown, Center Island, Toronto Harbour, the Art Gallery of Ontario, the Royal Ontario Museum, the National Children's Museum, the Ontario Portrait Gallery, and many more.

Toronto was previously known as York. The current mayor is David Miller.
{{Clear}}
==Toronto Sports Franchises ==
Toronto [[Maple Leafs]] ([[NHL]] [[Hockey]])

Toronto [[Argonauts]] ([[CFL]] [[Football]])

[[Toronto Blue Jays]] ([[Major_League_Baseball|MLB]] [[Baseball]])

[[Toronto Raptors]] ([[NBA]] [[Basketball]])

[[Toronto F.C.]] ([[Major_League_Soccer|MLS]] [[Soccer]])

==References==
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.torontotourism.com/visitor/ Tourism Toronto]

[[category:Canadian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Operation Torch

2009-12-31T01:40:31Z

Levitican:

'''Operation Torch''' (or '''Operation TORCH''') was the successful invasion by combined British and American forces of French North Africa in November, 1942 during [[World War II]]. With the British pushing eastward from [[Egypt]], and with Allied control of the sea and air, the Germans and Italians were caught in a vice and finally surrendered in May, 1943. Torch was the first American contact with the Germans, and taught many lessons for the green American commanders, headed by General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[George Patton]], especially the optimum use of air power.
[[Image:Torch1942.jpg|thumb|380px]]
==Plans==
Eisenhower commanded "Operation Torch" with the mission to seize North Africa, secure the Mediterranean, cut off Germany's Afrika Corps and associated Italian forces, threaten Italy, and put pressure on Hitler from the south. Torch was not the "second front" that [[Stalin]] wanted because it only engaged a small fraction of Hitler's forces. The British 8th Army under General [[Bernard Montgomery]] was in Egypt, advancing toward General [[Erwin Rommel]]'s crack Afrika Korps (and weak Italian forces) in [[Libya]]. The Torch plan was to land a second force in the west--in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]], which were colonies controlled by pro-Nazi Vichy France--and race to [[Tunis]], thereby trapping Rommel.

Eisenhower spent most of his attention on trying to win over the different French political and military cliques, and in coordinating the complex supply lines. The danger that neutral Spain might allow German troops through its territory to cut the Allies off at [[Gibraltar]] made Eisenhower highly cautious. The American divisions had no battle experience whatever; at practice landings in [[Bermuda]], three tons of instructions, maps and aerial photographs were consumed in elaborate briefing sessions. The command ship was a French banana boat that had been converted converted in 3 days and lacked adequate communications gear.

==Battle==
U.S. General [[George Patton]] had operational command. His 35,000 soldiers sailed 4,000 miles direct from the East Coast then, on November 8, 1942, landed at three sites on the coast of French Morocco, the most important one being about ten miles north of [[Casablanca]]; two other landing forces landed in Algeria after embarking in nearby Gibraltar. Spain stayed neutral and the landings went well. The French forces resisted initially. Seven destroyers sortied from Casablanca on the first day to intercept the troop transports, but two were sunk by naval gunfire and the others retreated.<ref>''Historical Atlas of the US Navy'', by Craig L. Symonds, Naval Institute Press, 1995</ref> The fiercest fighting took place in the air. On the first day, French fighter planes (mostly American-made Hawks) downed a US Navy floatplane, five [[F4F Wildcat|Wildcat]] fighters, and probably a Dauntless bomber as well. Navy Wildcats shot down at least eleven French fighters, and five more the next day. 48 hours after the initial landings, most of the Vichy air force in Morocco had been destroyed, in the air or on the ground.<ref>''Wildcat Aces of World War 2'', by Barrett Tillman, Osprey Publishing, 1995</ref><ref>''P-36 Hawk Aces of World War 2'', by Lionel Persyn, Kari Stenman, and Andrew Thomas, Osprey Publishing, 2009</ref> A cease-fire was negotiated and went into effect on November 11, and soon most Frenchmen in Africa shifted allegiance away from Vichy to the pro-Allied "Free French" movement led by General [[Charles DeGaulle]].

The Germans were surprised--and outnumbered, outgunned, outsupplied and outmaneuvered. But they moved faster than the Allies and they beat Eisenhower to Tunis. Hitler vetoed any escape because he was fiercely opposed to retreats anywhere--a policy that made all his positions rigid, his armies vulnerable. He sent General Juergen Von Arnim with new forces into Vichy-French Tunisia, while Rommel retreated to a strong defensive position called the Mareth Line in the Tunisian hills. The pincer would not close so easily. However the Allies had a 2-1 advantage in infantry, and 9-1 in tanks. Allied logistics worked well, and a naval/air blockade of the coastline cut off 80% of the enemy supplies. The few remaining panzer tanks ran out of diesel fuel. Under Eisenhower's general supervision, British General Harold Alexander had operational control of the Allied land forces in the west; Alexander made sure that British soldiers did most of the fighting. When the inexperienced Americans were called upon to hold the Kasserine Pass, they were whipped by Rommel's bold use of a few panzers, and lost 200 tanks. Eisenhower then replaced the unaggressive corps commander with Patton, his most flamboyant and pugnacious fighter. By May the inexorable pincers had closed; without a great fight Von Arnim surrendered 160,000 Germans and 90,000 Italians. Rommel escaped to fight another day.

Hitler, however, was not especially upset. At the cost of only 5% of his army, he had tied down two of his three enemies for six months in a peripheral campaign that allowed his main forces to fight the Soviets. In North Africa, 3,300 Yanks were killed and 10,000 wounded, about a fourth of all Allied casualties. DeGaulle's Free French established their headquarters in North Africa, received tanks, planes and equipment from the U.S., and provided several hundred thousand troops who fought in Italy and France.

==Air power==
A major lesson learned in Operation Torch was the most effective use of air power as a an offensive weapon.<ref> Michael Bechthold, "A Question of Success: Tactical Air Doctrine and Practice in North Africa, 1942-43," ''The Journal of Military History,'' Vol. 68, No. 3 (Jul., 2004), pp. 821-85 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3396729 in JSTOR] </ref> One of Ike's corps commanders, General Lloyd Fredendall, had control of most of the air power and used his planes as a "combat air patrol" that circled endlessly over his front lines ready to defend against Luftwaffe attackers. Like most infantrymen, Fredendall assumed that all assets should be used to assist the ground forces. (More concerned with defense than attack, Fredendall was soon replaced by Patton.) Likewise the Luftwaffe made the mistake of dividing up its air assets, and failed to gain control of the air or to cut Allied supplies. The RAF in North Africa, under General [[Arthur Tedder]], concentrated its air power and defeated the Luftwaffe. The RAF had an excellent training program (using bases in Canada), maintained very high aircrew morale, and inculcated a fighting spirit. Senior officers monitored battles by radar, and directed planes by radio to where they were most needed. The RAF's success convinced Eisenhower that its system maximized the effectiveness of tactical air power; Ike became a true believer. The point was that air power had to be consolidated at the highest level, and had to operate almost autonomously. Brigade, division and corps commanders lost control of air assets (except for a few unarmed little "grasshoppers," used to spot artillery; the AAF wanted no part of that subservient role.) With one airman in overall charge, air assets could be concentrated for maximum offensive capability, not frittered away in ineffective "penny packets." Eisenhower--a tanker in 1918 who had theorized on the best way to concentrate armor--recognized the analogy. Split up among infantry in supporting roles tanks were wasted; concentrated in a powerful force they could dictate the terms of battle.

The fundamental assumption of air power doctrine was that the air war was just as important as the ground war. Indeed, the main function of the sea and ground forces, insisted the air enthusiasts, was to seize forward air bases. ''Field Manual 100-20,'' issued in July 1943, became the airman's bible for the rest of the war, and taught the doctrine of equality of air and land warfare. The idea of combined arms operations (air, land, sea) strongly appealed to Eisenhower and MacArthur. Eisenhower invaded only after he was certain of air supremacy, and he made the establishment of forward air bases his first priority. MacArthur's leaps reflected the same doctrine. In each theater the senior ground command post had an attached air command post. Requests from the front lines went all the way to the top, where the air commander decided whether to act, when and how. This slowed down response time--it might take 48 hours to arrange a strike--and involved rejecting numerous requests from the infantry for a little help here, or a little intervention there.

==Results==
North Africa helped shake down the American command system, made combat veterans out of recent civilians, taught the knack of complex amphibious landings, taught Americans how to use their air power, and reaffirmed the vital importance of logistics. Laymen speak of strategy; generals speak of logistics. The Americans in Tunisia needed 300 tons of supplies a day --a point brought home when the first train to arrive at Beja with vitally needed food brought 18 tons of peanut butter and two cases of pineapple juice. American soldiers had learned the importance of terrain, of combined arms, of aggressive patrolling, of stealth, of massed armor. They now knew what it was like to be bombed, shelled, and machine-gunned and fight on.

The spirit of Allied cooperation was fairly good. Eisenhower said his staffers could call each other bastards, but if they cursed a "British bastard" they would be sent home immediately. Even so one of his top generals, Omar Bradley, thought the British were amateur strategists (because they lacked the sort of staff schools that Bradley himself had commanded at Fort Benning.) Alexander and Montgomery, on the other hand, decided that their Brits were better fighters than the inept GIs, and they themselves were superior practical strategists.

==Bibliography==
* Atkinson, Rick. ''An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943,'' Volume One of the Liberation Trilogy (2003), 681pp; Pulitzer Prize; unusually well written narrative [http://www.amazon.com/Army-Dawn-1942-1943-Liberation-Trilogy/dp/0805087249/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213458585&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Bechthold, Michael. "A Question of Success: Tactical Air Doctrine and Practice in North Africa, 1942-43," ''The Journal of Military History,'' Vol. 68, No. 3 (Jul., 2004), pp. 821-85 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3396729 in JSTOR]
* Blumenson, Martin, "Kasserine Pass," in Charles Heller and William A. Stofft, eds. ''America's First Battles, 1776-1965'' (1986) pp 226-265
* Breuer, William B. ''Operation Torch: The Allied Gamble to Invade North Africa.'' (1988). well-written popular history
* Calhoun, Mark T. ''Defeat at Kasserine: American Armor Doctrine, Training, and Battle Command in Northwest Africa, World War II.'' (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Army Command and General Staff College, 2003).
* Center for Military History. ''Egypt-Libya'' [http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/egypt/egypt.htm online edition]
* Craven, Wesley F., and James L. Cate. ''The Army Air Forces in World War II.'' (1983). v. 2, pp. 3-206, the official Air Force history [http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/II/index.html online edition]
* D'Este, Carlo. ''Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life'' (2002), [http://www.amazon.com/Eisenhower-Soldiers-Life-Carlo-DEste/dp/0805056866 excerpt and text search]
* Funk, Arthur L. ''The Politics of TORCH: The Allied Landings and the Algiers Putsch, 1942.'' (1974) diplomatic history.
* Gelb, Norman. ''Desperate Venture: The Story of Operation Torch, the Allied Invasion of North Africa.'' (1992). 352 pp. popular
* Harding, Duncan. ''Operation Torch'' (2005)
* Howe, George F. ''Northwest Africa: Seizing the initiative in the West'' (1957), highly detailed official Army history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99008554 online edition]
* Levine, Alan J. ''The War Against Rommel’s Supply Lines, 1942-1943.'' (1999).
* Kelly, Orr. '' Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion of Africa, from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to Victory in Tunisia'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Meeting-Fox-Invasion-Operation-Kasserine/dp/0471414298/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/108686361?title=Meeting%20the%20Fox%3a%20%20The%20Allied%20Invasion%20of%20Africa%2c%20from%20Operation%20Torch%20to%20Kasserine%20Pass%20to%20Victory%20in%20Tunisia online edition]
* Meyer, Leo J. "The Decision to Invade North Africa (TORCH)," in Kent R. Greenfield, ed. ''Command Decisions.'' (1984) pp. 173-189)
* Mitcham, Samuel W. ''Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Rommels-Desert-War-Stackpole-Military/dp/0811734137/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Morison, Samuel Eliot. ''The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War.'' (1963). pp. 215-239
* Porch, Donald. '' The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Path-Victory-Mediterranean-Theater-World/dp/0374205183/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460820&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Walker, Ian. ''Iron Hulls Iron Hearts: Mussolini's Elite Armoured Divisions in North Africa'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Iron-Hulls-Hearts-Mussolinis-Divisions/dp/1861268394/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Wordell, M.T. and E.N. Seiler. ''Wildcats Over Casablanca: US Navy Fighters in Operation Torch'', Potomac Books (2007)
* Zaloga, Steven, and Michael Welply. ''Kasserine Pass 1943: Rommel's last victory'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Kasserine-Pass-1943-Rommels-Campaign/dp/1841769142/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

==See also==
* [[World War II]]

==notes==
<references/>

[[Category:World War II]]

Canada

2009-12-31T01:35:32Z

Levitican: /* Quebec Secession Movement and the October Crisis */

{{Country
|name =''Canada''
|map =Canada pol99.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Canada.png
|flag =Flag of Canada.svg
|arms =Canada arms.png
|capital =Ottawa
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Democracy/Federal Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English, French
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Stephen Harper
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
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|pop =32,907,500
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$1.105 trillion
|gdp-year =2007
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}}
'''Canada''' is a [[country]] in [[North America]] which extends from the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and northward to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada is the largest country by total area in [[North America]] and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation, as well as the longest border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest.

Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>

==Etymology==
The name Canada originated in 1535 by [[Jacques Cartier]] is based on the Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village." <ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, Europeans began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867; the term "dominion" was new, and it seemed a better choice than "kingdom" (which might annoy the Americans). The name continued until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the legal name.

==Flag and anthem==
The Canadian national flag was officially adopted February 15, 1965; prior to that time and subsequent to Confederation in 1867, Canada used a variant of the Red Ensign, a British merchant flag, as its national flag. The Liberal government refused to hold a referendum on the subject; instead the public was invited to submit designs.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df3_e.cfm Birth of the Canadian Flag]</ref> The introduction of the new flag was not without controversy.

In a memo from Diefenbaker’s personal files he wrote:
<blockquote>The Pearson flag is a meaningless Flag. There is no recognition of history; no indication of the existence of French and English Canada; the partnership of the races; no acknowledgment of history. It is a flag without a past, without history, without honour and without pride.” (Source – I Stand for Canada: The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag ).<ref>[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/cultural/flag/national-flag-canada.html The Debate Over the Maple Leaf Flag]</ref></blockquote>

While the debate has been largely forgotten today, the Red Ensign can still be seen flying on some private homes and the debate does reemerge into the public domain occasionally. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070321.wxflag21/BNStory/National/ PM wants Red Ensign to fly at Vimy, sources say]</ref>

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada.

==Geography==
[[File:E-canada.jpg|thumb|450px|political map of Canada]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government.

*Area: 9.9 million sq. km. (3.8 million sq. mi.); second-largest country in the world.
*Cities: Capital--Ottawa (pop. 1.1 million). Other major cities--Toronto (5.1 million), Montreal (3.6 million), Vancouver (2.1 million), Calgary (1.1 million), Edmonton (1.0 million), Quebec City (0.7 million), Winnipeg (0.7 million), Hamilton (0.7 million).
*Terrain: Mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the southeast.
*Climate: Temperate to arctic.

==People==
*Population (2008 est.): 33.1 million.
*Ethnic groups: British/Irish 28%, French 23%, other European 15%, Asian/Arab/African 6%, indigenous Amerindian 2%, mixed background 26%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 43.6%, Protestant 29.2%, other Christian 4.3%, Muslim 2.0%, Jewish 1.1%, Buddhist 1.0%, Hindu 1.0% other 1.3%, none 16.5%.
*Languages: English (official) 57.8%, French (official) 22.1%, other 20.1% (including Chinese and aboriginal languages).
*Education: Literacy--99% of population aged 15 and over has at least a ninth-grade education.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--5.4/1,000. Life expectancy--77.7 yrs. male, 82.5 yrs. female.
*Work force (2008, 18.2 million): Goods-producing sector--25%, of which: manufacturing 15%; construction 6%; agriculture 2%; natural resources 2%; utilities 1%. Service-producing sector--75%, of which: trade 16%; health care and social assistance 11%; educational services 7%, accommodation and food services 7%; professional, scientific, and technical services 7%; finance 6%; public administration 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%; information, culture, and recreation 5%; other services 4%.

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A satellite image of Canada.]]

====Culture====
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British culture. Quebec maintains a French culture but has been largely cut off from Parisian trends for 250 years. Sine 1800 Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, television shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world <ref>.http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as an official language, New Brunswick both French and English, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitu and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognises French and English.

Canada tends to reflect slightly more liberal social policies than the neighboring states of the northern U.S. Two such examples are the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> and, in some regions, the decriminalization of medicinal [[marijuana]] and small amounts of other psychoactive substances.

===Sports===
see [[Canadian sports]]

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The next winter Olympics, to be held in 2010 will be held in Vancouver and Whistler.

====Cultural Style====
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures]</ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although their economy, society, and culture closely resembles the U.S., and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. Canada is usually contrasted as a "cultural mosaic" to the United States' "melting pot". Canadian and U.S. polls habitually confirm citizens of both countries view the relationship with each other in a highly positive light, and consider each other with a special respect afforded to common allies. <ref>http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/canadian-cultural-mosaic-american-melting-pot</ref>

====Education====
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kindergarten beginning at age 5 through grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and separate (e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

A source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, Canada scores +.967 and the U.S. +950.

====Religion====
For the total population, in 2001, 12.9 million (44%) were Roman Catholic, with 8.7 million Protestants (29%). 4.9 million (16% ) report no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics). Other religions of significance in Canada include 580,000 Muslims; 330,000 Jews; 300,000 Buddhists; 297,000 Hindus; and 278,000 Sikhs.<ref> See [http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm "Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)"]</ref>

Catholicism formerly dominated Quebec until the "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s, which has greatly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in Quebec, and its participation rates.

The proportion attending religious services on a regular basis has declined over the past 20 years. According to the General Social Survey (GSS), 21% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported they attended a religious service at least once a week in 2005, down from 30% in 1985.<ref> Colin Lindsay, "Canadians attend weekly religious services less than 20 years ago," [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-630-x/2008001/article/10650-eng.htm ''Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref> Between 1985 and 2004, the share of Canadians aged 15 and older reporting no religious affiliation increased by seven percentage points from 12% to 19%. 37% of Canadians who rarely attend formal services nevertheless regularly engage in personal religious practices. Of of those who had not attended any religious services over the previous year, 27% engaged in weekly religious practices on their own. Overall this group of adults who regularly engage in private religious practices, but infrequently or never attend religious services, represent, 21% of the adult population. This pattern was most prevalent among older Canadians.<ref> Warren Clark and Grant Schellenberg, "Who's religious?" [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2006001/9181-eng.htm '"Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref>

Civil liberties organizations, the media, and some members of Parliament occasionally criticized federal and provincial human rights commissions and tribunals for their application of hate speech restrictions included in federal and provincial human rights acts, claiming that the commissions and tribunals at times limited free speech and expression, and religious rights. The commissions are required by law to process all complaints they receive.

A complaint against the editor of ''Catholic Insight'', alleging the magazine promoted hatred against homosexuals,remained before the Canadian Human Rights Commission at the end of 2008. The complainant alleged that he was upholding Catholic teaching on homosexuality in the magazine.

In June 2008 members of the Ontario legislature voted unanimously to maintain the tradition of reading the Lord's Prayer in the provincial legislature and to add a rotation of prayers from other major religious traditions and a moment of silent reflection for atheists. The vote was prompted by a proposal by Ontario's premier in February 2008 to discontinue the religious observance.

==Government==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of senators appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governor General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The Governor General is, in the absence of the Queen, Canada's Head of State, and the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Forces]]. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, based on the British system.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occurred on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while Her Excellency [[Michaëlle Jean]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[minority government]].

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General--Michaëlle Jean
*Prime Minister--Stephen Harper
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Lawrence Cannon
*Ambassador to the United Nations--John McNee

===Politics===
On February 6, 2006, '''Stephen Harper,''' leader of the Conservative Party, became Canada's twenty-second prime minister, succeeding Liberal Party leader Paul Martin. A policy wonk from Alberta, Harper rose from the ranks of conservative political party staffers. As a Member of Parliament, he became Leader of the Opposition (2002-6). In 2003 he became head of the western-based Canadian Alliance. He was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party of Canada when it was created in 2003 through the merger of Harper's Canadian Alliance and Peter MacKay's Progressive Conservative Party. The January 23, 2006 election victory by the Conservative Party ended 12 years of Liberal Party rule that, in the end, was tainted by corruption and ethical failures, despite the economic progress Canada achieved while the Liberals were in power. In a subsequent federal election on October 14, 2008, the Conservatives won 38% of the vote and formed a second minority government with 143 seats in the House of Commons. The Liberals won 26% of the vote and 77 seats in the House of Commons. As the party with the second-largest number of seats, the Liberals form the "official opposition."

The Conservatives made unexpected gains in Quebec by winning ten seats in the January 2006 election, but failed to increase their number of seats in the province in the 2008 election. The separatist Bloc Quebecois (BQ) has a majority (49) of Quebec's 75 seats (the BQ runs candidates only in Quebec). The left-leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) now has 37 seats, and two independents also sit in Parliament.

===Policy===
Policy priorities of the Conservatives under Harper have remained fairly consistent since 2006: fighting the [[Recession of 2008]]; aiding the ailing [[Automobile]] industry; improving accountability and ethics in government; lowering taxes; fighting crime; reinvesting in defense; bolstering Canada's Arctic sovereignty; promoting national unity; and raising the profile of Canada's role abroad, through its combat mission in Afghanistan, contributions to stabilization in Haiti, and renewed partnership with Latin America. Harper has been friendly with the U.S., despite growing Canadian annoyance with restrictions on border crossings. Harper has been a strong supporter of [[NAFTA]], and works to increase Canada's oil exports to the U.S.

[[Quebec]], with 23% of the national population, its distinctive French-language ("francophone") culture, and is perceived by the western provinces as wielding undue influence on the Federal Government. Until Albertan Stephen Harper became prime minister in 2006, the western provinces had sometimes expressed concern that Ottawa did not fully attend to their oil interests. Ontario, believes that it pays out significantly more to the Federal Government than it gets back in revenues, while the Atlantic Provinces seek to assert greater control over fishing and mineral rights off their shores. The Federal Government ceded some power in a few areas of provincial jurisdiction, while seeking to strengthen the federal role in many other areas such as inter-provincial trade and the regulation of securities.

====National Unity====
Popular support for Quebec sovereignty appears to be on the wane, although pride in that province's unique cultural and linguistic identity remains very strong. Most Quebec voters seem to appreciate the economic benefits of remaining in the Canadian confederation and aim to advance their separate francophone identity within the confederation. In a provincial election held on December 8, 2008, provincial Liberal Leader Jean Charest won a majority government. The separatist Parti Quebecois placed second.

====Quebec Secession Movement and the October Crisis====
There are trivial separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. The only movement of real significance is in Quebec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

This movement did reach a violent level however when the [[FLQ]] (Front de liberation du Quebec) undertook a series of letterbombings from 1963-1970[http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005880.com] The terror campaign reached a fever pitch when Pierre Laport and James Cross were kidnapped in their own homes by gun wielding FLQ members. [http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/101/] The government initiated a crackdown in which the War Measures Act was put in place. The only time where the measure has been enacted in peace time [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/flq/11.html]. The measure was widely supported by Canadians at the time. The action was short lived however as the members of the FLQ were tracked down and arrested. The body of Pierre Laport was discovered in the trunk of a car outside a Canadian military base. James Cross was released after intense negotiations with the government. The remaining members of the FLQ were either jailed or as a result of negotiations deported to Cuba.

===Taxation===
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

====Public Health Care====
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==Defense==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defence.

The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force and the Reserve Force. The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defence spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective. They have also taken steps to estalish Canada's sovereignty over its arctic regions.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism & reconstruction operations, and another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

==Economy==
*GDP (2007): $1.266 trillion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2007): 2.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2007): $38,435.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, hydroelectric power, metals and minerals, fish, forests, wildlife, abundant fresh water.
*Agriculture: Products--wheat, livestock and meat, feed grains, oil seeds, dairy products, tobacco, fruits, vegetables.
*Industry: Types--motor vehicles and parts, machinery and equipment, aircraft and components, other diversified manufacturing, fish and forest products, processed and unprocessed minerals.
*Trade: U.S. merchandise exports to Canada (2007)--$248.9 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, industrial and electrical machinery, plastics, computers, chemicals, petroleum products and natural gas, and agricultural products. In 2007, 65% of Canada's imports came from the United States. U.S. merchandise imports from Canada (2007)--$313.1 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, crude petroleum and natural gas, forest products, agricultural products, metals, industrial machinery, and aircraft. In 2007, 76% of Canada's exports went to the U.S.
===Business===
Canada has invested heavily in high-tech, export-oriented businesses, achieving major success in:
* Aerospace: Canada’s global share of aerospace activity has tripled in the last 20 years, making Canada the world’s 5th largest aerospace producer.
* Ag-biotech: Canadian firms’ revenues exceed those of US agro-based companies and are more than double those of Japan and the UK.
* Agri-food: Canada is the world’s fourth-largest exporter of agricultural products.
* Automotive: Canada is among the Top 10 automotive countries and the 3rd largest exporter of automotive products after Japan and the U.S. Most of the output goes to the U.S. market.
* Biotechnology: Canada is a leader in biotechnology—one of the top five countries in the world.
* Plastics: Canada is the world’s fourth largest exporter of moulds and eighth largest exporter of plastics processing machinery.
* see also [[Canadian railways]]
[[File:O-bad-for-canada.jpg|thumb|300px|Leading Canadian newsmagazine evaluates Obama's threat to Canada, June 29, 2009]]

Canadians worry that Obama's economic policies will damage Canada's economy, especially [[cap and trade]], the Buy America rule in the 2009 stimulus, and environmental hostility to Canadian oil produced from oil sands.
===Energy===
Canada has vast natural resources and is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of energy. In 2005, Canada produced 19.1 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) of total energy, the fifth-largest amount in the world. Since 1980, Canada’s total energy production has increased by 86%, while its total energy consumption has increased by only 48% during that period. Almost all of Canada’s energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Canada/Background.html "Canada" (2009 report)] </ref>

In 2005, the largest source of energy consumption in Canada was oil (31%), followed by hydroelectricity (25%) and natural gas (24%). Both coal (12%) and nuclear (7%) constitute a smaller share of the country’s overall energy mix. From 1985-2005, Canada’s overall energy mix has remained relatively stable, though hydroelectricity has decreased from 31%to 25%, as oil drilling is more popular than dam building.

==History==
* see [[History of Canada]]

==Further Reading==
* '''see [[History of Canada]] for a more detailed bibliography.'''

* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. ''Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian Society: A Guide to the Literature.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 156 pp.
* Bickerton, James, and Alain Gagnon. ''Canadian Politics'' (2004) 584 pages, textbook
* Blore, Shawn. ''Frommer's Canada'' (2004) 828 pages travel guide
* Campbell, Robert Malcolm et al. ''The Real Worlds of Canadian Politics: Cases in Process and Policy,'' (2004) 342 pages
* Conrad, Margaret, and Alvin Finkel. ''Canada: A National History.'' (2003), college textbook.
* DK Publishing. ''Canada'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Hugh Thompson (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Canada-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789495619/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249580319&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2004) 1650 very good entries
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Stephen-Harper-Future-William-Johnson/dp/0771095546/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239348955&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Morton, Desmond. ''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)
* ''National Atlas of Canada'' (1st ed. 1906; 2nd ed. 1915; 3rd ed. 1957; 4th ed. 1974; 6th ed. 1999 is electronic)
* Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan. ''The Canadian Federal Election of 2006'' (2006)
* Pryke, Kenneth G. and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. ''Profiles of Canada.'' (2003). 3rd edition of textbook
* Toye, William, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature.'' (1983). 843 pp.
* Wells, Paul. ''Right Side Up: the Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism'' (2006)
* Westhues, Anne. '' Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives,'' 2003

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [http://cansim2.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-win/cnsmcgi.pgm?Lang=Eng&SP_Action=Main-Principal&SP_Mode=2 Statistics Canada current data]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces], military
* [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/3000140-eng.htm ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1983)] the major historical data source
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwDvF0NtgdU Canadian National Anthem]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNlTwaPQQH4&feature=related Canadian National Anthem (French)]
=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

===Political Advocacy Websites===
*[http://www.canadadivided.com/ Canada Divided]
*[http://www.projectalberta.com/ Project Alberta]
*[http://onthefencefilms.com/video/twowomen.html Two Women]
*[http://www.westcan.org/ Western Canada Concept]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Church of England

2009-12-30T21:06:53Z

Levitican: /* Leadership */

[[Image:Canterbury.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Canterbury Cathedral]] is the mother church of the Church of England]]
The '''Church of England''' (the mother church of the ''Anglican Church'') is the English national church that traces its history back to the sixth century in England. Under King [[Henry VIII]] England broke with Rome and formed a [[denomination]] that became part of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. It contains High Church elements (similar in ritual to the Roman Catholics), Low Church elements (similar to Methodists), and a Broad Church middle. It is part of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]].

==Reformation==
[[Image:Chester.jpg|thumb|350px|Chester Cathedral]]
[[Henry VIII]], who reigned 1509-47, broke with the Pope on two issues, his divorce, and control over the Church inside England, as he declared himself head of the Church in England. Disagreement with Henry on religious issues was a political affront, and he could not tolerate it. Moderate reform took place in the 1530s because Queen Anne and top aides [[Thomas Cranmer]] (1489-1556) and Cromwell had the king's ear and carried out attacks on the old religion. Queen Anne patronized and promoted clergy and bishops of a reforming turn of mind; Cromwell (1485?–1540), the Earl of Essex, was a convinced reformer and in effect the ruthless and unpopular prime minister from 1532 until he fell from favour and was beheaded in 1540. Cranmer (1489–1556) was archbishop of Canterbury after 1533. Henry persecuted those who still held to Papal Supremacy, and encouraged Protestant ideas to flourish. Protestantism was officially established during the short reign of Henry’s son, Edward VI.

After Henry's death in 1547 Cranmer wrote much of the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1549, revised 1552), the centerpiece of the Anglican liturgy. The basic summary of Anglican beliefs and practices is the [[Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion]], written by Cranmer and adopted in 1563 under Queen [[Elizabeth I]]. In these foundational documents the supreme authority and sufficiency of scripture for salvation was explicitly stated. In Cranmer's theology, the Holy Spirit inspires the proper understanding of the Bible in the faithful.

This marks the full establishment of the Church of England, largely Protestant in theology but with a hierarchical structure similar to the old Roman Catholic establishment, and a largely Catholic liturgy translated from Latin into English. Numerous '''dissenters''' had theological differences, a major factor leading to the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century.

Like Oriental and Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches (and unlike Protestant churches), Anglicans maintain authority within the church through [[Apostolic succession]].

==Victorian era==
===Morality===
The late Victorian social purity movement heralded a new phase in the history of moral regulation, generating significant levels of Anglican and Nonconformist support for male chastity and the elimination of the sexual double standard. Historians have studied the use criminal legislation and censorship to elevate standards of public morality. Morgan (2007) stresses the role of women activists who were prominent campaigners for social purity. Women purity workers exerted enormous pressure on the professional hierarchies of church and chapel, actively reworking Christian readings of the body so as to bring the moral influence of the churches to bear on public opinion. In so doing, they brought about a significant transformation in clerical attitudes that regarded discussions of sex as beyond the boundaries of civilized discourse and led in the promotion of a regulatory, but nonetheless highly public, religious discourse on sexuality. <ref> Sue Morgan, "'Wild Oats or Acorns?' Social Purity, Sexual Politics and the Response of the Late-Victorian Church," ''Journal of Religious History'' 2007 31(2): 151-168 online at [[EBSCO]]</ref>
===High, Low, Broad===
The Church of England struggled to maintain within itself the diametrically opposed tendencies of high-church Anglo-Catholicism and low-church evangelicalism. Even within the broad church movement, disciples of low-church historian and Rugby headmaster Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) and former Unitarian founder of [[Christian Socialism]] Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-72), while overlapping somewhat in their membership, based their comprehensiveness on different theology.<ref> Jeremy Morris, "The Spirit of Comprehension: Examining the Broad Church Synthesis in England," ''Anglican & Episcopal History'' 2006 75(3): 423-443 </ref>

===Ecumenical efforts===
In the late 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries, Anglican priests have participated in several ecumenical events. From sharing the [[Eucharist|Lord's supper]] with Scottish [[Presbyterians]] in 1913<ref>http://justus.anglican.org/resources/timeline/15ecumenical.html</ref> to conservative considerations to re-joining the [[Roman Catholic]] church<ref>http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1821374,00.html</ref>

==Leadership==
The British monarch (currently, Queen [[Elizabeth II]]) is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England making her the titular head of the Anglican Church. The monarch also bears the title Defender of the Faith. A 1701 law, still in effect, prevents a Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic from becoming king or queen.<ref> See [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1565208 Text]</ref>

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] is the [[Primate]] of the church, and is an ''ex officio'' member of Britain's House of Lords, along with twenty other bishops. Recent moves to appoint Roman Catholic bishops have been disapproved by parliament.

The principal book of worship in Anglican churches is the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Most churches in England still follow the liturgy set down in it, despite moves to modernize the language - all of which were rejected by the Bishops.
The Church of England is referred to as the "established church" of England. At the time of the [[American Revolution]], it was a legal requirement in England that all public officials, including university professors, take an oath to uphold the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. There were no such requirements in the colonies, but the Church of England was established and tax supported in some southern colonies. It was disestablished during the American Revolution. The Church was in disarray during the Revolution, as many leaders returned to England. After the war it slowly rebuilt as the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]].

Clergy form a three-level hierarchy, with Priest as the lowest level, Bishop and then Archbishop. Each level is able to ordain those below it, and also has special powers. For example only a Bishop is permitted to conduct an exorcism, or marry a Priest.

===Protestant Experimentalists (group of Anglican modernists)===
In the early 20th century several Anglican priests and scholars showed interest in the new wired and wireless communications technologies such as radio and their possible use in furthering Christianity. Their interests included telepathy, psychic research, psychology, and healing. Such Anglican intellectuals were the Anglican Archbishop Frederick Du Vernet and the Espicopal bible scholar Kirsopp Lake. <ref> [http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/75/3/651 "Radio Mind: Protestant Experimentalists on the Frontiers of Healing"], ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'' 2007 75(3):651-683</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Chapman, Mark. ''Anglicanism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglicanism-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192806939/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231711052&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hassett, Miranda K. ''Anglican Communion in Crisis: How Episcopal Dissidents and Their African Allies Are Reshaping Anglicanism'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglican-Communion-Crisis-Dissidents-Anglicanism/dp/069112518X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231706964&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Pawley, Bernard & Margaret Pawley. ''Rome and Canterbury Through Four Centuries: A study of the relations between the church of Rome and the Anglican churches 1530-1973'' (1974)
* Porter, Muriel. ''The New Puritans: The Rise of Fundamentalism in the Anglican Church'' (2007)
* Rosenthal, James. ''The Essential Guide to the Anglican Communion'' (1998)
* Sykes, Stephen, and John Booty, eds. ''The Study of Anglicanism'' (1988), important essays by 31 scholars on all aspects of the Church
===Primary sources===
* Evans, G.R. and Robert Wright, eds. ''The Anglican Tradition: A Handbook of Sources'' (1991), over 600 historical documents

==External links==
* [http://www.geocities.com/anglicana_ecclesia/ Anglicana Ecclesia], primary documents

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:England, Church of}}
[[Category:Anglicans]]
[[category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Anglican Saints]]

Anglican Communion

2009-12-30T21:03:01Z

Levitican: /* Leadership */

{{Christianity}}
The '''Anglican Communion''' is the third largest christian religon in the world after Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox. The Anglican Communion functions as a worldwide body of associated churchs in full communion with the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The Church of England is often seen as the Mother Church of the Anglican Communion and all Anglican churchs.

==Leadership==
The British monarch (currently, Queen [[Elizabeth II]]) is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England making her the titular head of the Anglican Communion. The British Monarch also bears the title 'Defender of the Faith'. A law dating from 1701, still in effect, prevents a Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic from becoming king or queen.<ref> See [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1565208 Text]</ref>

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the head of the Holy See of Canterbury, is the head of the Communion, and is seen as the 'Anglican Pope', his official pronouncements being considered binding on all Anglicans. He has the ability to canonize saints, a notable example being Saint King [[Charles I]], the martyr. He can veto the appointment of any bishop.

The principal book of worship in Anglican churches is the [[Book of Common Prayer]] created by [[Thomas Cranmer]].

==Churchs in Full Communion==
* [[Church of England]]
* Anglican Church in Australia
* Anglican Church of Canada
* Anglican Church of Southern Africa
* The Church of the Province of Central Africa ([[Zimbabwe]], [[Malawi]], [[Botswana]])
* Church in [[Wales]]
* Church of [[Ireland]]
* Church of [[Pakistan]]
* Church of South India
* Anglican Church in Aotearoa, [[New Zealand]] and Polynesia
* [[Anglican Episcopal Church of Japan‎]]
* [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
* Scottish Episcopal Church
* Sheng Kung Hui

[[Continuing Anglican]]ism is a movement of churches whose beliefs and practices are Anglican, but are '''not''' in full communion with the Church of England. These churches are generally more conservative.

[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Anglicans]]

Anne Boleyn

2009-12-30T20:56:09Z

Levitican:

'''Anne Boleyn''' (1507 to 1536) was the second wife of King [[Henry VIII]] of [[England]]. Anne was brought to court by Henry while he was still married to the popular [[Catherine of Aragon]], and it is widely believed they had an affair during that time.Henry annulled his marriage with Catherine, in order to marry Anne. In order to do so he broke with the [[Catholic Church]] which would not agree to sanction such an action and set up the [[Church of England]] with himself as the head. Henry and Anne were married in 1533. They had a daughter together, [[Elizabeth I]], who would one day become queen. Anne's son with Henry was stillborn, helping to seal her fate.

Henry met Anne when visiting her father's house, and arranged to have her brought to court (along with her friend, Lucy Maud), staying at the house of Sir Thomas Erpingham. There it is believed he conducted an affair with her, while he was still married.
By 1527 Henry had fallen for Anne Boleyn. She was not content to be a [[mistress]], which set about a chain of events that shook up the nation. Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother. The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused. This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed their acceptance. Henry then made the decision to break from the Catholic Church who he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir through Katherine. Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king over the Pope. Many could not sign -- and died. With Henry now head of the Church, his divorce was granted and he married Anne in 1533 - a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine. Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and not a son like Henry desired. She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. (In terms of shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential wife. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed
Never popular with the English people, Henry had tired of her as well. She was sent to the [[Tower of London]] and was executed after being convicted of adultery and incest on dubious evidence. She was executed by sword rather than the cleaner-cutting axe to indicate the extremity of her crimes. It did, however, free the king to remarry again -- a course of action he would take four more times.

== Sources ==
* Bernard, G. W. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258 in Jstor]
* Erickson, Carolly. ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp. popular biography
* Ives, Eric. ''The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Death-Anne-Boleyn/dp/1405134631/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221528271&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Lindsey, Karen. ''Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/6981860?title=Divorced%2c%20Beheaded%2c%20Survived%3a%20A%20Feminist%20Reinterpretation%20of%20the%20Wives%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]
* Starkey, David. ''Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Six-Wives-Queens-Henry-VIII/dp/069401043X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1211115162&sr=1-9 excerpt and text search]
* ''The New American Desk Encyclopedia,'' Penguin Group, 1989
* Warnicke, Retha M. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]

[[Category:English History]]

Empire of Liberty

2009-12-30T20:52:38Z

Levitican: /* Other dimensions */

The '''Empire of Liberty''' as conceived by [[Thomas Jefferson]] refers to America's role of spreading freedom throughout the world.

America was founded, settled and fashioned by the [[British Empire]], but then broke away in the [[American Revolution]], declaring independence in 1776 in the name of [[republicanism]].

[[Thomas Jefferson]] saw America's mission as creating a global "Empire of Liberty" -- that is promoting freedom and liberty around the globe by example, by expansion, and by intervention. Major exponents included [[Abraham Lincoln]] (in the Gettysburg Address (1863), [[Woodrow Wilson]] and "[[Wilsonianism]]", and [[George W. Bush]] in the drive for liberty and democracy around the world.

In [[American diplomatic history]] the Empire of Liberty has meant opposition to [[tyranny]] and [[totalitarianism]], especially in the [[Spanish American War]] (1898), [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Cold War]] and the [[War on terrorism]].[[File:Judge-2-6-1897.jpg|thumb|370px|[[Columbia]] (the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 while Uncle Sam (the US Government) is blind. ''Judge'' magazine, Feb. 6, 1897]]

The somewhat derogatory term '''American Empire''', meaning the [[United States]] and territories which it controls or influences, is often used to criticize the global influence of the United States and its political principles by implying that America has been engaged in a self-centered type of [[Imperialism]].

==Monroe Doctrine==
The [[Monroe Doctrine]] was designed to make the New World safe for liberty and [[republicanism]] and block the further expansion of European imperialism. The Doctrine was articulated in 1820 by President [[James Monroe]] and was designed by his Secretary of State [[John Quincy Adams]] (two foremost conservatives). It put the western hemisphere off limits to European expansion. It was used to stop the threatened takeover of Mexico by France (1860s) and Imperial Germany (see [[Zimmerman Telegram]] 1917). After 1960 the Doctrine was used to fight the spread of Communism from its base in Casto's [[Cuba]]. [[Ronald Reagan]], for example, made it a high priority to [[rollback]] Communism in [[Nicaragua]], [[Grenada]].

==Conservative Internationalism==
Conservative Henry Nau has argued that '''conservative internationalism''' is the foreign policy of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Harry Truman]], and [[Ronald Reagan]]. They did more to expand freedom abroad through the assertive use of military force than any others.<ref> At home, Abraham Lincoln was even more aggressive in expanding freedom by the forceful abolition of slavery.</ref>. They expanded freedom on behalf of self-government, local or national, not on behalf of central or international government, as liberal internationalists advocate, and they used force to seize related opportunities to spread freedom, not to maintain the status quo, as realists recommend.

Bacevich (2004) argues that America has been committed to building an empire by design, not accident. He argues that the recent foreign policy has accepted an American mission as the guardian of history, responsible for changing the world by making it more open and more integrated. American global leadership means maintaining preeminence in the world's strategically significant regions, together with permanent global military supremacy.

President Barack Obama in his 2009 Nobel Prize Address specifically rejected the liberal nonviolence policies of [[Martin Luther King]], and proclaimed America has a duty to lead the fight against evil in the world, starting with the [[Afghanistan War]]. His conservative arguments stunned his liberal supporters.
==Jefferson==
Jefferson used this phrase as early as 1780 as he sought to create an American Empire dedicated to liberty; it would block the growth of the British Empire, which he hated and feared:
:"We shall divert through our own Country a branch of commerce which the European States have thought worthy of the most important struggles and sacrifices, and in the event of peace [ending the American Revolution]...we shall form to the American union a barrier against the dangerous extension of the British Province of Canada and add to the '''Empire of liberty''' an extensive and fertile Country thereby converting dangerous Enemies into valuable friends." - Jefferson to George Rogers Clark, 25 December 1780<ref> See [http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Empire_of_liberty online source] </ref>

A few weeks after leaving the White House in 1809 he told his successor James Madison:
:"we should then have only to include the North [Canada] in our confederacy...and we should have such an empire for liberty as she has never surveyed since the creation: & I am persuaded no constitution was ever before so well calculated as ours for extensive empire & self government." - Jefferson to James Madison, 27 April 1809

==Other dimensions==
Economic dimensions include the spread of American management, as for example in the [[Marshall Plan]] in the 1940s. Poor management was a major factor in the slow recovery of Europe after World War II, and American management principles were often implemented as an essential part of Marshall Plan aid. The American School of Management was set up in Paris specifically to propagate these principles.

Cultural dimensions of the American Empire include the spread of American music and movies--and even more important the spread of Christian values by missionaries.

==Leftist bashing of "Empire"==

Anti-American forces in the Third World often capitalized on local hatred of oppressive empires by using the label ''American Empire'' in a negative sense. On the far left in the U.S. it is also a hostile theme, as represented by [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Chalmers Johnson]]. Their argument is that America represents the evils of capitalism and religion and should be stopped from influencing the people of the world.

==See also==
* [[American foreign policy]]
* [[Cold War]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Ronald Reagan]]
* [[George W. Bush]]
* [[Rollback]]
* [[Wilsonianism]]

==Further reading==
* Bacevich, Andrew J. ''American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy'' (2004) by a conservative political scientist [http://www.amazon.com/American-Empire-Realities-Consequences-Diplomacy/dp/0674013751/ref=sr_1_19?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261651762&sr=1-19 excerpt and text search]
* Ferguson, Niall. ''Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire'' (2005), by an eminent conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Colossus-Rise-Fall-American-Empire/dp/0143034790/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261651620&sr=1-8 except and text search]
* Gordon, John Steele . ''Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power'' (2005) by a conservative popular historian [http://www.amazon.com/Empire-Wealth-History-American-Economic/dp/0060505125/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261651762&sr=1-16 excerpt and text search]
* Kagan, Robert. ''Dangerous Nation: America's Place in the World from Its Earliest Days to the Dawn of the Twentieth Century'' (2006), by a conservative
* Nau, Henry R. "Conservative Internationalism," ''Policy Review'' #150. 2008. pp 3+. by a conservative[http://www.questia.com/read/5028853766?title=Conservative%20Internationalism online at [[Questia]]]
* Tucker, Robert W., and David C. Hendrickson. ''Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson'' (1990).
* Wood, Gordon. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009) by conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Empire-Liberty-History-Republic-1789-1815/dp/0195039149/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261651934&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
====references====
<references/>
[[Category:United States Political Terms]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]

Toronto

2009-12-30T20:36:06Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Canada-cn-tower.jpg|right|thumb|Toronto's [[CN Tower]]]]
'''Toronto''' is the largest city in [[Canada]] and the capital of the Province of [[Ontario]]. In the 2006 Canadian census, the city's population is 2,503,281 and its census metropolitan area (CMA) has a population of 5,113,149.<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=203&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=25&CMA=535 2006 Canadian Census]</ref> This makes it the 5th largest city in North America, and has a population larger than some Canadian Provinces. With such a size the city is a leader in Canadian Industry, business and banking, communications, media, education, and health care. Toronto also has a strong tourism industry with numerous recreational and historical attractions, such as the [[CN Tower]], the Casa Loma, the Distillery District, Chinatown, Center Island, Toronto Harbour, the Art Gallery of Ontario, the Royal Ontario Museum, the National Children's Museum, the Ontario Portrait Gallery, and many more.

Toronto was previously known as York. The current mayor is David Miller.
{{Clear}}
==Toronto Sports Franchises ==
Toronto [[Maple Leafs]] ([[NHL]] [[Hockey]])

Toronto [[Argonauts]] ([[CFL]] [[Football]])

[[Toronto Blue Jays]] ([[Major_League_Baseball|MLB]] [[Baseball]])

[[Toronto Raptors]] ([[NBA]] [[Basketball]])

[[Toronto FC]] ([[Major_League_Soccer|MLS]] [[Soccer]])

==References==
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.torontotourism.com/visitor/ Tourism Toronto]

[[category:Canadian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Soccer

2009-12-30T20:27:43Z

Levitican: /* Rules of the Game */

[[Image:Soccer passing kick.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is Salomon Kalou, a striker for top English side Chelsea FC. The player, from [[Ivory Coast]], is in a Premiership game versus Reading]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular [[football sport]] played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. If a player is injured then the [[referee]] makes up that lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ([[spherical]]) ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>, much like "rugger" is slang for [[rugby|rugby]]. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[middle ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalisations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules. In the middle ages the game had no rules. The match was played between villages and the goals were in each village. The game was often violent and was banned by [[Edward III]] and [[Henry IV]] not for its violence but as it distracted archers from military work. Medieval football is still played in the East Midland city of [[Derby]] on [[Shrove Tuesday]].

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, travelling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behaviour at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays amnd Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever centre halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Soccer

2009-12-30T20:26:34Z

Levitican: /* Rules of the Game */

[[Image:Soccer passing kick.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pictured is Salomon Kalou, a striker for top English side Chelsea FC. The player, from [[Ivory Coast]], is in a Premiership game versus Reading]]
'''Soccer''' is a popular [[football sport]] played with a round ball propelled mainly by kicks from a player's foot.
In soccer, players are not allowed to intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, with the exception of goalkeepers in a restricted area. The goal of the game is to kick the ball into the opposing team's goal; each goal gives that team a point and the team with the most points at the end of the 90 minute game is the winner.

{{football meaning}} In many other languages, a [[phonics|phonetic]] equivalent to the English word "football," such as the Portuguese word "futbol" is used to denote the sport.

==Rules of the Game==
[[Image:Soccer pitch.gif|right|thumb|300px|left|Dimensions of a soccer pitch]]
The game is played between two teams of 11 players (10 out-field players and one goalkeeper each). In official play, there are two 45 [[minute]] halves separated by a break known as half-time which according to the rules of the game must last less than 20 minutes. Unlike most sports, the clock does not always stop when the ball is not in play. When the ball is knocked out of bounds or a penalty is committed, the clock runs continuously. The [[referee]] makes up the lost time by adding minutes onto the end of the half. This is known as [[stoppage]] or injury time. If both scores are even at the end of regulation time, the game is usually declared a draw. However, in knockout cup games, there is often an additional period of play consisting of two 15-minute halves. In some competitions, the first goal in this period (golden goal) wins the game. If the scores are still level, the result is decided with a [[penalty shootout]]. The set of rules used in soccer are called the [[Laws of the Game]].

The game is played on a [[grass]] (or artificial grass) pitch with dimensions 90-120 m (100-130 yards) in length and 45-90 m (50-100 yards) in width.
<ref>[http://www.fifa.com/documents/fifa/laws/LOTG2006_e.pdf FIFA Laws of the Game 2006] ''Official FIFA website''</ref>
A goal is scored when the ([[spherical]]) ball is propelled into the opposition net. The side scoring the most goals is the winner.

Accuracy in kicking is very important to make sure that one can kick the ball around opponents, manage it in tight spaces, and make long passes to other players in better positions. Expert players have trained to kick from a variety of angles, both forward and back and to the side, and also to use their chests and heads to maneuver a high-flying ball.

==Origins==

The word ''soccer'' derived in England as slang for "Association Football", <ref>[http://london.usembassy.gov/rss/transcripts/worldcup2006a.html] ''US Embassy, London'' </ref>, much like "rugger" is slang for [[rugby|rugby]]. Football games have been popular in [[England]] since the [[middle ages]], but the modern game of soccer derives from formalisations of the rules during the mid nineteenth century. The [[Football Association]] (FA) was founded in 1863 and continues to be the game's governing body within the [[UK]]. "Association Football" (later shortened to soccer) meant the version of football approved by the Football Association's rules. The rules were published at [[Cambridge University]] in 1847, as many private schools were playing each other with different rules. In the middle ages the game had no rules. The match was played between villages and the goals were in each village. The game was often violent and was banned by [[Edward III]] and [[Henry IV]] not for its violence but as it distracted archers from military work. Medieval football is still played in the East Midland city of [[Derby]] on [[Shrove Tuesday]].

==Soccer Around the World==
[[Image:800px-Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Goalkeeper leaping to make a save]]
It is the most popular [[team sport]] in the world, described by the legendary Brazilian player, [[Pele]], as "The Beautiful Game". Its governing body is [[FIFA]] (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). In most countries it is the most popular sport or at least among the most popular (the [[United States]] being a notable exception). Though it is often not a high-scoring game, its popularity comes from the often dramatic saves from goalkeepers and incredible shots from skilled players in attempts to score a goal.

Every four years there is an international competition known as the [[World Cup]], where countries send their best players to compete for the title of best national soccer team. Every four years in Europe there is the European Championship in June and July when the leagues finish which is a 16 team competition for members of UEFA, the European governing body. Each other continent also has a competition, such as the African Nations Cup, which is every two years in January.

Many soccer fans are extremely passionate about their favorite teams, travelling to other countries to support them. Several countries have had problems controlling over-excited fans, with the crowd sometimes spilling onto the pitch, fighting with themselves, disliked referees and even players. [[England]] once had a poor reputation from its soccer [[hooligan]]s who got into drunken fistfights with fans of other teams. This situation has largely changed, with much better behaviour at English football matches and considerably increased violence in several other countries, especially [[Italy]].

In most European countries each large town will have at least one football team who play in leagues, which last August to May in most of Europe but March to October in others. Unlike most American sports, the top teams in each league go up a league to be replaced by the last teams in the league above. The top teams in the top division of each European country enter the UEFA Champions League, a league and knockout competition played on Tuesdays amnd Wednesdays around the season.

==Great Players==

* [[Ferenc Puskas]], a forward for [[Real Madrid]] and [[Hungary]] in the 1950s, introduced 'total football' and destroyed the old-fashioned English team of the time.
* [[Lev Yashin]] of the USSR in the 1960s is reputed to be the best-ever goalkeeper.
* [[Pele]], [[Brazil]]ian player active from 1956-1974, often considered to be the greatest soccer player to ever kick the ball.
* [[Bobby Moore]], captain of England in the 1966 World Cup Finals and one of the finest ever centre halves.
* [[George Best]], of [[Manchester United]] and [[Northern Ireland]] in the 1960s, was possibly the best player never to have played in the World Cup Finals.
* [[Franz Beckenbauer]] played for [[West Germany]] in the 1960s and 70s. Defenders rarely gain the limelight in football but Beckenbauer's performances against the great teams of England in 1970 and Holland in 1974 were exceptional.
* [[Johann Cruyff]], captain of Holland in 1974 and 1978: why his Dutch team's brand of Total Football never won them the World Cup is an enduring mystery.
* [[Diego Maradona]], [[Argentinia]]n midfielder of the 1980s, often mentioned alongside Pele as one of the greatest.
* [[Zinedine Zidane]], [[French]] player, retired shortly after the World Cup final match between France and [[Italy]] in 2006.
* [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], a [[Portuguese]] contemporary player for [[Real Madrid]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Soccer]]

Toronto

2009-12-30T20:25:19Z

Levitican: /* Toronto Sports Franchises */

[[Image:Canada-cn-tower.jpg|right|thumb|Toronto's [[CN Tower]]]]
'''Toronto''' is the largest city in [[Canada]] and the capital of the Province of [[Ontario]]. In the 2006 Canadian census, the city's population is 2,503,281 and its census metropolitan area (CMA) has a population of 5,113,149.<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=203&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=25&CMA=535 2006 Canadian Census]</ref> This makes it the 5th largest city in North America, and has a population larger than some Canadian Provinces. With such a size the city is a leader in Canadian Industry, business and banking, communications, media, education, and health care. Toronto also has a strong tourism industry with numerous recreational and historical attractions, such as the [[CN Tower]], the Casa Loma, the Distillery District, and many more.

{{Clear}}
==Toronto Sports Franchises ==
Toronto [[Maple Leafs]] ([[NHL]] [[Hockey]])

Toronto [[Argonauts]] ([[CFL]] [[Football]])

[[Toronto Blue Jays]] ([[Major_League_Baseball|MLB]] [[Baseball]])

[[Toronto Raptors]] ([[NBA]] [[Basketball]])

[[Toronto FC]] ([[Major_League_Soccer|MLS]] [[Soccer]])

==References==
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.torontotourism.com/visitor/ Tourism Toronto]

[[category:Canadian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Ontario

2009-12-30T20:24:50Z

Levitican:

'''Ontario''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] province, the third largest province by size, and the largest by population. Ontario rests between [[Manitoba]] and [[Québec]]. It is bordered by the American states of [[Michigan]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Minnesota]], in all cases a river or waterway border. It also borders on [[Nunavut]] to the north. It contains the southernmost point in Canada, Middle Island, which is further south than some points of [[California]]. The vast north of Ontario has many mineral deposits and large forests.

[[Toronto]] is the capital of Ontario, and the largest city in Canada. [[Ottawa]], the capital of Canada is located on the Ontario-Quebec border.
Ontario's current Premier is Dalton McGuinty, of the Liberal Party.
==Further reading==
* [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] (1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of notables who died by 1930
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Baskerville, Peter A. ''Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario.'' Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp. (first edition was ''Ontario: Image, Identity and Power,'' 2002). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=112191064889930 online review]
* Craig, Gerald. ''Upper Canada. The Formative Years 1784-1841'' (1968), the standard scholarly history of Ontario before 1841
* Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds. ''Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History.'' Dundurn Press, 1988. 406 pp.
* Halpern, Monda. ''And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900-1970.'' (2001). 234 pp.
* Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds. ''Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives.'' (1975). . 604 pp.
* Kilbourn, William.; ''The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99227317 online edition]
* Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. ''Province of Ontario: A History'' (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
* Mays, John Bentley. ''Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario.'' (2002). 418 pp.
* Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. ''Ontario since Confederation: A Reader'' (2000).
* Moss, Mark. ''Manliness and Militarism: Educating Young Boys in Ontario for War.'' (2001). 216 pp.
* Noël, Françoise. ''Family Life and Sociability in Upper and Lower Canada, 1780-1870.'' (2003) 384pp
* Noël, Françoise. ''Family and Community Life in Northeastern Ontario: The Interwar Years'' (2009)
* Noel, S. J. R. ''Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791-1896.'' (1990).
* Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. ''A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99258086 online edition]
* Parr, Joy, ed. ''A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980.'' (1996). 335 pp.
* Rawlings-Way, Charles, and Natalie Karneef. ''Toronto'' (2007) , guide book
* Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds. ''Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations.'' Dundurn, 1994. 448 pp.
* Schull, Joseph. ''Ontario since 1867'' (1978), narrative history
* White, Graham, ed. ''The Government and Politics of Ontario.'' 5th ed. (1997). 458 pp. university textbook
* White, Randall. ''Ontario since 1985.'' Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.
====notes====
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.ontariotravel.net/ Ontario Tourism]

[[Category:Canadian Provinces]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Ontario

2009-12-30T20:23:22Z

Levitican: not the case any more

'''Ontario''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] province, the third largest province by size, and the largest by population. Ontario rests between [[Manitoba]] and [[Québec]]. It is bordered by the American states of [[Michigan]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Minnesota]]. It also borders on Hudson Bay to the north. It contains the southernmost point in Canada, Middle Island, which is further south than some points of [[California]]. The vast north of Ontario has many mineral deposits and large forests.

[[Toronto]] is the capital of Ontario, and the largest city in Canada. [[Ottawa]], the capital of Canada is located on the Ontario-Quebec border.
Ontario's current Premier is Dalton McGuinty, of the Liberal Party.
==Further reading==
* [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] (1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of notables who died by 1930
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Baskerville, Peter A. ''Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario.'' Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp. (first edition was ''Ontario: Image, Identity and Power,'' 2002). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=112191064889930 online review]
* Craig, Gerald. ''Upper Canada. The Formative Years 1784-1841'' (1968), the standard scholarly history of Ontario before 1841
* Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds. ''Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History.'' Dundurn Press, 1988. 406 pp.
* Halpern, Monda. ''And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900-1970.'' (2001). 234 pp.
* Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds. ''Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives.'' (1975). . 604 pp.
* Kilbourn, William.; ''The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99227317 online edition]
* Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. ''Province of Ontario: A History'' (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
* Mays, John Bentley. ''Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario.'' (2002). 418 pp.
* Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. ''Ontario since Confederation: A Reader'' (2000).
* Moss, Mark. ''Manliness and Militarism: Educating Young Boys in Ontario for War.'' (2001). 216 pp.
* Noël, Françoise. ''Family Life and Sociability in Upper and Lower Canada, 1780-1870.'' (2003) 384pp
* Noël, Françoise. ''Family and Community Life in Northeastern Ontario: The Interwar Years'' (2009)
* Noel, S. J. R. ''Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791-1896.'' (1990).
* Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. ''A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99258086 online edition]
* Parr, Joy, ed. ''A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980.'' (1996). 335 pp.
* Rawlings-Way, Charles, and Natalie Karneef. ''Toronto'' (2007) , guide book
* Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds. ''Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations.'' Dundurn, 1994. 448 pp.
* Schull, Joseph. ''Ontario since 1867'' (1978), narrative history
* White, Graham, ed. ''The Government and Politics of Ontario.'' 5th ed. (1997). 458 pp. university textbook
* White, Randall. ''Ontario since 1985.'' Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.
====notes====
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://www.ontariotravel.net/ Ontario Tourism]

[[Category:Canadian Provinces]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Atomic bomb

2009-12-29T21:41:59Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Abomb.jpg|right|200px]]

The '''atomic bomb''' was the name used in the 1940s for the first of what are now called '''nuclear weapons.''' The USA developed it during [[World War II]] partially out of fear that the Germans and Japanese might be working on such a weapon (as in fact they were, although they did not get very far with their project.) This development represented the peak of [[Technological Development|technology]] in World War II. Several other countries now also have atomic bombs which were derived from American technology.

The secret wartime project that developed the bomb was called by the code name ''the Manhattan project.'' Much of the development took place at Los Alamos, New Mexico. The laboratories built there for the Manhattan Project became what is today the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

The United States dropped two atomic bombs named [[Little Boy]] and [[Fat Man]] on the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] respectively, bringing the war between the US and Japan to a swift and decisive end. The morality of the use of the bombs is debated because of a fear of atomic technology, and because of the huge loss of civilian life (140,000 at Hiroshima, 70,000 at Nagasaki). U. S. officials have said that the cities as a whole were proper military targets (the Japanese 2nd Army was headquartered there), and that because the bombings ended the war so quickly, fewer Japanese civilians were killed than if the bombs had not been used. Starting a week in advance, the US dropped over five million of warning leaflets on Japanese cities, after the Hiroshima bombing, urging the Japanese to evacuate,<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/psources/ps_leaflets.html Leaflets Dropped On Cities In Japan]</ref><ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no3/article07.html</ref> but they did not.

Since the US used both of these nuclear weapons in 1945 no other country has used the atomic bomb in war. The bombs and subsequent surrender also prevented the annexation of Japan's northern islands by the Soviet Union <ref>http://www.afsc.org/newengland/pesp/DecisionToUseABomb.htm</ref><ref>http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20050902-atom-bomb-hiroshima-nagasaki-enola.shtml</ref> and deterred the Soviet Union from expansion in Europe.
The atomic bombs used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki were ''fission'' weapons, which detonate with a massive explosion due to the release of the binding energy within the nucleus of the atom. Specifically, neutrons in a rapid chain reaction split the nuclei of a heavy chemical element, such as plutonium or uranium, to cause the massive release of energy.

After [[World War II]], nuclear weapon research continued with the development of the [[fusion]] or [[thermonuclear weapon]]. Many tests of these weapons were conducted during the [[Cold War]], but most of these tests took place on remote Pacific islands that were US territories or in the upper atmosphere. These weapons massively exceeded the power of the [[fission]] bombs dropped on Japan. Simultaneously, and as a civilian spinoff from the military program, there were developments in the production of efficient [[nuclear energy]] for civilian electrical generation. The threat of the use of nuclear weapons was a major issue in the [[Cold War]]. Today, the thirty-year threat of the use of nuclear weapons to prevent international aggression have been credited by many with helping avoid another world war.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Weapons]]
[[Category:World War II]]

Mennonite

2009-12-29T21:35:17Z

Levitican: /* Disaster relief */

A '''Mennonite''' is an adherent to an [[Anabaptist]] movement begun in the 1500's by [[Menno Simons]]. They practice adult [[baptism]], [[pacifism]], simple living and have an emphasis on community. Mennonites reject the notion of [[sola scriptura]], believing instead that the Bible was inspired when it was written and therefore must be inspired when it is read.

Mennonites can be found in all parts of the globe, although they are chiefly to be found in [[North America]] (including Latin America), South America (Argentina) and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].

Some Old Order Mennonites have a simple way of living, wear traditional clothes and avoid modern technology. Other Mennonites use the same types of technology and wear the same types of clothes as other modern people.

==Amish and Mennonites==
The Amish and Mennonite churches share the same beliefs concerning baptism, non-resistance, and basic Bible doctrines. They differ in matters of dress, technology, language, form of worship, and interpretation of the Bible. <ref>http://www.800padutch.com/amishhistory.shtml Lancaster PA & the Amish Country website</ref>

==Disaster relief==

Mennonites are strongly involved with disaster relief, particularly through the [[Mennonite Central Committee]] <ref>http://mcc.org/ Mennonite Central Committee</ref> and [[Mennonite Disaster Services]]. <ref>http://www.mds.mennonite.net/ Mennonite Disaster Service Website</ref> They also distribute [[Fair Trade]] goods through Ten Thousand Villages shops.

== Separation and distinct beliefs ==

The Old order Mennonites choose to shun themselves from the outside mainly becuase they believe the technology that we use has been created by the devil and it is pure evil although there have been times when these groups have used technology such as when there is an emergency they will phone for help. Some of these communities also do not meet in churches rather in homes.
==References==

<references/>

==External Links==
*http://www.mennoniteusa.org/ Mennonite Church USA
[[Category:Christianity]]

London

2009-12-29T21:30:19Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Tower bridge London.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Tower Bridge.]]
'''London''' is the capital of [[England]] and the [[United Kingdom]] and is the second largest city in [[Europe]] after [[Moscow]]. It includes both the [[City of London]] (the Square Mile) and [[Greater London]]. London will be the host city of the 2012 [[Olympic Games]], having previously hosted the games in 1908 and 1948. It will become the only city to host the games three times.

==History==

Archaeologists have found evidence that the area that would become London had been populated since the [[Ice Age]], the broad Thames Valley with its shallow river, lush meadows and broad-leafed woodlands providing an ideal location in which early farmers settled.

[[Julius Caesar]] reported in 54 B.C. that, when passing through the area to engage [[Cassivellaunus]] in battle, the area was home to many settlements, and in A.D. 43 the Roman invasion force under [[Claudius]] estimated that there were around 5000 inhabitants. The first Roman settlement, called Londinium, was founded in A.D. 50, but was razed to the ground by [[Boudicca]] in A.D. 60. The Roman's second settlement on the site flourished, however, becoming a key port and centre for trade and commerce. By A.D. 100, its population had reached around 45,000 and it replaced Camulodunum (modern day [[Colchester]]) as the capital.
[[Image:Westminster Cathedral.jpg|thumb|Westminster Abbey.]]
As the Roman occupation began to draw to a close in the 5th century, the Roman population fell untill by 410 it was abandoned completely. The [[Angle]]s, [[Saxon]]s and [[Jute]]s were quick to take advantage of the now undefended Britain, and the Saxons won their first major victory in [[Kent]] in 457, giving them control over Londinium and the surrounding region. Renamed Lundenwic, the settlement once again became a thriving population centre and by 600 had become the base of political power in Saxon-occupied Britain, which accounted for around half of the country. Lundenwic changed hands again in the 9th century, when feuding between Saxon leaders allowed the [[Dane]]s to take control.

In 871, the English king of [[Wessex]], Alfred, fought the Danes for control and regained most of the city, although the Danes retained the eastern-most section, which today corresponds to the East End.

In the [[Renaissance]], London became a centre of learning and culture, though the rise of [[Puritans|Puritanism]] in the late 16th century temporarily stifled much art and culture within the city centre. A lot of what Puritans deemed 'unacceptable' moved to the South Bank (the land lying on the south-side of the River Thames). [[Shakespeare's Globe theatre]] was located in this area.

During the period of the [[British Empire]], London was a key transshipment point for various cargoes, including tea, molasses, jute, and silver, indeed, anything traded in by the [[East India Company]].

During [[World War II]], London was heavily bombed by Germany's air force in [[the Blitz]] of 1940-41 and in 1944-45 was attacked by [[V-1]] 'flying bombs' and [[V-2]] missiles.

==Government of London==
London is governed by the Mayor of London (currently [[Boris Johnson]]), a post not to be confused with that of Lord Mayor of London, which is a largely ceremonial role relating solely to the small [[City of London]] district. The mayor's executive is subject to scrutiny by the [[Greater London Assembly]]<ref>http://www.london.gov.uk/</ref>. Most matters relating to local government - local planning control, housing, education, libraries and arts, refuse collection, etc. - are controlled by London's 33 local authorities: 32 London Boroughs, and the [[City of London]] Corporation<ref>http://www.londoncouncils.gov.uk/doc.asp?doc=8788&cat=989</ref>.

==Popular Perception==
Although London is frequently depicted in the American media as a quaint and historic city perpetually shrouded in fog, the reality is that London is a modern city at the cutting edge of developments in [[architecture]], transport, commerce, industry and entertainment, and fog is a rare occurrence. In fact, London is considered by many to be the financial capital of the world as well as the theater capital of the world, and one of the world's premier cities. <ref>{{cite web | last = Z/Yen Limited | title = The Competitive Position of London as a Global Financial Centre | publisher = CityOfLondon.gov.uk | date = November 2005 | url = http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/131B4294-698B-4FAF-9758-080CCE86A36C/0/BC_RS_compposition_FR.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-09-17}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/citymap.html The World According to GaWC], GaWC, [[Loughborough University]]</ref>.

Notable landmarks include the [[Houses of Parliament]], The [[London Eye]], [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]. The [[London Underground]] (London's subway system, also known as the Tube) is the oldest in the world.

==See Also==
*[[London England Temple]]
*[[Art cities]]
*[[Westminster|City of Westminster]]
*[[City of London]]
*[[Greater London]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ukguide.org/london/museum.html London Museum Guide]
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/ The British Museum]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:British History]]

Cambridge

2009-12-29T21:29:34Z

Levitican:

Richard Feynman

2009-12-29T21:26:41Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Htdeyt56.png|right|thumb]]
'''Richard Feynman''' (1918-1988) was a leading American [[physicist]] and educator based at California Institute of Technology. He played a major role in shaping modern quantum physics, computer design, and nanotechnology. He attracted a following for his college lectures on physics, which he published, and for his iconoclastic personality. He popularized physics with many short essays and talks, often talking about the pranks he loved to play.

He credits his education in reading an encyclopedia when he was young, at the insistence of his father.<ref>Review of ''Classic Feynman: All the Adventures of a Curious Character, by R.P. Feynman'' by Robert Matthews [http://jnm.snmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/47/8/1391.pdf]</ref> After studying at [[M.I.T.]] and [[Princeton University]], he assisted in the development of the [[atomic bomb]] at [[Los Alamos]].

Feynman's major contribution was to [[quantum electrodynamics]]. He introduced the diagrams, now called [[Feynman diagrams]], which are used to describe the behavior of systems of interacting particles. He was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1965. He worked on the problem from 1939 to 1947, confronting two puzzles that were the source of the difficulties with quantum electrodynamical theories. The first was an infinite energy of interaction of the electron with itself. And this difficulty existed even in the classical theory. The other difficulty came from some infinites which had to do with the infinite numbers of degrees of freedom in the field. His solution, while still an undergraduate, was that electrons cannot act on themselves, they can only act on other electrons. That was not quite right, but as a graduate student, with help from his mentor, Princeton Professor John Wheeler, he did figure it out.<ref> see [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-lecture.html "The Development of the Space-Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics"], his Nobel Prize Lecture, 1965</ref>

==Inquiring mind==
Feynman was famed for his uncanny ability to cut to the heart of a problem with novel approaches. Feynman liked to tell a story about how when he was a little kid, he asked his father, "Why do things fall?" As an adult, he praised his father for answering, "Nobody knows why things fall. It's a deep mystery, and the smartest people in the world don't know the basic reason for it." Contrast that with the average person's off-the-cuff answer, "Oh, it's because of gravity." Feynman liked his father's answer, because his father realized that simply giving a name to something didn't mean that you understood it. <ref>Lectures in Physics: The Motion of Falling Objects. Lectures on Physics is based on the series by Benjamin Crowell, "Light and Matter". (This is a secondary source.) [http://www.vias.org/physics/bk1_05_01.html]</ref>

This approach to problem solving was utterly at odds with the culture at NASA during the 1980s.<ref>"... his independent intellect and direct methods were at odds with the commission’s formal approach." [http://duartes.org/gustavo/blog/post/richard-feynman-challenger-disaster-software-engineering Richard Feynman, the Challenger Disaster, and Software Engineering] </ref>
NASA had decided that the space shuttle ought to be so reliable that each mission had only a 1 in 100,000 chance of failure. They fudged safety figures for parts such as the infamous O-rings whose failure at unusually low launch temperatures destroyed [[Space Shuttle Challenger]].

==Manhatten Project==

Feynman worked on the Manhatten Project that developed the atomic bomb, assigned to the nuclear engineering section, designing some of the water shielding that protected the early reactors.

==Challenger investigation==

He had a leading role in the investigation of the crash of the [[space shuttle]] Challenger <ref>Feynman ''What Do You Care What Other People Think?: Further Adventures of a Curious Character'' [http://www.amazon.com/What-Care-Other-People-Think/dp/0553347845]</ref>).

Feynman cut through the red tape and figured out what caused the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger disaster]].
*I took this stuff that I got out of your seal and I put it in ice water, and I discovered that when you put some pressure on it for a while and then undo it, it doesn't stretch back. It stays the same dimension. In other words, for a few seconds at least and more seconds than that, there is no resilience in this particular material when it is at a temperature of 32 degrees.
His style of investigating with his own direct methods rather than following the commission schedule put him at odds with Rogers, who once commented, "Feynman is becoming a real pain." During a televised hearing, Feynman famously demonstrated how the O-rings became less resilient and subject to seal failures at ice-cold temperatures by immersing a sample of the material in a glass of ice water.<ref name=NYT_Feynman>{{cite web| url = http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/09/21/reviews/feynman-obit.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |title = Richard Feynman Dead at 69; Leading Theoretical Physicist|accessdate = 2007-01-28|author = Gleick, James|date = 1988-02-17|work = New York Times}}</ref>

Feynman was so critical of flaws in NASA's "safety culture" that he threatened to remove his name from the report unless it included his personal observations on the reliability of the shuttle. He argued that the estimates of reliability offered by [[NASA]] management were wildly unrealistic, differing as much as a thousandfold from the estimates of working engineers. "For a successful technology," he concluded, "reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."<ref name = appendixF>Feynman, Richard P. (1986) http://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appf.htm Appendix F - Personal Observations on Reliability of Shuttle]</ref>
*NASA officials argue that ... since the Shuttle is a manned vehicle "the probability of mission success is necessarily very close to 1.0." It is not very clear what this phrase means. Does it mean it is close to 1 or that it ought to be close to 1?"

*In fact, previous NASA experience had shown, on occasion, just such difficulties, near accidents, and accidents, all giving warning that the probability of flight failure was not so very small.<ref> [http://www.ralentz.com/old/space/feynman-report.html Feynman's Appendix to the Rogers Commission Report on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident ]</ref>

==Books==
*''Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!'' - his personal and academic life up to the 1960s
*''What Do You Care What Other People Think?'' - half the book is about the Challenger disaster
*''QED- A accessible explanation of quantum electrodynamics written for a layman.
*''The meaning of it all- A book of philosophy.
* ''The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Pleasure-Finding-Things-Out-Richard/dp/0738203491/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243051720&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*
[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-lecture.html "The Development of the Space-Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics"], his Nobel Prize Lecture, 1965

==Notes==

<References/>

==External links==

[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Feynman.html Biography]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Feynman, Richard}}

[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
[[Category:Physicists]]

Oxford

2009-12-29T21:13:01Z

Levitican: /* Sport */

[[Image:Bridge of Sighs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Bridge of Sighs, Oxford ''(Photograph by Tom Murphy VII)'']]
'''Oxford''' is a city and the county town of Oxfordshire in [[England]]. Despite a population of a little over 150,000 it includes two Universities and is renowned in the arts and sciences today and historically.

==Geography==

The city is built where the river Cherwell runs into the [[River Thames]] (known as the Isis in Oxford, short for the original Thamesis). The historical centre of the city is orientated around the University of Oxford and its constituent colleges. The city then spreads eastwards across the River Cherwell where more modern residential buildings dominate.

Suburbs of Oxford include Headington (location of [[Oxford Brookes University]]), Cowley (location of the BMW motor works), Iffley, Kennington, Osney, Hinksey, Jericho.

==University==
The University was organised there soon after 1167, perhaps as a result of a migration of students from [[Paris]]. The first colleges were founded in the thirteenth century (University, 1249; Balliol, 1263 and Merton, 1264) and Oxford rose to equal status with the great medieval universities.

Numbering among its scholars the philosopher and scientist [[Roger Bacon]], and [[Sir Thomas More]]. The esteemed writer [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] was an Oxford professor.

The city became a centre of [[Royalism]] in the seventeenth century, becoming the Royalist capital during the English Civil War when King Charles I set up court there. Oxford declined during the eighteen century but was revived in the 1800's, particularly as a result of a renaissance in scientific thought. The University includes the [[Bodleian Library]], the largest university library in the country and second in size overall nationally to the British Library.

==Sport==
In common with most of the [[United Kingdom]], [[soccer]] is the dominant sport in Oxford, most notably the professional club [[Oxford United]].

Other notable clubs include the [[rugby league]] club, [[Oxford Cavaliers]] and the speedway team.

Perhaps the most famous sporting event associated with Oxford, however, is the University Boat race, which has taken place every year for over 100 years, normally in March, between the [[University of Oxford]] (the "Dark Blues") and the [[University of Cambridge]] (the "Light Blues"). It is a rowing race for "eights" and takes place on the [[River Thames]] in [[London]]. The boat race is an occasion for students and alumni of each of the two famous universities to cheer on their team, and there have been many incidents during the race including several occasions when one of the boats has sunk. Oxford has won more races than Cambridge. Pressure to have a 'womens' Boat Race has been resisted on the grounds of tradition. Women are currently not permitted to represent either university at rowing.

==History==
Oxford was a base for Royalist forces ([[Cavaliers]] in the [[English Civil War]]), with King Charles I setting up his court in Christ Church.

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Oxford

2009-12-29T21:10:50Z

Levitican: /* Sport */

[[Image:Bridge of Sighs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Bridge of Sighs, Oxford ''(Photograph by Tom Murphy VII)'']]
'''Oxford''' is a city and the county town of Oxfordshire in [[England]]. Despite a population of a little over 150,000 it includes two Universities and is renowned in the arts and sciences today and historically.

==Geography==

The city is built where the river Cherwell runs into the [[River Thames]] (known as the Isis in Oxford, short for the original Thamesis). The historical centre of the city is orientated around the University of Oxford and its constituent colleges. The city then spreads eastwards across the River Cherwell where more modern residential buildings dominate.

Suburbs of Oxford include Headington (location of [[Oxford Brookes University]]), Cowley (location of the BMW motor works), Iffley, Kennington, Osney, Hinksey, Jericho.

==University==
The University was organised there soon after 1167, perhaps as a result of a migration of students from [[Paris]]. The first colleges were founded in the thirteenth century (University, 1249; Balliol, 1263 and Merton, 1264) and Oxford rose to equal status with the great medieval universities.

Numbering among its scholars the philosopher and scientist [[Roger Bacon]], and [[Sir Thomas More]]. The esteemed writer [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] was an Oxford professor.

The city became a centre of [[Royalism]] in the seventeenth century, becoming the Royalist capital during the English Civil War when King Charles I set up court there. Oxford declined during the eighteen century but was revived in the 1800's, particularly as a result of a renaissance in scientific thought. The University includes the [[Bodleian Library]], the largest university library in the country and second in size overall nationally to the British Library.

==Sport==
In common with most of the [[United Kingdom]], [[soccer]] is the dominant sport in Oxford, most notably the professional club [[Oxford United]].

Other notable clubs include the [[rugby league]] club, [[Oxford Cavaliers]] and the speedway team.

Perhaps the most famous sporting event associated with Oxford, however, is the University Boat race, which has taken place every year for over 100 years, normally in March, between the [[University of Oxford]] (the "Dark Blues") and the [[University of Cambridge]] (the "Light Blues"). It is a rowing race for "eights" and takes place on the [[River Thames]] in [[London]]. The boat race is an occasion for students and alumni of each of the two famous universities to cheer on their team, and there have been many incidents during the race including several occasions when one of the boats has sunk. Oxford has won more races than Cambridge.

==History==
Oxford was a base for Royalist forces ([[Cavaliers]] in the [[English Civil War]]), with King Charles I setting up his court in Christ Church.

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Public School (English)

2009-12-29T21:09:37Z

Levitican:

Unlike Public Schools in [[America]], in [[Britain]], a [[public school]] is a school that is not run by the Government. Before a child can attend, the parents must pay a fee (set by the school) and often the child must pass an exam to show that he or she is intelligent enough to enter. Public schools in England usually have higher standards that State schools (the equivalent of American Public schools), and pupils usually perform better in exams. However, these schools can also be called Private schools.

=Famous English Public Schools=
*[[Ampleforth]] - the premier [[Roman Catholic]] public school in England.
*Cheltenham Ladies' College - one of the two most prominent girls' public schools.
*[[Eton College]] - 'the' school for much of the British aristocracy. Attended by [[David Cameron]].
*[[Gordonstoun]]
*[[Harrow School]] - attended by [[Winston Churchill]]
*[[Magdalen College Choir School]]
*[[Radley College]] - near [[Oxford]]
*Roedean - near [[Brighton]], a major girls' school
*[[Rugby School]] - the nineteenth-century model for the English public school tradition.
*[[Wellington College]] - has strong links to the Army
*[[Westminster School]] - highest Oxbridge acceptance rate
*[[Winchester College]] - the most scholarly of the main public schools.

=See also=
[[Eton College]]

[[Rugby School]]

[[Category:England]]

Canada

2009-12-29T21:07:12Z

Levitican: /* Defense */

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'''Canada''' is a [[country]] in [[North America]] which extends from the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and northward to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada is the largest country by total area in [[North America]] and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation, as well as the longest border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest.

Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>

==Etymology==
The name Canada originated in 1535 by [[Jacques Cartier]] is based on the Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village." <ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, Europeans began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867; the term "dominion" was new, and it seemed a better choice than "kingdom" (which might annoy the Americans). The name continued until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the legal name.

==Flag and anthem==
The Canadian national flag was officially adopted February 15, 1965; prior to that time and subsequent to Confederation in 1867, Canada used a variant of the Red Ensign, a British merchant flag, as its national flag. The Liberal government refused to hold a referendum on the subject; instead the public was invited to submit designs.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df3_e.cfm Birth of the Canadian Flag]</ref> The introduction of the new flag was not without controversy.

In a memo from Diefenbaker’s personal files he wrote:
<blockquote>The Pearson flag is a meaningless Flag. There is no recognition of history; no indication of the existence of French and English Canada; the partnership of the races; no acknowledgment of history. It is a flag without a past, without history, without honour and without pride.” (Source – I Stand for Canada: The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag ).<ref>[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/cultural/flag/national-flag-canada.html The Debate Over the Maple Leaf Flag]</ref></blockquote>

While the debate has been largely forgotten today, the Red Ensign can still be seen flying on some private homes and the debate does reemerge into the public domain occasionally. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070321.wxflag21/BNStory/National/ PM wants Red Ensign to fly at Vimy, sources say]</ref>

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada.

==Geography==
[[File:E-canada.jpg|thumb|450px|political map of Canada]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government.

*Area: 9.9 million sq. km. (3.8 million sq. mi.); second-largest country in the world.
*Cities: Capital--Ottawa (pop. 1.1 million). Other major cities--Toronto (5.1 million), Montreal (3.6 million), Vancouver (2.1 million), Calgary (1.1 million), Edmonton (1.0 million), Quebec City (0.7 million), Winnipeg (0.7 million), Hamilton (0.7 million).
*Terrain: Mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the southeast.
*Climate: Temperate to arctic.

==People==
*Population (2008 est.): 33.1 million.
*Ethnic groups: British/Irish 28%, French 23%, other European 15%, Asian/Arab/African 6%, indigenous Amerindian 2%, mixed background 26%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 43.6%, Protestant 29.2%, other Christian 4.3%, Muslim 2.0%, Jewish 1.1%, Buddhist 1.0%, Hindu 1.0% other 1.3%, none 16.5%.
*Languages: English (official) 57.8%, French (official) 22.1%, other 20.1% (including Chinese and aboriginal languages).
*Education: Literacy--99% of population aged 15 and over has at least a ninth-grade education.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--5.4/1,000. Life expectancy--77.7 yrs. male, 82.5 yrs. female.
*Work force (2008, 18.2 million): Goods-producing sector--25%, of which: manufacturing 15%; construction 6%; agriculture 2%; natural resources 2%; utilities 1%. Service-producing sector--75%, of which: trade 16%; health care and social assistance 11%; educational services 7%, accommodation and food services 7%; professional, scientific, and technical services 7%; finance 6%; public administration 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%; information, culture, and recreation 5%; other services 4%.

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A satellite image of Canada.]]

====Culture====
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British culture. Quebec maintains a French culture but has been largely cut off from Parisian trends for 250 years. Sine 1800 Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, television shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world <ref>.http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as an official language, New Brunswick both French and English, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitu and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognises French and English.

Canada tends to reflect slightly more liberal social policies than the neighboring states of the northern U.S. Two such examples are the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> and, in some regions, the decriminalization of medicinal [[marijuana]] and small amounts of other psychoactive substances.

===Sports===
see [[Canadian sports]]

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The next winter Olympics, to be held in 2010 will be held in Vancouver and Whistler.

====Cultural Style====
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures]</ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although their economy, society, and culture closely resembles the U.S., and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. Canada is usually contrasted as a "cultural mosaic" to the United States' "melting pot". Canadian and U.S. polls habitually confirm citizens of both countries view the relationship with each other in a highly positive light, and consider each other with a special respect afforded to common allies. <ref>http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/canadian-cultural-mosaic-american-melting-pot</ref>

====Education====
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kindergarten beginning at age 5 through grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and separate (e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

A source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, Canada scores +.967 and the U.S. +950.

====Religion====
For the total population, in 2001, 12.9 million (44%) were Roman Catholic, with 8.7 million Protestants (29%). 4.9 million (16% ) report no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics). Other religions of significance in Canada include 580,000 Muslims; 330,000 Jews; 300,000 Buddhists; 297,000 Hindus; and 278,000 Sikhs.<ref> See [http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm "Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)"]</ref>

Catholicism formerly dominated Quebec until the "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s, which has greatly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in Quebec, and its participation rates.

The proportion attending religious services on a regular basis has declined over the past 20 years. According to the General Social Survey (GSS), 21% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported they attended a religious service at least once a week in 2005, down from 30% in 1985.<ref> Colin Lindsay, "Canadians attend weekly religious services less than 20 years ago," [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-630-x/2008001/article/10650-eng.htm ''Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref> Between 1985 and 2004, the share of Canadians aged 15 and older reporting no religious affiliation increased by seven percentage points from 12% to 19%. 37% of Canadians who rarely attend formal services nevertheless regularly engage in personal religious practices. Of of those who had not attended any religious services over the previous year, 27% engaged in weekly religious practices on their own. Overall this group of adults who regularly engage in private religious practices, but infrequently or never attend religious services, represent, 21% of the adult population. This pattern was most prevalent among older Canadians.<ref> Warren Clark and Grant Schellenberg, "Who's religious?" [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2006001/9181-eng.htm '"Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref>

Civil liberties organizations, the media, and some members of Parliament occasionally criticized federal and provincial human rights commissions and tribunals for their application of hate speech restrictions included in federal and provincial human rights acts, claiming that the commissions and tribunals at times limited free speech and expression, and religious rights. The commissions are required by law to process all complaints they receive.

A complaint against the editor of ''Catholic Insight'', alleging the magazine promoted hatred against homosexuals,remained before the Canadian Human Rights Commission at the end of 2008. The complainant alleged that he was upholding Catholic teaching on homosexuality in the magazine.

In June 2008 members of the Ontario legislature voted unanimously to maintain the tradition of reading the Lord's Prayer in the provincial legislature and to add a rotation of prayers from other major religious traditions and a moment of silent reflection for atheists. The vote was prompted by a proposal by Ontario's premier in February 2008 to discontinue the religious observance.

==Government==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of senators appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governor General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The Governor General is, in the absence of the Queen, Canada's Head of State, and the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Forces]]. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, based on the British system.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occurred on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while Her Excellency [[Michaëlle Jean]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[minority government]].

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General--Michaëlle Jean
*Prime Minister--Stephen Harper
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Lawrence Cannon
*Ambassador to the United Nations--John McNee

===Politics===
On February 6, 2006, '''Stephen Harper,''' leader of the Conservative Party, became Canada's twenty-second prime minister, succeeding Liberal Party leader Paul Martin. A policy wonk from Alberta, Harper rose from the ranks of conservative political party staffers. As a Member of Parliament, he became Leader of the Opposition (2002-6). In 2003 he became head of the western-based Canadian Alliance. He was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party of Canada when it was created in 2003 through the merger of Harper's Canadian Alliance and Peter MacKay's Progressive Conservative Party. The January 23, 2006 election victory by the Conservative Party ended 12 years of Liberal Party rule that, in the end, was tainted by corruption and ethical failures, despite the economic progress Canada achieved while the Liberals were in power. In a subsequent federal election on October 14, 2008, the Conservatives won 38% of the vote and formed a second minority government with 143 seats in the House of Commons. The Liberals won 26% of the vote and 77 seats in the House of Commons. As the party with the second-largest number of seats, the Liberals form the "official opposition."

The Conservatives made unexpected gains in Quebec by winning ten seats in the January 2006 election, but failed to increase their number of seats in the province in the 2008 election. The separatist Bloc Quebecois (BQ) has a majority (49) of Quebec's 75 seats (the BQ runs candidates only in Quebec). The left-leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) now has 37 seats, and two independents also sit in Parliament.

===Policy===
Policy priorities of the Conservatives under Harper have remained fairly consistent since 2006: fighting the [[Recession of 2008]]; aiding the ailing [[Automobile]] industry; improving accountability and ethics in government; lowering taxes; fighting crime; reinvesting in defense; bolstering Canada's Arctic sovereignty; promoting national unity; and raising the profile of Canada's role abroad, through its combat mission in Afghanistan, contributions to stabilization in Haiti, and renewed partnership with Latin America. Harper has been friendly with the U.S., despite growing Canadian annoyance with restrictions on border crossings. Harper has been a strong supporter of [[NAFTA]], and works to increase Canada's oil exports to the U.S.

[[Quebec]], with 23% of the national population, its distinctive French-language ("francophone") culture, and is perceived by the western provinces as wielding undue influence on the Federal Government. Until Albertan Stephen Harper became prime minister in 2006, the western provinces had sometimes expressed concern that Ottawa did not fully attend to their oil interests. Ontario, believes that it pays out significantly more to the Federal Government than it gets back in revenues, while the Atlantic Provinces seek to assert greater control over fishing and mineral rights off their shores. The Federal Government ceded some power in a few areas of provincial jurisdiction, while seeking to strengthen the federal role in many other areas such as inter-provincial trade and the regulation of securities.

====National Unity====
Popular support for Quebec sovereignty appears to be on the wane, although pride in that province's unique cultural and linguistic identity remains very strong. Most Quebec voters seem to appreciate the economic benefits of remaining in the Canadian confederation and aim to advance their separate francophone identity within the confederation. In a provincial election held on December 8, 2008, provincial Liberal Leader Jean Charest won a majority government. The separatist Parti Quebecois placed second.

====Quebec Secession Movement====
There are separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. The only movement of real significance is in Quebec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

===Taxation===
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

====Public Health Care====
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==Defense==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defence.

The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force and the Reserve Force. The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defence spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective. They have also taken steps to estalish Canada's sovereignty over its arctic regions.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism & reconstruction operations, and another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

==Economy==
*GDP (2007): $1.266 trillion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2007): 2.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2007): $38,435.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, hydroelectric power, metals and minerals, fish, forests, wildlife, abundant fresh water.
*Agriculture: Products--wheat, livestock and meat, feed grains, oil seeds, dairy products, tobacco, fruits, vegetables.
*Industry: Types--motor vehicles and parts, machinery and equipment, aircraft and components, other diversified manufacturing, fish and forest products, processed and unprocessed minerals.
*Trade: U.S. merchandise exports to Canada (2007)--$248.9 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, industrial and electrical machinery, plastics, computers, chemicals, petroleum products and natural gas, and agricultural products. In 2007, 65% of Canada's imports came from the United States. U.S. merchandise imports from Canada (2007)--$313.1 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, crude petroleum and natural gas, forest products, agricultural products, metals, industrial machinery, and aircraft. In 2007, 76% of Canada's exports went to the U.S.
===Business===
Canada has invested heavily in high-tech, export-oriented businesses, achieving major success in:
* Aerospace: Canada’s global share of aerospace activity has tripled in the last 20 years, making Canada the world’s 5th largest aerospace producer.
* Ag-biotech: Canadian firms’ revenues exceed those of US agro-based companies and are more than double those of Japan and the UK.
* Agri-food: Canada is the world’s fourth-largest exporter of agricultural products.
* Automotive: Canada is among the Top 10 automotive countries and the 3rd largest exporter of automotive products after Japan and the U.S. Most of the output goes to the U.S. market.
* Biotechnology: Canada is a leader in biotechnology—one of the top five countries in the world.
* Plastics: Canada is the world’s fourth largest exporter of moulds and eighth largest exporter of plastics processing machinery.
* see also [[Canadian railways]]
[[File:O-bad-for-canada.jpg|thumb|300px|Leading Canadian newsmagazine evaluates Obama's threat to Canada, June 29, 2009]]

Canadians worry that Obama's economic policies will damage Canada's economy, especially [[cap and trade]], the Buy America rule in the 2009 stimulus, and environmental hostility to Canadian oil produced from oil sands.
===Energy===
Canada has vast natural resources and is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of energy. In 2005, Canada produced 19.1 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) of total energy, the fifth-largest amount in the world. Since 1980, Canada’s total energy production has increased by 86%, while its total energy consumption has increased by only 48% during that period. Almost all of Canada’s energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Canada/Background.html "Canada" (2009 report)] </ref>

In 2005, the largest source of energy consumption in Canada was oil (31%), followed by hydroelectricity (25%) and natural gas (24%). Both coal (12%) and nuclear (7%) constitute a smaller share of the country’s overall energy mix. From 1985-2005, Canada’s overall energy mix has remained relatively stable, though hydroelectricity has decreased from 31%to 25%, as oil drilling is more popular than dam building.

==History==
* see [[History of Canada]]

==Further Reading==
* '''see [[History of Canada]] for a more detailed bibliography.'''

* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. ''Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian Society: A Guide to the Literature.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 156 pp.
* Bickerton, James, and Alain Gagnon. ''Canadian Politics'' (2004) 584 pages, textbook
* Blore, Shawn. ''Frommer's Canada'' (2004) 828 pages travel guide
* Campbell, Robert Malcolm et al. ''The Real Worlds of Canadian Politics: Cases in Process and Policy,'' (2004) 342 pages
* Conrad, Margaret, and Alvin Finkel. ''Canada: A National History.'' (2003), college textbook.
* DK Publishing. ''Canada'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Hugh Thompson (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Canada-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789495619/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249580319&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2004) 1650 very good entries
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Stephen-Harper-Future-William-Johnson/dp/0771095546/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239348955&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Morton, Desmond. ''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)
* ''National Atlas of Canada'' (1st ed. 1906; 2nd ed. 1915; 3rd ed. 1957; 4th ed. 1974; 6th ed. 1999 is electronic)
* Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan. ''The Canadian Federal Election of 2006'' (2006)
* Pryke, Kenneth G. and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. ''Profiles of Canada.'' (2003). 3rd edition of textbook
* Toye, William, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature.'' (1983). 843 pp.
* Wells, Paul. ''Right Side Up: the Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism'' (2006)
* Westhues, Anne. '' Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives,'' 2003

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [http://cansim2.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-win/cnsmcgi.pgm?Lang=Eng&SP_Action=Main-Principal&SP_Mode=2 Statistics Canada current data]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces], military
* [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/3000140-eng.htm ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1983)] the major historical data source
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwDvF0NtgdU Canadian National Anthem]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNlTwaPQQH4&feature=related Canadian National Anthem (French)]
=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

===Political Advocacy Websites===
*[http://www.canadadivided.com/ Canada Divided]
*[http://www.projectalberta.com/ Project Alberta]
*[http://onthefencefilms.com/video/twowomen.html Two Women]
*[http://www.westcan.org/ Western Canada Concept]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

Wales

2009-12-29T20:58:56Z

Levitican: /* Sport */

[[Image:Flag of Wales.png|thumb|The Welsh flag]]'''Wales''' is a principality which is a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It occupies the peninsula of land between the [[Bristol Channel]] and the [[River Dee]], on the west side of southern [[Great Britain]]. [[Anglesey]], [[Holy Island]], and the bardic island of Bardsey are also part of Wales.

Althouh politically controlled by England for 800 years, throughout the centuries, a sense of national identity in Wales has manifested itself in a variety of ways: aspirations to statehood, a unique language, cultural distinctiveness, religious affiliation, sporting achievement, and, most recently, political devolution.[[File:Wales1.jpg|thumb|250px]]

===Geography===
Much of Wales is mountainous; the [[Cambrian Mountains]] run the length of the country, from [[Snowdon]]ia in the north. Several [[geological period]]s are named after the ancient Welsh tribes that lived in regions where strata characteristic of the period are to be found; the [[Ordovician]] (Ordovices), the [[Silurian]] (Silures), and the [[Cambrian]] period is named for Cambria, the [[Latin]] for Wales.
===Cities===
The largest city in Wales is [[Cardiff]], which was declared to be the capital city in 1955, against competition from [[Swansea]]. Other important locales include the ports of [[Holyhead]] and [[Milford Haven]]; the mining and industrial centres of Llanelli, Neath, Pontypridd, [[Rhondda]], Merthyr Tydfil and [[Wrexham]]; the ecclesiastical cities of [[St. Asaph]] and [[St. Davids]]; the resorts of Pwllheli, [[Llandudno]], Colwyn Bay, Rhyl and Prestatyn; the university towns of Bangor and [[Aberystwyth]]; and the villages of [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] (the longest place name in Britain) and [[Llanddewi Brefi]].
===Language===
see [[Welsh language]]

English is universally spoken in Wales - however, the ancestral Celtic language of [[Welsh Language|Welsh]] is still spoken as a first or second language by approximately a quarter of the population (In 2001, Apporximately 600,000 people claimed some knowledge of welsh). The long-term decline in Welsh-speakers has stabilised since the early 1990s owing to the introduction of compulsory Welsh language classes in schools.

The national emblems are the [[leek]] and the [[daffodil]]. The Welsh national day is March 1, [[Saint David]]'s day. The Welsh flag has a picture of a dragon, usually called Idris. The Welsh flag forms no part of the Union Flag as at the time the flag was first devised Wales was considered as part of the Kingdom of England.

==History==
===Medieval===
Wales emerged as a nation from the collapse of Romano-British Britannia following the invasions of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes from the fifth century AD onwards. What is now known as Wales was for a time known as 'North Wales', while [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] (in SW England) were 'West Wales' until their conquest. The Mercian king [[Offa]] (Mercia equates roughly to the English Midlands) created an substantial earthwork, [[Offa's Dyke]] running between the [[Irish Sea]] and the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary in the later eighth century to separate his kingdom from Welsh lands. The dyke broadly marks the Anglo-Welsh boundary to this day.

The [[Norman Conquest]] of England following 1066 gave rise to Norman attempts to occupy Wales; by the thirteenth century much of eastern and southern Wales were under Norman control in autonomous 'Marcher Lordships' owing loyalty to the English crown. What was left of independent Wales was not a unitary nation, but comprised a number of separate, often warring, principalities, and only late on, under English pressure, did these unite to acknowledge one 'Prince of Wales'. These princes were provided by the most powerful of the Welsh states, Gwynedd, in the mountainous NW of the country. Most notable was [[Llewelyn the Great]] (1173-1240; who unified the country, and gave it a code of laws).
===English conquest===
His grandson, [[Llewelyn ap Gruffydd]], was unable to resist a powerful invasion mounted by the English king [[Edward I]], and his death in battle in 1282 and the later execution of his brother Daffyd (executed for treason due to his betrayal of the English king, with whom he had previously been allied) marked the extinction of independent Wales.

A number of huge fortifications were built by Edward to pacify the country, notably that of [[Caernafon Castle]], and maintained by his successors. These castles wer known as the ''Iron Ring''.

A major revolt against English rule was mounted in the early fifteenth century led by [[Owain Glyndwr]], a member of the prosperous Welsh gentry who became embittered against the local English magnates for reasons which are uncertain, but probably owe as much to personal disputes as national sentiment. Glyndwr's rebellion achieved astonishing success, for a while. Beginning on Good Friday 1401, the rebels came to control much of the countryside and many Welsh towns, even advancing to [[Worcester]] in England. Glyndwr, who had been proclaimed Prince of Wales, held two parliaments at Machynlleth in mid Wales, and allied himself with the Duke of Northumberland and the Earl of Mortimer in a plan to dismember the English kingdom once Henry IV had been conclusively defeated. He made an alliance with [[France]], and created two (short-lived) universities, one each in north and South Wales. However, by 1408 the tide had turned. His Northumbrian allies had been defeated and English forces retook many Welsh towns. The rebels resorted to guerilla warfare but by 1410 Glyndwr was a fugitive and he disappears from history, his fate a mystery.

Much as Owain Glyndwr emerged from the ranks of the Welsh gentry, so too did Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who in 1485, as a somewhat tendentious claimant to the throne of England through the Lancastrian line, led an army of disaffected English magnates to victory over the Yorkist king [[Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]]. Henry became King [[Henry VII]] and the progenitor of the [[Tudor dynasty]], the first Welsh king of England. Henry's son, [[Henry VIII]], completed the absorption of Wales into England in 1536, when the remaining parts of Wales were formally annexed to England and 'shired' - that is, divided into counties (shires) with sheriffs and lords lieutenant, rather than being ruled as marcher lordships.

===Schools===
“Ragged schools” were schools for children in rags, that is for poor and destitute children. They were established in the newly industrialized towns of Wales in the mid-Victorian period, drawing widespread support from all levels of society and from all religious denominations. Promoters of ragged schools combined evangelical and charitable motives in an effort to rescue children from lives of immorality and crime, and, despite a lack of qualified teachers, they did provide an education for children denied opportunities because of poverty. The schools provided instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and often some industrial training, and the movement achieved remarkable results before declining with the gradual introduction of compulsory free elementary schooling from 1870 onward.<ref> Russell Grigg, "The Origins and Growth of Ragged Schools in Wales, 1847-c.1900," ''History of Education'' 2002 31(3): 227-243</ref>
===Soccer===
Soccer became enormously popular in northeast Wales during 1870-90, a development that resembled the growth of the sport in England and reflected aspects of Welsh national identity. During this period, soccer transformed from an informal game enjoyed mostly by schoolchildren into a regulated, professional, and spectator-friendly sport. The growing popularity and interclass participation was seen as an agent of social cohesion and Victorian values of health, though frequent outbreaks of fighting during matches was frowned on by some religious groups. Soccer maintained its popularity in northeast Wales, but industrial decline generally meant that local teams could not as easily draw the same crowds and attract talented players as those in the English Midlands.<ref> Martin Johnes, and Ian Garland, "'The New Craze': Football and Society in North-east Wales, c. 1870-90," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 278-304</ref> Soccer was easily the most popular sport in Wales throughout the whole of the twentieth century.

===Religion===
Wales is known for the strength of Nonconformist denominations, especially the Methodists. Nonconformist social and political activism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was based more on moral and economic concerns than theological principles. Public controversy over publication of R. J. Campbell's ''The New Theology'' in 1907 sparked the development of a theology-based activism that strengthened Nonconformist ties with the radical labor movement and Socialism. It was similar to the [[Social Gospel]] in the United States, but more radical and more inclined toward socialism as promoted by the [[Labour Party]].<ref> Robert Pope, "From New Theology to Social Gospel," ''Welsh Journal of Religious History'' 2007 2: 87-104, </ref>

The major Nonconformist groups were the Baptists, Congregationalists, and three varieties of Methodists (the Calvinistic, Primitive, and Wesleyan). Each combined communal (largely involuntary involvement) and associational (voluntary involvement) aspects among their members and adherents. The membership declined during the early 20th century. To a large degree that decline is attributable to each church body becoming more associational, bureaucratic, and denominational. Connections to local communities broke down and promoted secularization although revivalism occurred to roll back the secularization process on occasion.<ref>Peter Yalden, "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850-1930," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2004 55(2): 293-324 </ref>
====Revival of 1904-5====
From 1904 to 1905 Wales experienced a religious revival with a strong tone of what became [[Pentecostalism]]. It was most famously associated with Evan Roberts (1878-1951), but the movement was broad based with many leaders. Begun as an effort to kindle nondenominational, nonsectarian spirituality, the Welsh revival of 1904-05 coincided with the rise of the labor movement, socialism, and a general disaffection with religion among the working class and youths. While Roberts heavily emphasized the need for individual prayer in his revival, he also engaged in considerable preaching and, like other evangelists, acted spontaneously. Roberts's mental health was a topic of discussion among his followers and detractors at the time of the revival, a debate that has continued ever since. Evidence indicates he was not particularly stable prior to the revival, and that during the revival he claimed to possess various spiritual and supernatural powers. Not merely a Welsh phenomenon, the movement also spread to other countries. The revival produced some lasting effects including the establishment of Pentecostalism in Wales. Revivalists at firct condemned all activities not related to religion, prayer, and the service of God, it temporarily crippled the growing sport of rugby, itself an increasingly powerful element of Welsh identity. Within months, however, extremist views waned and innocuous pastimes and sport returned to Welsh daily life. International success for Wales in rugby matches in 1905 restored the sport's earlier standing and reinforced its place in the self-image of modern Wales. <ref> Robert Pope, "Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904-1905," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2006 57(3): 515-534</ref>

The revival lasted less than a year, but in that period 100,000 converts were made. The revival spread from south Wales to north Wales, then to Britain, and eventually to Los Angeles, California, where [[Pentecostalism]] flourished.<ref> Edward J. Gitre, "The 1904-05 Welsh Revival: Modernization, Technologies, and Techniques of the Self," ''Church History'' 2004 73(4): 792-827</ref>

==Prince of Wales==
[[Charles]], eldest son of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the current Prince of Wales, a title normally bestowed on the first-born son of the sovereign but implying no particular monarchical role in the Principality.

Even today in modern Wales, vestiges of anti-English sentiment remain strong in some parts; the Welsh Nationalist Party, [[Plaid Cymru]] typically returns several members to the British [[Parliament]], and with the unaffiliated Welsh terrorist group the [[Meibion Glyndwr]], ("the Sons of Glendower") conducting a sporadic campaign of arson against English-owned holiday homes in recent years.<ref>http://www.welshdragon.net/resources/Articles/arson.shtml</ref>

== Government ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Wales|Secretary of State]] || [[Peter Hain]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] || [[Rhodri Morgan]] AM
|}

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.

=== Devolution ===

A [[National Assembly for Wales]] as established under the ''Government of Wales Act of 1998''. The assembly consists of 60 ''Assembly Members'' or ''AM''s. The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the executive arm who have been delegated much of the powers of the Assembly.
== Industry ==

South Wales was formerly heavily industrialised, with [[coal]] mining and [[steel]]working, whereas North Wales is a pastoral area used mainly for [[sheep]]farming.

[[Coal]] mining in South Wales has undergone a recent resurgence due to the discovery of new energy resources, particularly in the Crumlin area.

== Sport ==

[[Soccer]] enjoys major popularity, with [[rugby union]] being particularly popular in South Wales. In addition, as is common with many universities, both Cardiff and Aberystwyth Universities have their own American Football teams (the Cardiff Cobras and the Tarannau Aberystwyth), and there are other American Football teams in Wales<ref>http://www.southwaleswarriors.co.uk/cgi-bin/swwarriors/baseweb2.exe?vid=82057&src=794</ref> (indeed there are many other American Football teams in the whole of the UK<ref>http://www.bafa.org.uk/</ref>). Ice hockey is also extremely popular; major teams include the Cardiff Devils.

==See also==
* [[David Lloyd George]], powerful prime minister in World War I
* [[Welsh language]]

==Further reading==
* Davies, John. ''A History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Wales-John-Davies/dp/0140284753/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Chris. '''The Labyrinth of Flames': Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil'' (1993). 237 pp.
* Fagge, Roger. ''Power, Culture and Conflict in the Coalfields: West Virginia and South Wales, 1900-1922'' (1996). 290 pp.
* Francis, Hywel and Smith, David. ''The Fed: A History of the South Wales Miners in the Twentieth Century'' (1980). 530 pp.
* Gilbert, David. ''Class, Community, and Collective Action: Social Change in Two British Coalfields, 1850-1926'' (1992). 293 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''A Concise History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Wales-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521530717/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jenkins, Philip. ''A History of Modern Wales, 1536-1990'' (1992). 451 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. and Smith, J. Beverley, eds. ''Politics and Society in Wales, 1840-1922'' (1988). 201 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''The Foundations of Modern Wales: Wales, 1642-1780'' (1988). 490 pp.
* Jones, J. Barry, and Denis Balsom, eds. ''The Road to the National Assembly of Wales'' (2000)
* Jones, Gareth Elwyn. ''Modern Wales: A Concise History, c. 1485-1979'' (1985). 364 pp.
* Jones, J. Gwynfor. ''Early Modern Wales, c. 1525-1640'' (1994).
* Jones, J. Gwynfor, ed. ''Class, Community, and Culture in Tudor Wales'' (1989). 300 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Wales in British Politics: 1868-1922'' (1963)
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Modern Wales: Politics, Places, and People'' (1995). 492 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (History of Wales) (Vol 6)'' (1981)
* Neil Evans, "'When Men and Mountains Meet': Historians' Explanations of the History of Wales, 1890-1970," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 222-251
** The the thesis advanced by Owen Morgan Edwards c. 1900 stressed geographical determinism, and was similar to contemporary findings in the United States by [[Frederick Jackson Turner]]. TheEdwards model was augmented and revised by subsequent generations of historians, most notably by John Lloyd and William Stubbs in their work on preconquest Wales, which considered questions of race and political organization. In later decades, Edward A. Lewis and William Rees followed with similar approaches to modern Welsh social and economic history, while A. H. Dodd and Glanmor Williams focused on Welsh industrialization.
* Owen, Trefor. ''Customs and Traditions of Wales'' (1991) 108pp
* Pope, Robert, ed. ''Religion and National Identity: Wales and Scotland c. 1700-2000'' (2001)
* Smith, Dai. ''Aneurin Bevan and the World of South Wales.'' (1993). 359 pp. 20c coal mining and politics
* Stephens, Meic, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales.'' (1986). 682 pp.
* Wallace, Ryland. ''Organise! Organise! Organise! A Study of Reform Agitations in Wales, 1840-1886'' (1991). 267 pp.
* Weisser, Henry. ''Wales: An Illustrated History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wales-Illustrated-History-Hippocrene-Histories/dp/0781809363/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Glanmor. ''The History of Wales, Vol. 3: Recovery, Reorientation, and Reformation: Wales, c. 1415-1642'' (1987). 528 pp.

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wales| ]]
[[Category:British History]]

Wales

2009-12-29T20:57:50Z

Levitican: /* Soccer */

[[Image:Flag of Wales.png|thumb|The Welsh flag]]'''Wales''' is a principality which is a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It occupies the peninsula of land between the [[Bristol Channel]] and the [[River Dee]], on the west side of southern [[Great Britain]]. [[Anglesey]], [[Holy Island]], and the bardic island of Bardsey are also part of Wales.

Althouh politically controlled by England for 800 years, throughout the centuries, a sense of national identity in Wales has manifested itself in a variety of ways: aspirations to statehood, a unique language, cultural distinctiveness, religious affiliation, sporting achievement, and, most recently, political devolution.[[File:Wales1.jpg|thumb|250px]]

===Geography===
Much of Wales is mountainous; the [[Cambrian Mountains]] run the length of the country, from [[Snowdon]]ia in the north. Several [[geological period]]s are named after the ancient Welsh tribes that lived in regions where strata characteristic of the period are to be found; the [[Ordovician]] (Ordovices), the [[Silurian]] (Silures), and the [[Cambrian]] period is named for Cambria, the [[Latin]] for Wales.
===Cities===
The largest city in Wales is [[Cardiff]], which was declared to be the capital city in 1955, against competition from [[Swansea]]. Other important locales include the ports of [[Holyhead]] and [[Milford Haven]]; the mining and industrial centres of Llanelli, Neath, Pontypridd, [[Rhondda]], Merthyr Tydfil and [[Wrexham]]; the ecclesiastical cities of [[St. Asaph]] and [[St. Davids]]; the resorts of Pwllheli, [[Llandudno]], Colwyn Bay, Rhyl and Prestatyn; the university towns of Bangor and [[Aberystwyth]]; and the villages of [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] (the longest place name in Britain) and [[Llanddewi Brefi]].
===Language===
see [[Welsh language]]

English is universally spoken in Wales - however, the ancestral Celtic language of [[Welsh Language|Welsh]] is still spoken as a first or second language by approximately a quarter of the population (In 2001, Apporximately 600,000 people claimed some knowledge of welsh). The long-term decline in Welsh-speakers has stabilised since the early 1990s owing to the introduction of compulsory Welsh language classes in schools.

The national emblems are the [[leek]] and the [[daffodil]]. The Welsh national day is March 1, [[Saint David]]'s day. The Welsh flag has a picture of a dragon, usually called Idris. The Welsh flag forms no part of the Union Flag as at the time the flag was first devised Wales was considered as part of the Kingdom of England.

==History==
===Medieval===
Wales emerged as a nation from the collapse of Romano-British Britannia following the invasions of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes from the fifth century AD onwards. What is now known as Wales was for a time known as 'North Wales', while [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] (in SW England) were 'West Wales' until their conquest. The Mercian king [[Offa]] (Mercia equates roughly to the English Midlands) created an substantial earthwork, [[Offa's Dyke]] running between the [[Irish Sea]] and the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary in the later eighth century to separate his kingdom from Welsh lands. The dyke broadly marks the Anglo-Welsh boundary to this day.

The [[Norman Conquest]] of England following 1066 gave rise to Norman attempts to occupy Wales; by the thirteenth century much of eastern and southern Wales were under Norman control in autonomous 'Marcher Lordships' owing loyalty to the English crown. What was left of independent Wales was not a unitary nation, but comprised a number of separate, often warring, principalities, and only late on, under English pressure, did these unite to acknowledge one 'Prince of Wales'. These princes were provided by the most powerful of the Welsh states, Gwynedd, in the mountainous NW of the country. Most notable was [[Llewelyn the Great]] (1173-1240; who unified the country, and gave it a code of laws).
===English conquest===
His grandson, [[Llewelyn ap Gruffydd]], was unable to resist a powerful invasion mounted by the English king [[Edward I]], and his death in battle in 1282 and the later execution of his brother Daffyd (executed for treason due to his betrayal of the English king, with whom he had previously been allied) marked the extinction of independent Wales.

A number of huge fortifications were built by Edward to pacify the country, notably that of [[Caernafon Castle]], and maintained by his successors. These castles wer known as the ''Iron Ring''.

A major revolt against English rule was mounted in the early fifteenth century led by [[Owain Glyndwr]], a member of the prosperous Welsh gentry who became embittered against the local English magnates for reasons which are uncertain, but probably owe as much to personal disputes as national sentiment. Glyndwr's rebellion achieved astonishing success, for a while. Beginning on Good Friday 1401, the rebels came to control much of the countryside and many Welsh towns, even advancing to [[Worcester]] in England. Glyndwr, who had been proclaimed Prince of Wales, held two parliaments at Machynlleth in mid Wales, and allied himself with the Duke of Northumberland and the Earl of Mortimer in a plan to dismember the English kingdom once Henry IV had been conclusively defeated. He made an alliance with [[France]], and created two (short-lived) universities, one each in north and South Wales. However, by 1408 the tide had turned. His Northumbrian allies had been defeated and English forces retook many Welsh towns. The rebels resorted to guerilla warfare but by 1410 Glyndwr was a fugitive and he disappears from history, his fate a mystery.

Much as Owain Glyndwr emerged from the ranks of the Welsh gentry, so too did Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who in 1485, as a somewhat tendentious claimant to the throne of England through the Lancastrian line, led an army of disaffected English magnates to victory over the Yorkist king [[Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]]. Henry became King [[Henry VII]] and the progenitor of the [[Tudor dynasty]], the first Welsh king of England. Henry's son, [[Henry VIII]], completed the absorption of Wales into England in 1536, when the remaining parts of Wales were formally annexed to England and 'shired' - that is, divided into counties (shires) with sheriffs and lords lieutenant, rather than being ruled as marcher lordships.

===Schools===
“Ragged schools” were schools for children in rags, that is for poor and destitute children. They were established in the newly industrialized towns of Wales in the mid-Victorian period, drawing widespread support from all levels of society and from all religious denominations. Promoters of ragged schools combined evangelical and charitable motives in an effort to rescue children from lives of immorality and crime, and, despite a lack of qualified teachers, they did provide an education for children denied opportunities because of poverty. The schools provided instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and often some industrial training, and the movement achieved remarkable results before declining with the gradual introduction of compulsory free elementary schooling from 1870 onward.<ref> Russell Grigg, "The Origins and Growth of Ragged Schools in Wales, 1847-c.1900," ''History of Education'' 2002 31(3): 227-243</ref>
===Soccer===
Soccer became enormously popular in northeast Wales during 1870-90, a development that resembled the growth of the sport in England and reflected aspects of Welsh national identity. During this period, soccer transformed from an informal game enjoyed mostly by schoolchildren into a regulated, professional, and spectator-friendly sport. The growing popularity and interclass participation was seen as an agent of social cohesion and Victorian values of health, though frequent outbreaks of fighting during matches was frowned on by some religious groups. Soccer maintained its popularity in northeast Wales, but industrial decline generally meant that local teams could not as easily draw the same crowds and attract talented players as those in the English Midlands.<ref> Martin Johnes, and Ian Garland, "'The New Craze': Football and Society in North-east Wales, c. 1870-90," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 278-304</ref> Soccer was easily the most popular sport in Wales throughout the whole of the twentieth century.

===Religion===
Wales is known for the strength of Nonconformist denominations, especially the Methodists. Nonconformist social and political activism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was based more on moral and economic concerns than theological principles. Public controversy over publication of R. J. Campbell's ''The New Theology'' in 1907 sparked the development of a theology-based activism that strengthened Nonconformist ties with the radical labor movement and Socialism. It was similar to the [[Social Gospel]] in the United States, but more radical and more inclined toward socialism as promoted by the [[Labour Party]].<ref> Robert Pope, "From New Theology to Social Gospel," ''Welsh Journal of Religious History'' 2007 2: 87-104, </ref>

The major Nonconformist groups were the Baptists, Congregationalists, and three varieties of Methodists (the Calvinistic, Primitive, and Wesleyan). Each combined communal (largely involuntary involvement) and associational (voluntary involvement) aspects among their members and adherents. The membership declined during the early 20th century. To a large degree that decline is attributable to each church body becoming more associational, bureaucratic, and denominational. Connections to local communities broke down and promoted secularization although revivalism occurred to roll back the secularization process on occasion.<ref>Peter Yalden, "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850-1930," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2004 55(2): 293-324 </ref>
====Revival of 1904-5====
From 1904 to 1905 Wales experienced a religious revival with a strong tone of what became [[Pentecostalism]]. It was most famously associated with Evan Roberts (1878-1951), but the movement was broad based with many leaders. Begun as an effort to kindle nondenominational, nonsectarian spirituality, the Welsh revival of 1904-05 coincided with the rise of the labor movement, socialism, and a general disaffection with religion among the working class and youths. While Roberts heavily emphasized the need for individual prayer in his revival, he also engaged in considerable preaching and, like other evangelists, acted spontaneously. Roberts's mental health was a topic of discussion among his followers and detractors at the time of the revival, a debate that has continued ever since. Evidence indicates he was not particularly stable prior to the revival, and that during the revival he claimed to possess various spiritual and supernatural powers. Not merely a Welsh phenomenon, the movement also spread to other countries. The revival produced some lasting effects including the establishment of Pentecostalism in Wales. Revivalists at firct condemned all activities not related to religion, prayer, and the service of God, it temporarily crippled the growing sport of rugby, itself an increasingly powerful element of Welsh identity. Within months, however, extremist views waned and innocuous pastimes and sport returned to Welsh daily life. International success for Wales in rugby matches in 1905 restored the sport's earlier standing and reinforced its place in the self-image of modern Wales. <ref> Robert Pope, "Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904-1905," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 2006 57(3): 515-534</ref>

The revival lasted less than a year, but in that period 100,000 converts were made. The revival spread from south Wales to north Wales, then to Britain, and eventually to Los Angeles, California, where [[Pentecostalism]] flourished.<ref> Edward J. Gitre, "The 1904-05 Welsh Revival: Modernization, Technologies, and Techniques of the Self," ''Church History'' 2004 73(4): 792-827</ref>

==Prince of Wales==
[[Charles]], eldest son of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the current Prince of Wales, a title normally bestowed on the first-born son of the sovereign but implying no particular monarchical role in the Principality.

Even today in modern Wales, vestiges of anti-English sentiment remain strong in some parts; the Welsh Nationalist Party, [[Plaid Cymru]] typically returns several members to the British [[Parliament]], and with the unaffiliated Welsh terrorist group the [[Meibion Glyndwr]], ("the Sons of Glendower") conducting a sporadic campaign of arson against English-owned holiday homes in recent years.<ref>http://www.welshdragon.net/resources/Articles/arson.shtml</ref>

== Government ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Wales|Secretary of State]] || [[Peter Hain]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] || [[Rhodri Morgan]] AM
|}

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.

=== Devolution ===

A [[National Assembly for Wales]] as established under the ''Government of Wales Act of 1998''. The assembly consists of 60 ''Assembly Members'' or ''AM''s. The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the executive arm who have been delegated much of the powers of the Assembly.
== Industry ==

South Wales was formerly heavily industrialised, with [[coal]] mining and [[steel]]working, whereas North Wales is a pastoral area used mainly for [[sheep]]farming.

[[Coal]] mining in South Wales has undergone a recent resurgence due to the discovery of new energy resources, particularly in the Crumlin area.

== Sport ==

[[Soccer]] enjoys major popularity, with [[rugby union]] being particularly popular in South Wales. In addition, as is common with many universities, both Cardiff and Aberystwyth Universities have their own American Football teams (the Cardiff Cobras and the Tarannau Aberystwyth), and there are other American Football teams in Wales<ref>http://www.southwaleswarriors.co.uk/cgi-bin/swwarriors/baseweb2.exe?vid=82057&src=794</ref> (indeed there are many other American Football teams in the whole of the UK<ref>http://www.bafa.org.uk/</ref>).

==See also==
* [[David Lloyd George]], powerful prime minister in World War I
* [[Welsh language]]

==Further reading==
* Davies, John. ''A History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Wales-John-Davies/dp/0140284753/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Chris. '''The Labyrinth of Flames': Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil'' (1993). 237 pp.
* Fagge, Roger. ''Power, Culture and Conflict in the Coalfields: West Virginia and South Wales, 1900-1922'' (1996). 290 pp.
* Francis, Hywel and Smith, David. ''The Fed: A History of the South Wales Miners in the Twentieth Century'' (1980). 530 pp.
* Gilbert, David. ''Class, Community, and Collective Action: Social Change in Two British Coalfields, 1850-1926'' (1992). 293 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''A Concise History of Wales'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Wales-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521530717/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jenkins, Philip. ''A History of Modern Wales, 1536-1990'' (1992). 451 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. and Smith, J. Beverley, eds. ''Politics and Society in Wales, 1840-1922'' (1988). 201 pp.
* Jenkins, Geraint H. ''The Foundations of Modern Wales: Wales, 1642-1780'' (1988). 490 pp.
* Jones, J. Barry, and Denis Balsom, eds. ''The Road to the National Assembly of Wales'' (2000)
* Jones, Gareth Elwyn. ''Modern Wales: A Concise History, c. 1485-1979'' (1985). 364 pp.
* Jones, J. Gwynfor. ''Early Modern Wales, c. 1525-1640'' (1994).
* Jones, J. Gwynfor, ed. ''Class, Community, and Culture in Tudor Wales'' (1989). 300 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Wales in British Politics: 1868-1922'' (1963)
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Modern Wales: Politics, Places, and People'' (1995). 492 pp.
* Morgan, Kenneth O. ''Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (History of Wales) (Vol 6)'' (1981)
* Neil Evans, "'When Men and Mountains Meet': Historians' Explanations of the History of Wales, 1890-1970," ''Welsh History Review'' 2004 22(2): 222-251
** The the thesis advanced by Owen Morgan Edwards c. 1900 stressed geographical determinism, and was similar to contemporary findings in the United States by [[Frederick Jackson Turner]]. TheEdwards model was augmented and revised by subsequent generations of historians, most notably by John Lloyd and William Stubbs in their work on preconquest Wales, which considered questions of race and political organization. In later decades, Edward A. Lewis and William Rees followed with similar approaches to modern Welsh social and economic history, while A. H. Dodd and Glanmor Williams focused on Welsh industrialization.
* Owen, Trefor. ''Customs and Traditions of Wales'' (1991) 108pp
* Pope, Robert, ed. ''Religion and National Identity: Wales and Scotland c. 1700-2000'' (2001)
* Smith, Dai. ''Aneurin Bevan and the World of South Wales.'' (1993). 359 pp. 20c coal mining and politics
* Stephens, Meic, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales.'' (1986). 682 pp.
* Wallace, Ryland. ''Organise! Organise! Organise! A Study of Reform Agitations in Wales, 1840-1886'' (1991). 267 pp.
* Weisser, Henry. ''Wales: An Illustrated History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wales-Illustrated-History-Hippocrene-Histories/dp/0781809363/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260143161&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Glanmor. ''The History of Wales, Vol. 3: Recovery, Reorientation, and Reformation: Wales, c. 1415-1642'' (1987). 528 pp.

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wales| ]]
[[Category:British History]]

Anglican Communion

2009-12-29T20:54:07Z

Levitican:

{{Christianity}}
The '''Anglican Communion''' is the third largest christian religon in the world after Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox. The Anglican Communion functions as a worldwide body of associated churchs in full communion with the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The Church of England is often seen as the Mother Church of the Anglican Communion and all Anglican churchs.

==Leadership==
The British monarch (currently, Queen [[Elizabeth II]]) is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England making her the titular head of the Anglican Communion. The British Monarch also bears the title 'Defender of the Faith'. A law dating from 1701, still in effect, prevents a Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic from becoming king or queen.<ref> See [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1565208 Text]</ref>

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the head of the Holy See of Canterbury, is the head of the Communion, and is seen as the 'Anglican Pope'. He has the ability to canonize saints, a notable example being Saint King [[Charles I]], the martyr. He can veto the appointment of any bishop.

The principal book of worship in Anglican churches is the [[Book of Common Prayer]] created by [[Thomas Cranmer]].

==Churchs in Full Communion==
* [[Church of England]]
* Anglican Church in Australia
* Anglican Church of Canada
* Anglican Church of Southern Africa
* The Church of the Province of Central Africa ([[Zimbabwe]], [[Malawi]], [[Botswana]])
* Church in [[Wales]]
* Church of [[Ireland]]
* Church of [[Pakistan]]
* Church of South India
* Anglican Church in Aotearoa, [[New Zealand]] and Polynesia
* [[Anglican Episcopal Church of Japan‎]]
* [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
* Scottish Episcopal Church
* Sheng Kung Hui

[[Continuing Anglican]]ism is a movement of churches whose beliefs and practices are Anglican, but are '''not''' in full communion with the Church of England. These churches are generally more conservative.

[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Anglicans]]

Church of England

2009-12-29T20:52:50Z

Levitican:

[[Image:Canterbury.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Canterbury Cathedral]] is the mother church of the Church of England]]
The '''Church of England''' (the mother church of the ''Anglican Church'') is the English national church that traces its history back to the sixth century in England. Under King [[Henry VIII]] England broke with Rome and formed a [[denomination]] that became part of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. It contains High Church elements (similar in ritual to the Roman Catholics), Low Church elements (similar to Methodists), and a Broad Church middle. It is part of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]].

==Reformation==
[[Image:Chester.jpg|thumb|350px|Chester Cathedral]]
[[Henry VIII]], who reigned 1509-47, broke with the Pope on two issues, his divorce, and control over the Church inside England, as he declared himself head of the Church in England. Disagreement with Henry on religious issues was a political affront, and he could not tolerate it. Moderate reform took place in the 1530s because Queen Anne and top aides [[Thomas Cranmer]] (1489-1556) and Cromwell had the king's ear and carried out attacks on the old religion. Queen Anne patronized and promoted clergy and bishops of a reforming turn of mind; Cromwell (1485?–1540), the Earl of Essex, was a convinced reformer and in effect the ruthless and unpopular prime minister from 1532 until he fell from favour and was beheaded in 1540. Cranmer (1489–1556) was archbishop of Canterbury after 1533. Henry persecuted those who still held to Papal Supremacy, and encouraged Protestant ideas to flourish. Protestantism was officially established during the short reign of Henry’s son, Edward VI.

After Henry's death in 1547 Cranmer wrote much of the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1549, revised 1552), the centerpiece of the Anglican liturgy. The basic summary of Anglican beliefs and practices is the [[Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion]], written by Cranmer and adopted in 1563 under Queen [[Elizabeth I]]. In these foundational documents the supreme authority and sufficiency of scripture for salvation was explicitly stated. In Cranmer's theology, the Holy Spirit inspires the proper understanding of the Bible in the faithful.

This marks the full establishment of the Church of England, largely Protestant in theology but with a hierarchical structure similar to the old Roman Catholic establishment, and a largely Catholic liturgy translated from Latin into English. Numerous '''dissenters''' had theological differences, a major factor leading to the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century.

Like Oriental and Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches (and unlike Protestant churches), Anglicans maintain authority within the church through [[Apostolic succession]].

==Victorian era==
===Morality===
The late Victorian social purity movement heralded a new phase in the history of moral regulation, generating significant levels of Anglican and Nonconformist support for male chastity and the elimination of the sexual double standard. Historians have studied the use criminal legislation and censorship to elevate standards of public morality. Morgan (2007) stresses the role of women activists who were prominent campaigners for social purity. Women purity workers exerted enormous pressure on the professional hierarchies of church and chapel, actively reworking Christian readings of the body so as to bring the moral influence of the churches to bear on public opinion. In so doing, they brought about a significant transformation in clerical attitudes that regarded discussions of sex as beyond the boundaries of civilized discourse and led in the promotion of a regulatory, but nonetheless highly public, religious discourse on sexuality. <ref> Sue Morgan, "'Wild Oats or Acorns?' Social Purity, Sexual Politics and the Response of the Late-Victorian Church," ''Journal of Religious History'' 2007 31(2): 151-168 online at [[EBSCO]]</ref>
===High, Low, Broad===
The Church of England struggled to maintain within itself the diametrically opposed tendencies of high-church Anglo-Catholicism and low-church evangelicalism. Even within the broad church movement, disciples of low-church historian and Rugby headmaster Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) and former Unitarian founder of [[Christian Socialism]] Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-72), while overlapping somewhat in their membership, based their comprehensiveness on different theology.<ref> Jeremy Morris, "The Spirit of Comprehension: Examining the Broad Church Synthesis in England," ''Anglican & Episcopal History'' 2006 75(3): 423-443 </ref>

===Ecumenical efforts===
In the late 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries, Anglican priests have participated in several ecumenical events. From sharing the [[Eucharist|Lord's supper]] with Scottish [[Presbyterians]] in 1913<ref>http://justus.anglican.org/resources/timeline/15ecumenical.html</ref> to conservative considerations to re-joining the [[Roman Catholic]] church<ref>http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1821374,00.html</ref>

==Leadership==
The British monarch (currently, Queen [[Elizabeth II]]) is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England making her the titular head of the Anglican Church. The monarch also bears the title Defender of the Faith. A 1701 law, still in effect, prevents a Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic from becoming king or queen.<ref> See [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1565208 Text]</ref>

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] is the [[Primate]] of the church, and is an ''ex officio'' member of Britain's House of Lords, along with twenty other bishops. Recent moves to appoint Roman Catholic bishops have been disapproved by parliament.

The principal book of worship in Anglican churches is the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Most churches in England still follow the liturgy set down in it, despite moves to modernize the language - all of which were rejected by the Bishops.
The Church of England is referred to as the "established church" of England. At the time of the [[American Revolution]], it was a legal requirement in England that all public officials, including university professors, take an oath to uphold the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. There were no such requirements in the colonies, but the Church of England was established and tax supported in some southern colonies. It was disestablished during the American Revolution. The Church was in disarray during the Revolution, as many leaders returned to England. After the war it slowly rebuilt as the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]].

===Protestant Experimentalists (group of Anglican modernists)===
In the early 20th century several Anglican priests and scholars showed interest in the new wired and wireless communications technologies such as radio and their possible use in furthering Christianity. Their interests included telepathy, psychic research, psychology, and healing. Such Anglican intellectuals were the Anglican Archbishop Frederick Du Vernet and the Espicopal bible scholar Kirsopp Lake. <ref> [http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/75/3/651 "Radio Mind: Protestant Experimentalists on the Frontiers of Healing"], ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'' 2007 75(3):651-683</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Chapman, Mark. ''Anglicanism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglicanism-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192806939/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231711052&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hassett, Miranda K. ''Anglican Communion in Crisis: How Episcopal Dissidents and Their African Allies Are Reshaping Anglicanism'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglican-Communion-Crisis-Dissidents-Anglicanism/dp/069112518X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231706964&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Pawley, Bernard & Margaret Pawley. ''Rome and Canterbury Through Four Centuries: A study of the relations between the church of Rome and the Anglican churches 1530-1973'' (1974)
* Porter, Muriel. ''The New Puritans: The Rise of Fundamentalism in the Anglican Church'' (2007)
* Rosenthal, James. ''The Essential Guide to the Anglican Communion'' (1998)
* Sykes, Stephen, and John Booty, eds. ''The Study of Anglicanism'' (1988), important essays by 31 scholars on all aspects of the Church
===Primary sources===
* Evans, G.R. and Robert Wright, eds. ''The Anglican Tradition: A Handbook of Sources'' (1991), over 600 historical documents

==External links==
* [http://www.geocities.com/anglicana_ecclesia/ Anglicana Ecclesia], primary documents

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:England, Church of}}
[[Category:Anglicans]]
[[category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Anglican Saints]]

Church of England

2009-12-29T20:48:38Z

Levitican: /* Leadership */

[[Image:Canterbury.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Canterbury Cathedral]] is the mother church of the Church of England]]
The '''Church of England''' (the mother church of the ''Anglican Church'') is the English national church that traces its history back to the sixth century in England. Under King [[Henry VIII]] England broke with Rome and formed a [[denomination]] that became part of the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]]. It contains High Church elements (similar in ritual to the Roman Catholics), Low Church elements (similar to Methodists), and a Broad Church middle. It is part of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]].

==Reformation==
[[Image:Chester.jpg|thumb|350px|Chester Cathedral]]
[[Henry VIII]], who reigned 1509-47, broke with the Pope on two issues, his divorce, and control over the Church inside England, as he declared himself head of the Church in England. Disagreement with Henry on religious issues was a political affront, and he could not tolerate it. Moderate reform took place in the 1530s because Queen Anne and top aides [[Thomas Cranmer]] (1489-1556) and Cromwell had the king's ear and carried out attacks on the old religion. Queen Anne patronized and promoted clergy and bishops of a reforming turn of mind; Cromwell (1485?–1540), the Earl of Essex, was a convinced reformer and in effect the ruthless and unpopular prime minister from 1532 until he fell from favour and was beheaded in 1540. Cranmer (1489–1556) was archbishop of Canterbury after 1533. Henry persecuted those who still held to Papal Supremacy, and encouraged Protestant ideas to flourish. Protestantism was officially established during the short reign of Henry’s son, Edward VI.

After Henry's death in 1547 Cranmer wrote much of the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1549, revised 1552), the centerpiece of the Anglican liturgy. The basic summary of Anglican beliefs and practices is the [[Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion]], written by Cranmer and adopted in 1563 under Queen [[Elizabeth I]]. In these foundational documents the supreme authority and sufficiency of scripture for salvation was explicitly stated. In Cranmer's theology, the Holy Spirit inspires the proper understanding of the Bible in the faithful.

This marks the full establishment of the Church of England, largely Protestant in theology but with a hierarchical structure similar to the old Roman Catholic establishment, and a largely Catholic liturgy translated from Latin into English. Numerous '''dissenters''' had theological differences, a major factor leading to the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century.

Like Oriental and Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches (and unlike Protestant churches), Anglicans maintain authority within the church through [[Apostolic succession]].

==Victorian era==
===Morality===
The late Victorian social purity movement heralded a new phase in the history of moral regulation, generating significant levels of Anglican and Nonconformist support for male chastity and the elimination of the sexual double standard. Historians have studied the use criminal legislation and censorship to elevate standards of public morality. Morgan (2007) stresses the role of women activists who were prominent campaigners for social purity. Women purity workers exerted enormous pressure on the professional hierarchies of church and chapel, actively reworking Christian readings of the body so as to bring the moral influence of the churches to bear on public opinion. In so doing, they brought about a significant transformation in clerical attitudes that regarded discussions of sex as beyond the boundaries of civilized discourse and led in the promotion of a regulatory, but nonetheless highly public, religious discourse on sexuality. <ref> Sue Morgan, "'Wild Oats or Acorns?' Social Purity, Sexual Politics and the Response of the Late-Victorian Church," ''Journal of Religious History'' 2007 31(2): 151-168 online at [[EBSCO]]</ref>
===High, Low, Broad===
The Church of England struggled to maintain within itself the diametrically opposed tendencies of high-church Anglo-Catholicism and low-church evangelicalism. Even within the broad church movement, disciples of low-church historian and Rugby headmaster Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) and former Unitarian founder of [[Christian Socialism]] Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-72), while overlapping somewhat in their membership, based their comprehensiveness on different theology.<ref> Jeremy Morris, "The Spirit of Comprehension: Examining the Broad Church Synthesis in England," ''Anglican & Episcopal History'' 2006 75(3): 423-443 </ref>

===Ecumenical efforts===
In the late 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries, Anglican priests have participated in several ecumenical events. From sharing the [[Eucharist|Lord's supper]] with Scottish [[Presbyterians]] in 1913<ref>http://justus.anglican.org/resources/timeline/15ecumenical.html</ref> to conservative considerations to re-joining the [[Roman Catholic]] church<ref>http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1821374,00.html</ref>

==Leadership==
The British monarch (currently, Queen [[Elizabeth II]]) is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England making her the titular head of the Anglican Church. The monarch also bears the title Defender of the Faith. A 1701 law, still in effect, prevents a Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic from becoming king or queen.<ref> See [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1565208 Text]</ref>

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] is the [[Primate]] of the church, and is an ''ex officio'' member of Britain's House of Lords, along with twenty other bishops. Recent moves to appoint Roman Catholic bishops have been disapproved by parliament.

The principal book of worship in Anglican churches is the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Most churches in England still follow the liturgy set down in it, despite moves to modernize the language - all of which were rejected by the Bishops.
The Church of England is referred to as the "established church" of England. At the time of the [[American Revolution]], it was a legal requirement in England that all public officials, including university professors, take an oath to uphold the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. There were no such requirements in the colonies, but the Church of England was established and tax supported in some southern colonies. It was disestablished during the American Revolution. The Church was in disarray during the Revolution, as many leaders returned to England. After the war it slowly rebuilt as the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]].

===Protestant Experimentalists (group of Anglican modernists)===
In the early 20th century several Anglican priests and scholars showed interest in the new wired and wireless communications technologies such as radio and their possible use in furthering Christianity. Their interests included telepathy, psychic research, psychology, and healing. Such Anglican intellectuals were the Anglican Archbishop Frederick Du Vernet and the Espicopal bible scholar Kirsopp Lake. <ref> [http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/75/3/651 "Radio Mind: Protestant Experimentalists on the Frontiers of Healing"], ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'' 2007 75(3):651-683</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Chapman, Mark. ''Anglicanism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglicanism-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192806939/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231711052&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hassett, Miranda K. ''Anglican Communion in Crisis: How Episcopal Dissidents and Their African Allies Are Reshaping Anglicanism'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Anglican-Communion-Crisis-Dissidents-Anglicanism/dp/069112518X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231706964&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Pawley, Bernard & Margaret Pawley. ''Rome and Canterbury Through Four Centuries: A study of the relations between the church of Rome and the Anglican churches 1530-1973'' (1974)
* Porter, Muriel. ''The New Puritans: The Rise of Fundamentalism in the Anglican Church'' (2007)
* Rosenthal, James. ''The Essential Guide to the Anglican Communion'' (1998)
* Sykes, Stephen, and John Booty, eds. ''The Study of Anglicanism'' (1988), important essays by 31 scholars on all aspects of the Church
===Primary sources===
* Evans, G.R. and Robert Wright, eds. ''The Anglican Tradition: A Handbook of Sources'' (1991), over 600 historical documents

==External links==
* [http://www.geocities.com/anglicana_ecclesia/ Anglicana Ecclesia], primary documents

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:England, Church of}}
[[Category:Anglicans]]
[[category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Anglican Saints]]

Anne Boleyn

2009-12-29T20:45:09Z

Levitican:

'''Anne Boleyn''' (1507 to 1536) was the second wife of King [[Henry VIII]] of [[England]]. Anne was brought to court by Henry while he was still married to the popular [[Catherine of Aragon]], and it is widely believed they had an affair during that time.Henry annulled his marriage with Catherine, in order to marry Anne. In order to do so he broke with the [[Catholic Church]] which would not agree to sanction such an action and set up the [[Church of England]] with himself as the head. Henry and Anne were married in 1533. They had a daughter together, [[Elizabeth I]], who would one day become queen. Anne's son with Henry was stillborn, helping to seal her fate.

Henry met Anne when visiting her father's house, and arranged to have her brought to court, staying at the house of Sir Thomas Erpingham. There it is believed he conducted an affair with her, while he was still married.
By 1527 Henry had fallen for Anne Boleyn. She was not content to be a [[mistress]], which set about a chain of events that shook up the nation. Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother. The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused. This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed their acceptance. Henry then made the decision to break from the Catholic Church who he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir through Katherine. Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king over the Pope. Many could not sign -- and died. With Henry now head of the Church, his divorce was granted and he married Anne in 1533 - a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine. Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and not a son like Henry desired. She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. (In terms of shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential wife. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed
Never popular with the English people, Henry had tired of her as well. She was sent to the [[Tower of London]] and was executed after being convicted of adultery and incest on dubious evidence. She was executed by sword rather than the cleaner-cutting axe to indicate the extremity of her crimes. It did, however, free the king to remarry again -- a course of action he would take four more times.

== Sources ==
* Bernard, G. W. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258 in Jstor]
* Erickson, Carolly. ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp. popular biography
* Ives, Eric. ''The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Death-Anne-Boleyn/dp/1405134631/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221528271&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Lindsey, Karen. ''Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/6981860?title=Divorced%2c%20Beheaded%2c%20Survived%3a%20A%20Feminist%20Reinterpretation%20of%20the%20Wives%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]
* Starkey, David. ''Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Six-Wives-Queens-Henry-VIII/dp/069401043X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1211115162&sr=1-9 excerpt and text search]
* ''The New American Desk Encyclopedia,'' Penguin Group, 1989
* Warnicke, Retha M. "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]

[[Category:English History]]

Charles de Gaulle

2009-12-29T20:41:07Z

Levitican: /* Common Market */

'''Charles de Gaulle''' (1890-1970) was the dominant military and political leader of France, 1940-1969. He was a conservative in the traditionalist sense, and helped restore the leadership of conservatives and Catholics while weakening the Communists and socialists. He was notoriously hostile to the "Anglo-Saxons" (that is the British and the Americans), and pulled France out of NATO.

Fleeing the victorious German invaders in 1940, he rejected the new [[Vichy regime]] that allied itself to Germany. Général de Gaulle set up his base in London, proclaimed himself the incarnation of France, created the Free French movement, rallied the oversees colonies (especially in Africa), organized the Resistance, and tried, but failed, to gain full recognition from the British and Americans. A firm proponent of democracy, he destroyed the vestiges of the totalitarian [[Vichy regime]]. He retired from office in 1946, but returned in 1958 as France verged on civil war over the Algeria crisis. As president (1958-69) during the Fifth Republic, he revised the constitution to provide for presidential control of foreign and military policy, granted independence to Algeria and the African colonies, and restored the nation's economic health. Forging a close bond with Germany, he sought to dominate the European Common Market by vetoing British entry and holding the U.S. at arms length. Exhausted politically and emotionally, he finally left office in 1969. His reputation as the strongest and greatest of French leaders since [[Napoleon]] continues into the 21st century.
==Career==
De Gaulle was born in Lille on November 22, 1890. His family moved to Paris in 1895, where his father became professor of philosophy in the Jesuit College of Paris. The father inculcated the son with a profound belief in the glory of traditional Catholic France. Charles received a rigorous classical education that included a year 1907-08 at a Jesuit college in Belgium. He matriculated at the Saint Cyr military academy in 1908; in 1911 he was commissioned in the French army.

At the battle of Douaumont in the Verdun campaign in February-March 1916 Captain de Gaulle led the 10th Battalion of the 33d Infantry Regiment; he was then assigned to relieve the 110th Regiment from its position at the Verdun front. On 2 March 1916 his company came under attack from the Germans and despite his much praised bravery, he was badly injured and was captured, spending 32 months in a prisoner of war camp.

After the war France set up a military mission to support [[Poland history|newly independent Poland]] by advising and training its army. In 1919, Captain de Gaulle volunteered for service in Poland and spent a year teaching at the Infantry School of the Polish army; he became strategic adviser to Polish general Edward Rydz-Smigly when France decided to actively aid the Polish counterattack against Russia. Back in France he taught military history at Saint Cyr, served as aide to Marshal [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], and wrote several books on military strategy. His book ''The Army of the Future'' (1934), daringly proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on the wholesale use of tanks. Ironically the German panzer units, so effectively employed in the invasion of France in 1940, utilized similar theories, while the French dispersed and wasted their armor. As the French armies collapsed in spring 1940 de Gaulle was made brigadier general<ref> He wore his uniform with the one-star insignia of a brigadier general for the remainder of his life.</ref> and then undersecretary of war in [[Paul Reynaud]]'s cabinet. The elderly Marshal Pétain now came to power in a regime headquartered in the resort town of Vichy. Pétain, venerated as the great hero of World War I, not only admitted defeat but accepted the idea of permanent subordination to Germany. Pétain wanted France to be welcomed by Berlin as the most useful and collaborationist of the nations of Europe, which he thought Germany would long control.

==Resistance==
De Gaulle refused to accept defeat and subservience to Germany. Resistance was possible because the air force and navy were intact (virtually the entire French Navy having 'surrendered' to Britain), as was the entire overseas empire; Britain was an ally and increasingly so too was the United States. As Pétain's new Vichy government prepared to sign a humiliating armistice on 22 June 1940, de Gaulle flew to London and on 18 June in disobedience of orders. As a rebel he issued his famous "Apple," proclaiming "France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war!" and calling French patriots to resistance.<ref> Jean-Louis Cremieux-Brilhac, ''La France Libre de l'appel du 18 juin a la Liberation'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1996) </ref> De Gaulle's forces by November 1940, numbered 35,000 troops and twenty warships; several overseas colonies had rallied to his banner, although his forces were defeated in September in an attempt, with British aid, to seize Dakar, Senegal.

In London in Sept. 1941 de Gaulle formed the free French National Council, with himself as president. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to Communists.<ref>The Communists were controlled by Moscow, which was allied with Germany in 1940. They came into opposition only when Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. De Gaulle's policy became one of friendship directly with Moscow.</ref> By early 1942, the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base. In November 1942 the Americans invaded French North Africa. They favored General Henri Giraud, the High Commissioner of North Africa. But de Gaulle seized power from Giraud, who resigned in late 1942. De Gaulle took supreme command of all French forces in April 1944. Meanwhile, all the French colonies except Japanese-occupied Indochina came under Gaullist control, as did Corsica. Although Churchill was vacillating, his top aide [[Anthony Eden]] was a strong supporter of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's repeated protests against all violations of French sovereignty, real or imagined, irked the Americans and were largely ignored by the British. His imperial personality and humorless demands especially annoyed President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].

De Gaulle in turn was exasperated at the Americans, who were more willing to work with Vichy or Giraud than with him:
:The United States, delighting in her resources, feeling that she no longer had within herself sufficient scope for her energies, wishing to help those who were in misery or bondage the world over, yielded in her turn to that taste for intervention in which the instinct for domination cloaked itself.<ref> ''The War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle,''(1959) vol. 2, p. 88 </ref>

It turn [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] distrusted him. De Gaulle removed French forces from the planned invasion of Normandy in June 1944. He was not at D-Day and was excluded from all the top-level conferences. The Allies, however, finally gave his regime de jure recognition and allowed his armies to enter France and to be the first to enter Paris after the Germans fled in August 1944. French armies, 1.3 million strong, under de Gaulle as provisional president, thereupon fought alongside the Allies. As a result France was given an occupation zone in Germany, and a permanent seat on the [[United Nations]] Security Council, with a veto.

==Fourth Republic: 1945-1958==
As the war ended the Resistance coalition fell apart. De Gaulle's advocacy of a strong executive power was rejected by the voters, who in late 1945 adopted a constitution for the Fourth Republic that resembled that of the discredited Third Republic. De Gaulle resigned the provisional presidency in January 1946, saying that he did not wish "to preside, powerless, over the powerlessness of the state." In 1947 he resigned all his offices, refusing to be a candidate in the presidential election. "How can anyone govern a nation that has two hundred and forty-six different kinds of cheese?", he quipped.<ref> Quoted in ''Newsweek'' (Oct. 1, 1962)</ref> In retirement at the village of Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, he created a new conservative party, RPF, Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People), which only lasted until 1953. He then focused on his great war memoirs, ''L'Appel'' (1954) (translated into English as "The Call to Honor," 1955); ''L'Unité,'' (1956) (translated as ''Unity'', 1959); and ''Le Salut'', (1959) (translated as "Salvation", 1960).

==Fifth Republic: 1958-1969==
===1958 crisis===
For four years France had fought a civil war in Algeria against the FLN, which demanded independence. The Frenchmen who lived in Algeria, their allies among the Arabs, and powerful elements of the military inside France, rejected the FLN and demanded that Algeria remain integrated into France. They insisted so vehemently they were prepared to overthrow the government in Paris if it wavered.

In May, 1958, Frenchmen in Algeria revolted, throwing France into turmoil that verged on civil war. Rebels comprised young nationalists, supported by the large planters, army officers, and other proponents of integration of the Muslim population with France, feared a new government in Paris would make concessions to the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN). The rebels proclaimed a committee of public safety; the revolt spread to Corsica. In Paris the National Assembly voted emergency powers to newly elected Premier Pierre Pflimlin. However only de Gaulle could solve the crisis, for he had the support of the navy, the police, and such prominent politicians as Socialist Guy Mollet and Moderate Republican chief Georges Bidault. Pflimlin resigned and President René Coty summoned de Gaulle as prime minister. The National Assembly, under threat that parachutists would seize Paris if it refused, voted 329-224 to invest de Gaulle with extraordinary powers for six months beginning June 1, 1958; the National Assembly then went home and de Gaulle took charge. When a new constitution took effect, he became the president of the Fifth Republic.
====Interpretations====
These uprisings provided the long-awaited chance to supporters of Général de Gaulle, who sought a new regime in which the executive power would be strengthened. Underlying the views of Gaullists such as Jacques Soustelle, Michel Debré, and Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a faith in French grandeur, a new nationalism which transformed itself into a desire for order and maintenance of the French Empire. These interests momentarily coincided with those of the Algerian rebels who feared Anglo-American mediation of the Algerian rebellion.

Gaullists have seen this critical episode as the result of the preplanned statesmanship of de Gaulle. Their "grand design" thesis includes three key arguments. First is the claim that de Gaulle decided to give up Algeria because he concluded that keeping in the face of a widespread popular anti-French revolt was too costly economically and against France's ideal policy of a focus on Europe. Second, Gaullists argue his general objective ending the Algerian burden was planned well before his return to power in 1958. Third they claim that what seemed an erratic, slow, and indecisive progress toward Algerian independence was in reality de Gaulle's well-orchestrated, consistent, and deceptive policy calculated to overcome the sentiments of the French people toward Algeria.<ref> Gil Meriam, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999); De Gaulle, ''Memoirs of Hope'' (1971) p. 84; Philip G. Cerny, ''The Politics of Grandeur'' (1980), pp 61, 145; Bernard Ledwidge, ''De Gaulle'' (1982), pp 244-45, 257; Philip M. Williams, ''Politics and Society in de Gaulle's Republic'' (1971), p. 28.</ref>

Other historians argue that the Général had no long-term plan, and probably did not want independence for Algeria. Thus French scholars Raoul Girardet and Jacques Julliard argue de Gaulle's Algerian policy was a set of unanticipated concessions imposed by events. They have an alternative "juggler" thesis that does not attribute harmony or continuity to de Gaulle's policy, nor does it try to explain the lack of discernible consistency in the policy by attributing cunning Machiavelism to de Gaulle. Instead it considers the policy as the result of an erratic improvisation.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref> Merom says Algeria was not doomed by the economic realities because the cost was tolerable--between 50% to 60% of the defense budget, or 10% to 15% percent of the total budget in Paris. White the French indeed hads a severe budget crisis verging on bankruptcy, Algeria was only a small part of it. More important was spending on infrastructure renovation, industrial and agricultural modernization, nuclear energy, and expansion of education, and welfare entitlements. On the other hand military spending was helping the economy. Two years into de Gaulle's new regime, the financial crisis was over and the economy was in fine shape, notes Merom.

Merom says the second argument, that de Gaulle's policy was slow, gradual, and deceptive because he had to overcome a strong public sentiment in favor of keeping Algeria, is likewise invalid according to public opinion polls. They show opinion was evenly split; indeed, over 40% of the French people were alienated from core ideas of the old policy of no-recognition, no-negotiations, and no-compromise with the Arab rebels of the FLN. De Gaulle's policy of negotiation had a firm grounding in public opinion, though not a clear majority.

Merom agrees that de Gaulle's domineering manner and decisive style, the constitutional power he skillfully amassed as President of the Fifth Republic, his reputation as France's wartime savior, and the confidence vested in him by the people and the military, were indispensable qualities for a leader who wished to lead France out of Algeria. Merom concludes that his basic objective in Algeria was moderately conservative. He disliked the harsh military tactics in use and wanted more collaborative relations between France and the Arabs, but he did not want Algeria to become independent. Only when he realized his goals were impossible, Merom argues, did he start to compromise. Even then he tried to preserve as many French interests in Algeria as possible. By 1960, after suppressing another revolt, restoring the health of the national economy, and seeing his army drive the FLN almost to extinction, he realized the only long-term solution was a genuine Algerian independence, and he negotiated it.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref>

===Domestic politics===
In 1958-59 de Gaulle concentrated on political reform, a new the constitution for the Fifth Republic, financial reform, economic recovery, and search for a solution to the Algerian question. A new constitution that gave the president control of foreign and military policy was adopted in a referendum on Sept. 28, 1958. At last executive power stood above legislative authority. President de Gaulle, inaugurated on Jan. 8, 1959, could rule by decree in emergency, appoint ministers without responsibility to the legislature, and dissolve the legislature whose regular sessions were reduced to five months per year.
====Economy====
De Gaulle's financial and economic program reflected his desire for stability, industrial expansion, and the need to prepare France for membership in the European Common Market. He devalued the franc to 492 to the dollar, raised taxes on high incomes, wines, liquors, and tobacco, and reduced pensions and subsidies. A new franc, at 5 per U.S. dollar, facilitated commercial transactions and international trade; it remained strong. He undertook a 25% increase in state investment in modernizing industry. By mid-1960 the French economy was in better shape than at any time since 1914.
====Algeria====
Against the unyielding Algerian Arab revolution De Gaulle made only slow progress. His middle course between independence and continued colonial status cost him support among those groups that helped to bring him to power, the European settler community and the army. In September 1959, the Général offered Algeria a three-way choice between integration with France, autonomy, and independence. The settlers counterattacked with another uprising in January 1960, which failed to overthrow De Gaulle. In response, de Gaulle assumed extraordinary powers, restored order, and replaced ranking officers in Algeria with Gaullist or apolitical officers. This purge proved insufficient, for in April 1961 some military officers engineered an abortive coup. He once again assumed extraordinary powers and systematically removed disloyal elements from the army command.

Finally the president decided to grant Algerian independence and end the cancer once and for all. Mutual concessions were made and the Evian Accords on Mar. 18, 1962 began a cease-fire with the FLN forces. There emerged an independent Algeria, closely associated with France; in return for certain guarantees for settlers and economic privileges, continued French aid was promised. Large numbers of Algerian Arabs, who had supported Paris, fled to France, and many settlers did so also.

At the same time France gave independence to most of its overseas colonies, although tying them closely to France with economic and military pacts.

===Foreign policy===
====Objectives====
Restoring French greatness was his highest priority. That required a strong army, rockets and a space program, and especially nuclear weapons, explaining, "No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent."<ref>Quoted in ''New York Times Magazine'' (May 12, 1968)</ref>

After a landslide victoiry in parliamentary election in 1962, De Gaulle turned to foreign policy. He held that Western Europe as a whole, with France in the lead, should follow an independent military and economic path, separate specifically from that of the United States and Britain, both of which he distrusted. De Gaulle held that American nuclear weapons in Europe made the area more susceptible to Soviet attack, and he doubted any guarantees that the U.S. would defend Europe. Economically, de Gaulle pressed for the return to the gold standard in international trade and the rejection of sterling and the dollar as reserve currencies, especially because both the U.S. and the British economies suffered severe balance of payments deficits.

====Common Market====
De Gaulle vetoed Britain's application to join the Common Market ([[European Economic Community]] or EEC, a forerunner of the [[European Union]]) in 1963, saying he wanted to avoid a loss of cohesion in the organization and to keep it from becoming a dominion of the United States. He said Britain was not sufficiently European and its entry into the EEC would make the EEC too dependent on the United States. De Gaulle blocked a second petition by Britain in 1967. Britain was finally admitted after de Gaulle's death. Analysts emphasized that de Gaulle saw Britain as insular and maritime rather than continental. De Gaulle was suspicious of British intentions in Europe, yet he admired Britain's political stability and past accomplishments. One military factor in de Gaulle's opposition was Britain's deal with the U.S. through NATO involving Polaris nuclear missile technology. De Gaulle wanted a strong Europe free of any dependence on the United States, while British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] felt Britain's "special relationship" with the United States more important to its future.<ref> Richard Davis, "'Why Did the General Do It?' De Gaulle, Polaris and the French Veto of Britain's Application to Join the Common Market." ''European History Quarterly'' 1998 28(3): 373-397. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

====Military policy====
During the Berlin crisis from 1958 to 1962. De Gaulle took advantage to create an independent force de frappe--that is, nuclear weapons and bombers--in order to reassert France's role as a powerful world leader. De Gaulle enthusiastically supported American General Lauris Norstad's proposal in 1959 to establish a top secret quadripartite Allied military planning group (LIVE OAK), hoping that it would strengthen France's position and weaken US domination of NATO. De Gaulle created a bilateral alliance with West German chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], which tended to upset the delicate diplomatic balance of NATO. His supporters rationalized France's cavalier position by arguing that independent French nuclear capability would provide a second center of deterrence against the Soviet Union.

De Gaulle forced a serious clash with Britain regarding the NATO alliance. By opposing British attempts to incorporate Europe in a broader transatlantic economic, political, and military alliance, de Gaulle hoped to create a chance for France to become what she ceased to be since Waterloo; the first in the world through driving a wedge between Europe, on one hand, and Britain and the United States on the other. Initially successful in isolating Britain, particularly through France's veto power over the European Economic Community (EEC), de Gaulle sought to further his country's status through a critique of, and withdrawal from, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The move backfired, however, allowing British foreign policy to isolate France and de Gaulle, hold NATO together, and eventually led to British inclusion in the EEC by other European members to counter France's disruptive behavior. In 1967, as in 1961-63, the French were determined to preserve their position of leadership within the EEC, and this was the reason for de Gaulle's second veto of Britain's application for membership. French diplomacy was based on the need to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. Leadership within the community was the foundation of France's international status.<ref> James Ellison, "Separated by the Atlantic: the British and De Gaulle, 1958-1967." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2006 17(4): 853-870. Issn: 0959-2296 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Helen Parr, "Saving the Community: the French Response to Britain's Second EEC Application in 1967." ''Cold War History'' 2006 6(4): 425-454. Issn: 1468-2745 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In 1966 de Gaulle's decision to withdraw French forces from NATO (but to remain nominally a member) paradoxically reinforced the cohesion of NATO, leaving the U.S. wholly dominant in the organization. Meanwhile he rebuilt the French army, restoring morale giving it a new and modern role in the economy and foreign affairs.

His continued deprecations of American involvement in Vietnam and his outspoken support of French-Canadian separatists in Quebec alienated opinion in the U.S. and canada.
===Departure===
De Gaulle was reelected president for seven years by a small margin in 1965, and in 1967 elections his allies won a slimmest majority in the National Assembly. Then, in May 1968, opposition to De Gaulle suddenly crystallized. It was an age of wortldwide student demonstrations, nowhere more serious than in France.<ref> Jeremi Suri, ''Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente'' (2003); Stanley Hoffmann, "Confrontation in May 1968," '' Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 145-86. </ref> Student demonstrations against the government and labor union strikes coalesced to produce a nationwide strike and unrest that very nearly brought the government down. At a critical point the Général disappeared for 24 hours. He was not hiding; rather he was negotiating for army support to retake Paris in case the rebels seized the city. With the army's backing, de Gaulle confidently returned, rallied the conservative middle class, and called immediate elections. Taking a vigorous part in the campaign, De Gaulle defined the issue as a choice between himself and the Communists. Repelled by the violence and disorder, the French electorate returned the Gaullists to power with a large majority in the assembly.

De Gaulle's unexpected loss of power in 1969 was psychological for his temperament was marked by the awareness of national and personal greatness as well as the realization of his old age and failing health. Secondly it was personal regarding [[Georges Pompidou]] because de Gaulle could brook no rival and his initially self-effacing prime minister had grown so powerful that the Général replaced him in 1968 with Maurice Couve de Murville. It was constitutional, for de Gaulle's reliance on a referendum of 27 April 1969 regarding relatively minor issues of regionalization and senate reform was defeated at the polls by 53%-47%. The Général seized the opportunity and resigned for good the next day. He was succeeded by Pompidou, who won 58% of the vote by proclaiming himself de Gaulle's heir.<ref>Charles G. Cogan, "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power" ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199 </ref>

==Ideas and and memory==
The image of de Gaulle in France today is a great national hero--indeed a savior--honored by all parties. His vision of the grandeur of France is the national vision.<ref> Daniel J. Mahoney, "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (1994), pp. 157-173 </ref>

De Gaulle's political philosophy, with its use of concepts such as élan, will, instinct, heroism, and participation, reflected the influences of Charles Péguy (1873-1914), Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), and Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Portier (1997) finds that de Gaulle's central principles derived from his religious devotion to Catholicism. Some scholars have suggested that De Gaulle modeled his authoritarian approach on the political theories of [[Machiavelli]], [[Maurras]], and [[Napoleon]], yet the French president's regard for the sovereignty of the state undermines all such theories. A close comparison of the papal encyclicals of Paul VI, [[Pius XI]], John XXIII, and [[Pius XII]] with De Gaulle's own writings reveals the statesman's close alliance with the political position of the Vatican. Portier concludes that Gaullism is not a rigid authoritarianism; rather it is a profound concern for social justice, a belief in the primacy of central authority in conjunction with intermediary legislative bodies, and respect for popular consensus.<ref> Philippe Portier, "Le General De Gaulle et Le Catholicisme: Pour Une Autre Interpretation De La Pensee Gaullienne," [General De Gaulle and Catholicism: Regarding Another Interpretation of Gaullist Thought]. ''Revue Historique'' 1997 297(2): 533-562. Issn: 0035-3264 </ref>

Kuisel (1992) asks whether de Gaulle was "Anti-American," and answers yes, for the Général consistently and mightily struggled to upend an international order built by and for America. He attacked America's arrogance of power and led his nation toward a less cooperative posture toward Washington. Indeed he incited expressions of anti-Americanism among the French and deep down he shared a stereotype common among French intellectuals of American society as soulless, materialist, and ahistorical.<ref> Richard F. Kuisel, "Was De Gaulle Anti-American?" ''Tocqueville Review'' 1992 13(1): 21-32. Issn: 0730-479x </ref>
==Notable Quotes==
:''Faced with crisis, the man of character falls back on himself. He imposes his own stamp of action, takes responsibility for it, makes it his own.'' <ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-faced-with-crisis-the-man-of-character-070486.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''How can you govern a country with 365 varieties of cheese?''<ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-how-can-anyone-govern-a-nation-070490.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war!''<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/66/61/15961.html</ref>

:''You start out giving your hat, then you give your coat, then your shirt, then your skin and finally your soul.'' (On dealing with the Soviet Union)<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/59/59.html</ref>

:''You may be sure that the [[Americans]] will commit all the stupidities they can think of, plus some that are beyond imagination.'' (On U.S. entry into the [[Vietnam War]])<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/68/68.html</ref>

===Quotes about de Gaulle===
:''The hardest cross I have to bear is the [[Cross of Lorraine]].'' —attributed, falsely, to [[Winston Churchill]] (it was really uttered by Churchill's envoy to France)<ref>http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=112</ref>

==Further reading==
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography,
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]

==Detailed bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography, based on hundreds of interviews.
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
===Politics===
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cameron, David R. and Hofferbert, Richard I. "Continuity and Change in Gaullism: the General's Legacy." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 1973 17(1): 77-98. Issn: 0092-5853, a statistcial analysis of the Gaullist voting coalition in elections 1958-73 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0092-5853%28197302%2917%3A1%3C77%3ACACIGT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N
Abstract in Jstor]
* Cogan, Charles G. "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199, re: 1969 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28199201%2927%3A1%3C167%3ATBGDGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Furniss,Edgar J., Jr. ''De Gaulle and the French Army.'' (1964)
* Gough, Hugh and Horne, John, eds. ''De Gaulle and Twentieth-Century France.'' (1994). 158 pp. essays by experts
* Hauss, Charles. ''Politics in Gaullist France: Coping with Chaos'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23380015 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/14783192 online edition]
* Jackson, Julian. "General de Gaulle and His Enemies: Anti-Gaullism in France Since 1940," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 9 (1999), pp. 43-65 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%281999%296%3A9%3C43%3AGDGAHE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Merom, Gil. "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999), Vol. 25, Issue 2; in [[EBSCO]]
* Northcutt, Wayne. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946-1991'' (1992)
* Pierce, Roy, "De Gaulle and the RPF--A Post-Mortem," ''The Journal of Politics'' Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1954), pp. 96-119 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816%28195402%2916%3A1%3C96%3ADGATRP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Rioux, Jean-Pierre, and Godfrey Rogers. ''The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1989)
* Shepard, Todd. ''The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France.'' (2006). 288 pp.
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
===Foreign policy===
* Bozo, Frédéric. ''Two Strategies for Europe: De Gaulle, the United States and the Atlantic Alliance'' (2000)
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Logevall, Fredrik. "De Gaulle, Neutralization, and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963-1964," ''The Pacific Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp. 69-102 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8684%28199202%2961%3A1%3C69%3ADGNAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Mahan, E. ''Kennedy, De Gaulle and Western Europe.'' (2002). 229 pp.
* Mangold, Peter. ''The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle.'' (2006). 275 pp.
* Paxton, Robert O. and Wahl, Nicholas, eds. ''De Gaulle and the United States: A Centennial Reassessment.'' (1994). 433 pp.
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''The History Teacher'' Vol. 1, No. 4 (May, 1968), pp. 5-15 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745%28196805%291%3A4%3C5%3ADGATUS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Vaïsse, Maurice. ''La Grandeur: Politique Etrangère du Général de Gaulle, 1958-1969'' (1997)
* Varat, Benjamin E. "A Clash of Kings: De Gaulle, Kennedy, and the Battle for Western Europe, 1958-1963." PhD dissertation Boston U. 2006. 356 pp. DAI 2006 67(1): 295-A. DA3202578 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* White, Dorothy Shipley. ''Black Africa and de Gaulle: From the French Empire to Independence.'' (1979). 314 pp.

===Ideas and memory===
* Cerny, Philip G. ''The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy.'' (1980). 319 pp.
* Clague, Monique. "Conceptions of Leadership: Charles de Gaulle and Max Weber," ''Political Theory'' Vol. 3, No. 4 (Nov., 1975), pp. 423-440 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0090-5917%28197511%293%3A4%3C423%3ACOLCDG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Gordon, Philip H. ''A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107405557 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Hero as History: De Gaulle's War Memoirs" in Hoffman ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 187-201 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14783192# online edition]
* Johnson, Douglas. "The Political Principles of General de Gaulle," ''International Affairs'' Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1965), pp. 650-662 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196510%2941%3A4%3C650%3ATPPOGD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Mahoney, Daniel J. ''De Gaulle: Statesmanship, Grandeur, and Modern Democracy.'' (1996). 188 pp. intellectual history
* Mahoney, Daniel J. "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 157-173 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3497%28199423%2927%3A1%3C157%3AA%22OCTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in JSTOR]
* Pedley, Alan. '' As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle'' (1996) 226pp
===World War II===
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) 482pp
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942-1944," ''The Journal of Military History'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 49-64 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718%28199701%2961%3A1%3C49%3AUSMAAF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle

===Primary sources===
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor'' (1971)
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''The Enemy's House Divided'' (2002), translation of ''La Discorde chez l'ennemi'' (1924), analysis of Germany's mistakes in World War I

====notes====
<references/>

==See Also==

[[Gaullism]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaulle, Charles de}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category: World War II Commanders]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Catholic Politicians]]

Charles de Gaulle

2009-12-29T20:38:27Z

Levitican: /* Resistance */

'''Charles de Gaulle''' (1890-1970) was the dominant military and political leader of France, 1940-1969. He was a conservative in the traditionalist sense, and helped restore the leadership of conservatives and Catholics while weakening the Communists and socialists. He was notoriously hostile to the "Anglo-Saxons" (that is the British and the Americans), and pulled France out of NATO.

Fleeing the victorious German invaders in 1940, he rejected the new [[Vichy regime]] that allied itself to Germany. Général de Gaulle set up his base in London, proclaimed himself the incarnation of France, created the Free French movement, rallied the oversees colonies (especially in Africa), organized the Resistance, and tried, but failed, to gain full recognition from the British and Americans. A firm proponent of democracy, he destroyed the vestiges of the totalitarian [[Vichy regime]]. He retired from office in 1946, but returned in 1958 as France verged on civil war over the Algeria crisis. As president (1958-69) during the Fifth Republic, he revised the constitution to provide for presidential control of foreign and military policy, granted independence to Algeria and the African colonies, and restored the nation's economic health. Forging a close bond with Germany, he sought to dominate the European Common Market by vetoing British entry and holding the U.S. at arms length. Exhausted politically and emotionally, he finally left office in 1969. His reputation as the strongest and greatest of French leaders since [[Napoleon]] continues into the 21st century.
==Career==
De Gaulle was born in Lille on November 22, 1890. His family moved to Paris in 1895, where his father became professor of philosophy in the Jesuit College of Paris. The father inculcated the son with a profound belief in the glory of traditional Catholic France. Charles received a rigorous classical education that included a year 1907-08 at a Jesuit college in Belgium. He matriculated at the Saint Cyr military academy in 1908; in 1911 he was commissioned in the French army.

At the battle of Douaumont in the Verdun campaign in February-March 1916 Captain de Gaulle led the 10th Battalion of the 33d Infantry Regiment; he was then assigned to relieve the 110th Regiment from its position at the Verdun front. On 2 March 1916 his company came under attack from the Germans and despite his much praised bravery, he was badly injured and was captured, spending 32 months in a prisoner of war camp.

After the war France set up a military mission to support [[Poland history|newly independent Poland]] by advising and training its army. In 1919, Captain de Gaulle volunteered for service in Poland and spent a year teaching at the Infantry School of the Polish army; he became strategic adviser to Polish general Edward Rydz-Smigly when France decided to actively aid the Polish counterattack against Russia. Back in France he taught military history at Saint Cyr, served as aide to Marshal [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], and wrote several books on military strategy. His book ''The Army of the Future'' (1934), daringly proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on the wholesale use of tanks. Ironically the German panzer units, so effectively employed in the invasion of France in 1940, utilized similar theories, while the French dispersed and wasted their armor. As the French armies collapsed in spring 1940 de Gaulle was made brigadier general<ref> He wore his uniform with the one-star insignia of a brigadier general for the remainder of his life.</ref> and then undersecretary of war in [[Paul Reynaud]]'s cabinet. The elderly Marshal Pétain now came to power in a regime headquartered in the resort town of Vichy. Pétain, venerated as the great hero of World War I, not only admitted defeat but accepted the idea of permanent subordination to Germany. Pétain wanted France to be welcomed by Berlin as the most useful and collaborationist of the nations of Europe, which he thought Germany would long control.

==Resistance==
De Gaulle refused to accept defeat and subservience to Germany. Resistance was possible because the air force and navy were intact (virtually the entire French Navy having 'surrendered' to Britain), as was the entire overseas empire; Britain was an ally and increasingly so too was the United States. As Pétain's new Vichy government prepared to sign a humiliating armistice on 22 June 1940, de Gaulle flew to London and on 18 June in disobedience of orders. As a rebel he issued his famous "Apple," proclaiming "France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war!" and calling French patriots to resistance.<ref> Jean-Louis Cremieux-Brilhac, ''La France Libre de l'appel du 18 juin a la Liberation'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1996) </ref> De Gaulle's forces by November 1940, numbered 35,000 troops and twenty warships; several overseas colonies had rallied to his banner, although his forces were defeated in September in an attempt, with British aid, to seize Dakar, Senegal.

In London in Sept. 1941 de Gaulle formed the free French National Council, with himself as president. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to Communists.<ref>The Communists were controlled by Moscow, which was allied with Germany in 1940. They came into opposition only when Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. De Gaulle's policy became one of friendship directly with Moscow.</ref> By early 1942, the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base. In November 1942 the Americans invaded French North Africa. They favored General Henri Giraud, the High Commissioner of North Africa. But de Gaulle seized power from Giraud, who resigned in late 1942. De Gaulle took supreme command of all French forces in April 1944. Meanwhile, all the French colonies except Japanese-occupied Indochina came under Gaullist control, as did Corsica. Although Churchill was vacillating, his top aide [[Anthony Eden]] was a strong supporter of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's repeated protests against all violations of French sovereignty, real or imagined, irked the Americans and were largely ignored by the British. His imperial personality and humorless demands especially annoyed President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].

De Gaulle in turn was exasperated at the Americans, who were more willing to work with Vichy or Giraud than with him:
:The United States, delighting in her resources, feeling that she no longer had within herself sufficient scope for her energies, wishing to help those who were in misery or bondage the world over, yielded in her turn to that taste for intervention in which the instinct for domination cloaked itself.<ref> ''The War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle,''(1959) vol. 2, p. 88 </ref>

It turn [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] distrusted him. De Gaulle removed French forces from the planned invasion of Normandy in June 1944. He was not at D-Day and was excluded from all the top-level conferences. The Allies, however, finally gave his regime de jure recognition and allowed his armies to enter France and to be the first to enter Paris after the Germans fled in August 1944. French armies, 1.3 million strong, under de Gaulle as provisional president, thereupon fought alongside the Allies. As a result France was given an occupation zone in Germany, and a permanent seat on the [[United Nations]] Security Council, with a veto.

==Fourth Republic: 1945-1958==
As the war ended the Resistance coalition fell apart. De Gaulle's advocacy of a strong executive power was rejected by the voters, who in late 1945 adopted a constitution for the Fourth Republic that resembled that of the discredited Third Republic. De Gaulle resigned the provisional presidency in January 1946, saying that he did not wish "to preside, powerless, over the powerlessness of the state." In 1947 he resigned all his offices, refusing to be a candidate in the presidential election. "How can anyone govern a nation that has two hundred and forty-six different kinds of cheese?", he quipped.<ref> Quoted in ''Newsweek'' (Oct. 1, 1962)</ref> In retirement at the village of Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, he created a new conservative party, RPF, Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People), which only lasted until 1953. He then focused on his great war memoirs, ''L'Appel'' (1954) (translated into English as "The Call to Honor," 1955); ''L'Unité,'' (1956) (translated as ''Unity'', 1959); and ''Le Salut'', (1959) (translated as "Salvation", 1960).

==Fifth Republic: 1958-1969==
===1958 crisis===
For four years France had fought a civil war in Algeria against the FLN, which demanded independence. The Frenchmen who lived in Algeria, their allies among the Arabs, and powerful elements of the military inside France, rejected the FLN and demanded that Algeria remain integrated into France. They insisted so vehemently they were prepared to overthrow the government in Paris if it wavered.

In May, 1958, Frenchmen in Algeria revolted, throwing France into turmoil that verged on civil war. Rebels comprised young nationalists, supported by the large planters, army officers, and other proponents of integration of the Muslim population with France, feared a new government in Paris would make concessions to the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN). The rebels proclaimed a committee of public safety; the revolt spread to Corsica. In Paris the National Assembly voted emergency powers to newly elected Premier Pierre Pflimlin. However only de Gaulle could solve the crisis, for he had the support of the navy, the police, and such prominent politicians as Socialist Guy Mollet and Moderate Republican chief Georges Bidault. Pflimlin resigned and President René Coty summoned de Gaulle as prime minister. The National Assembly, under threat that parachutists would seize Paris if it refused, voted 329-224 to invest de Gaulle with extraordinary powers for six months beginning June 1, 1958; the National Assembly then went home and de Gaulle took charge. When a new constitution took effect, he became the president of the Fifth Republic.
====Interpretations====
These uprisings provided the long-awaited chance to supporters of Général de Gaulle, who sought a new regime in which the executive power would be strengthened. Underlying the views of Gaullists such as Jacques Soustelle, Michel Debré, and Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a faith in French grandeur, a new nationalism which transformed itself into a desire for order and maintenance of the French Empire. These interests momentarily coincided with those of the Algerian rebels who feared Anglo-American mediation of the Algerian rebellion.

Gaullists have seen this critical episode as the result of the preplanned statesmanship of de Gaulle. Their "grand design" thesis includes three key arguments. First is the claim that de Gaulle decided to give up Algeria because he concluded that keeping in the face of a widespread popular anti-French revolt was too costly economically and against France's ideal policy of a focus on Europe. Second, Gaullists argue his general objective ending the Algerian burden was planned well before his return to power in 1958. Third they claim that what seemed an erratic, slow, and indecisive progress toward Algerian independence was in reality de Gaulle's well-orchestrated, consistent, and deceptive policy calculated to overcome the sentiments of the French people toward Algeria.<ref> Gil Meriam, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999); De Gaulle, ''Memoirs of Hope'' (1971) p. 84; Philip G. Cerny, ''The Politics of Grandeur'' (1980), pp 61, 145; Bernard Ledwidge, ''De Gaulle'' (1982), pp 244-45, 257; Philip M. Williams, ''Politics and Society in de Gaulle's Republic'' (1971), p. 28.</ref>

Other historians argue that the Général had no long-term plan, and probably did not want independence for Algeria. Thus French scholars Raoul Girardet and Jacques Julliard argue de Gaulle's Algerian policy was a set of unanticipated concessions imposed by events. They have an alternative "juggler" thesis that does not attribute harmony or continuity to de Gaulle's policy, nor does it try to explain the lack of discernible consistency in the policy by attributing cunning Machiavelism to de Gaulle. Instead it considers the policy as the result of an erratic improvisation.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref> Merom says Algeria was not doomed by the economic realities because the cost was tolerable--between 50% to 60% of the defense budget, or 10% to 15% percent of the total budget in Paris. White the French indeed hads a severe budget crisis verging on bankruptcy, Algeria was only a small part of it. More important was spending on infrastructure renovation, industrial and agricultural modernization, nuclear energy, and expansion of education, and welfare entitlements. On the other hand military spending was helping the economy. Two years into de Gaulle's new regime, the financial crisis was over and the economy was in fine shape, notes Merom.

Merom says the second argument, that de Gaulle's policy was slow, gradual, and deceptive because he had to overcome a strong public sentiment in favor of keeping Algeria, is likewise invalid according to public opinion polls. They show opinion was evenly split; indeed, over 40% of the French people were alienated from core ideas of the old policy of no-recognition, no-negotiations, and no-compromise with the Arab rebels of the FLN. De Gaulle's policy of negotiation had a firm grounding in public opinion, though not a clear majority.

Merom agrees that de Gaulle's domineering manner and decisive style, the constitutional power he skillfully amassed as President of the Fifth Republic, his reputation as France's wartime savior, and the confidence vested in him by the people and the military, were indispensable qualities for a leader who wished to lead France out of Algeria. Merom concludes that his basic objective in Algeria was moderately conservative. He disliked the harsh military tactics in use and wanted more collaborative relations between France and the Arabs, but he did not want Algeria to become independent. Only when he realized his goals were impossible, Merom argues, did he start to compromise. Even then he tried to preserve as many French interests in Algeria as possible. By 1960, after suppressing another revolt, restoring the health of the national economy, and seeing his army drive the FLN almost to extinction, he realized the only long-term solution was a genuine Algerian independence, and he negotiated it.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref>

===Domestic politics===
In 1958-59 de Gaulle concentrated on political reform, a new the constitution for the Fifth Republic, financial reform, economic recovery, and search for a solution to the Algerian question. A new constitution that gave the president control of foreign and military policy was adopted in a referendum on Sept. 28, 1958. At last executive power stood above legislative authority. President de Gaulle, inaugurated on Jan. 8, 1959, could rule by decree in emergency, appoint ministers without responsibility to the legislature, and dissolve the legislature whose regular sessions were reduced to five months per year.
====Economy====
De Gaulle's financial and economic program reflected his desire for stability, industrial expansion, and the need to prepare France for membership in the European Common Market. He devalued the franc to 492 to the dollar, raised taxes on high incomes, wines, liquors, and tobacco, and reduced pensions and subsidies. A new franc, at 5 per U.S. dollar, facilitated commercial transactions and international trade; it remained strong. He undertook a 25% increase in state investment in modernizing industry. By mid-1960 the French economy was in better shape than at any time since 1914.
====Algeria====
Against the unyielding Algerian Arab revolution De Gaulle made only slow progress. His middle course between independence and continued colonial status cost him support among those groups that helped to bring him to power, the European settler community and the army. In September 1959, the Général offered Algeria a three-way choice between integration with France, autonomy, and independence. The settlers counterattacked with another uprising in January 1960, which failed to overthrow De Gaulle. In response, de Gaulle assumed extraordinary powers, restored order, and replaced ranking officers in Algeria with Gaullist or apolitical officers. This purge proved insufficient, for in April 1961 some military officers engineered an abortive coup. He once again assumed extraordinary powers and systematically removed disloyal elements from the army command.

Finally the president decided to grant Algerian independence and end the cancer once and for all. Mutual concessions were made and the Evian Accords on Mar. 18, 1962 began a cease-fire with the FLN forces. There emerged an independent Algeria, closely associated with France; in return for certain guarantees for settlers and economic privileges, continued French aid was promised. Large numbers of Algerian Arabs, who had supported Paris, fled to France, and many settlers did so also.

At the same time France gave independence to most of its overseas colonies, although tying them closely to France with economic and military pacts.

===Foreign policy===
====Objectives====
Restoring French greatness was his highest priority. That required a strong army, rockets and a space program, and especially nuclear weapons, explaining, "No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent."<ref>Quoted in ''New York Times Magazine'' (May 12, 1968)</ref>

After a landslide victoiry in parliamentary election in 1962, De Gaulle turned to foreign policy. He held that Western Europe as a whole, with France in the lead, should follow an independent military and economic path, separate specifically from that of the United States and Britain, both of which he distrusted. De Gaulle held that American nuclear weapons in Europe made the area more susceptible to Soviet attack, and he doubted any guarantees that the U.S. would defend Europe. Economically, de Gaulle pressed for the return to the gold standard in international trade and the rejection of sterling and the dollar as reserve currencies, especially because both the U.S. and the British economies suffered severe balance of payments deficits.

====Common Market====
De Gaulle vetoed Britain's application to join the Common Market (European Economic Community or EEC, a forerunner of the European Union) in 1963, saying he wanted to avoid a loss of cohesion in the organization and to keep it from becoming a dominion of the United States. He said Britain was not sufficiently European and its entry into the EEC would make the EEC too dependent on the United States. The De Gaulle blocked a second petition by Britain in 1967. Britain was finally admitted after de Gaulle' death. Analysts emphasized that de Gaulle saw Britain as insular and maritime rather than continental. De Gaulle was suspicious of British intentions in Europe, yet he admired Britain's political stability and past accomplishments. One military factor in de Gaulle's opposition was Britain's deal with the U.S. through NATO involving Polaris nuclear missile technology. De Gaulle wanted a strong Europe free of any dependence on the United States, while British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] felt Britain's "special relationship" with the United States more important to its future.<ref> Richard Davis, "'Why Did the General Do It?' De Gaulle, Polaris and the French Veto of Britain's Application to Join the Common Market." ''European History Quarterly'' 1998 28(3): 373-397. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

====Military policy====
During the Berlin crisis from 1958 to 1962. De Gaulle took advantage to create an independent force de frappe--that is, nuclear weapons and bombers--in order to reassert France's role as a powerful world leader. De Gaulle enthusiastically supported American General Lauris Norstad's proposal in 1959 to establish a top secret quadripartite Allied military planning group (LIVE OAK), hoping that it would strengthen France's position and weaken US domination of NATO. De Gaulle created a bilateral alliance with West German chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], which tended to upset the delicate diplomatic balance of NATO. His supporters rationalized France's cavalier position by arguing that independent French nuclear capability would provide a second center of deterrence against the Soviet Union.

De Gaulle forced a serious clash with Britain regarding the NATO alliance. By opposing British attempts to incorporate Europe in a broader transatlantic economic, political, and military alliance, de Gaulle hoped to create a chance for France to become what she ceased to be since Waterloo; the first in the world through driving a wedge between Europe, on one hand, and Britain and the United States on the other. Initially successful in isolating Britain, particularly through France's veto power over the European Economic Community (EEC), de Gaulle sought to further his country's status through a critique of, and withdrawal from, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The move backfired, however, allowing British foreign policy to isolate France and de Gaulle, hold NATO together, and eventually led to British inclusion in the EEC by other European members to counter France's disruptive behavior. In 1967, as in 1961-63, the French were determined to preserve their position of leadership within the EEC, and this was the reason for de Gaulle's second veto of Britain's application for membership. French diplomacy was based on the need to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. Leadership within the community was the foundation of France's international status.<ref> James Ellison, "Separated by the Atlantic: the British and De Gaulle, 1958-1967." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2006 17(4): 853-870. Issn: 0959-2296 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Helen Parr, "Saving the Community: the French Response to Britain's Second EEC Application in 1967." ''Cold War History'' 2006 6(4): 425-454. Issn: 1468-2745 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In 1966 de Gaulle's decision to withdraw French forces from NATO (but to remain nominally a member) paradoxically reinforced the cohesion of NATO, leaving the U.S. wholly dominant in the organization. Meanwhile he rebuilt the French army, restoring morale giving it a new and modern role in the economy and foreign affairs.

His continued deprecations of American involvement in Vietnam and his outspoken support of French-Canadian separatists in Quebec alienated opinion in the U.S. and canada.
===Departure===
De Gaulle was reelected president for seven years by a small margin in 1965, and in 1967 elections his allies won a slimmest majority in the National Assembly. Then, in May 1968, opposition to De Gaulle suddenly crystallized. It was an age of wortldwide student demonstrations, nowhere more serious than in France.<ref> Jeremi Suri, ''Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente'' (2003); Stanley Hoffmann, "Confrontation in May 1968," '' Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 145-86. </ref> Student demonstrations against the government and labor union strikes coalesced to produce a nationwide strike and unrest that very nearly brought the government down. At a critical point the Général disappeared for 24 hours. He was not hiding; rather he was negotiating for army support to retake Paris in case the rebels seized the city. With the army's backing, de Gaulle confidently returned, rallied the conservative middle class, and called immediate elections. Taking a vigorous part in the campaign, De Gaulle defined the issue as a choice between himself and the Communists. Repelled by the violence and disorder, the French electorate returned the Gaullists to power with a large majority in the assembly.

De Gaulle's unexpected loss of power in 1969 was psychological for his temperament was marked by the awareness of national and personal greatness as well as the realization of his old age and failing health. Secondly it was personal regarding [[Georges Pompidou]] because de Gaulle could brook no rival and his initially self-effacing prime minister had grown so powerful that the Général replaced him in 1968 with Maurice Couve de Murville. It was constitutional, for de Gaulle's reliance on a referendum of 27 April 1969 regarding relatively minor issues of regionalization and senate reform was defeated at the polls by 53%-47%. The Général seized the opportunity and resigned for good the next day. He was succeeded by Pompidou, who won 58% of the vote by proclaiming himself de Gaulle's heir.<ref>Charles G. Cogan, "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power" ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199 </ref>

==Ideas and and memory==
The image of de Gaulle in France today is a great national hero--indeed a savior--honored by all parties. His vision of the grandeur of France is the national vision.<ref> Daniel J. Mahoney, "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (1994), pp. 157-173 </ref>

De Gaulle's political philosophy, with its use of concepts such as élan, will, instinct, heroism, and participation, reflected the influences of Charles Péguy (1873-1914), Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), and Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Portier (1997) finds that de Gaulle's central principles derived from his religious devotion to Catholicism. Some scholars have suggested that De Gaulle modeled his authoritarian approach on the political theories of [[Machiavelli]], [[Maurras]], and [[Napoleon]], yet the French president's regard for the sovereignty of the state undermines all such theories. A close comparison of the papal encyclicals of Paul VI, [[Pius XI]], John XXIII, and [[Pius XII]] with De Gaulle's own writings reveals the statesman's close alliance with the political position of the Vatican. Portier concludes that Gaullism is not a rigid authoritarianism; rather it is a profound concern for social justice, a belief in the primacy of central authority in conjunction with intermediary legislative bodies, and respect for popular consensus.<ref> Philippe Portier, "Le General De Gaulle et Le Catholicisme: Pour Une Autre Interpretation De La Pensee Gaullienne," [General De Gaulle and Catholicism: Regarding Another Interpretation of Gaullist Thought]. ''Revue Historique'' 1997 297(2): 533-562. Issn: 0035-3264 </ref>

Kuisel (1992) asks whether de Gaulle was "Anti-American," and answers yes, for the Général consistently and mightily struggled to upend an international order built by and for America. He attacked America's arrogance of power and led his nation toward a less cooperative posture toward Washington. Indeed he incited expressions of anti-Americanism among the French and deep down he shared a stereotype common among French intellectuals of American society as soulless, materialist, and ahistorical.<ref> Richard F. Kuisel, "Was De Gaulle Anti-American?" ''Tocqueville Review'' 1992 13(1): 21-32. Issn: 0730-479x </ref>
==Notable Quotes==
:''Faced with crisis, the man of character falls back on himself. He imposes his own stamp of action, takes responsibility for it, makes it his own.'' <ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-faced-with-crisis-the-man-of-character-070486.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''How can you govern a country with 365 varieties of cheese?''<ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-how-can-anyone-govern-a-nation-070490.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war!''<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/66/61/15961.html</ref>

:''You start out giving your hat, then you give your coat, then your shirt, then your skin and finally your soul.'' (On dealing with the Soviet Union)<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/59/59.html</ref>

:''You may be sure that the [[Americans]] will commit all the stupidities they can think of, plus some that are beyond imagination.'' (On U.S. entry into the [[Vietnam War]])<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/68/68.html</ref>

===Quotes about de Gaulle===
:''The hardest cross I have to bear is the [[Cross of Lorraine]].'' —attributed, falsely, to [[Winston Churchill]] (it was really uttered by Churchill's envoy to France)<ref>http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=112</ref>

==Further reading==
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography,
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]

==Detailed bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography, based on hundreds of interviews.
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
===Politics===
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cameron, David R. and Hofferbert, Richard I. "Continuity and Change in Gaullism: the General's Legacy." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 1973 17(1): 77-98. Issn: 0092-5853, a statistcial analysis of the Gaullist voting coalition in elections 1958-73 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0092-5853%28197302%2917%3A1%3C77%3ACACIGT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N
Abstract in Jstor]
* Cogan, Charles G. "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199, re: 1969 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28199201%2927%3A1%3C167%3ATBGDGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Furniss,Edgar J., Jr. ''De Gaulle and the French Army.'' (1964)
* Gough, Hugh and Horne, John, eds. ''De Gaulle and Twentieth-Century France.'' (1994). 158 pp. essays by experts
* Hauss, Charles. ''Politics in Gaullist France: Coping with Chaos'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23380015 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/14783192 online edition]
* Jackson, Julian. "General de Gaulle and His Enemies: Anti-Gaullism in France Since 1940," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 9 (1999), pp. 43-65 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%281999%296%3A9%3C43%3AGDGAHE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Merom, Gil. "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999), Vol. 25, Issue 2; in [[EBSCO]]
* Northcutt, Wayne. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946-1991'' (1992)
* Pierce, Roy, "De Gaulle and the RPF--A Post-Mortem," ''The Journal of Politics'' Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1954), pp. 96-119 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816%28195402%2916%3A1%3C96%3ADGATRP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Rioux, Jean-Pierre, and Godfrey Rogers. ''The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1989)
* Shepard, Todd. ''The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France.'' (2006). 288 pp.
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
===Foreign policy===
* Bozo, Frédéric. ''Two Strategies for Europe: De Gaulle, the United States and the Atlantic Alliance'' (2000)
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Logevall, Fredrik. "De Gaulle, Neutralization, and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963-1964," ''The Pacific Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp. 69-102 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8684%28199202%2961%3A1%3C69%3ADGNAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Mahan, E. ''Kennedy, De Gaulle and Western Europe.'' (2002). 229 pp.
* Mangold, Peter. ''The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle.'' (2006). 275 pp.
* Paxton, Robert O. and Wahl, Nicholas, eds. ''De Gaulle and the United States: A Centennial Reassessment.'' (1994). 433 pp.
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''The History Teacher'' Vol. 1, No. 4 (May, 1968), pp. 5-15 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745%28196805%291%3A4%3C5%3ADGATUS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Vaïsse, Maurice. ''La Grandeur: Politique Etrangère du Général de Gaulle, 1958-1969'' (1997)
* Varat, Benjamin E. "A Clash of Kings: De Gaulle, Kennedy, and the Battle for Western Europe, 1958-1963." PhD dissertation Boston U. 2006. 356 pp. DAI 2006 67(1): 295-A. DA3202578 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* White, Dorothy Shipley. ''Black Africa and de Gaulle: From the French Empire to Independence.'' (1979). 314 pp.

===Ideas and memory===
* Cerny, Philip G. ''The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy.'' (1980). 319 pp.
* Clague, Monique. "Conceptions of Leadership: Charles de Gaulle and Max Weber," ''Political Theory'' Vol. 3, No. 4 (Nov., 1975), pp. 423-440 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0090-5917%28197511%293%3A4%3C423%3ACOLCDG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Gordon, Philip H. ''A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107405557 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Hero as History: De Gaulle's War Memoirs" in Hoffman ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 187-201 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14783192# online edition]
* Johnson, Douglas. "The Political Principles of General de Gaulle," ''International Affairs'' Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1965), pp. 650-662 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196510%2941%3A4%3C650%3ATPPOGD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Mahoney, Daniel J. ''De Gaulle: Statesmanship, Grandeur, and Modern Democracy.'' (1996). 188 pp. intellectual history
* Mahoney, Daniel J. "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 157-173 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3497%28199423%2927%3A1%3C157%3AA%22OCTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in JSTOR]
* Pedley, Alan. '' As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle'' (1996) 226pp
===World War II===
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) 482pp
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942-1944," ''The Journal of Military History'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 49-64 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718%28199701%2961%3A1%3C49%3AUSMAAF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle

===Primary sources===
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor'' (1971)
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''The Enemy's House Divided'' (2002), translation of ''La Discorde chez l'ennemi'' (1924), analysis of Germany's mistakes in World War I

====notes====
<references/>

==See Also==

[[Gaullism]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaulle, Charles de}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category: World War II Commanders]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Catholic Politicians]]

Charles de Gaulle

2009-12-29T20:36:27Z

Levitican:

'''Charles de Gaulle''' (1890-1970) was the dominant military and political leader of France, 1940-1969. He was a conservative in the traditionalist sense, and helped restore the leadership of conservatives and Catholics while weakening the Communists and socialists. He was notoriously hostile to the "Anglo-Saxons" (that is the British and the Americans), and pulled France out of NATO.

Fleeing the victorious German invaders in 1940, he rejected the new [[Vichy regime]] that allied itself to Germany. Général de Gaulle set up his base in London, proclaimed himself the incarnation of France, created the Free French movement, rallied the oversees colonies (especially in Africa), organized the Resistance, and tried, but failed, to gain full recognition from the British and Americans. A firm proponent of democracy, he destroyed the vestiges of the totalitarian [[Vichy regime]]. He retired from office in 1946, but returned in 1958 as France verged on civil war over the Algeria crisis. As president (1958-69) during the Fifth Republic, he revised the constitution to provide for presidential control of foreign and military policy, granted independence to Algeria and the African colonies, and restored the nation's economic health. Forging a close bond with Germany, he sought to dominate the European Common Market by vetoing British entry and holding the U.S. at arms length. Exhausted politically and emotionally, he finally left office in 1969. His reputation as the strongest and greatest of French leaders since [[Napoleon]] continues into the 21st century.
==Career==
De Gaulle was born in Lille on November 22, 1890. His family moved to Paris in 1895, where his father became professor of philosophy in the Jesuit College of Paris. The father inculcated the son with a profound belief in the glory of traditional Catholic France. Charles received a rigorous classical education that included a year 1907-08 at a Jesuit college in Belgium. He matriculated at the Saint Cyr military academy in 1908; in 1911 he was commissioned in the French army.

At the battle of Douaumont in the Verdun campaign in February-March 1916 Captain de Gaulle led the 10th Battalion of the 33d Infantry Regiment; he was then assigned to relieve the 110th Regiment from its position at the Verdun front. On 2 March 1916 his company came under attack from the Germans and despite his much praised bravery, he was badly injured and was captured, spending 32 months in a prisoner of war camp.

After the war France set up a military mission to support [[Poland history|newly independent Poland]] by advising and training its army. In 1919, Captain de Gaulle volunteered for service in Poland and spent a year teaching at the Infantry School of the Polish army; he became strategic adviser to Polish general Edward Rydz-Smigly when France decided to actively aid the Polish counterattack against Russia. Back in France he taught military history at Saint Cyr, served as aide to Marshal [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], and wrote several books on military strategy. His book ''The Army of the Future'' (1934), daringly proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on the wholesale use of tanks. Ironically the German panzer units, so effectively employed in the invasion of France in 1940, utilized similar theories, while the French dispersed and wasted their armor. As the French armies collapsed in spring 1940 de Gaulle was made brigadier general<ref> He wore his uniform with the one-star insignia of a brigadier general for the remainder of his life.</ref> and then undersecretary of war in [[Paul Reynaud]]'s cabinet. The elderly Marshal Pétain now came to power in a regime headquartered in the resort town of Vichy. Pétain, venerated as the great hero of World War I, not only admitted defeat but accepted the idea of permanent subordination to Germany. Pétain wanted France to be welcomed by Berlin as the most useful and collaborationist of the nations of Europe, which he thought Germany would long control.

==Resistance==
De Gaulle refused to accept defeat and subservience to Germany. Resistance was possible because the air force and navy were intact, as was the entire overseas empire; Britain was an ally and increasingly so too was the United States. As Pétain's new Vichy government prepared to sign a humiliating armistice on 22 June 1940, de Gaulle flew to London and on 18 June in disobedience of orders. As a rebel he issued his famous "Apple," proclaiming "France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war!" and calling French patriots to resistance.<ref> Jean-Louis Cremieux-Brilhac, ''La France Libre de l'appel du 18 juin a la Liberation'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1996) </ref> De Gaulle's forces by November 1940, numbered 35,000 troops and twenty warships; several overseas colonies had rallied to his banner, although his forces were defeated in September in an attempt, with British aid, to seize Dakar, Senegal.

In London in Sept. 1941 de Gaulle formed the free French National Council, with himself as president. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to Communists.<ref>The Communists were controlled by Moscow, which was allied with Germany in 1940. They came into opposition only when Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. De Gaulle's policy became one of friendship directly with Moscow.</ref> By early 1942, the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base. In November 1942 the Americans invaded French North Africa. They favored General Henri Giraud, the High Commissioner of North Africa. But de Gaulle seized power from Giraud, who resigned in late 1942. De Gaulle took supreme command of all French forces in April 1944. Meanwhile, all the French colonies except Japanese-occupied Indochina came under Gaullist control, as did Corsica. Although Churchill was vacillating, his top aide [[Anthony Eden]] was a strong supporter of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's repeated protests against all violations of French sovereignty, real or imagined, irked the Americans and were largely ignored by the British. His imperial personality and humorless demands especially annoyed President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].

De Gaulle in turn was exasperated at the Americans, who were more willing to work with Vichy or Giraud than with him:
:The United States, delighting in her resources, feeling that she no longer had within herself sufficient scope for her energies, wishing to help those who were in misery or bondage the world over, yielded in her turn to that taste for intervention in which the instinct for domination cloaked itself.<ref> ''The War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle,''(1959) vol. 2, p. 88 </ref>

It turn [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] distrusted him. De Gaulle removed French forces from the planned invasion of Normandy in June 1944. He was not at D-Day and was excluded from all the top-level conferences. The Allies, however, finally gave his regime de jure recognition and allowed his armies to enter France and to be the first to enter Paris after the Germans fled in August 1944. French armies, 1.3 million strong, under de Gaulle as provisional president, thereupon fought alongside the Allies. As a result France was given an occupation zone in Germany, and a permanent seat on the [[United Nations]] Security Council, with a veto.

==Fourth Republic: 1945-1958==
As the war ended the Resistance coalition fell apart. De Gaulle's advocacy of a strong executive power was rejected by the voters, who in late 1945 adopted a constitution for the Fourth Republic that resembled that of the discredited Third Republic. De Gaulle resigned the provisional presidency in January 1946, saying that he did not wish "to preside, powerless, over the powerlessness of the state." In 1947 he resigned all his offices, refusing to be a candidate in the presidential election. "How can anyone govern a nation that has two hundred and forty-six different kinds of cheese?", he quipped.<ref> Quoted in ''Newsweek'' (Oct. 1, 1962)</ref> In retirement at the village of Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, he created a new conservative party, RPF, Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People), which only lasted until 1953. He then focused on his great war memoirs, ''L'Appel'' (1954) (translated into English as "The Call to Honor," 1955); ''L'Unité,'' (1956) (translated as ''Unity'', 1959); and ''Le Salut'', (1959) (translated as "Salvation", 1960).

==Fifth Republic: 1958-1969==
===1958 crisis===
For four years France had fought a civil war in Algeria against the FLN, which demanded independence. The Frenchmen who lived in Algeria, their allies among the Arabs, and powerful elements of the military inside France, rejected the FLN and demanded that Algeria remain integrated into France. They insisted so vehemently they were prepared to overthrow the government in Paris if it wavered.

In May, 1958, Frenchmen in Algeria revolted, throwing France into turmoil that verged on civil war. Rebels comprised young nationalists, supported by the large planters, army officers, and other proponents of integration of the Muslim population with France, feared a new government in Paris would make concessions to the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN). The rebels proclaimed a committee of public safety; the revolt spread to Corsica. In Paris the National Assembly voted emergency powers to newly elected Premier Pierre Pflimlin. However only de Gaulle could solve the crisis, for he had the support of the navy, the police, and such prominent politicians as Socialist Guy Mollet and Moderate Republican chief Georges Bidault. Pflimlin resigned and President René Coty summoned de Gaulle as prime minister. The National Assembly, under threat that parachutists would seize Paris if it refused, voted 329-224 to invest de Gaulle with extraordinary powers for six months beginning June 1, 1958; the National Assembly then went home and de Gaulle took charge. When a new constitution took effect, he became the president of the Fifth Republic.
====Interpretations====
These uprisings provided the long-awaited chance to supporters of Général de Gaulle, who sought a new regime in which the executive power would be strengthened. Underlying the views of Gaullists such as Jacques Soustelle, Michel Debré, and Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a faith in French grandeur, a new nationalism which transformed itself into a desire for order and maintenance of the French Empire. These interests momentarily coincided with those of the Algerian rebels who feared Anglo-American mediation of the Algerian rebellion.

Gaullists have seen this critical episode as the result of the preplanned statesmanship of de Gaulle. Their "grand design" thesis includes three key arguments. First is the claim that de Gaulle decided to give up Algeria because he concluded that keeping in the face of a widespread popular anti-French revolt was too costly economically and against France's ideal policy of a focus on Europe. Second, Gaullists argue his general objective ending the Algerian burden was planned well before his return to power in 1958. Third they claim that what seemed an erratic, slow, and indecisive progress toward Algerian independence was in reality de Gaulle's well-orchestrated, consistent, and deceptive policy calculated to overcome the sentiments of the French people toward Algeria.<ref> Gil Meriam, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999); De Gaulle, ''Memoirs of Hope'' (1971) p. 84; Philip G. Cerny, ''The Politics of Grandeur'' (1980), pp 61, 145; Bernard Ledwidge, ''De Gaulle'' (1982), pp 244-45, 257; Philip M. Williams, ''Politics and Society in de Gaulle's Republic'' (1971), p. 28.</ref>

Other historians argue that the Général had no long-term plan, and probably did not want independence for Algeria. Thus French scholars Raoul Girardet and Jacques Julliard argue de Gaulle's Algerian policy was a set of unanticipated concessions imposed by events. They have an alternative "juggler" thesis that does not attribute harmony or continuity to de Gaulle's policy, nor does it try to explain the lack of discernible consistency in the policy by attributing cunning Machiavelism to de Gaulle. Instead it considers the policy as the result of an erratic improvisation.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref> Merom says Algeria was not doomed by the economic realities because the cost was tolerable--between 50% to 60% of the defense budget, or 10% to 15% percent of the total budget in Paris. White the French indeed hads a severe budget crisis verging on bankruptcy, Algeria was only a small part of it. More important was spending on infrastructure renovation, industrial and agricultural modernization, nuclear energy, and expansion of education, and welfare entitlements. On the other hand military spending was helping the economy. Two years into de Gaulle's new regime, the financial crisis was over and the economy was in fine shape, notes Merom.

Merom says the second argument, that de Gaulle's policy was slow, gradual, and deceptive because he had to overcome a strong public sentiment in favor of keeping Algeria, is likewise invalid according to public opinion polls. They show opinion was evenly split; indeed, over 40% of the French people were alienated from core ideas of the old policy of no-recognition, no-negotiations, and no-compromise with the Arab rebels of the FLN. De Gaulle's policy of negotiation had a firm grounding in public opinion, though not a clear majority.

Merom agrees that de Gaulle's domineering manner and decisive style, the constitutional power he skillfully amassed as President of the Fifth Republic, his reputation as France's wartime savior, and the confidence vested in him by the people and the military, were indispensable qualities for a leader who wished to lead France out of Algeria. Merom concludes that his basic objective in Algeria was moderately conservative. He disliked the harsh military tactics in use and wanted more collaborative relations between France and the Arabs, but he did not want Algeria to become independent. Only when he realized his goals were impossible, Merom argues, did he start to compromise. Even then he tried to preserve as many French interests in Algeria as possible. By 1960, after suppressing another revolt, restoring the health of the national economy, and seeing his army drive the FLN almost to extinction, he realized the only long-term solution was a genuine Algerian independence, and he negotiated it.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref>

===Domestic politics===
In 1958-59 de Gaulle concentrated on political reform, a new the constitution for the Fifth Republic, financial reform, economic recovery, and search for a solution to the Algerian question. A new constitution that gave the president control of foreign and military policy was adopted in a referendum on Sept. 28, 1958. At last executive power stood above legislative authority. President de Gaulle, inaugurated on Jan. 8, 1959, could rule by decree in emergency, appoint ministers without responsibility to the legislature, and dissolve the legislature whose regular sessions were reduced to five months per year.
====Economy====
De Gaulle's financial and economic program reflected his desire for stability, industrial expansion, and the need to prepare France for membership in the European Common Market. He devalued the franc to 492 to the dollar, raised taxes on high incomes, wines, liquors, and tobacco, and reduced pensions and subsidies. A new franc, at 5 per U.S. dollar, facilitated commercial transactions and international trade; it remained strong. He undertook a 25% increase in state investment in modernizing industry. By mid-1960 the French economy was in better shape than at any time since 1914.
====Algeria====
Against the unyielding Algerian Arab revolution De Gaulle made only slow progress. His middle course between independence and continued colonial status cost him support among those groups that helped to bring him to power, the European settler community and the army. In September 1959, the Général offered Algeria a three-way choice between integration with France, autonomy, and independence. The settlers counterattacked with another uprising in January 1960, which failed to overthrow De Gaulle. In response, de Gaulle assumed extraordinary powers, restored order, and replaced ranking officers in Algeria with Gaullist or apolitical officers. This purge proved insufficient, for in April 1961 some military officers engineered an abortive coup. He once again assumed extraordinary powers and systematically removed disloyal elements from the army command.

Finally the president decided to grant Algerian independence and end the cancer once and for all. Mutual concessions were made and the Evian Accords on Mar. 18, 1962 began a cease-fire with the FLN forces. There emerged an independent Algeria, closely associated with France; in return for certain guarantees for settlers and economic privileges, continued French aid was promised. Large numbers of Algerian Arabs, who had supported Paris, fled to France, and many settlers did so also.

At the same time France gave independence to most of its overseas colonies, although tying them closely to France with economic and military pacts.

===Foreign policy===
====Objectives====
Restoring French greatness was his highest priority. That required a strong army, rockets and a space program, and especially nuclear weapons, explaining, "No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent."<ref>Quoted in ''New York Times Magazine'' (May 12, 1968)</ref>

After a landslide victoiry in parliamentary election in 1962, De Gaulle turned to foreign policy. He held that Western Europe as a whole, with France in the lead, should follow an independent military and economic path, separate specifically from that of the United States and Britain, both of which he distrusted. De Gaulle held that American nuclear weapons in Europe made the area more susceptible to Soviet attack, and he doubted any guarantees that the U.S. would defend Europe. Economically, de Gaulle pressed for the return to the gold standard in international trade and the rejection of sterling and the dollar as reserve currencies, especially because both the U.S. and the British economies suffered severe balance of payments deficits.

====Common Market====
De Gaulle vetoed Britain's application to join the Common Market (European Economic Community or EEC, a forerunner of the European Union) in 1963, saying he wanted to avoid a loss of cohesion in the organization and to keep it from becoming a dominion of the United States. He said Britain was not sufficiently European and its entry into the EEC would make the EEC too dependent on the United States. The De Gaulle blocked a second petition by Britain in 1967. Britain was finally admitted after de Gaulle' death. Analysts emphasized that de Gaulle saw Britain as insular and maritime rather than continental. De Gaulle was suspicious of British intentions in Europe, yet he admired Britain's political stability and past accomplishments. One military factor in de Gaulle's opposition was Britain's deal with the U.S. through NATO involving Polaris nuclear missile technology. De Gaulle wanted a strong Europe free of any dependence on the United States, while British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] felt Britain's "special relationship" with the United States more important to its future.<ref> Richard Davis, "'Why Did the General Do It?' De Gaulle, Polaris and the French Veto of Britain's Application to Join the Common Market." ''European History Quarterly'' 1998 28(3): 373-397. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

====Military policy====
During the Berlin crisis from 1958 to 1962. De Gaulle took advantage to create an independent force de frappe--that is, nuclear weapons and bombers--in order to reassert France's role as a powerful world leader. De Gaulle enthusiastically supported American General Lauris Norstad's proposal in 1959 to establish a top secret quadripartite Allied military planning group (LIVE OAK), hoping that it would strengthen France's position and weaken US domination of NATO. De Gaulle created a bilateral alliance with West German chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], which tended to upset the delicate diplomatic balance of NATO. His supporters rationalized France's cavalier position by arguing that independent French nuclear capability would provide a second center of deterrence against the Soviet Union.

De Gaulle forced a serious clash with Britain regarding the NATO alliance. By opposing British attempts to incorporate Europe in a broader transatlantic economic, political, and military alliance, de Gaulle hoped to create a chance for France to become what she ceased to be since Waterloo; the first in the world through driving a wedge between Europe, on one hand, and Britain and the United States on the other. Initially successful in isolating Britain, particularly through France's veto power over the European Economic Community (EEC), de Gaulle sought to further his country's status through a critique of, and withdrawal from, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The move backfired, however, allowing British foreign policy to isolate France and de Gaulle, hold NATO together, and eventually led to British inclusion in the EEC by other European members to counter France's disruptive behavior. In 1967, as in 1961-63, the French were determined to preserve their position of leadership within the EEC, and this was the reason for de Gaulle's second veto of Britain's application for membership. French diplomacy was based on the need to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. Leadership within the community was the foundation of France's international status.<ref> James Ellison, "Separated by the Atlantic: the British and De Gaulle, 1958-1967." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2006 17(4): 853-870. Issn: 0959-2296 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Helen Parr, "Saving the Community: the French Response to Britain's Second EEC Application in 1967." ''Cold War History'' 2006 6(4): 425-454. Issn: 1468-2745 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In 1966 de Gaulle's decision to withdraw French forces from NATO (but to remain nominally a member) paradoxically reinforced the cohesion of NATO, leaving the U.S. wholly dominant in the organization. Meanwhile he rebuilt the French army, restoring morale giving it a new and modern role in the economy and foreign affairs.

His continued deprecations of American involvement in Vietnam and his outspoken support of French-Canadian separatists in Quebec alienated opinion in the U.S. and canada.
===Departure===
De Gaulle was reelected president for seven years by a small margin in 1965, and in 1967 elections his allies won a slimmest majority in the National Assembly. Then, in May 1968, opposition to De Gaulle suddenly crystallized. It was an age of wortldwide student demonstrations, nowhere more serious than in France.<ref> Jeremi Suri, ''Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente'' (2003); Stanley Hoffmann, "Confrontation in May 1968," '' Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 145-86. </ref> Student demonstrations against the government and labor union strikes coalesced to produce a nationwide strike and unrest that very nearly brought the government down. At a critical point the Général disappeared for 24 hours. He was not hiding; rather he was negotiating for army support to retake Paris in case the rebels seized the city. With the army's backing, de Gaulle confidently returned, rallied the conservative middle class, and called immediate elections. Taking a vigorous part in the campaign, De Gaulle defined the issue as a choice between himself and the Communists. Repelled by the violence and disorder, the French electorate returned the Gaullists to power with a large majority in the assembly.

De Gaulle's unexpected loss of power in 1969 was psychological for his temperament was marked by the awareness of national and personal greatness as well as the realization of his old age and failing health. Secondly it was personal regarding [[Georges Pompidou]] because de Gaulle could brook no rival and his initially self-effacing prime minister had grown so powerful that the Général replaced him in 1968 with Maurice Couve de Murville. It was constitutional, for de Gaulle's reliance on a referendum of 27 April 1969 regarding relatively minor issues of regionalization and senate reform was defeated at the polls by 53%-47%. The Général seized the opportunity and resigned for good the next day. He was succeeded by Pompidou, who won 58% of the vote by proclaiming himself de Gaulle's heir.<ref>Charles G. Cogan, "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power" ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199 </ref>

==Ideas and and memory==
The image of de Gaulle in France today is a great national hero--indeed a savior--honored by all parties. His vision of the grandeur of France is the national vision.<ref> Daniel J. Mahoney, "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (1994), pp. 157-173 </ref>

De Gaulle's political philosophy, with its use of concepts such as élan, will, instinct, heroism, and participation, reflected the influences of Charles Péguy (1873-1914), Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), and Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Portier (1997) finds that de Gaulle's central principles derived from his religious devotion to Catholicism. Some scholars have suggested that De Gaulle modeled his authoritarian approach on the political theories of [[Machiavelli]], [[Maurras]], and [[Napoleon]], yet the French president's regard for the sovereignty of the state undermines all such theories. A close comparison of the papal encyclicals of Paul VI, [[Pius XI]], John XXIII, and [[Pius XII]] with De Gaulle's own writings reveals the statesman's close alliance with the political position of the Vatican. Portier concludes that Gaullism is not a rigid authoritarianism; rather it is a profound concern for social justice, a belief in the primacy of central authority in conjunction with intermediary legislative bodies, and respect for popular consensus.<ref> Philippe Portier, "Le General De Gaulle et Le Catholicisme: Pour Une Autre Interpretation De La Pensee Gaullienne," [General De Gaulle and Catholicism: Regarding Another Interpretation of Gaullist Thought]. ''Revue Historique'' 1997 297(2): 533-562. Issn: 0035-3264 </ref>

Kuisel (1992) asks whether de Gaulle was "Anti-American," and answers yes, for the Général consistently and mightily struggled to upend an international order built by and for America. He attacked America's arrogance of power and led his nation toward a less cooperative posture toward Washington. Indeed he incited expressions of anti-Americanism among the French and deep down he shared a stereotype common among French intellectuals of American society as soulless, materialist, and ahistorical.<ref> Richard F. Kuisel, "Was De Gaulle Anti-American?" ''Tocqueville Review'' 1992 13(1): 21-32. Issn: 0730-479x </ref>
==Notable Quotes==
:''Faced with crisis, the man of character falls back on himself. He imposes his own stamp of action, takes responsibility for it, makes it his own.'' <ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-faced-with-crisis-the-man-of-character-070486.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''How can you govern a country with 365 varieties of cheese?''<ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-how-can-anyone-govern-a-nation-070490.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war!''<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/66/61/15961.html</ref>

:''You start out giving your hat, then you give your coat, then your shirt, then your skin and finally your soul.'' (On dealing with the Soviet Union)<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/59/59.html</ref>

:''You may be sure that the [[Americans]] will commit all the stupidities they can think of, plus some that are beyond imagination.'' (On U.S. entry into the [[Vietnam War]])<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/68/68.html</ref>

===Quotes about de Gaulle===
:''The hardest cross I have to bear is the [[Cross of Lorraine]].'' —attributed, falsely, to [[Winston Churchill]] (it was really uttered by Churchill's envoy to France)<ref>http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=112</ref>

==Further reading==
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography,
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]

==Detailed bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography, based on hundreds of interviews.
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
===Politics===
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cameron, David R. and Hofferbert, Richard I. "Continuity and Change in Gaullism: the General's Legacy." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 1973 17(1): 77-98. Issn: 0092-5853, a statistcial analysis of the Gaullist voting coalition in elections 1958-73 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0092-5853%28197302%2917%3A1%3C77%3ACACIGT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N
Abstract in Jstor]
* Cogan, Charles G. "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199, re: 1969 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28199201%2927%3A1%3C167%3ATBGDGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Furniss,Edgar J., Jr. ''De Gaulle and the French Army.'' (1964)
* Gough, Hugh and Horne, John, eds. ''De Gaulle and Twentieth-Century France.'' (1994). 158 pp. essays by experts
* Hauss, Charles. ''Politics in Gaullist France: Coping with Chaos'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23380015 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/14783192 online edition]
* Jackson, Julian. "General de Gaulle and His Enemies: Anti-Gaullism in France Since 1940," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 9 (1999), pp. 43-65 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%281999%296%3A9%3C43%3AGDGAHE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Merom, Gil. "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999), Vol. 25, Issue 2; in [[EBSCO]]
* Northcutt, Wayne. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946-1991'' (1992)
* Pierce, Roy, "De Gaulle and the RPF--A Post-Mortem," ''The Journal of Politics'' Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1954), pp. 96-119 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816%28195402%2916%3A1%3C96%3ADGATRP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Rioux, Jean-Pierre, and Godfrey Rogers. ''The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1989)
* Shepard, Todd. ''The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France.'' (2006). 288 pp.
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
===Foreign policy===
* Bozo, Frédéric. ''Two Strategies for Europe: De Gaulle, the United States and the Atlantic Alliance'' (2000)
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Logevall, Fredrik. "De Gaulle, Neutralization, and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963-1964," ''The Pacific Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp. 69-102 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8684%28199202%2961%3A1%3C69%3ADGNAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Mahan, E. ''Kennedy, De Gaulle and Western Europe.'' (2002). 229 pp.
* Mangold, Peter. ''The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle.'' (2006). 275 pp.
* Paxton, Robert O. and Wahl, Nicholas, eds. ''De Gaulle and the United States: A Centennial Reassessment.'' (1994). 433 pp.
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''The History Teacher'' Vol. 1, No. 4 (May, 1968), pp. 5-15 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745%28196805%291%3A4%3C5%3ADGATUS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Vaïsse, Maurice. ''La Grandeur: Politique Etrangère du Général de Gaulle, 1958-1969'' (1997)
* Varat, Benjamin E. "A Clash of Kings: De Gaulle, Kennedy, and the Battle for Western Europe, 1958-1963." PhD dissertation Boston U. 2006. 356 pp. DAI 2006 67(1): 295-A. DA3202578 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* White, Dorothy Shipley. ''Black Africa and de Gaulle: From the French Empire to Independence.'' (1979). 314 pp.

===Ideas and memory===
* Cerny, Philip G. ''The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy.'' (1980). 319 pp.
* Clague, Monique. "Conceptions of Leadership: Charles de Gaulle and Max Weber," ''Political Theory'' Vol. 3, No. 4 (Nov., 1975), pp. 423-440 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0090-5917%28197511%293%3A4%3C423%3ACOLCDG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Gordon, Philip H. ''A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107405557 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Hero as History: De Gaulle's War Memoirs" in Hoffman ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 187-201 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14783192# online edition]
* Johnson, Douglas. "The Political Principles of General de Gaulle," ''International Affairs'' Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1965), pp. 650-662 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196510%2941%3A4%3C650%3ATPPOGD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Mahoney, Daniel J. ''De Gaulle: Statesmanship, Grandeur, and Modern Democracy.'' (1996). 188 pp. intellectual history
* Mahoney, Daniel J. "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 157-173 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3497%28199423%2927%3A1%3C157%3AA%22OCTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in JSTOR]
* Pedley, Alan. '' As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle'' (1996) 226pp
===World War II===
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) 482pp
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942-1944," ''The Journal of Military History'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 49-64 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718%28199701%2961%3A1%3C49%3AUSMAAF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle

===Primary sources===
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor'' (1971)
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''The Enemy's House Divided'' (2002), translation of ''La Discorde chez l'ennemi'' (1924), analysis of Germany's mistakes in World War I

====notes====
<references/>

==See Also==

[[Gaullism]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaulle, Charles de}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category: World War II Commanders]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Catholic Politicians]]

Winston Churchill

2009-12-22T23:37:03Z

Levitican: /* Second World War */

{{Prime Minister
|image=Solidgold.jpg
|seq=
|party=Conservative Party
|term_start=May 10, 1940
|term_end=1945
|previous=Neville Chamberlain
|next=Clement Attlee
|term_start2=1950
|term_end2=1955
|previous2=Clement Attlee
|next2=Anthony Eden
|birth_date=1874
|birth_place=
|death_date=1965
|death_place=
|spouse=
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Anglican]]
}}
The Right Honourable '''Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill''' (1874-1965) was an English statesman, orator, soldier and historian who served as Conservative [[Prime Minister]] of the [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in the [[Second World War]]. He was one of the few leaders to achieve high office in both World Wars and to write profusely about his experiences. Best known for his courageous leadership as British prime minister standing alone against Hitler's Germany, Churchill was a formidable politician over a half-century, as well as the historian whose interpretations shaped English language studies of both world wars. He was a leader of the Liberal party before it collapsed in the 1920s; then he rejoined the Conservative party. Although he supported the beginning of the welfare state around 1910, he was temperamentally and culturally a conservative, and he became a leading opponent of socialism after 1945, as well as an opponent of Gandhi's movement for the independence of India after 1930. Throughout his career he was pro-business and hostile to labour unions.

A larger-than-life character, famous for his trademark cigar and his reputation as a drinker (which he joyfully exaggerated), Churchill was also a talented amateur landscape painter and pilot, soldier, farmer, and even bricklayer. When he retired from the House of Commons in 1964, he had spent over six decades in public life, a career that ran from the last great British cavalry charge to the nuclear age.

==Career==
===Early life===
Churchill was a younger son of the top aristocracy. He was born in 1874 to Lord [[Randolph Churchill]] and an American mother.
Winston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill (1849–1895) was a third son of a poor English duke with a very famous family name; Randolph became a prominent Conservative politician. He married Jennie Jerome (1854–1921), the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. She was of colonial American stock of English ancestry and brought a dowry of £50,000. Churchill was born in [[Blenheim Palace]], the palace of the dukes of Marlborough. He had one brother, John Strange Churchill (1880–1947). The parents' marriage faltered, in part because of Lord Randolph's debilitating disease (which resembled syphilis); Lady Randolph became notorious for her romantic attachments, becoming known as "Lady Jane Snatcher." She liked Winston, but largely ignored him.<ref>. H. L. Le May, "Churchill, Jeanette (Lady Randolph Churchill) (1854–1921)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' 2004; [http://www.oxforddnb.com.proxy.cc.uic.edu/view/article/37282, online] </ref> His mother later became his ardent ally, helping him achieve key assignments as a war reporter and smoothing his career in politics. The son idealized his always-absent mother. "She shone for me like the Evening Star," Churchill later wrote. "I loved her dearly—but at a distance." <ref> Jenkins, ''Churchill,'' p. 8</ref>

Winston spent a typical upper-class childhood in the hands of nurses and headmasters at a succession of private schools from the age of eight. While he was no more neglected than most boys of his age and class, his sensitive nature suffered as a result of his parents' aloofness and he always regretted his failure to achieve a close relationship with his father, who died in 1895 at the age of only 45 and Winston was 21. Churchill rarely spoke with his father, who served as Secretary of state for India, Leader of the House and chancellor of the exchequer. However the son systematically adopted his father's ideas and political positions, and thereby became well known in political circles.

He entered Harrow School in 1888 with a track for the Army. Churchill had an independent and rebellious nature; he lacked self-discipline and displayed slovenly or unruly behaviour. His grades were poor apart from English and history; he avoided team sports but was a fencing champion. His father did not think he was smart enough for Oxford, so he went to the military academy at Sandhurst in 1893. He excelled at tactics, fortifications and horsemanship, graduating twentieth out of a class of 130 in 1894; he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant cavalry officer in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars, where he excelled at polo.

===Military experience===
Posted to Bangalore, India, in 1896, he ignored local conditions. His duties were done well before noon; apart from polo he did not socialize with his peers, who considered the slender, short, highly ambitious young man to be pushy, bumptious and not a proper gentleman.In 1902 the intellectual Beatrice Webb found him "egotistical, bumptious, shallow-minded and reactionary, but with a certain personal magnetism, great pluck and some originality, not of intellect but of character. More of the American speculator than the English aristocrat." <ref> Jenkins, ''Churchill,'' p. 148</ref> Churchill became an intellectual, as he immersed himself in the classics, devouring the works of Adam Smith, Gibbon, Macaulay, Hallam, Lecky, and Darwin. He carefully studied the parliamentary debates of the 1870s to 1890s, adding to them his own imaginary speeches. He never learned Latin or Greek so he fashioned a prose style modeled on the two finest writers among English historians, Gibbon and Macaulay. A book on the evolution of civilization that ridiculed Christianity<ref>Winwood Reade ''Martyrdom of Man'' (1872)</ref> led to his loss of religious faith; he believed in evolution and the inevitability of progress.

Between 1897 and 1900, with the aid of his mother's lobbying in London, Churchill fought in three imperial wars while doubling as a war correspondent and writing three books. In 1897 he joined three brigades in fighting a Pathan tribe. His lively account of the skirmishes proved he could write for the popular press; he received £5 per column from the ''Daily Telegraph'' and soon became the highest paid war correspondent in the world.

[[File:Churchill The River War.jpg|thumb|''The River War,'' one of Churchill's first books]]

In late 1899 Churchill went to South Africa as a war correspondent to cover the [[Second Boer War]]; his salary was a remarkable £250 per month plus expenses. Caught in an ambush Churchill was captured and held in a POW camp in Pretoria; he escaped--an adventure that made him a minor national hero. He rejoined General Redvers Buller's army on its march to relieve [[Ladysmith]] and take Pretoria. Churchill was one of the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. In 1900, he published two books on the Boer war, ''London to Ladysmith via Pretoria''<ref> online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14426]</ref> and ''Ian Hamilton's March''<ref> online at [http://books.google.com/books?id=27yKxqljk4gC&dq=inauthor:winston+inauthor:churchill&num=30].</ref>

Churchill's mother used her connections with the prince of Wales to get the her son assigned to the force commanded by Lord Kitchener for the reconquest of the [[Sudan]]. Churchill arrived just in time to join the cavalry charge at the battle of Omdurman (2 September 1898), in which his regiment galloped by accident into a ravine crammed with armed men. Churchill, who shot and killed at least three of the enemy, was cool, courageous and lucky.<ref> Over 30,000 Sudanese were killed, compared with 28 British soldiers. </ref> The ''Morning Post'' ran his stories, and the public snatched up his two-volume ''The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan'' (1899)<ref> online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4943]</ref>. It displayed a remarkably sympathetic history of the Sudanese revolt against Egyptian rule. A speaking tour of Britain, the U.S. and Canada in 1900 netted £10,000, proving the funding he needed for a political-literary career.<ref> Churchill met [[Theodore Roosevelt]]; they resembled each other in many ways but never became friends.</ref>

===Early politics===
In late 1900, Churchill was elected to Parliament as a Conservative. His independent nature soon saw him at odds with his party, and in 1904 he "crossed the floor" to the Liberals, who won a landslide election in early 1906. He served the Liberal government as President of the Board of Trade and Home Secretary, where he helped pass social reform legislation that laid the foundations of the British welfare state.

When [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] became Prime Minister in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Working closely with [[David Lloyd George]] he helped pass major social welfare legislation, called the "New Liberalism.". Churchill focused on the "Trade Boards Bill," a scheme to end the sweatshops in the garment industry; on labour exchanges, designed to reduce unemployment by making job searches easier; and unemployment insurance for 3 million workers in cyclical industries. He supported Lloyd George's highly controversial "People's Budget" of 1909-10 (with spending increase of 11% and multiple tax increases that especially targeted rich landowners), even as it caused a constitutional crisis with the House of Lords.<ref> Jenkins, ''Churchill'' 157-66; Bruce K. Murray, "The Politics of the 'People's Budget'" ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 16, No. 3 (Sep., 1973), pp. 555-570 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X(197309)16%3A3%3C555%3ATPOT'B%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

Churchill in 1910 denied that war with Germany was a threat and opposed the tripling of the warship budget proposed by the Admiralty.<ref>Jenkins, ''Churchill,'' 154-56 </ref> Churchill generally was on the winning side, though he was beaten on the warships.<ref> Jenkins, ''Churchill, ch 8</ref>

In 1910, Churchill was promoted to [[Home Secretary]]. Regarding a dispute at the Cambrian Colliery coal mine in Tonypandy, initially Churchill blocked the use of troops fearing a repeat of the 1887 "bloody Sunday" in Trafalgar Square. Nevertheless, he deployed soldiers to protect the mines and to avoid riots when thirteen strikers were tried for minor offences, an action that broke the tradition of not involving the military in civil affairs and led to lingering dislike for Churchill in Wales.

In 1911, he became First Lord of the Admiralty (civilian head of the Royal Navy), working especially to complete the conversion of ships from coal to oil. Together with his two First Sea Lords, Prince Louis of Battenberg and Admiral Lord Fisher, Churchill promoted fast, powerful battleships and outproduced the Germans to maintain British naval supremacy. He founded the Naval Air Service, and made numerous visits to ships and navy bases, where he was admired for his efforts to improve conditions for officers and crews.

===First World War===
At Churchill's direction, the fleet was at its war station before war broke out in 1914, but it was never able to engage the Germans in a decisive early sea battle. Churchill designed and supervised the Gallipoli campaign to force a route to Constantinople (now Istambul). It was a unmitigated failure, and led to his removal from the Admiralty in May 1915. Reporting to his regiment in the trenches of Belgium, he was under fire for three months before returning to Parliament. In 1917, he was appointed Minister of Munitions and in 1919, Secretary for War and Air. He wrote a major 4-volume history of the war that added to his literary reputation.

===1920s===
As Colonial Secretary in 1921-22, he advocated the dropping of poison gas on rebellious tribes of Iraqi Arabs [http://www.globalresearch.ca/articles/CHU407A.html]and during this period Churchill enjoyed two notable diplomatic achievements. At the 1921 Cairo conference, he helped establish the borders of the modern [[Middle East]], though he failed in his attempt to set up a Kurdish homeland "to protect the Kurds against some future bully in [[Iraq]]." Closer to home, he helped to forge the Irish Treaty, which kept the peace in Ireland for 50 years. Michael Collins, the IRA revolutionary with whom Churchill negotiated, said from his deathbed: "Tell Winston we could have done nothing without him."

In 1924, Churchill rejoined the Conservatives, serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer through spring 1929. He returned Britain to the gold standard and ran a government newspaper, ''The British Gazette'', during the general strike of 1926, and is still remembered in South Wales as the politician who sent tanks onto the streets to force striking miners back to work.
===Political exile in 1930s===
[[File:Churchill Sunset over Atlas Mountains, Marrakech 1935.jpg|thumb|Sunset over Atlas Mountains, Marrakech, 1935.]]
He became increasingly separated from the Conservatives in the 1930s, first over the plan to grant India dominion status; later over Britain's slow rearmament in the face of Hitler's aggression; and finally when he championed King Edward VIII, who abdicated in 1936.

{{Clear}}

===Second World War===
Not until war had broken out again in 1939 was he asked to rejoin the Government, again becoming First Lord of the Admiralty, which according to legend, signaled to its ships: "Winston is Back." He renewed his energetic naval policies but was repulsed in an attempt to wrest Norway from the invading Germans in April 1940, having first had to drop ambitious plans to invade neutral Sweden.

With the Nazi blitzkrieg pouring into the [[Low Countries]] in May, 1940, The British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] resigned and Churchill was appointed Prime Minister as head of in an all-party coalition government with Labour and the Liberals. Although Britain continued to be defeated elsewhere, in the [[Battle of Britain]] the German Air Force was unable to gain the air superiority required for an invasion of Britain. In those months, as Edward R. Murrow said, "he mobilized the English language and sent it into battle." Some of Churchill's most famous speeches were given at this time. The Germans turned their attention east, to their ally the Soviet Union.

After Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Churchill saw the chance to defeat Hitler using Soviet manpower. He vowed to help the Soviets, declaring, "If Hitler invaded hell I would at least make a favorable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons."

By 1940 Churchill had developed close ties with U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], he secured American military aid and financial support, but his ultimate goal was to have America fighting at Britain's side. Together they proclaimed the "[[Atlantic Charter]]" in 1941. The U.S. became the "Arsenal of Democracy," using [[Lend Lease]] to send $50 billion in military supplies to the Allies; most went to Britain, which in turn sent munitions to Russia.<ref>Lend Lease was free and did not have to be repaid, although transport ships were to be returned after the war, and some were.</ref> When the United States declared war after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December, 1941, Churchill admitted that he "slept the sleep of the saved and the thankful."

Europe was the centre of his attention; the Australians complained about his neglect of their interests (and turned to the U.S. for protection). Recalling the horrible death tolls of 1914-1918, he was reluctant to invade France, proposing instead invasions of North Africa and Italy (which took place in 1942-43) and the Balkans (which did not happen). Churchill strongly supported the strategic air campaign that bombed enemy cities, railyards and oil refineries. He worked very well with [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], the American general in overall command of the invasion of France that was launched successfully in June 1944. Despite complaints by senior generals and admirals that Churchill interfered too much in military matters, he was successful in balancing the economic, manpower, diplomatic, psychological and military dimensions of the war.

===Defeat in 1945===
Churchill was disappointed by the failure to control an expansionist Soviet Union toward the end of the war, and watched with mounting concern another totalitarian state rise dominant in Europe. To the amazement of many outside Britain, his party was routed in the 1945 general election and he became Leader of the Opposition. His famous "Iron Curtain" speech at Fulton, Missouri, in 1946 was the opening salvo and warning of the Cold War, unpopular at the time but later considered prophetic. In 1949, he predicted the demise of Communism, "ignited by a spark coming from God knows where, and in a moment the whole system of lies and oppression is on trial for its life."
===Return in 1951===
In 1951 the Conservatives regained an electoral majority and Churchill became prime minister again, but he was disappointed in his effort to achieve a peaceful settlement of cold war antagonisms, and his domestic record was indifferent. He became a Knight of the Garter, acquiring the title "Sir Winston" in 1953.

Suffering from age and poor health, he retired in April 1955, but remained a Member of Parliament for another nine years. He declined a peerage in order to remain in Commons. In 1963 he was declared an Honorary Citizen of the United States by President [[John F. Kennedy]]. He died at age 90 on January 24, 1965. [http://www.churchill.navy.mil/site%20pages/history.aspx]
==Churchill as historian==
Churchill was a prolific historian with a lively style and a very wide audience. won the 1953 [[Nobel Prize]] for [[Literature]], bestowed for his numerous books on history, biography and politics. His greatest biography was ''Marlborough'' (4 volumes, 1933-38); his best-known historical work was ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'' (4 volumes, 1956-1958). His personal memoirs, ''My Early Life'' (1930), ''The World Crisis'' (5 volumes, 1923-31) and ''The Second World War'' (6 volumes, 1948-53) are readable personal accounts of his Victorian youth and the two world wars. In all, Churchill wrote over 40 titles in over 60 volumes, nearly 1,000 articles and uncounted speeches.

Churchill wrote ''Lord Randolph Churchill'', a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim. Some historians suggest Churchill used the book in part to vindicate his own career and in particular to justify crossing the floor.<ref>James, ''Churchill a study in failure'' p34-35</ref> His ''The World Crisis'' (six volumes, 1923–31) was a broad-scale history of the First World War, with Churchill never far offstage. His greatest work was , ''The Second World War'' (six volumes, 1948–53), using secret papers not available to other for many years; he did not reveal the prime secret of breaking the German codes (which was revealed in the early 1970s). Churchill's highly detailed narrative structured much of the historiography for the first decade or two after the war, especially in his analysis and denunciation of the appeasement policy of the late 1930s.<ref> See Reynolds (2001) and Reynolds (2005)</ref>

===Evaluation===
Asked to summarize Churchill in one sentence, his biographer Martin Gilbert said: "He was a great humanitarian who was himself distressed that the accidents of history gave him his greatest power at a time when everything had to be focused on defending the country from destruction, rather than achieving his goals of a fairer society."

To Martin Gilbert also we owe these last lines from Sir Winston's biography: "When at last his life's great impulses were fading, Churchill's daughter Mary paid him perhaps the most eloquent tribute of all: 'In addition to all the feelings a daughter has for a loving, generous father, I owe you what every Englishman, woman & child does--Liberty itself.'"

Margot Asquith said it was not his mind or uneven judgment Britons respected but rather "his courage and colour — his amazing mixture of industry and enterprise." "He never shirks, hedges or protects himself; he takes huge risks."<ref> quoted in David Fromkin, ''A Peace to End All Peace'' (2001) p. 54</ref>

[[Image:Sir Winston Churchill.jpg|right]]

== Famous Quotes ==

*Winston Churchill, election broadcast (May, 1945) '''"I must tell you that a socialist policy is abhorrent to British ideas on freedom. There is to be one State, to which all are to be obedient in every act of their lives. This State, once in power, will prescribe for everyone: where they are to work, what they are to work at, where they may go and what they may say, what views they are to hold, where their wives are to queue up for the State ration, and what education their children are to receive. A socialist state could not afford to suffer opposition - ''no socialist system can be established without a political police''. They (the Labour government) would have to fall back on some form of Gestapo."'''

*"Never, never, in nothing great or small, large or petty, never give in except to convictions of honour and good sense. Never yield to force; never yield to the apparently overwhelming might of the enemy."

*"Winston, if I were married to you I'd put poison in your coffee"...."Nancy, if I were married to you I'd drink it." ''(Nancy Witcher Langhorne Astor, Viscountess Astor, b.1879, speaking to Sir Winston, and his reply, this occurred during a weekend house party at Blenheim Palace in the early 1930's)''

*"'''I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival. Let that be realized; no survival for the British Empire, no survival for all that the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge and impulse of the ages, that mankind will move forward towards its goal. But I take up my task with buoyancy and hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. At this time I feel entitled to claim the aid of all, and I say, "come then, let us go forward together with our united strength."'''[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=435]

*The power of the Executive to cast a man into prison without formulating any charge known to the law, and particularly to deny him the judgment of his peers, is in the highest degree odious and is the foundation of all totalitarian government whether Nazi or Communist" -- Winston Churchill, November 21, 1943.

*We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender! ''Speech in the House of Commons, 4 June 1940, following the evacuation of British and French armies from Dunkirk, as the German tide swept through France.[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=388#Never_give_in]

*What General Weygand called the Battle of France is over. I expect that the battle of Britain is about to begin. Upon this battle depends the survival of Christian civilization. Upon it depends our own British life, and the long continuity of our institutions and our Empire. The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and the life of the world may more forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their Finest Hour." ''Speech in the House of Commons, 18 June 1940, following the collapse of France. Many thought Britain would follow. [http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=388#Finest]

*The gratitude of every home in our island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unwearied in their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of the world war by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few. ''Tribute to the Royal Air Force, House of Commons, 20 August 1940. He had worked out the phrase about "The Few" in his mind as he visited the Fighter Command airfields in Southern England.'' [http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=388#so_much_owed]

==See also==
* [[Yalta conference]]
* [[Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]

==Bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Addison, Paul. "Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer (1874–1965)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' [http://www.oxforddnb.com.proxy.cc.uic.edu/view/article/32413, online]
* Addison, Paul. ''Churchill: The Unexpected Hero.'' (2005). 320 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Churchill-Unexpected-Hero-Paul-Addison/dp/0199297436/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226209264&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Best, Geoffrey. ''Churchill: A Study in Greatness'' (2003), 400pp; very well received biography
* Blake, Robert. ''Winston Churchill. Pocket Biographies'' (1997), 110 pages
* Charmley, John. ''Churchill, The End of Glory: A Political Biography'' (1993). revisionist; favors Chamberlain; says Churchill weakened Britain
* D'Este, Carlo. ''Warlord: A Life of Winston Churchill at War, 1874-1945'' (2008), stresses his many military roles.
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Churchill: A Life'' (1992); one volume version of 8-volume life (8900 pp); amazing detail but as Rasor complains, "no background, no context, no comment, no analysis, no judgments, no evaluation, and no insights." [http://www.amazon.com/Churchill-Life-Martin-Gilbert/dp/0805023968/ref=pd_bbs_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226208898&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Heywood, Samantha. ''Churchill'' (2003) 162 pp, [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104529861 online edition]
* James, Robert Rhodes. ''Churchill: A Study in Failure, 1900-1939'' (1970), 400 pp.
* Jenkins, Roy. ''Churchill: A Biography'' (2001), 1000 pp; strong on Parliamentary roles [http://www.amazon.com/Churchill-Roy-Jenkins/dp/0452283523/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226209134&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Keegan, John. ''Winston Churchill'' (2002) 208 pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0670030791/ref=sib_dp_pop_ex/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S00F#reader-link online excerpt]
* Manchester, William. ''The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill, Visions of Glory 1874-1932'', 1983; vol 2 is ''The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill, Alone 1932-1940'', 1988,; no more published [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Lion-Winston-Spencer-Churchill/dp/0316545031/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226208898&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Pelling, Henry. ''Winston Churchill'' (1974), 736pp; comprehensive biography
* Rose, Norman. ''Churchill: An Unruly Life'' (1994), full-length biography [http://www.amazon.com/Churchill-Unruly-Giant-Norman-Rose/dp/0028740092/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226209166&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wrigley, Chris. ''Winston Churchill: A Biographical Companion.'' ABC-CLIO, 2002. 367 pp.; online at some libraries

===Specialized studies===
* Addison, Paul. ''Churchill on the Home Front 1900-1955'' (1992)
* Ball, Stuart. "Churchill and the Conservative Party," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 307-330 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%282001%296%3A11%3C307%3ACATCP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D in JSTOR]
* Bell, Christopher M. "Winston Churchill, Pacific Security, and the Limits of British Power, 1921-41," in John H. Maurer, ed. ''Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars'' (2003) pp 51-120 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108530166# online edition]
* Ben-Moshe, Tuvia. ''Churchill, Strategy and History.'' 1992, covers world wars [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98438222 online edition]
* Beschloss, Michael R. ''The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Conquerors-Roosevelt-Destruction-Hitlers-1941-1945/dp/0743244540/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226208863&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Best, Geoffrey. ''Churchill and War.'' 2005. 353 pp.
* Blake, Robert and Louis William Roger, eds. ''Churchill: A Major New Reassessment of His Life in Peace and War'' Oxford UP, 1992, 581 pp; 29 essays by scholars on specialized topics[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=26340770 online edition]
* Callahan, Raymond. ''Churchill and His Generals,'' (2007) 310pp
* Cannadine, David. "Churchill and the British Monarchy," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 249-272 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%282001%296%3A11%3C249%3ACATBM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G in JSTOR]
* Charmley, John. ''Churchill's Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship 1940-57'' (1996)
* Charmley, John. "Churchill and the American Alliance," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 353-371 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%282001%296%3A11%3C353%3ACATAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U in JSTOR]
* Danchev, Alex. "'Dilly-Dally', or Having the Last Word: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Prime Minister Winston Churchill," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 22, No. 1 (Jan., 1987), pp. 21-44 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28198701%2922%3A1%3C21%3A%27OHTLW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E in JSTOR]
* Delaney, Douglas E. "Churchill and the Mediterranean Strategy: December 1941 to January 1943." ''Defence Studies'' 2002 2(3): 1-26. Issn: 1470-2436 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Churchill and America'' 2005. 352 pp.
* Gorodetsky, Gabriel. "The Origins of the Cold War: Stalin, Churchill and the Formation of the Grand Alliance," ''Russian Review'' Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 145-170 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-0341%28198804%2947%3A2%3C145%3ATOOTCW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in JSTOR] 7
* Jablonsky, David. "Churchill and Technology," in John H. Maurer, ed. ''Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars'' (2003) pp 121-158 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108530166# online edition]
* Keegan, John, ed. ''Churchill's Generals'' (1991) 17 essays by experts
* Kersaudy, François. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' 1981
* Kimball, Warren. ''Forged in war: Churchill, Roosevelt and the Second World War'' (1997)
* Lambakis, Steven James. ''Winston Churchill, Architect of Peace: A Study of Statesmanship and the Cold War'' (1994) 194 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/winston-churchill-architect-of-peace-a-study-of-statesmanship-and-the-cold-war-by-steven-james-lambakis.jsp online edition]
* Larres, Klaus. ''Churchill's Cold War: The Politics of Personal Diplomacy.'' Yale U. Press, 2002. 569 pp.
* Lawlor, Sheila. ''Churchill and the politics of war, 1940–1941'' (1993)
* Lewin, Ronald. ''Churchill as warlord'' (1973)
* Lukacs, John. ''Churchill: Visionary, Statesman, Historian'' 2002. 202pp, interpretive essays
* Marder, Arthur. ''Winston is back: Churchill at the admiralty, 1939–1940'' (1973)
* Massie, Robert ''Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War''; ch 40-41 on Churchill at Admiralty
* Maurer, John H. "The 'Ever-Present Danger': Winston Churchill's Assessment of the German Naval Challenge before the First World War" in John H. Maurer, ed. ''Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars'' (2003) pp 7-50 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108530166# online edition]
* Miner, Steven Merritt. ''Between Churchill and Stalin: The Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the Origins of the Grand Alliance'' (1988) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3063617 online edition]
* Parker, R. A. C. ed. ''Winston Churchill: studies in statesmanship'' (1995), scholarly studies
* Parker, R. A. C. ''Churchill and appeasement'' (2000)
* Wrigley, Chris. "Churchill and the Trade Unions," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 273-293 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%282001%296%3A11%3C273%3ACATTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Young, John W. ''Winston Churchill's Last Campaign: Britain and the Cold War, 1951-5'' 1996 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9663209 online edition]
* Young, John W. "Churchill and East-West Detente," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 373-392 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%282001%296%3A11%3C373%3ACAED%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 in JSTOR]

===Historiography===
* Ashley, Maurice. "Churchill and History," ''International Affairs'' Vol. 42, No. 1. (Jan., 1966), pp. 87-94. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196601%2942%3A1%3C87%3ACAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D in JSTOR], Churchill as author
* Ramsden, John. ''Man of the Century: Winston Churchill and His Legend since 1945.'' Columbia U. Press, 2003. 672 pp.
* Rasor, Eugene L. ''Winston S. Churchill, 1874-1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography.'' Greenwood Press. 2000. 710 pp. describes several thousand books and scholarly articles. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71893658 online edition]
* Reynolds, David. ''In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War.'' 2005. 631 pp.
* Reynolds, David. "Churchill's writing of history: appeasement, autobiography and ''The Gathering Storm''", ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'', 6th ser., 11 (2001), 221–48 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401(2001)6%3A11%3C221%3ACWOHAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 online edition]
* Stansky, Peter, ed. ''Churchill: A Profile'' 1973, 270 pp. essays for and against Churchill by leading scholars
* Wood, Ian S. ''Churchill'' 2000. 209pp evaluates numerous studies

===Primary sources===
* Churchill, Winston. ''Lord Randolph Churchill'' (1906) [http://books.google.com/books?id=u_PW93hcmBAC&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:winston+inauthor:churchill&num=30#PPR13,M1 online edition]
* Churchill, Winston. ''The World Crisis'' (six volumes, 1923–31), 1-vol edition (2005); on World War I. Vol. I, 1911-1914; Vol. II, 1915; Vol. III, 1916-1918 Part I; Vol. IV, 1916-1918 Part II; and Vol. V: The Aftermath.
* Churchill, Winston. ''The Second World War'' (six volumes, 1948–53); ''Vol. I, The Gathering Storm; Vol. II, Their Finest Hour; Vol. III, The Grand Alliance; Vol. IV, The Hinge of Fate; Vol. V, Closing the Ring; and Vol. VI, Triumph and Tragedy;'' [http://www.amazon.com/Memoirs-Second-World-Abridgement-Volumes/dp/0395599687/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226208898&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search from 1-vol. abridged edition (1991)]; [http://www.amazon.com/Second-World-War-Six-Boxed/dp/039541685X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226208898&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search complete edition]
* Churchill, Winston. ''Lord Randolph Churchill'' (1907) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5477600 online edition], biography of his father
* Gilbert, Martin, ed. ''Winston S. Churchill: Companion'' 15 vol (14,000 pages) of Churchill and other official and unofficial documents. Part 1: I. Youth, 1874-1900, 1966, 654 pp. (2 vol); II. Young Statesman, 1901-1914, 1967, 796 pp. (3 vol); III. The Challenge of War, 1914-1916, 1971, 1024 pp. (3 vol); IV. The Stricken World, 1916-1922, 1975, 984 pp. (2 vol); Part 2: The Prophet of Truth, 1923-1939, 1977, 1195 pp. (3 vol); II. Finest Hour, 1939-1941, 1983, 1328 pp. (2 vol entitled The Churchill War Papers); III. Road to Victory, 1941-1945, 1986, 1437 pp. (not published, 4 volumes are anticipated); IV. Never Despair, 1945-1965, 1988, 1438 pp. (not published, 3 volumes anticipated, See the editor's memoir, Martin Gilbert, ''In Search of Churchill: A Historian's Journey,'' (1994).
* James, Robert Rhodes, ed. ''Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897-1963.'' 8 vols. London: Chelsea, 1974, 8917 pp.
*David Coombs, ''Sir Winston Churchill, His life through his paintings,'' Pegasus, 2003
* Winston Churchill. ''Victory: War Speeches by the Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill,'' (1946) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=13536012 online edition]
* Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' ed by Francis L. Loewenheim, Harold D. Langley and Manfred Jonas (1975) 807 pgs [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=7896020 online edition]
* Winston Churchill and Dwight D. Eisenhower. ''The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953-1955'' ed by Peter G. Boyle; University of North Carolina Press, 1990 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=35246690 online edition]
* Winston Churchill and Harry S. Truman. ''Defending the West: The Truman-Churchill Correspondence, 1945-1960'' ed by G. W. Sand; (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106807897 online edition]

==External links==
*[http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/churchill_papers/biography/churchill_chronology.php Churchill College Biography of Winston Churchill]
*[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=452 Books written by Churchill]
* [http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=110 online Winston S. Churchill, "Churchill's American Heritage'' ], essay by his grandson
*[http://www.iwm.org.uk Imperial War Museum]: [[Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms]]. Comprising the original underground War Rooms perfectly preserved since 1945, from which Churchill ran the War, including the Cabinet Room, the Map Room and Churchill's bedroom, and the new Museum dedicated to Churchill's life.
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Churchill-Winston-Leonard-Spencer-Great-Britain.biog.html Winston Churchill Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/home.shtml Churchill Archives Centre, based at Churchill College, Cambridge]
* [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/churchill/interactive Churchill and the Great Republic]. WC'a lifelong relationship with the United States.
* [http://www.churchill.nls.ac.uk documents edited by the National Library of Scotland]
*[http://speakingofhistory.blogspot.com/2006_03_01_speakingofhistory_archive.html Audio about the Winston Churchill Memorial and Library at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri from the Speaking of History podcast #17 - site also includes video slideshow of the museum]
*'''War Cabinet Minutes''' [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_1_transcript.pdf (1942 - 42)], [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_2_transcript.pdf (1942 - 43)], [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf (1945 - 46)], [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_4_transcript.pdf (1946 - 46)]
*[http://www.ena.lu MCE European NAvigator] European Union History tool, contains a number of Churchill recordings etc.
===Speeches===
*[http://www.churchill-speeches.com/ http://www.churchill-speeches.com/]
*[http://www.historychannel.com/broadband/clipview/index.jsp?id=v3t4 Audio of Churchill's "finest hour" speech]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050206200958/http://www.blenheimpalace.com/Time_line_the_family.htm Timeline of the Spencer-Churchill family]
*[http://www.soundboard.com/sb/winston.aspx Winston Churchill Audio Soundboard]

====notes====
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Churchill, Winston}}
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