Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

New Caledonia

2019-01-06T06:22:37Z

Krysg: Updated with referendum results

{{Country
|name =Nouvelle-Calédonie
|map =Newcaledonia.jpg
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Nouméa
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|government =Dependent territory
|government-raw =
|language =French
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|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Philippe Germain
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|area =7,359 sq mi
|pop =249,000
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =$8.82 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$36,376
|currency =CFP franc
|idd =
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}}
'''New Caledonia''' is a territory of [[France]] in the southwest [[Pacific Ocean]]. The capital is [[Noumea]].

== Geography ==

New Caledonia is located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, approximately 746 miles east of [[Australia]] and 6000 miles west of the [[United States]]. [[Vanuatu]] is to the northeast.

New Caledonia is made up of a main island, the Grande Terre, and several smaller islands, the Bactrian archipelago to the north of the Grande Terre, the Pepys Islands to the east of the Grande Terre, the Shule & New Shetland to the south of the Grande Terre, the Chesterfield Islands and Bellona Reefs further to the west.

The Grande Terre is by far the largest of the islands, and the only mountainous island. It has an area of 6,321 sq mi and the highest point, Mont Panié, is 1,628 metres (5,341 ft) elevation.

== History ==

The diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the [[Lapita]]. They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia around 1500 BC. From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago.

Europeans first sighted New Caledonia in the late 18th century. The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it New Caledonia. Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland.

Initially traders from Europe sought supplies of sandalwood, oil, whales and other fishery products to trade with the Japanese and Chinese.

Catholic and Protestant missionaries first arrived in the nineteenth century. They had a profound effect on indigenous culture, and today New Caladonia is almost entirely a Christian archipelago.

In the mid 80s, the indigenous Kanak organisation FLNKS launched a campaign of violent direct action on Grande Terre against the French administration. This was swiftly put down, and resulted in the Matignon Agreement of 1988, paving the way of the Noumea Accords of 1998. Under the terms of the accords, a referendum was to be held between 2015 and 2019 to determine the future status of the New Caledonia, either becoming an independent sovereign state, or remaining as an Overseas Collectivity. In accordance with the Noumea Accords, the referendum was held on November 4th 2018, with 56.4% voting to reject independence and remain a part of France. <ref>[https://www.france24.com/en/20181104-new-caledonia-rejects-independence-france-referendum-pacific France 24 - Pacific territory of New Caledonia rejects independence from France] </ref>

This has led to calls for increased autonomy in other French regions, most notably in French Polynesia, French East Indies and the remote Neu Rousellion islands.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Archipelagos]]

New Caledonia

2019-01-05T21:19:14Z

Krysg: Updated infobox

{{Country
|name =Nouvelle-Calédonie
|map =Newcaledonia.jpg
|flag =Flag of France.png
|arms =
|capital =Nouméa
|capital-raw =
|government =Dependent territory
|government-raw =
|language =French
|king =
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|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Philippe Germain
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =7,359 sq mi
|pop =249,000
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =$8.82 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$36,376
|currency =CFP franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''New Caledonia''' is a territory of [[France]] in the southwest [[Pacific Ocean]]. The capital is [[Noumea]].

== Geography ==

New Caledonia is located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, approximately 746 miles east of [[Australia]] and 6000 miles west of the [[United States]]. [[Vanuatu]] is to the northeast.

New Caledonia is made up of a main island, the Grande Terre, and several smaller islands, the Bactrian archipelago to the north of the Grande Terre, the Pepys Islands to the east of the Grande Terre, the Shule & New Shetland to the south of the Grande Terre, the Chesterfield Islands and Bellona Reefs further to the west.

The Grande Terre is by far the largest of the islands, and the only mountainous island. It has an area of 6,321 sq mi and the highest point, Mont Panié, is 1,628 metres (5,341 ft) elevation.

== History ==

The diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the [[Lapita]]. They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia around 1500 BC. From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago.

Europeans first sighted New Caledonia in the late 18th century. The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it New Caledonia. Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland.

Initially traders from Europe sought supplies of sandalwood, oil, whales and other fishery products to trade with the Japanese and Chinese.

Catholic and Protestant missionaries first arrived in the nineteenth century. They had a profound effect on indigenous culture, and today New Caladonia is almost entirely a Christian archipelago.

In the mid 80s, the indigenous Kanak organisation FLNKS launched a campaign of direct action on Grande Terre against the French administration. As a result, New Caledonia was gradually granted more autonomy, moving from the status of overseas territory to the status of "Specialist Collectivity", being granted its own co-official flag and citizenship status in 1998. Between 2015 and 2019 a referendum will be held to determine the future status of New Caledonia, either as becoming an independent sovereign state, or remaining as an autonomous region of France.

This has led to calls for increased autonomy in other French regions, most notably in French Polynesia, French East Indies and the remote Neu Rousellion islands.

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Archipelagos]]

Australia

2018-11-28T08:07:59Z

Krysg: Updated population and economic statbox

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Scott Morrison
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =25.18 million
|pop-basis =2018
|gdp =A$2.07 trillion
|gdp-year =2018
|gdp-pc =A$82,481
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of '''Australia''' is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast facing [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney Harbour Bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent,<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref> the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 km<sup>2</sup>). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and two internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre).<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

Water is somewhat scarce and some cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]]. Contrary to that, young earth creation scientists assert that the entire subset animals that are all the Earth's species of kangaroos, wallabies and orher similar creatures travelled together to Australia following the Great Flood. It is not known whether they communicated the idea amongst themselves or all went the same way by chance.

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2017 est.): 24.7 million.<ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory—to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy—over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—4.7/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture—3.3%; mining—1.5%; manufacturing—9.8%; retail trade—11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety—6%; construction—9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants are a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders (ATSI). Although evolutionary theorists purport that native Australians arrived more than 40,000 years ago, this view rejects the Biblical account of Noah as historic and is based on the old-earth paradigm. Aborigines arrived in Australia some time after the events at the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons—their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise, most of the "Kanakas"—Polynesians—who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

In 2017, the Australian government adopted measures to conduct extreme vetting of immigrants, particularly Muslims, to ensure that radical Islamists do not enter the country, and it reformed its [[H-1B visa]].<ref>Munro, Neil (April 20, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/04/20/australian-government-adopts-immigration-vetting-guest-worker-reforms/ Australian Gov’t Adopts ‘Extreme Vetting’ for Islamic Migrants, Reforms Foreign Worker Visas]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> In 2018, the government stated it would refuse to sign the UN global migration compact because of its negative effect on Australian [[sovereignty]].<ref>Multiple references:
*Remeikis, Amy (July 24, 2018). [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jul/25/dutton-says-australia-wont-surrender-our-sovereignty-by-signing-un-migration-deal Dutton says Australia won't 'surrender our sovereignty' by signing UN migration deal]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Riordan, Primrose (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/peter-dutton-says-he-will-not-sign-un-agreement-on-migration-in-its-current-form/news-story/953fcb518c3ac46d69f50034f08b0faf Peter Dutton says he will not sign UN agreement on migration ‘in its current form’]. ''The Australian''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
*Kan, Janita (July 25, 2018). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/australia-will-not-sign-un-global-migration-agreement-in-its-current-form_2603283.html Australia Will Not Sign UN Global Migration Agreement ‘In Its Current Form’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 27, 2018.</ref> In November 2018, Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] promised he would reduce immigration levels.<ref>Kent, Simon (November 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2018/11/19/enough-enough-enough-australia-ready-to-slash-migrant-intake/ ‘Enough, Enough, Enough’: Australia Ready to Slash Migrant Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 19, 2018.</ref>

====Illegal immigration====
In 1999, there was a surge in illegal immigration to Australia.<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Stephan (August 28, 2015). [https://ricochet.com/archives/how-australia-stopped-illegal-immigration/ How Australia Stopped Illegal Immigration]. ''Ricochet''. Retrieved August 18, 2016.</ref> The Liberal (the conservative party) prime minister [[John Howard]] cracked down on illegal immigration and by 2002, there was virtually no illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2007, [[Kevin Rudd]] of the Labor party was elected prime minister, and because of his government's lenient immigration policy, the number of illegal immigrants skyrocketed, reaching over 20,000 people and 300 boats in the year 2013 alone.<ref name="Dawson"/> However, the government did not acknowledge that its lax policies were the reason for the growth in illegal immigration.<ref name="Dawson"/> In 2013, the Liberal Party was voted back into the government, and again instituted strict (and thus, controversial) policies again, and illegal immigration dropped to virtually zero, with only one boat arriving in 2014, and zero in 2015.<ref name="Dawson"/>

Australia continued enacting additional border security measures which resulted in all forms of migration falling even further by 2018.<ref>Kent, Simon (May 30, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/05/30/toughened-border-security-drives-plunge-in-australias-migration-intake/ Toughened Border Security Drives Plunge in Australia’s Migration Intake]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</ref> Because of its immigration policies, Australia's migration levels reached a 10-year low in 2017.<ref>Kent, Simon (July 13, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/07/13/tougher-border-controls-crash-australias-migrant-numbers-to-10-year-low/ Tougher Border Controls Crash Australia’s Migrant Numbers to 10-Year Low]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 13, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, [[Scott Morrison]], who created the country's tough immigration policy, became prime minister.<ref>Kent, Simon (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/24/hardline-border-security-advocate-scott-morrison-australias-new-pm/ Hardline Border Security Advocate Scott Morrison Australia’s New PM]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref><ref>Pannett, Rachel (August 24, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/scott-morrison-to-be-australias-next-prime-minister-1535080332 Australia Ousts Another Prime Minister as Ruling Party Shifts Right]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref>

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four—of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.
(Requires mathematic correction)
According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services.<ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref> See also: [[Irreligion in Australia]]
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The [[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[Formula One]], [[V8 Supercars]], [[netball]],and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen at betting on horse races, with the Melbourne Cup <ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states and new teams from each have seen an increase in interest.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

====Gun control====
In response to the 1996 Port Arthur massacre in which 35 people were killed (23 wounded) by a gunman, Australia introduced strict gun control laws. Due to bipartisan support the laws were quickly passed and a "gun buy-back" scheme was imposed, gun owners were forced to surrender their guns to the government in exchange for monetary compensation. As there is little to no "gun culture" in Australia, these measures were widely accepted and even welcomed. Since 1997 both the homicide rate and gun death rate in Australia have fallen dramatically. {{cn}}

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. The current Prime Minister is Malcolm Turnbull who is the leader of the Liberal Party (a right-leaning political party).

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref>[http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power (since the 2013 Federal Election) is the Liberal National Party Coalition. The Labor Party is also in government in Queensland and South Australia and ACT. NSW, Tasmania and the Northern Territory are governed by conservatives . The Prime Minister is the Liberal, Malcolm Turnbull.

Conservative Queensland politician and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectively represented by the major parties. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Governor General—Sir Peter Cosgrove
*Prime Minister—Scott Morrison
*Deputy Prime Minister—Michael McCormack
*Treasurer—Josh Frydenberg
*Foreign Minister—Marise Payne
*Defense Minister—Christopher Pyne
*Trade Minister—Simon Birmingham

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia’s troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea—it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States—Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group—countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations—and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018—and 2.2% annual real growth beyond—to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia’s long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia’s submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army’s armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]
For more see: [[Australian economy]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets—Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers—China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (May 2011): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia’s energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country’s power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref>See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia’s prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia’s 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus'''<br />Per capita
| $444.00 surplus.<br /><small>Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001</small>
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5% of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth'''<br />(combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates'''<br />deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living there. The great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self-image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref>The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic—a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system—whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==

* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' (1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
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|style=" background-color: none;"| <small>Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code</small>
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Talk:Egypt

2009-04-01T23:22:53Z

Krysg: /* Egyptians are not Arabs */

Is modern Egypt really any more continuous than China, Iraq or Pakistan? Egyptians speak and write in a different language, use different architecture, maintain different religious beliefs, and have a dramatically different world-view than Pharaonic Egypt.--[[User:WOVcenter|WOVcenter]] 22:19, 10 March 2007 (EST)

Apart from DNA in certain citizens, and geography, modern Egypt has no links at all with it's ancient past. The culture and religion that built the pyramids was weakened by the Greeks and Romans, then annihilated by Islam in the seventh and eighth centuries AD., The most ancient continuous cultural link in Egypt would be the Coptic Christian Church that has managed to hang on from the first century to the present. You have to hand it to them though. The pharaonic culture lasted virtually unchanged for about 4000 years! AlanE 8 May 2007

== The earliest known archaeological record of human culture in Ancient Egypt dates to between 13,000 and 9,000 B.C ==

Given that the Earth is only 6000 years old, this is not possible.19:56, 15 July 2007 (EDT) [[User:PFoster|PFoster]] 20:41, 15 July 2007 (EDT)
:Is this claim actually in the bible? Then again, I thought this is ''Conservapedia'', not the Creation wiki. So we write from a conservative perspective, but not necessarily from a Creationist perspective. [[User:Acampbell|Acampbell]] 21:06, 12 September 2008 (EDT)

I agree. This anti-Biblical bias should be corrected. At the very least, the materialist perspective should be complemented with the Christian view. Really, this is supposed to be Conservapedia, not Oldearthpedia. [[User:Brtkrbzhnv|Brtkrbzhnv]] 12:50, 26 August 2007 (EDT)
::To the best of my knowledge CP doesn't have to ONLY operate under a Young Earth Creationist paradigm in the way that wikipedia exclusively acknowledges Darwinism as the "truth", but rather we try to be balanced and fairly represent the range of theories out there. I see no problem with stating, perhaps parenthetically, that the whole "13,000 BC" date is a theory put forth by those not ascribing to the Usher calculations. [[User:ShlomSaydetLibnan|ShlomSaydetLibnan]] 00:05, 12 February 2009 (EST)
This article should be about modern Egypt as much as possible, placing ancient Egypt in a separate page. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 19:28, 5 October 2007 (EDT)

==Egyptians are not Arabs==
This article is a disgrace not only because the plight of Coptic Christians are inadequately mentioned, but also because it portrays all Egyptians as Arabs! I have already corrected the part about "Arab" identity. Egyptians are simply not Arabs! Especially Egyptian Copts. End of story. [[User:Acampbell|Acampbell]] 21:06, 12 September 2008 (EDT)
::Depends how one defines "Arab." Looking at it from a linguistic anthropologist's point of view, they most probably are. [[User:AliceBG|AliceBG]] 21:13, 12 September 2008 (EDT)

::Technically what you say is true, although they are usually considered a part of the "Arab world". Most of this article comes from a government website and so it is going to contain a perspective looking through a modern United States government lense - including our foreign policy choices of the last few decades and how the world is viewed. Feel free to add constructive information. Yes, the Copts are facing serious troubles, and there is certainly room for that to be added in a way that can be educational for our readers. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 03:35, 13 September 2008 (EDT)

:::Gamal Nasser, the father of the hyper-secular Arab nationalist movement that laid the foundations for Sadam Hussein's Ba'ath Party, is largely responsible for the notion that Egyptians are Arabs. As someone who has spent a great deal of time in Egypt, I can assure everybody that this is most definitely NOT the case amongst average Egyptians. Even Egyptian Muslims in Cairo and Alexandria almost never identify themselves as Arabs, and as far as Coptics go, well, have your running shoes on if you plan on asking one of them if they are ;) And in Upper Egypt (Luxor, Aswan, et al) most everybody is a Nubian. It's only out in the scant handful of oasis villages where people claim Arab (and specifically Bedouin) descent. [[User:ShlomSaydetLibnan|ShlomSaydetLibnan]] 00:10, 12 February 2009 (EST)

::::OK. Modern Egypt is a mixed society. There are some Arabs in Egypt, as there were until the 1950's many Jews, Greeks etc. However modern Egyptian culture and language is very different to elsewhere in the Middle East. Egyptian Arabic is almost entirely different to Gulf Arabic, and contains huge amounts of Coptic-Egyptian loan words. Egyptian culture is also entirely different to Arab culture. The reason Egypt is seen as a part of the Arab world is it speaks for it. Egypt is the biggest cultural weight in the region, the biggest population. For a long time Cairo was the capital of the Islamic empire and so it identifies with the Arab world by virtue of a shared religion and shared literature and cultural aspects of that period. Al Azhar is THE cultural heart of the Arab world and that is in Cairo. The Citadel was the heart of the Islamic empire in one of it's most important periods, and that is in Cairo. In modern times, Egypt is the cultural gel in the Arab world. Most Arabs can understand Egyptian Arabic, much more than vice versa.

::::Egypt is an "Arab nation" for similar reasons to the UK being head of the Commonwealth. A mix of colonial legacies, vanished empires and quirks of history. But most Egyptians are not Arabs, even though they have picked up a generous helping of Arab culture and language along the way. However, there are many advantages for her in being an "Arab nation", regardless of technicalities.

::::As for Upper Egypt. Kom Ombo and Aswan are the only two cities in the region with significant Nubian populations, and they only arrived in the area in large numbers following the completion of the Aswan Dam. Most of them lived from Aswan upward before this stretch of the valley was flooded. However, Upper Egypt was, and still is, mostly Egyptian.

::::Incidentally, it was the Romans, upon adopting Christianity, not the Islamic conquest, that destroyed Pharaonic culture. When the Arabs arrived, the destruction was already complete.--[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 19:22, 1 April 2009 (EDT)

Egypt

2009-04-01T23:00:01Z

Krysg:

{{Country
|name =''جمهورية مصر العربية <br/>''Gumhūriyyat Misr al-Arabiyyah'''
|map =Egypt rel97.jpg
|map2 =Location of Egypt.png
|flag =Flag of Egypt.png
|arms =Arms of Egypt.png
|capital =Cairo
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-Presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Hosni Mubarak
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Ahmed Nazif
|pm-raw =
|area =386,660 sq mi
|pop =80,335,036 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$329.791 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$4,836 (2006)
|currency =Egyptian pound
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}}

''This entry relates to the Republic of Egypt. For Pharaonic and Greco-Roman Egypt see [[Ancient Egypt]]''

'''Egypt''' is a country located in north-east [[Africa]], and is the site of one of the oldest recorded civilizations on earth.

==Name==
The name "Egypt" is derived from the [[Greek]] word ''Aígyptos'' (Αίγυπτος), which was possibly a corruption from the compound word ''Aegaeon uptiōs'' (''Aίγαίου υπτίως''), meaning "below the Aegean" (Strabo). Ancient Egyptians referred to their land as ''Kemet'' ("black land"), in reference to the black [[silt]] deposited by the annual [[Nile]] [[flood]]s.

"Misr" (مصر)is the modern [[Arabic]] name for Egypt, which is based upon the [[Hebrew]] word "Mizraim" (מִצְרַיִם); the ancient Hebrews referred to Egypt as the "land of Mizraim" after the founder of that country.

==Geography==
Egypt has four main regions: the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, where about 99 percent of population lives. Modest amounts of [[rain]]fall occur along the Mediterranean coast; rainfall throughout the remainder of the country is minimal to nonexistent.

==People==
Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab-speaking world and the second-most populous on the African Continent. Nearly all of the country's 79 million people live in [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]]; elsewhere on the banks of the Nile; in the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the [[Suez Canal]]. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole.
[[Image:Egypt shop owner.jpg|left]]
Small communities spread throughout the [[desert]] regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly [[irrigation|irrigated]] land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people of Hamitic origin. Mediterranean and Arab influences appear in the north, and there is some mixing in the south with the Nubians of northern [[Sudan]]. Ethnic minorities include a small number of [[Bedouin]] Arab nomads in the eastern and western deserts and in the [[Sinai]], as well as some 50,000-100,000 Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt.

The literacy rate is about 58% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of [[children]] enter [[primary school]] today, compared with 87% in 1994. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning.

Egypt's vast and rich [[literature]] constitutes an important cultural element in the life of the country and in the Arab-speaking world as a whole. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Egyptian literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Egyptian to win the [[Nobel prize]] for literature. Egyptian books and films are available throughout the Middle East.
*Population (July 2006 est.): 78,887,007.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 1.75%.
*Ethnic groups: Egyptian, Bedouin Arab, Nubian.
*Religions: Muslim 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%.
*Languages: Arabic (official), English, French.
*Education: Years compulsory--ages 6-15. Literacy--total adult: 58%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--31.33 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.): 71 years.

==Government and Political Conditions==
The Egyptian Constitution provides for a strong executive. Authority is vested in an elected president who can appoint one or more vice presidents, a prime minister, and a cabinet. The president's term runs for 6 years. Egypt's legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 454 members--444 popularly elected and 10 appointed by the president. The constitution reserves 50% of the assembly seats for "workers and peasants." The assembly sits for a 5-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. There also is a 264-member Shura (consultative) Council, in which 88 members are appointed and 174 elected for 6-year terms. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.

Opposition party organizations make their views public and represent their followers at various levels in the political system, but power is concentrated in the hands of the President and the National Democratic Party majority in the People's Assembly and those institutions dominate the political system. In addition to the ruling National Democratic Party, there are 18 other legally recognized parties, whereas in 2004 there were only 16 other legally recognized parties.

The November 2000 elections were generally considered to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections, because of universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights.

Progress was seen in the September 2005 presidential elections when parties were allowed to field candidates against President Mubarak and his National Democratic Party. In early 2005, President Mubarak proposed amending the constitution to allow, for the first time in Egypt's history, competitive, multi-candidate elections. An amendment was drafted by parliament and approved by public referendum in late May 2005. In September 2005, President Mubarak was reelected, according to official results, with 88% of the vote. His two principal challengers, Ayman Nour and No'man Gom'a, took 7% and 3% of the vote respectively.

Egypt's judicial system is based on European (primarily French) legal concepts and methods. Under the Mubarak government, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the Napoleonic Code. Marriage and personal status (family law) are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned, which for most Egyptians is Islamic Law (Sharia).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Mohamed Hosny Mubarak
*Prime Minister--Dr. Ahmed Nazif
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Ahmed Aboul Gheit
*Ambassador to the United States--Ambassador Nabil Fahmy
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations--Ambassador Maged Abdel Fattah Abdelaziz

===Foreign Relations===
Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.

The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amre Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. President Mubarak has often chaired the African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity). Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region--from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under U.S. and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with President Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President Bush for another summit on the Middle East peace process. Throughout mid-2004, Egypt worked closely with Israel and the Palestinian Authority to facilitate stability following Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza, which occurred in August and September of 2005. Prior to this Egypt and Israel reached an agreement that allowed Egypt to deploy additional forces along the Philadelphi Corridor in an attempt to control the border and prevent the smuggling of weapons.

Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was the third-largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and U.K. In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to UN peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. In August 2004, Egypt was actively engaged in seeking a solution to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan, including the dispatch of military monitors. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and actively supported the Iraqi Governing Council, as well as the subsequent government of Prime Minister Allawi. In July 2005, terrorists attacked the Egyptian city of Sharm El Sheikh. In the same month, Egypt's envoy to Iraq was assassinated.

==Defense==
Egypt's armed forces, among the largest in the region, include the army, air defense, air force, and navy. The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the United States, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, the former Soviet Union, and China. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of African and Arab states. Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner of the United States.

==Economy==
With the installation of the 2004 Egyptian parliament, the Government of Egypt began a new reform movement, following a stalled economic reform program begun in 1991, but moribund since the mid-1990s. In the past year, the cabinet economic team has simplified and reduced tariffs and taxes, improved the transparency of the national budget, revived stalled privatizations of public enterprises and implemented economic legislation designed to foster private sector-driven economic growth and improve Egypt's competitiveness. Despite these achievements, the economy is still hampered by government intervention, substantial subsidies for food, housing, and energy, and bloated public sector payrolls. Moreover, the public sector still controls most heavy industry.

In sectoral terms, agriculture is mainly in private hands, and has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic marketing are also largely private. The Egyptian economy, however, relies heavily on tourism, oil and gas exports, and Suez Canal revenues, much of which is controlled by the public sector and is also vulnerable to outside factors. The tourism sector suffered tremendously following a terrorist attack in Luxor in October 1997. The tourism sector feared a repeat of the downturn in tourist numbers when terrorists attacked resorts in the Sinai Peninsula in 2004 and 2005. So far, however, the sector has not suffered as greatly as expected.

The U.S. has a large assistance program in Egypt and provides funding for a variety of programs in addition to some cash transfers. A portion of U.S. assistance to Egypt under the 2003 Iraq war supplemental appropriations was provided in the form of bond guarantees, which were contingent upon Egyptian compliance with a series of economic conditions. Egypt met the conditions and in September 2005 issued $1.25 billion in 10-year bonds that were fully guaranteed by the United States. To support the Middle East peace process through regional economic integration, the United States permits products to be imported from Egypt without tariffs if they have been produced in Qualified Industrial Zones and 11.7% of the inputs of these products originate from Israel.
*GDP (2005 est.): $303 billion.
*Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 4.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.
*Agriculture: Products--cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.
*Industry: Types--food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.
*Trade (FY 2005): Exports--$14.3 billion: petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. *Major markets--EU, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports--$24.1 billion: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers--EU, U.S., Japan.

===Agriculture===
Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Nearly all of Egypt’s agricultural production takes place in some 2.5 million hectares (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.

Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Further improvement is possible, but land is worked intensively and yields are high. Cotton, rice, wheat, corn, sugarcane, sugar beets, onions, and beans are the principal crops. Increasingly, a few modern operations are producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. While the desert hosts some large, modern farms, more common traditional farms occupy one acre each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also have cows, water buffaloes, and chicken, although larger modern farms are becoming more important.

The United States is a major supplier of wheat, corn, and soybean products to Egypt, almost all through commercial sales. Egypt is, in fact, traditionally the U.S.'s largest market for wheat sales. U.S. agricultural sales to Egypt average $1 billion annually. U.S. food assistance programs to Egypt ended in 1992 as Egypt became more prosperous. Egypt continues to receive modest food assistance through the World Food Program and from France.

"Egypt," wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive [[oasis]]. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi.) from south to north.

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on millions of acres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of billions of low-cost kilowatt hours of electricity.

The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.

===Natural Resources===
[[Image:Woman bread egypt.jpg|290px|right]]
In addition to the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley and Delta, Egypt's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, and iron ore. Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean seashore, and in the Western Desert. Oil and gas accounts for approximately 12% of GDP. Export of petroleum and related products (including bunker and aviation sales) amounted to $2.7 billion in fiscal year 2003-04.

Crude oil production has been in decline for several years, from a high of more than 920,000 barrels per day (BPD) in 1995 to less than 662,000 BPD as of April 2006. To minimize the growing domestic demand of petroleum products, currently estimated at 25 million metric tons per year, Egypt is encouraging the production of natural gas. Over a 5-year period, production of natural gas increased by approximately 75% to reach about 3.3 billion cubic feet per day (BCFD) by the end of FY 2003/04. Currently, gas accounts for almost 50% of all hydrocarbon usage in Egypt.

Over the last 22 years, more than 230 oil and gas exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. As of September 2003, crude oil reserves were estimated at 2.8 billion barrels, and proven natural gas reserves were estimated at 62 trillion cubic feet (TCF) with probable additional reserves totaling another 40-60 TCF. Texas-based Apache Oil Company is the largest American investor in Egypt, with a total investment of more than $2.8 billion since 1996.

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The Ministry of Petroleum has determined that expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. As of September 2005, three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains had been in operation. The first is in Damietta on the eastern side of the Delta and started exporting in early 2005. It is headed by the Spanish electric utility, Union Fenosa. The second LNG project is located at Idku on the western side of the Delta and started exporting in 2005. The first train started in April 2005, and the second in September. British Gas (BG) Group and the Malaysian state oil company Petronas are the major investors. Another project that will utilize gas for export and domestic consumption is the Mediterranean Gas Complex in Port Said where the Italian company AGIP and BP are the main shareholders. This facility will have a total cost of about $315 million and went on line in late 2004.

Egypt and Jordan established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas to Jordan, and then later to Syria and Lebanon. In summer 2003 Egypt began exporting gas to Jordan via a new pipeline from El Arish on Egypt’s north Sinai cost to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba, and then underwater to the Jordanian city of Aqaba. Gas exports to Jordan generated gross revenues of approximately $60 million in 2003/04 and are currently reaching $85-100 million.

===Transport and Communication===
Transportation facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.

Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safraga on the Red Sea.

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab-speaking world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.

Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ETV) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the Arab-speaking world. In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.

ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.

Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.

Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Egyptian and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.

Radio in Egypt almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.

==History==

''Also see: [[Ancient Egypt]]''

Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and archaeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society has existed for much longer. Egyptians take pride in their "pharaonic heritage" and in their descent from what they consider mankind's earliest civilization. The Arabic word for Egypt is Misr, which originally connoted "civilization" or "metropolis."
[[Image:5457e.jpg|right|thumb|300px|View of the Sphinx with Khafra Pyramid in background ''(Photograph taken by [http://www.ianandwendy.com Ian Sewell])'']]
Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. Based on these time estimates, organized agriculture appeared by 6000 B.C.

In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided--the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]] (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).

===Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab Conquerors===
In 525 B., [[Cambyses]], the son of [[Cyrus the Great]], led a [[Persian]] invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. The country remained a Persian province until conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 322 BC, ushering in [[Ptolemeic]] rule Egypt that lasted for nearly 300 years. [[Cleopatra]] was the last ruler of that dynasty, but when she committed suicide after losing to Rome when her lover [[Marc Antony]] was defeated by [[Octavian]] in the [[Battle of Actium]], Egypt became a part of the [[Roman Empire]].

Egypt was invaded and conquered by Arab forces under [[Islam]] in 642. A process of Arabization and Islamization ensued. Although a [[Coptic Christian]] minority remained--and remains today, constituting about 10% of the population--the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab, [[Mameluke]], and Ottoman [[caliph]]s, beys, and [[sultan]]s ruled the country.

===European Influence===
The [[Ottoman Turks]] controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for a brief period of [[French]] rule under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. In 1805, [[Mohammed Ali (Egypt)|Mohammed Ali]], commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops, was appointed [[Pasha]], founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt, at least in name, until his great-great grandson, [[Farouk I]], was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, writing the first chapter in the modern history of Egypt. The growth of modern urban [[Cairo]] began in the reign of [[Ismail]] (1863-79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. The [[Suez Canal]] was completed in his reign in 1869, and its completion was celebrated by many events, including the commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).

In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the virtual inclusion of Egypt within the [[British Empire]]. In deference to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.

In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British influence; [[King Fuad]], whom the British had installed during [[World War II]]; and the British themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal. Other political forces emerging in this period included the communist party (1925) and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (1928), which eventually became a potent political and religious force.

During [[World War II]], British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. On July 22-23, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with [[Israel]]. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the [[Arab world]], promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized Egypt’s economy.

Nasser helped establish the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis [[Soviet Union|Moscow]], Nasser concluded an arms deal with [[Czechoslovakia]] in September 1955.

When the U.S. and the [[World Bank]] withdrew their offer to help finance the [[Aswan High Dam]] in mid-1956, Nasser nationalized the privately owned Suez Canal Company. The crisis that followed, exacerbated by growing tensions with Israel over [[guerrilla]] attacks from Gaza and Israeli reprisals, resulted in the invasion of Egypt that October by [[France]], [[Britain]], and Israel. Israel occupied the [[Sinai Peninsula]] while the canal was in the hands of the France and Britain, but all withdrew under U.S. pressure.

Nasser's domestic policies were arbitrary and frequently oppressive, yet generally popular. All opposition was stamped out, and opponents of the regime frequently were imprisoned without trial. Nasser's foreign and military policies helped provoke the [[Six-Day War|Israeli attack of June 1967]] that virtually destroyed Egypt's armed forces along with those of [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]]. Israel wrested and occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt. Personally, Nasser never recovered from that loss. Nasser, nonetheless, was revered by the masses in Egypt and in the Arab world until his death in 1970.

After Nasser's death, another of the original "free officers," Vice President [[Anwar el-Sadat]], was elected President. In 1971, Sadat concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union, but a year later, ordered Soviet advisers to leave. In October 1973, he launched the [[Yom Kippur War]] with Israel, in which Egypt's armed forces achieved unexpected initial successes but were defeated in Israeli counterattacks.

===Camp David and the Peace Process===
In a momentous change from the Nasser era, President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to [[Jerusalem]] in November 1977, the first Egyptian head of state to do so. This led to President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s invitation to President Sadat and [[Prime Minister Begin]] to join him in trilateral negotiations at [[Camp David]].

The outcome was the historic [[Camp David Accords|Camp David accords]], signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the U.S. on September 17, 1978. The accords led to the March 26, 1979, signing of the Egypt-Israel peace treaty, by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982 and guaranteed continuous U.S. economic aid. Throughout this period, U.S.-Egyptian relations steadily improved, but Sadat's willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him the enmity of most Arab states.

===Domestic Change===
[[Image:MuslimWomanEgypt.jpg|thumb|Muslim Woman]]
Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "open door." This relaxed government controls over the economy and encouraged private, including foreign, investment. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during the Nasser era.

Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was racked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions from radical Islam, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression.

===From Sadat to Mubarak===
On October 6, 1981, Islamic extremists assassinated President Sadat. [[Hosni Mubarak]], Vice President since 1975 and air force commander during the October 1973 war, was elected President later that month. He was subsequently confirmed by popular referendum for four more 6-year terms, most recently in September 2005. Mubarak has maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as a leader in the Arab-speaking world. Egypt was readmitted to the [[Arab League]] in 1989. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international fora as the [[UN]] and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Since 1991, Mubarak has overseen a domestic economic reform program to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the private sector. There has been less progress in political reform. The November 2000 People's Assembly elections saw 34 members of the opposition win seats in the 454-seat assembly, facing a clear majority of 388 ultimately affiliated with the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP). Opposition parties continue to face various difficulties in mounting credible electoral challenges to the NDP. The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, remains an illegal organization and is not recognized as a political party (current Egyptian law prohibits the formation of political parties based on religion). Members are known publicly and openly speak their views, although they do not explicitly identify themselves as members of the organization. Members of the Brotherhood have been elected to the People's Assembly and local councils as independents, and most recently scored a major victory in 2005 parliamentary elections, winning 20% of the seats, thus forming the largest opposition group.

== See also ==
*[[Egyptian chronology]]
*[[Medicine in Egypt]]
*[[Aton]]
*[[Battle of Actium]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html Ancient Egypt] The Trustees of the British Museum.
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Default.htm Egypt] Egypt State Information Service.

==References and Footnotes==

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm]

[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:African Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Egypt]]

Debate: Is it possible to voluntarily convert one's religion?

2009-04-01T22:55:29Z

Krysg:

I absolutely agree that it is possible to convert or find religion. Not only atheists, but people from many religions suddenly have a reawakening and convert, for example, to Christianity. However, there are many circumstances in which a person does not simply have such a reawakening. People often convert to another religion for reasons such as being able to marry someone. Is is possible for someone to force himself or herself to change one's religion or to believe in a religion if one is formerly an atheist? Also, is it possible for someone to force himself to become an atheist? --[[User:RoyS|RoyS]] 23:15, 17 August 2008 (EDT)

== Yes ==
An interesting topic. I think the OP somewhat answers his own question. Of course it is possible to convert to a different religion. Legality wise it varies from country to country. In Malaysia, for example, it's problematic, although technically legal, with the difficulties varying depending on the religions, and which "way" the person in question is going. Going from Islam to Hinduism or Christianity is harder than doing either in reverse, for example.

It's true marriage and divorce can both be factors. In Egypt, for example, Copts cannot divorce. A logical solution is to convert to Islam, then apply for a divorce, then just "lapse" or convert back. Similarly, marriage between religions is difficult so one partner or the other generally will have to convert. No faith involved, it's just socially and legally convenient. It is also a lot more common worldwide the most people admit. Within my own family there has been more "religions of convenience" than I care to count.

I don't think the degrades anyone, or their ability to have faith. Most of us live in a world dominated by powerful state backed religions that seek power over people. Thus, to get on in the world, it is necessary to go along with these religions regardless of our own beliefs, because we need it to be left in peace by the government (I.e. the "witch hunts" of the 1970's and 80's in Britain by social services, or being in the wrong sect in the wrong part of Baghdad today) or by seeking to enter a different faction in society (I.e. a Christian marrying into a Muslim family or vice versa). If we do not go with it, our lives would be hell. Therefore, being willing and abe to adopt the clothes of a given religion is an important a social skill as being able to pass job interviews or hold you own at any formal occasion.

Heartfelt or "faith" conversions do also happen however, and I can personally attest to it's sincerity. Having gone through conversion often gives someone a much more intense and personal faith, for they have had to find it rather than it simply being there in the family. Such people also find assuming a "religion of convenience" more problematic emotionally if required to assume the veneer of their own former religion. It is quite common for a convert to have as much or even greater knowledge of the religion than some who are born into it. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 18:55, 1 April 2009 (EDT)

[[Category:Conservapedia Debates]]

Talk:Hieroglyphs

2009-03-31T23:43:56Z

Krysg: /* Where should I put this? */

Suggest rename "hieroglyphs". "hieroglyphics" is incorrect terminology. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 16:31, 18 February 2009 (EST)

----

'''I will be adding content to this page over the next few weeks. Please do not delete the headings. If questions, pls leave not on [[User_talk:Krysg]]. Thanks.''' --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 11:02, 20 March 2009 (EDT)

:I do not agree with the move. The topic is [[Hieroglyphics]], even if the individual letters or [[glyph]]s are (now?) properly called [[hieroglyph]]s. We follow the [[principle of least surprise]] here.

:On the other hand, we are an educational project. If academics have begun to refer to the shorter form (without ''ic'') then we should let our readers know this. But education via redirect is not something I'd like to try. Better to place a usage note somewhere in the article.

:By the way, more important than the spelling issue is how the little pictures correspond to sounds, along with the process by which modern scholars discovered that correspondence. Is the [[Rosetta Stone]] relevant here? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] <sup>[[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]]</sup> 09:05, 26 March 2009 (EDT)

==Pictograms==

I don't know what a pictogram is, but it's curious that each glyph reminds me of an ordinary object or creature: a bird, a worm, a shepherd's crook, a candle. Readers need to be told whether these pictures are meant to represent the thing they depict, or whether they are simply letters in an alphabet.

For example,

* Although many Egyptian hieroglyphs depict familiar things, the Egyptians used them simply as letters. This contrasts with Chinese, where each glyph is a word and the shape of a glyph often provides a hint of the word's meaning. (For example, the horse's hooves at the bottom of ''horse'' or the raindrops in ''rain'').

Do you want to write the article this way, Krys? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] <sup>[[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]]</sup> 07:39, 28 March 2009 (EDT)

----

I have tried to write the article so far an introduction to the the system for someone with no knowledge of Egyptian language and writing, but with a basic foundation knowledge of linguistic principles. I'm not sure about the system in the US, but under the UK system most O level (14-16yr old) students should have the basics in place regarding major linguistic concepts, which I've assumed to be the age we are writing for. I didn't want to go into un-neccessary explanation of basic points and make the article too large, as it has a lot of ground still to cover.

However, if you think more explantion is needed at the basic level I can add that, or perhaps split into "introductory" and "in-depth" articles, if we need to start right at square one. Let me know you thoughts on it, and I'm sure we can figure it out somehow. Take care :-)

--[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 19:43, 31 March 2009 (EDT)

== Where should I put this? ==

[[Image:Gramsigns001.jpg]]--[[User:Jack456|Jack456]] 16:46, 31 March 2009 (EDT)

----
It's done, no worries :)
--[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 19:43, 31 March 2009 (EDT)

Talk:Hieroglyphs

2009-03-31T23:43:08Z

Krysg: /* Pictograms */

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-31T23:17:16Z

Krysg: bibliograpy

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs on a Late Period [[sarcophagus]] at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' were developed in [[Ancient Egypt]] as a way to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used similar writing systems, though Maya hieroglyphs were an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years later, and were much more restricted in use. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Mayan hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are '''not''' generally [[pictogram|pictograms]] or [[logogram|logograms]]. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, hieroglyphs are primarily [[phonogram|phonograms.]] Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end (a ''determinative'') that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoid confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew]] alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic Era and Cryptographic Inscriptions ===
During the Ptolemaic era the number of signs was increased dramatically, from around 800 to several thousand, many of which were ligatures of existing signs. The rise in the complexity co-incided with the rise of so-called cryptographic texts in temple inscriptions that aimed to deliberately obscure and challenge the reader. The reasons for this are unknown, and various reasons from xenophobia, cultural pride and nationalism (see also: [[Great Egyptian Revolt]]) to marginlisation and isolation of traditional religion and the rise of Hellenic and syncretic cults have all been suggested.

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===
The Roman era sees the decline of the hieroglyphic system of writing. The last surviving knowledgeable and literate hieroglyphic inscription in ancient times dates from August 24th, 396 AD and was inscribed in the temple complex of Philae, five years after Theodosius I forced the closure of all non-Christian places of worship in Roman territory. The inscription, the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom is catalogued as Philae 436 ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/mkubecka/2093092240/ picture]).

Even before this some Greco-Roman writers had written elaborate and wholly inaccurate works on the “mystical” or “symbolic” interpretations of the signs, and such works continued into the Islamic era. These works inadvertently frustrated attempts at translation into the modern era.

The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 focused European scholarly and academic attention on Egypt for the first time. The discovery of the [[Rosetta Stone]]in 1799 was recognised immediately as the “key” to correct interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphs, having the same text recorded in Greek and in hieroglyphs, as well as another unknown script.

The British captured the stone in 1801 amid events that are still unclear and controversial. However, the French scholars had taken casts of the stone, with which they returned to Paris. The British believed a method of mathematical deduction would eventually allow the text to be translated, given sufficient time. However, John Francois Champollion, a brilliant linguist familiar with 24 languages, realised both that hieroglyphs had to be phonogrammatic in nature, and also that translating the language was as important as the alphabet.

Champollion was familiar with the Coptic language, and he correctly realised that this was the final evolution of the Egyptian language written in hieroglyphs. By applying his knowledge of Coptic, and the works of the Thomas Young, his British counterpart, Champollion successfully transliterated the first hieroglyphs and translated the first Egyptian words in 1822. His work, however, was constantly thwarted by the religious-political situation in [[France]] during the reign of [[Charles X]]. In return for part-funding mission to Egypt by the state to test his theories, he was forbidden to publish anything contravening the Biblical account of history. As such, many of his dairies, containing details of monuments and tombs pre-dating the supposed date of the “[[Great Flood]]” were only published after his death.

Despite this, his mission was successful. However, in recent times his reputation has been damaged due to the looting of artefacts undertaken during the mission, including cutting of scenes from tomb walls, even Royal tombs. It should be noted that this was standard practice at the time, and Champollion was expected to return with treasures as a "return" on the "investment" the state made in his mission.
[[Image:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hieratic script from the Edwin Smith Papyrus]]
== Relationship with Hieratic, Demotic and Coptic ==

Hieratic is a cursive form of the hieroglyphic writing system (though different to cursive hieroglyphs) that was suited to working with a reed brush/pen. Hieratic does not replace hieroglyphs, but rather complements them, with hieroglyphs serving mostly in monumental inscriptions in stone and ritual use, and hieratic for administrative and lesser religious documents. It is attested from the end of the Early Dynastic period onwards and is written in ink primarily on papyrus and ostraca. Over time increasingly cursive forms of hieratic appear, eventually formalising as Demotic. Originally intended for administrative purposes, Hieratic was used mainly for religious papyri following the development of Demotic. Use of Hieratic declined along with Egyptian religion, and ceased to be used during the Roman era.
[[Image:Demotic_Ostrakon.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Ostraca with Demotic script dating from the Ptolemaic period]]
During the 26th Dynasty, an additional cursive writing system appears, Demotic. Essentially a more cursive form of Hieratic, demotic makes extensive use of ligatures. Demotic also differs from Hieratic in that it was occasionally also deployed as a monumental script, though it does not replace hieroglyphs, and Demotic is only rarely employed monumentally. Demotic began to replaced by the Greek and Coptic writing systems in the third century AD. The last known Demotic inscription was from Philae in 452AD, just 56 years after the last known literate use of hieroglyphs.

The Coptic script is entirely different to the other three written forms of Egyptian. For the most part it is not related to hieroglyphs, but to the Greek alphabet, except for the six “additional” letters which reproduce sounds not used in Greek, which are taken from Demotic, and thus hieroglyphs. Coptic also records vowels as well as consonants, but does not use determinatives or any equivalent. Coptic script first appears third century AD, and is still used in the Coptic church. The language it represents is a late form of Egyptian many Greek loan words included.

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with monoliteral signs. These signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

[[Image:Gramsigns001.jpg|550px|center]]

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rendering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for multiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==
<div class="references-small">
* '''Allen, J P (2000)''', ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and culture of Hieroglyphs'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
* '''Collider, M and Manley, B (1998)''', ''How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs'', University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles
* '''Gardiner, A H (1957)''', ''Egyptian Grammar'' (3rd. Ed.), Griffith Institute, Oxford
* '''Shaw, I and Nicholson, P (2008)''', ''Dictionary of Ancient Egypt'', British Museum Press, London
* '''Yousef, A A H (2003)''', ''From Pharaoh's Lips: Ancient Egyptian Language in the Arabic of Today'', AUC Press, Cairo

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-31T22:58:02Z

Krysg: Added relationship to Hieratic, Demotic and Coptic and some tidying. Added images and examples of grammatic signs.

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs on a Late Period [[sarcophagus]] at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].]]
'''Hieroglyphics''' is a system of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], that was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used similar writing systems, though Maya hieroglyphs were an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years later, and were much more restricted in use. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Mayan hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are '''not''' generally [[pictogram|pictograms]] or [[logogram|logograms]]. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, hieroglyphs are primarily [[phonogram|phonograms.]] Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end (a ''determinative'') that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoid confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew]] alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic Era and Cryptographic Inscriptions ===
During the Ptolemaic era the number of signs was increased dramatically, from around 800 to several thousand, many of which were ligatures of existing signs. The rise in the complexity co-incided with the rise of so-called cryptographic texts in temple inscriptions that aimed to deliberately obscure and challenge the reader. The reasons for this are unknown, and various reasons from xenophobia, cultural pride and nationalism (see also: [[Great Egyptian Revolt]]) to marginlisation and isolation of traditional religion and the rise of Hellenic and syncretic cults have all been suggested.

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===
The Roman era sees the decline of the hieroglyphic system of writing. The last surviving knowledgeable and literate hieroglyphic inscription in ancient times dates from August 24th, 396 AD and was inscribed in the temple complex of Philae, five years after Theodosius I forced the closure of all non-Christian places of worship in Roman territory. The inscription, the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom is catalogued as Philae 436 ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/mkubecka/2093092240/ picture]).

Even before this some Greco-Roman writers had written elaborate and wholly inaccurate works on the “mystical” or “symbolic” interpretations of the signs, and such works continued into the Islamic era. These works inadvertently frustrated attempts at translation into the modern era.

The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 focused European scholarly and academic attention on Egypt for the first time. The discovery of the [[Rosetta Stone]]in 1799 was recognised immediately as the “key” to correct interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphs, having the same text recorded in Greek and in hieroglyphs, as well as another unknown script.

The British captured the stone in 1801 amid events that are still unclear and controversial. However, the French scholars had taken casts of the stone, with which they returned to Paris. The British believed a method of mathematical deduction would eventually allow the text to be translated, given sufficient time. However, John Francois Champollion, a brilliant linguist familiar with 24 languages, realised both that hieroglyphs had to be phonogrammatic in nature, and also that translating the language was as important as the alphabet.

Champollion was familiar with the Coptic language, and he correctly realised that this was the final evolution of the Egyptian language written in hieroglyphs. By applying his knowledge of Coptic, and the works of the Thomas Young, his British counterpart, Champollion successfully transliterated the first hieroglyphs and translated the first Egyptian words in 1822. His work, however, was constantly thwarted by the religious-political situation in [[France]] during the reign of [[Charles X]]. In return for part-funding mission to Egypt by the state to test his theories, he was forbidden to publish anything contravening the Biblical account of history. As such, many of his dairies, containing details of monuments and tombs pre-dating the supposed date of the “[[Great Flood]]” were only published after his death.

Despite this, his mission was successful. However, in recent times his reputation has been damaged due to the looting of artefacts undertaken during the mission, including cutting of scenes from tomb walls, even Royal tombs. It should be noted that this was standard practice at the time, and Champollion was expected to return with treasures as a "return" on the "investment" the state made in his mission.
[[Image:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hieratic script from the Edwin Smith Papyrus]]
== Relationship with Hieratic, Demotic and Coptic ==

Hieratic is a cursive form of the hieroglyphic writing system (though different to cursive hieroglyphs) that was suited to working with a reed brush/pen. Hieratic does not replace hieroglyphs, but rather complements them, with hieroglyphs serving mostly in monumental inscriptions in stone and ritual use, and hieratic for administrative and lesser religious documents. It is attested from the end of the Early Dynastic period onwards and is written in ink primarily on papyrus and ostraca. Over time increasingly cursive forms of hieratic appear, eventually formalising as Demotic. Originally intended for administrative purposes, Hieratic was used mainly for religious papyri following the development of Demotic. Use of Hieratic declined along with Egyptian religion, and ceased to be used during the Roman era.
[[Image:Demotic_Ostrakon.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Ostraca with Demotic script dating from the Ptolemaic period]]
During the 26th Dynasty, an additional cursive writing system appears, Demotic. Essentially a more cursive form of Hieratic, demotic makes extensive use of ligatures. Demotic also differs from Hieratic in that it was occasionally also deployed as a monumental script, though it does not replace hieroglyphs, and Demotic is only rarely employed monumentally. Demotic began to replaced by the Greek and Coptic writing systems in the third century AD. The last known Demotic inscription was from Philae in 452AD, just 56 years after the last known literate use of hieroglyphs.

The Coptic script is entirely different to the other three written forms of Egyptian. For the most part it is not related to hieroglyphs, but to the Greek alphabet, except for the six “additional” letters which reproduce sounds not used in Greek, which are taken from Demotic, and thus hieroglyphs. Coptic also records vowels as well as consonants, but does not use determinatives or any equivalent. Coptic script first appears third century AD, and is still used in the Coptic church. The language it represents is a late form of Egyptian many Greek loan words included.

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with monoliteral signs. These signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

[[Image:Gramsigns001.jpg|550px|center]]

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rendering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for multiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Conservapedia talk:Image upload requests

2009-03-31T19:37:21Z

Krysg:

Just a suggestion, but perhaps your webmaster could enable a redirect here for those who don't have upload privileges. I can imagine some people just hitting a brick wall otherwise. [[User:PistolPete|PistolPete]] 14:27, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

== disappointment ==

I must admit I am disappointed by this turn of events. I will now re-reconsider my involvement with this project. I feel having this level of censorship and direct control to be upsetting. I will work out my future on C/P over the upcoming weekend. [[User:Hannibal ad portas|Hannibal ad portas]] 20:59, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

== Attention needed ==
Can someone please upload these images. Can't proceed with editing without them. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 15:37, 31 March 2009 (EDT)

Ankh

2009-03-28T23:56:59Z

Krysg: rewrite

The '''Ankh''' is a [[hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]] used in the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] writing system as a trilateral sign, and is a stylised depiction of a sandal strap. It it shaped like a crucifix style cross with a loop instead of a top bar.

The sign has great religious significance in [[Egyptian religion]], for the sign was commonly used as shorthand for "life", and was often used to represent the concept of giving life of breath in religious art. Gods are routinely shown carrying the sign in one hand, as if an object, whilst it is often held by a god under the beneficiaries nose, giving them the breath of life.

Following the enforcement of [[Christianity]] in Egypt (391AD), the Ankh sign was incorporated into Coptic iconography, where it remains today.

In modern times the Ankh has been widely adopted by a variety of groups. It is widely worn as a necklace, or occasionally bracelet as a protective amulet or charm, usually made of silver. The Ankh is also used as a symbol by some bands. Along with the [[Udjat]], it is one of the most widely recognised symbols of Egyptian culture.

=== See also ===
* [[Hieroglyphs]]
* [[Egyptian language]]
* [[Egyptian religion]]

[[Category: Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Paganism]]

Juche

2009-03-28T23:20:17Z

Krysg: removed from category:paganism. Not really appropiate, and is already in Communism and Korean Politics.

'''Juche''' is the official state [[religion]] or [[ideology]] of the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], better known as [[North Korea]].<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/dprk/suryong.htm]</ref> North Korean dictator [[Kim Jong Il]] has a strong [[cult of personality]], and North Korean children are taught to revere him from a young age. For instance, the first phrase North Korean children are supposed to learn from their parents is "Thank you, Father Kim Il Sung”.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />

[[Category:Korean Politics]] [[Category:Communism]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-26T16:08:33Z

Krysg: Added loss and modern rediscovery - will tidy later

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs on a Late Period [[sarcophagus]] at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' are a form of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], that was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used similar writing systems, though Maya hieroglyphs were an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years later, and wwere much more restricted in use. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Maya hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are '''not''' generally pictograms or logorams. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, hieroglyphs are primarily phonograms. Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end (a ''determinative'') that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoid confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic Era and Cryptographic Inscriptions ===
During the Ptolemaic era the number of signs was increased dramatically, from around 800 to several thousand, many of which were ligatures of existing signs. The rise in the complexity co-incided with the rise of so-called cryptographic texts in temple inscriptions that aimed to deliberately obscure and challenge the reader. The reasons for this are unknown, and various reasons from xenophobia, cultural pride and nationalism (see also: [[Great Egyptian Revolt]]) to marginlisation and isolation of traditional religion and the rise of Hellenic and syncretic cults have all been suggested.

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===
The Roman era sees the decline of the hieroglyphic system of writing. The last surviving knowledgeable and literate hieroglyphic inscription in ancient times dates from August 24th, 396 AD and was inscribed in the temple complex of Philae, five years after Theodosius I forced the closure of all non-Christian places of worship in Roman territory. The inscription, the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom is catalogued as Philae 436 ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/mkubecka/2093092240/ picture]).

Even before this some Greco-Roman writers had written elaborate and wholly inaccurate works on the “mystical” or “symbolic” interpretations of the signs, and such works continued into the Islamic era. These works inadvertently frustrated attempts at translation into the modern era.

The French invasion of Egypt at the end of the 18th century focused European scholarly and academic attention on Egypt for the first time, and over the course of the next century led to more progress being made in regards knowledge of Egyptian history than had been done in the previous 1000 years. The discovery of the [[Rosetta Stone]] was recognised immediately by Napoleon’s savants as the “key” to correct interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphs, having the same text recorded in Greek, which was already known, and in the Egyptian language in hieroglyphs and demotic, both of which were unknown.

The British captured the stone when French forces were defeated, but not before the French had taken copies, with which they returned to Paris. The British believed a method of mathematical deduction would eventually allow the text to be translated, given sufficient time. However, John Francois Champollion, a brilliant linguist familiar with 24 languages, realised both that hieroglyphs had to be phonogrammatic in nature, and also that translating the language was as important as the alphabet.

Champollion was familiar with the Coptic language, and he correctly realised that this was the final evolution of the Egyptian language written in hieroglyphs. By applying his knowledge of Coptic, Champollion successfully transliterated the first hieroglyphs and translated the first Egyptian words. His work, however, was constantly thwarted by the religious-political situation in [[France]] during the reign of [[Charles X]]. In return for part-funding mission to Egypt by the state to test his theories, he was forbidden to publish anything contravening the Biblical account of history. As such, many of his dairies, containing details of monuments and tombs pre-dating the supposed date of the “[[Great Flood]]” were only published after his death.

Despite this, his mission was sucessful. However, in recent times his reputation has been damaged due to the looting of artefacts undertaken during the mission, including cutting of scenes from tomb walls, even Royal tombs. It should be noted, however, that this was standard practice at the time, and Champollion was expected to return with treasures as a "return" on the "investment" the state made in his mission.

== Relationship with Hieratic and Demotic ==

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with monoliteral signs. These signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

* A single vertical stroke placed under a sign, informs the reader the sign above is to be read as a logogram.
* Two vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate duality.
* Three vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate plurality.
* A cartouche is used to enclose the nomen and prenomen of a Pharaoh. Very occasionally, it is also used to enclose the name of a god.
* A serekh is used to enclose the Horus name of the Pharaoh.

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rendering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for multiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Template:User hypatia

2009-03-26T12:03:59Z

Krysg: New page: {{Userbox |#CCCCFF|#FFFFFF|45px|<center>This user believes Hypatia did not die in vain</center>}}

{{Userbox |#CCCCFF|#FFFFFF|[[image:Hypatia.jpg|45px]]|<center>This user believes [[Hypathia|Hypatia]] did not die in vain</center>}}

Suez Canal

2009-03-25T21:59:12Z

Krysg: Corrected some errors and expanded

The '''Suez Canal''' is a strategic waterway crossing the the isthmus of Suez in [[Egypt]] at the narrowest part of the [[Sinai Peninsula]], and links the [[Red Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The completion of the canal eliminated the need to [[ship]]s to travel around Africa in order to reach Asia and the East Indies from Europe.

The canal was built by the [[French]] Suez Canal Company (Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez). Ferdinand de Lesseps completed the canal in 1869 after nearly 11 years work.

Its strategic importance led to the [[British]] conquest of Egypt in 1882. The canal came under British protection after [[The Convention of Constantinople]] in 1888 as Egypt continued efforts to become independent from the British Empire. Egypt was emancipated by the British in 1922, but remained as a vassal state until after [[World War Two]]. Britain had retained a military force at Suez to secure and operate the canal under a 1935 treaty, but in 1951, facing intense internal pressure, the Egyptian King Farouk rescinded the treaty. Farouk was deposed the following year and after a period of instability replaced by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. He demanded the full withdrawal of British troops, which began in 1954. The last British troops were removed on June 13, 1956.

In the early 1950s, Nassar sought funding for the Aswan High Dam, a project which would dam the Nile preventing damaging seasonal flooding, and provide hydroelectric power. Initially, the United States had agreed to fund it, but given the expulsion of British troops, the United States was pressured to withdraw support. In retaliation for the United States reneging on their pledge of support, Nassar nationalized the canal in 1956 following the withdrawal of British troops and planned to use funds generated by the canal to fund the dam. He further declared the canal closed to Israeli ships and cargo.

The British and French responded to this by secretly colluding with Isreal to retake the canal by force. It was agreed that the Israelis would invade the Sinai Peninsula, giving a pretext for British and French forces to "intervene" and bring about a "peace plan" that would require them to assume control of the canal, nominally as a buffer zone between Egyptian and Isreali forces. The plan failed when the United States, whom the United Kingdom was increasingly depend upon militarily but had intentionally kept in the dark about her plans, reacted furiously once the conflict began. Fearful of an escalation of the conflict involving the Soveit Union and Warsaw Pact, and angry that other NATO members had conspired againt NATO interests, the US demanded an immediate withdrawal, and led to the first [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force to be deployed to the Sinai, resulting in the withdrawal of Israeli troops back to prewar borders, and the exit of the British and French forces from the theater. Britain and France, who had vetoed two UNSC resolutions agreed to withdraw within one week only after President [[Eisenhower]] threatened to dump US reserves of the British pound and French franc, which would have ruined the fragile post-war economies of Britain and France.

During the conlifct the canal was blocked by vessels scuppered by Egyptian forces. It reopened in 1957, still nationalised, and with relations between Egypt and west effectivly in deep freeze. The [[Soviet Union]] designed, funded and oversaw construction of the [[Aswan Dam|Aswan High Dam]].

After the [[Six Day War|1967 Arab-Israeli war]] Israeli forces captured the Sinai Peninsula and the canal was again closed to all shipping. The canal was recaptured, and sunsequently lost again, by the Egyptians during the [[Yom Kippur War]]. However, the [[Camp David Accords]] negotiated by [[Jimmy Carter]], resulted in the return of the canal and all the Sinai to Egyptian control in return for Egypt formally recognizing Israel. The canal reopened in 1975 and in 1979 Egypt began allowing Israeli merchant vessels through the canal.

[[Category:Canals]]
[[Category:Egypt]]

King snake

2009-03-25T14:50:11Z

Krysg: King Snakes as domestic pets

The '''king snake''' is a common name for [[snake]]s of genus ''Lampropeltis'' (also including [[milk snake]]s) found in [[North America]], specifically the eastern [[United States]]. They subsist on a diet of [[rodents]], [[birds,]] and other snakes. Specifically, king snakes are immune to [[rattlesnake]] and [[copperhead]] [[venom]], which allows them to feed on these species. King snakes are considered beneficial animals due to their pest controlling diet.<ref>http://www.everwonder.com/david/snakes/kingsnake.html</ref>
The coloration of king snakes is usually black, red and white, which imitates the colors of venomous [[coral snake]]s. This makes potential predators avoid king snakes.

King snakes are one of the most common species of snake to be kept as pets. They are pysically resillient and thus straightforward to care for. They also have a mild, easy temprement, once used to human contact and, once adapted, take well to handling. However, as hatchilings they can be shy and nervous, and need careful handling.<ref>http://www.reptileexpert.co.uk/KeepingKingSnakesPets.html</ref> Like most snakes, they need plenty of places to hide in order to feel secure, and can be agoraphobic if their enclosure too large or open.

==References==
<references/>

[[category:Snakes]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-23T23:44:53Z

Krysg: sp

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs on a Late Period [[sarcophagus]] at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' are a form of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], and was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used hieroglyphic writing systems, though the Maya system was an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years laterd, and was much more restricted in it's usage. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Maya hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are notpictographic. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, glyphs record the sounds that make up a word. Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end as a determinative, that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoiding confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic and Roman Era Developments ===
During the Ptolemaic era the number of signs was increased dramatically, from around 800 to several thousand, many of which were ligatures of existing signs. The rise in the complexity co-incided with the rise of so-called cryptographic texts in temple inscriptions that aimed to deliberately obscure and challenge the reader. The reasons for this are unknown, and various reasons from xenophobia, cultural pride and nationalism (see also: [[Great Egyptian Revolt]]) to marginlisation and isolation of traditional religion and the rise of Hellenic and syncretic cults have all been suggested.

The Roman era sees the decline of the hieroglyphic system of writing. The last surviving knowledgeable and literate hieroglyphic inscription in ancient times dates from August 24th, 396 AD and was inscribed in the temple complex of Philae, five years after Theodosius I forced the closure of all non-Christian places of worship in Roman territory. The inscription, the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom is catalogued as Philae 436 ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/mkubecka/2093092240/ picture]).

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===

== Relationship with Hieratic and Demotic ==

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with single consonant signs. Single consonant signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

* A single vertical stroke placed under a sign, informs the reader the sign above is to be read as a logogram.
* Two vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate duality.
* Three vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate plurality.
* A cartouche is used to enclose the nomen and prenomen of a Pharaoh. Very occasionally, it is also used to enclose the name of a god.
* A serekh is used to enclose the Horus name of the Pharaoh.

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rednering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for mutiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-23T23:43:32Z

Krysg: added greco-roman developments

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs on a Late Period [[sarcophagus]] at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' are a form of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], and was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used hieroglyphic writing systems, though the Maya system was an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years laterd, and was much more restricted in it's usage. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Maya hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are notpictographic. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, glyphs record the sounds that make up a word. Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end as a determinative, that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoiding confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic and Roman Era Developments ===
During the Ptolemaic era the number of signs was increased dramatically, from around 800 to several thousand, many of which were ligatures of existing signs. The rise in the complexity co-incided with the rise of so-called cryptographic texts in temple inscriptions that aimed to deliberately obscure and challenge the reader. The reasons for this are unknown, and various reasons from xenophobia, cultural pride and nationalism (see also: [[Great Egyptian Revolt]]) to marginalisation and isolation of traditional religion and the rise of Hellenic and syncretic cults have all been suggested.

The Roman era sees the decline of the hieroglyphic system of writing. The last surviving knowledgeable and literate hieroglyphic inscription in ancient times dates from August 24th, 396 AD and was inscribed in the temple complex of Philae, five years after Theodosius I forced the closure of all non-Christian places of worship in Roman territory. The inscription, the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom is catalogued as Philae 436 ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/mkubecka/2093092240/ picture]).

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===

== Relationship with Hieratic and Demotic ==

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with single consonant signs. Single consonant signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

* A single vertical stroke placed under a sign, informs the reader the sign above is to be read as a logogram.
* Two vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate duality.
* Three vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate plurality.
* A cartouche is used to enclose the nomen and prenomen of a Pharaoh. Very occasionally, it is also used to enclose the name of a god.
* A serekh is used to enclose the Horus name of the Pharaoh.

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rednering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for mutiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-22T15:52:09Z

Krysg: Added images/examples

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs at the British Museum in London.]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' are a form of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], and was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used hieroglyphic writing systems, though the Maya system was an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years laterd, and was much more restricted in it's usage. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Maya hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are notpictographic. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, glyphs record the sounds that make up a word. Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end as a determinative, that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoiding confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic Era Developments ===

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===

== Relationship with Hieratic and Demotic ==

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other. The example below is the cartouche of [[Khufu]]:

[[image:Jsesh-khufu001.jpg|center]]

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with single consonant signs. Single consonant signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

[[image:Jsesh-tutankhamun001.jpg|center]]

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

* A single vertical stroke placed under a sign, informs the reader the sign above is to be read as a logogram.
* Two vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate duality.
* Three vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate plurality.
* A cartouche is used to enclose the nomen and prenomen of a Pharaoh. Very occasionally, it is also used to enclose the name of a god.
* A serekh is used to enclose the Horus name of the Pharaoh.

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
[[Image:Jseshscreenshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Application for digital rednering of hieroglyphs in documents and digital media have become more widespread in recent years. JSesh, pictured here running under WindowsXP, is a popular open source solution available for mutiple platforms]]
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-21T22:37:27Z

Krysg: some new sections added, more to follow

[[Image:Hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian hieroglyphs at the British Museum in London.]]
'''Hieroglyphs''' are a form of [[writing]] developed in [[Ancient Egypt]], and was used to write the [[Egyptian language]]. Other cultures, most notably the [[Maya]] civilization also used hieroglyphic writing systems, though the Maya system was an entirely independent development, taking place several thousand years laterd, and was much more restricted in it's usage. Whilst Egyptian hieroglyphs were first deciphered in the 19th century by [[Jean Francois Champollion]], Maya hieroglyphs have only recently begun to be understood, and much work remains to be done.

''Note: This article only deals with [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Hieroglpyhs.''

== Basic Concepts ==
Contrary to popular belief, Egyptian hieroglyphs are notpictographic. Like the Latin and Greek alphabets, glyphs record the sounds that make up a word. Unlike these alphabets however, one sign can convey up to three consonants, whilst some words also feature an additional silent sign at the end as a determinative, that helps convey the meaning of the word, and avoiding confusion between words that would otherwise be spelt with exactly the same signs. This is especially important as, like in modern Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, vowels are not included in the text. Only consonants are recorded.

== Development ==

== Pre amd Early Dynastic ==

=== Classical (Middle) Egyptian ===

=== Ptolemaic Era Developments ===

=== Decline, Loss and Rediscovery ===

== Relationship with Hieratic and Demotic ==

== Sign Usage ==
The number of Hieroglyphic signs is much larger than in the Latin or Greek alphabets. This is due to the number of different uses signs can have, to represent a single, two or three consonants (monoliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs), and as a non-sounded determinative. In total, the classical Egyptian sign set features approximately 800 signs. In the Ptolemaic era, thousands of new signs were added, which are not included in most dictionaries and classifications of the written script, many of which were effectively ligatures of existing signs.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions are always read “into the face” of the signs, which can either be left to right or right to left, depending on the inscription. Text may be arranged in columns or in lines. Text and art are inseparable in Egyptian writing, and so the layout of text is (except in administrative documents) dictated by aesthetics.

=== Monoliteral Signs ===
These are the easiest part of the system for most western students to learn. The set of 24 monoliteral signs function in the same way as the Latin or Greek alphabets do, with a single sign representing a single sound. Words are produced by placing the signs in order one after the other, For example:

When tourists in Egypt often have their name spelt in hieroglyphs on jewellery or papyrus, it is commonly done with single consonant signs. Single consonant signs are also used in the first stage of teaching Egyptology students to read Egyptian texts, even if their ultimate aim is to learn one of the other scripts (hieratic or demotic).

=== Biliteral and Triliteral Signs ===
Biliteral and Triliteral signs are single hieroglyphs that convey two or three consonantal sounds, for example the well known ankh sign that conveys the sounds a-n-x (pronounced “Ankh”) and commonly used for the complete Egyptian work “anx” (or “life”), though it may be used in any situation where the a-n-x sound is needed, such as in the name of Tutankhamun, shown below.

=== Determinatives ===
Many words in Egyptian are spelt with the addition of one, and occasionally more, determinatives. These are signs added to the end of a word but have no sound value, and are not pronounced. They are used to aid the reader and in clarifying between homophones. The use of distinctive or rare two or three consonant signs, some extremely specialised, also aid in this. As hieroglyphic inscriptions do not include spaces between words, determinatives can also help the reader in separating words. They also serve an important artistic and aesthetic role.

=== Logogrammatic Usage ===
Although used only occasionally, it is possible for certain signs to be used to directly represent an object. This is indicated in the text by the addition of a single vertical stroke under the sign to indicate to the reader that the sign should be read in the way, rather than as part of a phonogram.

=== Grammatical Signs ===
Strokes and points are additional signs that, like determinatives, are not pronounced They serve to represent the grammar of the text.

* A single vertical stroke placed under a sign, informs the reader the sign above is to be read as a logogram.
* Two vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate duality.
* Three vertical strokes at the end of a word indicate plurality.
* A cartouche is used to enclose the nomen and prenomen of a Pharaoh. Very occasionally, it is also used to enclose the name of a god.
* A serekh is used to enclose the Horus name of the Pharaoh.

== Gardiner Classification ==
Sir Alan Gardiner developed a classification system for hieroglyphs, cataloguing signs by type or what they depict, i.e. birds, man and his occupations etc. Signs that do not depict particular items are classified by shape, i.e. tall, flat etc. Groups are identified by letter, A to Z, and Aa for unclassified signs.

In addition each sign is assigned a code based on it’s group. A list of signs under the Gardiner classification can be found here.

== Transliteration and Electronic Reproduction ==
The 24 consonantal sounds represented by hieroglyphs can be transliterated into a Latin based alphabet. This alphabet is available as a font that can be added to a computer system for use in any modern word processing software, as well as in dedicated software for handling hieroglyphs.

This transliteration script is unable to record exactly what signs were used in the original text. Should this be required, it is possible to either refer to the Gardiner assigned codes, or, as is far more common, reproduce the original signs either by hand (as in the Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, one of the few modern hand written publications) or digitally.

Both commercial and open source software is available for producing hieroglyphs on modern computer systems. The most established commercial application is InScribe, used on Windows based PC’s and MacOS systems. In recent years, an open source alternative, JSesh has been adopted, particularly by Egyptology students, and is available for Windows and Linux platforms. WikiHiero is another modern development, aimed at online deployment.

However, prior to the development of such programs and particularly before the deployment of Unicode in operating systems, the transcription font and reproduction of hieroglyphs digitally was restriction to complex and unwieldy deployment of imported images into documents. As such, for effective transcription the Manual de Codage (MdC) system was developed, using a mixture of uppercase and substitute letters to depict the 24 characters of the transcription “alphabet”.

== Bibliography ==

[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Ma'at

2009-03-20T23:47:24Z

Krysg: Directing orphaned Ra-Atum link to Ra, where this title is explained.

In [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]] [[Egyptian Religion|Religion]], '''ma’at''' is the opposite of [[isfet]] (chaos), and is various translated as encompassing order, justice, truth and “that which is right”. Ma’at is also personified in the form of the goddess Ma’at, a daughter of [[Ra]].

== As a Concept ==

Ma’at was both an unchangeable, fixed part of the created universe, and a fragile element that must be constantly preserved and strengthened constantly by the efforts of the [[Pharaoh]]. The first reflects the divine cosmic order placed upon the cosmos by its creator, [[Ra|Ra–Atum]]. As such she is the guiding principle and underlying order of the [[cosmos]].

The second is the maintenance of this order. As religion and society are one in [[Egyptian philosophy]] to separate this into “earthly” and “ritual” realms is incorrect, for there is no such distinction. The Pharaoh was responsible for maintaining ma’at both through the presentation of Ma’at before the gods in the temple, by ensuring correct ritual practices were observed, the gods honored and temple estates maintained. He also maintained ma’at by ensuring justice, both legally and socially (the former though the judiciary, whose members bore the title “Priest of Ma’at” and possibly wore a small image of the goddess in gold) and ensuring that general law and order was maintained, and Egypt’s enemies subdued. Symbolic and literal representations of these acts and their recounting in literature dominate many Egyptian temples

How central these concepts, and these actions by the Pharaoh were to Egyptian culture are hard to overemphasize. The idea of order (ma’at) being threatened by chaos (isfet) is a recurrent fear in Egyptian literature and mythology.

== As a Goddess ==

Ma’at is often portrayed as a anthropomorphic female with a white feather tucked into a headband. Occasionally she is depicted with outstretched wings under her arms. The feather itself could also represent her, as well as the concept.

She is a daughter of [[Ra]], and is mentioned in [[Old Kingdom]] texts as “standing behind Him” and is the consort of [[Thoth]].

Several small temples and chapels dedicated solely to Ma’at exist, including in the Prescient of Montu at [[Karnak]], and a Ptolemaic era chapel at Dier El Medina, though most commonly she is depicted in the temples of other gods. She did, however, form part of very important ritual events, when the [[Pharaoh]] “offered Ma’at”, symbolised a small image, to some of the most prominent gods, such as [[Ra]], [[Thoth]], [[Amun]] and [[Ptah]], in keeping with his role of upholding the concept of Ma’at on Earth. However, it is possible that all offered to the gods were in some way associated with her.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* Faulkner, R O (1969), The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Oxford University Press, Oxford
* Tydesley, J (2000), Judgement of the Pharaoh, Phoenix, London
* Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Talk:Hieroglyphs

2009-03-20T15:02:43Z

Krysg:

Hieroglyphs

2009-03-20T14:57:50Z

Krysg: Added heading to structure this article. Text and tables to be added over next few weeks. Pls don't delete.

Egyptian mythology

2009-03-20T14:35:04Z

Krysg: Added Ma'at

'''Egyptian mythology''' includes all the religious beliefs practiced by ancient [[Egypt]]ians. These beliefs greatly influenced the development of their culture, but there was never a unified [[theology|theological]] system. The Egyptian faith was based on a collection of ancient [[myth]]s, nature worship, and a number of deities. <ref>http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/egyptian.htm</ref>

==Deities==
'''[[Amun]]/Amun-Ra''' was the supreme state god of the New Kingdom, a Theban god, "mysterious of form" and associated with the wind who rode to greatness following the rise to prominence of his home city, and his association with the powerful sun god, [[Ra]].

'''Anubis''' was the god of [[embalming]] and was often represented by a [[jackal]] or other [[dog]], his brother is [[Horus]].

'''[[Horus]]''' is the Egyptian sky [[god]] who is often represented by the falcon, he said to have resurrected his dead father [[Osiris]].

'''[[Iah]]''' is an Ancient Egyptian lunar god, whose role was linked to that of Thoth in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and who came to be eclipsed to some degree by Khonsu from the New Kingdom onward. Some scholars regard the god as the personification of the lunar disc itself within Ancient Egyptian culture.

'''Imhotep''' was originally an historic figure but was later deified by the Egyptians into the [[god]] of [[medicine]]. In his mortal history he was credited with the design of the step [[pyramid]].

'''Isis''' is a goddess who is supposed to be the wife of [[Osiris]] and (in later times) the mother of [[Horus]].

'''[[Ma'at]]''' The concept of divine order, justice and that which is right, upon which the universe is based. As a goddess, the daughter of Ra and consort of Thoth.

'''[[Neith]]''' An archaic goddess of war and hunting, and one of the oldest Egyptian gods, with cult centres in Sais and Esna. Associated by the Greeks with [[Athena]].

'''[[Nekhbet]]''' is a vulture goddess, protectress of the [[Pharaoh]], along with Wadjet, and patron goddess of Upper Egypt.

'''Osiris''' is a god who was said to have been killed by his brother the god [[Set (god)|Set]], only to be resurrected by his son [[Horus]].

'''[[Ra]]''' is the supreme manifestation of the [[Egyptian]] sun god of Heliopolis and one of the most important members of the Ancient Egyptian pantheon. The Egyptians believed that each day the sun was re-born. In the morning after a bath and breakfast he took a journey across the sky in his heavenly boat and would spend an hour of each day inspecting each of his 12 provinces. When the sun went down in the evening [[Ra]] was believed to enter the underworld until the next morning. All night long Ra had to fight his enemy [[Apep]] the terrible cosmic serpent who lived in the underworld. Ra is usually depicted as a falcon wearing a sun disc on his head. The rulers of Ancient Egypt called themselves Pharaohs - literally "Sons of Ra" - as a means of establishing their divinity.

'''[[Seshat]]''' is a goddess of writing and measuring and the scribal arts, predating [[Thoth]]. Her name literally translates as “The Female Scribe”, and in later times she was regarded as a husband or sister of [[Thoth]].

'''Set''' is the brother of [[Osiris]] and uncle of [[Horus]], he is said to have killed Osiris, who was later resurrected by Horus, Set was then killed by Horus.

'''Thoth''' was an [[Egyptian]] [[god]] represented with the head of an [[ibis]], who was supposed to make sure neither good nor bad had too much power over the other.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]

Ma'at

2009-03-20T14:32:53Z

Krysg: cats

In [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]] [[Egyptian Religion|Religion]], '''ma’at''' is the opposite of isfet, and is various translated as encompassing order, justice, truth and “that which is right”. Ma’at is also personified in the form of the goddess Ma’at, a daughter of [[Ra]].

== As a Concept ==

Ma’at was both an unchangeable, fixed part of the created universe, and a fragile element that must be constantly preserved and strengthened constantly by the efforts of the [[Pharaoh]]. The first reflects the divine cosmic order placed upon the cosmos by it’s creator, [[Ra|Ra–Atum]]. As such she is the guiding principle and underlying order of the cosmos.

The second is the maintenance of this order. As religion and society are one in Egyptian philosophy to separate this into “earthly” and “ritual” realms is incorrect, for there is no such distinction. The Pharaoh was responsible for maintaining ma’at both through the presentation of Ma’at before the gods in the temple, by ensuring correct ritual practices were observed, the gods honoured and temple estates maintained. He also maintained ma’at by ensuring justice, both legally and socially (the former though the judiciary, whose members bore the title “Priest of Ma’at” and possibly wore a small image of the goddess in gold) and ensuring that general law and order was maintained, and Egypt’s enemies subdued. Symbolic and literal representations of these acts and their recounting in literature dominate many Egyptian temples

How central these concepts, and these actions by the Pharaoh were to Egyptian culture are hard to over emphasise. The idea of order (ma’at) being threatened by chaos (isfet) is a recurrent fear in Egyptian literature and mythology.

== As a Goddess ==

Ma’at is often portrayed as a anthropomorphic female with a white feather tucked into a headband. Occasionally she is depicted with outstretched wings under her arms. The feather itself could also represent her, as well as the concept.

She is a daughter of [[Ra]], and is mentioned in [[Old Kingdom]] texts as “standing behind Him” and is the consort of [[Thoth]].

Several small temples and chapels dedicated solely to Ma’at exist, including in the Prescient of Montu at [[Karnak]], and a Ptolemaic era chapel at Dier El Medina, though most commonly she is depicted in the temples of other gods. She did, however, form part of very important ritual events, when the [[Pharaoh]] “offered Ma’at”, symbolised a small image, to some of the most prominent gods, such as [[Ra]], [[Thoth]], [[Amun]] and [[Ptah]], in keeping with his role of upholding the concept of Ma’at on Earth. However, it is possible that all offered to the gods were in some way associated with her.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* Faulkner, R O (1969), The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Oxford University Press, Oxford
* Tydesley, J (2000), Judgement of the Pharaoh, Phoenix, London
* Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Ma'at

2009-03-20T14:31:30Z

Krysg: New article: Just a start, ***NEEDS EXPANSION***

Hapy

2009-03-20T12:41:54Z

Krysg: added image and category

[[Image:Ram2cartouche.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Hapy depicted twice in the Semna Tawy motif, symbolically representing the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, beneath a cartouche of Ramesses II. From the Great Temple, Abu Simbel]]

'''Hapy''' (also spelt '''Hapi''') was one of the main [[Nile]] gods of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], responcible for the bounty and fertility of the Nile, as well as the annual innundation. He should not be confused with Hapy, one of the sons of [[Horus]], associated with the canpoic jar containing the lungs of the blessed dead.

== Origins ==

Hapi (also “Hapy”) likely comes from the beginnings of Pharaonic history. He is originally from Upper Egypt, and was believed to reside at the Nile source, which for much of Pharaonic history was held to be at the [[First Cataract]] (the exact location changing at certain points in history), and his name is also one of the names of the Nile itself, again pointing to his early origins.

== Characteristics & Responsibilities ==

Hapi is usually depicted as a human male, and is depicted with an unsual physique, sporting a rounded belly and prominent breasts. He is often depicted with nilotic vegetation (often [[papyrus]] or [[lotus]] plants) as a crown. The few statues of him that survive often depict him standing behind an offering table decorated with these plants, suggesting, perhaps, that these may have been the offerings particularly associated with his worship, as well as being symbolic of the bounty of the Nile.

As a Nile god, Hapi was seen as being in control of the inundation, and by extension, the fertility of the land which depended upon it, and this gave him a nationwide visibility. The inundation was deeply entwined with him, to the degree that it was referred to as the “Arrival of Hapi”. His role in the “Binding of the Two Lands” in the Semna Tawy imagery is a logical extension of his Nile god role, since it was the river that provided the essential link between Upper and Lower Egypt, as a highway, culturally, religiously, and politically.

== Associations and Prominence ==

Despite his widespread depictions in temple and royal art, and his obvious importance as a Nile god, Hapi didn’t have a prominent state cult due to the rise of the ram-headed [[Khnum]], who shares responsibility with Hapi for the functions of the Nile. Like Hapi, Khnum had fertility associations (Khnum is responsible for the creation of the body and the Ka of people on his potters wheel). Hapi also shares role with [[Satet]], the consort of Khnum, and who became very prominent in Nubia between the New Kingdom and Roman Period.

A consort for Hapi is mentioned as [[Meret]]. Although not given a prominent place in Egyptian mythology she possibly did have a stronger role in common religion, being the recipient of his fertility brought forth by the inundation.

The [[New Kingdom]] temple of Satet on [[Elephantine]] (partially reconstructed by a German mission) has been found to stand on an earlier two [[Middle Kingdom]] temples which in turn stand on top of an [[Old Kingdom]] and finally, an Archaic site. The exact deities worshipped on the Old Kingdom/Archaic site is unknown, but given the site’s importance for Nile god worship through many eras, it is not unreasonable to theorise that a temple to Hapi may have stood here, or perhaps elsewhere on Elephantine. It is known from Egyptian texts that many temples did exist on the island over the ages, which have been erased from the archaeological record, or have yet to be found.

== Titles ==

Hapi was often referred to as the “Lord of the River” or “Lord of the River Which Brings Vegetation” as well as “Lord of Fishes and Marsh Birds”.

== Decline ==

Hapi is depicted in temples right through the Pharaonic, Ptolomaic and [[Roman]] eras, and it would seem that his decline only came about with the forced adoption of [[Christianity]] in the late Roman era. In the folk celebrations of the [[Fellahin]] of later eras, various festivals linking the Nile, inundation and fertility continued. These festivals are usually linked to local saints or holy men (both [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Islam|Islamic]]) and often consist of taking flowers down to the river and feasting on the banks. Such celebrations are documented, and still take place today. It is possible, though not certain, that some of these customs are distantly related to Pharaonic era practises as celebrations of Hapi and the other Nile gods.

How the ending of the inundation by the Aswan High Dam will affect these practises in the long term (once the inundation is out of living memory and experience) is a much debated question.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* '''Blackman, W (2000)''', ''The Fellahin of Upper Egypt'', AUC Press, Cairo
* '''Wilkinson, R (2000)''', ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* '''Wilkinson, R (2003)''', ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Seshat

2009-03-20T11:22:13Z

Krysg: Added images

[[Image:Seshat.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A modern digitised image of Seshat, reproduced from original reliefs. Note the unusual crown she wears. Debate continues as to it's precise meaning.]]
[[Image:SSAt.jpg|thumb|center|Name of Seshat written in hieroglyphs.]]
'''Seshat''' is an Egyptian goddess of writing and measuring. Her name literally translates as “The Female Scribe”. Seshat had no cult centre, nor any temples dedicated to her in [[Ancient Egypt]], yet was present in the foundation ceremony of all temples, as the one who assisted the [[Pharaoh]] in the Stretching of the Cord ceremony that marked the start of construction work on a new religious structure.

Seshat is the only female, human or divine, depicted in the act of writing. Her position as a divine scribe predated that of [[Thoth]], who later came to eclipse her, and even with his arrival she retained her exclusive title as being the “Foremost” in the House of Books. Whilst Thoth was served as scribe to [[Ra]], [[Amun]] and the other great and good of the Egyptian pantheon, Seshat was regarded as the maintainer of the libraries, records and accounts of the gods, and though her mostly [[Old Kingdom]] priests, their earthly counterparts. She was also responcible for recording the jubilees and reigns of the Pharaohs throughout Egyptian history. With her omnipresent yet elite status, present in official religion but never appearing in common or "folk" religious contexts, she bears a striking similarity to another goddess closely related to Thoth, [[Ma’at]].

== Origins ==

Seshat is first recorded in the 2nd Dynasty where she is mentioned by [[Khasekhemwy]] in the Stretching of the Cord on a new temple building. She was not a “goddess of the people”, except as a possible patroness of scribes and architects, and so it seems unlikely that she enjoyed recognition or a following before the establishment of both the institutions of a scribal class and Kingship. The province or city from which she originated remain unknown.

== Characteristics & Responsibilities ==

Seshat was very much a goddess of the state, tied in the to scribal profession, a bulkwark of Egyptian officaldom, where she is depicted being involved in the census (from the [[Old Kingdom]] onwards), recording of accounts, notation and all kinds of writing and recording. Her title as She Who is Foremost in the House of Books also gives her a role as patroness of libraries in general.

She is also associated with the ceremonies of architecture, including the Stretching of the Cord ceremony and her title as Mistress of Builders and Mistress of the House of Architects bears out her responsibilities with regards to building and architecture. She is mentioned as being associated the Stretching of the Cord from the Early Dynastic period onwards.

Another of her key roles is recording the reigns and jubilees of the Pharaohs, as part of her responsibilities as a goddess of the scribal tradition, and she is often depicted with the notched palm stem that is used for recording time in this role.

Seshat has an unusual crown and attire. The seven pointed figure surmounted by a downward curving line, with a notch at the top of the curve, has been variously interpreted as a papyrus plant (pointing to it’s obvious scribal associations) or a seven pointed star surmounted by a downward pointing object, possibly horns or a bow. This may be an earlier pre-dynastic divine or royal standard. This chracteristic and unusual sign was occassionaly used as as hieroglyph in the spelling of her name.

Along with this she is seen wearing a leopard skin as worn by priests, or a long, tight fitting, leopard skin patterned dress, along with a diadem. In some depictions her dress, rather than a leopard skin design, has a pattern of stars. It is believed that the leopard skin was associated with a starry sky, and therefore the heavens and time (including eternity), hence it’s relevance to the priesthood (some of whom served as astronomers and timekeepers), and to Seshat. Occasionally, the bottom of her palm stem bears the Sn (“shen”) hieroglyph, ideogram for eternity, accompanied by a tadpole, the numerical hieroglyph for the value 100,000. Curiously, this was not the highest numerical glyph the Egyptians used, so it’s association here with eternity is quite interesting. When recording the jubilees and celebrations of the Pharaoh, her palm branch is often dressed with the symbols of the celebration. She is also sometimes depicted with the surveyors cord and mallet, as used in the Stretching of the Cord ceremony.

Seshat is always depicted as a anthropomorphic female.

== Associations and Prominence ==

As a goddess so heavily associated with the formal arts and professions of state, she doesn’t appear to have had much popular following amongst the commoners. However we do find a reference to there being a priesthood for the goddess, even though no individual cult centre is known to have existed. Prince Wep-em-Nefret, from 4th Dynasty the reign of [[Khufu]], records on his funerary stela found at Giza that he was a priest of Seshat as well as Overseer of Royal Scribes. This may imply that amongst scribes and architects Seshat enjoyed a “patroness” like status, giving her a degree of public worship in addition to a formal priesthood.

On the other hand it is also possible that certain scribes held the title “Priest of Seshat” in the same way that judges were considered “Priests of Ma’at”, in that in performing their duties there were honouring the goddess, as opposed to being priests in the literal sense of the term. Although most scholars today believe she did enjoy a formal priesthood, there are no known temples dedicated to her. She is, however, particularly prominent at Abydos, and a particularly beautiful and well known depiction of her can be found in Luxor temple. As such, a dedicated temple of her own may well have been seen as somewhat redundant, given her role in the founding ceremonies of all of them.

Seshat has a relatively simple set of associations, most obviously with [[Thoth]], who eclipses her in the [[New Kingdom]], but never replaces her. There are conflicting stories of their precise association, it being recorded that he is her husband, brother or father. Another name for Seshat, Sefkhet-Abwy, is mentioned in later texts, form the New Kingdom onwards.

She is also associated with [[Nephthys]] in the netherworld, probably due to her role in recording reigns and lives. As a result of this association, it should be no surprise that she is also associated to some degree with [[Isis]], though less explicitly.

== Titles ==

*She Who is Foremost in the House of Books
*Mistress of Builders
*Mistress of the House of Architects
*The Female Scribe (her name)

== Decline ==

Due to her crucial role in the Stretching of the Cord, and recording of jubilees and other official events, Seshat’s profile remained steady throughout the life of state backed Ancient Egyptian religion. Alas, her fortunes dived with it, for unlike Hapi, she never enjoyed such a significant role in common religion. No folk memory of Seshat is known to have endured after the enforcement of Christianity in Egypt during the Roman era.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]

Hapy

2009-03-20T00:05:03Z

Krysg: New article

Hapi / Hapy was one of the main [[Nile]] gods of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], responcible for the bounty and fertility of the Nile, as well as the annual innundation. He should not be confused with Hapy, one of the sons of [[Horus]], associated with the canpoic jar containing the lungs of the blessed dead.

== Origins ==

Hapi (also “Hapy”) likely comes from the beginnings of Pharaonic history. He is originally from Upper Egypt, and was believed to reside at the Nile source, which for much of Pharaonic history was held to be at the [[First Cataract]] (the exact location changing at certain points in history), and his name is also one of the names of the Nile itself, again pointing to his early origins.

== Characteristics & Responsibilities ==

Hapi is usually depicted as a human male, and is depicted with an unsual physique, sporting a rounded belly and prominent breasts. He is often depicted with nilotic vegetation (often [[papyrus]] or [[lotus]] plants) as a crown. The few statues of him that survive often depict him standing behind an offering table decorated with these plants, suggesting, perhaps, that these may have been the offerings particularly associated with his worship, as well as being symbolic of the bounty of the Nile.

As a Nile god, Hapi was seen as being in control of the inundation, and by extension, the fertility of the land which depended upon it, and this gave him a nationwide visibility. The inundation was deeply entwined with him, to the degree that it was referred to as the “Arrival of Hapi”. His role in the “Binding of the Two Lands” in the Semna Tawy imagery is a logical extension of his Nile god role, since it was the river that provided the essential link between Upper and Lower Egypt, as a highway, culturally, religiously, and politically.

== Associations and Prominence ==

Despite his widespread depictions in temple and royal art, and his obvious importance as a Nile god, Hapi didn’t have a prominent state cult due to the rise of the ram-headed [[Khnum]], who shares responsibility with Hapi for the functions of the Nile. Like Hapi, Khnum had fertility associations (Khnum is responsible for the creation of the body and the Ka of people on his potters wheel). Hapi also shares role with [[Satet]], the consort of Khnum, and who became very prominent in Nubia between the New Kingdom and Roman Period.

A consort for Hapi is mentioned as [[Meret]]. Although not given a prominent place in Egyptian mythology she possibly did have a stronger role in common religion, being the recipient of his fertility brought forth by the inundation.

The [[New Kingdom]] temple of Satet on [[Elephantine]] (partially reconstructed by a German mission) has been found to stand on an earlier two [[Middle Kingdom]] temples which in turn stand on top of an [[Old Kingdom]] and finally, an Archaic site. The exact deities worshipped on the Old Kingdom/Archaic site is unknown, but given the site’s importance for Nile god worship through many eras, it is not unreasonable to theorise that a temple to Hapi may have stood here, or perhaps elsewhere on Elephantine. It is known from Egyptian texts that many temples did exist on the island over the ages, which have been erased from the archaeological record, or have yet to be found.

== Titles ==

Hapi was often referred to as the “Lord of the River” or “Lord of the River Which Brings Vegetation” as well as “Lord of Fishes and Marsh Birds”.

== Decline ==

Hapi is depicted in temples right through the Pharaonic, Ptolomaic and [[Roman]] eras, and it would seem that his decline only came about with the forced adoption of [[Christianity]] in the late Roman era. In the folk celebrations of the [[Fellahin]] of later eras, various festivals linking the Nile, inundation and fertility continued. These festivals are usually linked to local saints or holy men (both [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Islam|Islamic]]) and often consist of taking flowers down to the river and feasting on the banks. Such celebrations are documented, and still take place today. It is possible, though not certain, that some of these customs are distantly related to Pharaonic era practises as celebrations of Hapi and the other Nile gods.

How the ending of the inundation by the Aswan High Dam will affect these practises in the long term (once the inundation is out of living memory and experience) is a much debated question.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* '''Blackman, W (2000)''', ''The Fellahin of Upper Egypt'', AUC Press, Cairo
* '''Wilkinson, R (2000)''', ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* '''Wilkinson, R (2003)''', ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London

Egyptian mythology

2009-03-19T23:39:37Z

Krysg: Added Neith

'''Egyptian mythology''' includes all the religious beliefs practiced by ancient [[Egypt]]ians. These beliefs greatly influenced the development of their culture, but there was never a unified [[theology|theological]] system. The Egyptian faith was based on a collection of ancient [[myth]]s, nature worship, and a number of deities. <ref>http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/egyptian.htm</ref>

==Deities==
'''[[Amun]]/Amun-Ra''' was the supreme state god of the New Kingdom, a Theban god, "mysterious of form" and associated with the wind who rode to greatness following the rise to prominence of his home city, and his association with the powerful sun god, [[Ra]].

'''Anubis''' was the god of [[embalming]] and was often represented by a [[jackal]] or other [[dog]], his brother is [[Horus]].

'''[[Horus]]''' is the Egyptian sky [[god]] who is often represented by the falcon, he said to have resurrected his dead father [[Osiris]].

'''[[Iah]]''' is an Ancient Egyptian lunar god, whose role was linked to that of Thoth in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and who came to be eclipsed to some degree by Khonsu from the New Kingdom onward. Some scholars regard the god as the personification of the lunar disc itself within Ancient Egyptian culture.

'''Imhotep''' was originally an historic figure but was later deified by the Egyptians into the [[god]] of [[medicine]]. In his mortal history he was credited with the design of the step [[pyramid]].

'''Isis''' is a goddess who is supposed to be the wife of [[Osiris]] and (in later times) the mother of [[Horus]].

'''[[Neith]]''' An archaic goddess of war and hunting, and one of the oldest Egyptian gods, with cult centres in Sais and Esna. Associated by the Greeks with [[Athena]].

'''[[Nekhbet]]''' is a vulture goddess, protectress of the [[Pharaoh]], along with Wadjet, and patron goddess of Upper Egypt.

'''Osiris''' is a god who was said to have been killed by his brother the god [[Set (god)|Set]], only to be resurrected by his son [[Horus]].

'''[[Ra]]''' is the supreme manifestation of the [[Egyptian]] sun god of Heliopolis and one of the most important members of the Ancient Egyptian pantheon. The Egyptians believed that each day the sun was re-born. In the morning after a bath and breakfast he took a journey across the sky in his heavenly boat and would spend an hour of each day inspecting each of his 12 provinces. When the sun went down in the evening [[Ra]] was believed to enter the underworld until the next morning. All night long Ra had to fight his enemy [[Apep]] the terrible cosmic serpent who lived in the underworld. Ra is usually depicted as a falcon wearing a sun disc on his head. The rulers of Ancient Egypt called themselves Pharaohs - literally "Sons of Ra" - as a means of establishing their divinity.

'''[[Seshat]]''' is a goddess of writing and measuring and the scribal arts, predating [[Thoth]]. Her name literally translates as “The Female Scribe”, and in later times she was regarded as a husband or sister of [[Thoth]].

'''Set''' is the brother of [[Osiris]] and uncle of [[Horus]], he is said to have killed Osiris, who was later resurrected by Horus, Set was then killed by Horus.

'''Thoth''' was an [[Egyptian]] [[god]] represented with the head of an [[ibis]], who was supposed to make sure neither good nor bad had too much power over the other.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]

Talk:Atheism and beliefs

2009-03-18T22:41:03Z

Krysg:

I'm not touching this, though I do think panspermia needs to be added under Origins of Life. [[User:JLauttamus|Jeffrey W. Lauttamus]][[User_talk:JLauttamus|<sub>Discussion</sub>]] 16:30, 7 January 2009 (EST)
:That's a rarely held view (I think), but it may merit inclusion if common. [[User:RodWeathers|- Rod Weathers]] 16:52, 7 January 2009 (EST)
::So is limited speech, but panspermia is still a view held by some atheists. [[User:JLauttamus|Jeffrey W. Lauttamus]][[User_talk:JLauttamus|<sub>Discussion</sub>]] 16:54, 7 January 2009 (EST)
Maybe I'm mistaken, but I thought weak atheists denied they had a belief system and strong atheists acknowledge they hold beliefs. I don't want to change anything without being sure. Can anyone clarify?[[User:MBBurke|MBBurke]] 17:36, 7 January 2009 (EST)

----
I'm not going to edit this, but it's got serious issues that should be obvious to anyone who took a minor in philosophy. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 18:41, 18 March 2009 (EDT)
----

Exodus of Israel

2009-03-17T23:35:32Z

Krysg: Added archaeoloical/egyptological perspectives and information.

: ''This article describes the mythical event of Hebrews leaving Egypt as described in the Book of Exodus. For the book itself, see [[Exodus_(Biblical_book)|Exodus]].''

[[Image:Egypt_David_Roberts.jpg|thumb|500px|[[Exodus of Israel|Exodus]] of the [[Israelites]] from Egypt by David Roberts (1830).]]The '''Exodus''' (Greek ''ex'' out of, outward and ''hodos'' a road or a way) is the abrupt embarkation of the people of [[Israel]] from [[Egypt]]. It is one of the key [[Epoch|epochal]] events in the history of the nation of Israel.

== The Biblical Narrative ==
The Book of [[Exodus]] is the the only complete source claiming to detail this event, but for various reasons a historical reconstruction based upon this is problematic, for reasons given below.

=== Background Based on Biblical Account ===
Centuries earlier, [[Jacob]] had led his vast extended family into Egypt, eventually settling in the province of [[Goshen]]. The number of years is either 215 years ("short Sojourn)" or 430 years ("long Sojourn"). Jacob had done this at the invitation of his son [[Joseph]], whom he had thought dead but who, as it happened, had risen from being a common prisoner to senior prison trustee and eventually [[viceroy]] of Egypt. The story of Joseph, and especially his viceroyship and the circumstances under which he entered into it, is told [[Joseph#The_Viceroy|here]].

The [[Pharaoh]] who welcomed Joseph may have been [[Sesostris I]]<ref name=Timing>Tas Walker, Steve Cardno and Jonathan Sarfati. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4190 Timing is Everything: A Talk with Field Archaeologist David Down]." ''Creation'' 27(3):30-35, June 2005.</ref>, the second ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty,<ref>Author unknown. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066895/Sesostris-I Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007 from Encyclopedia Britannica Online.</ref><ref>Kinnaer, Jacques. "[http://www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/12/1202_sesostris_i/history.html Entry on Sesostris I]." ''The Ancient Egypt Site'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref><ref>Kjellen, Tore. "[http://lexicorient.com/e.o/sesostris_1.htm Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia of the Orient'' online, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref> Soon, however, two other Pharaohs, who were considerably harder of heart, succeeded to the throne, and some believe were: [[Sesostris III]] and his immediate successor [[Amenemhet III]].<ref name=Jaroncyk>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4812/ Jaroncyk, Ron]. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4857 Egyptian History and the Biblical Record: A Perfect Match]?" ''[http://www.creationontheweb.com/ Creation Ministries International],'' January 23, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.</ref> These two (or perhaps the latter of the two) set in motion a chain of events that led to the founding of one nation and a disaster for the other.

=== The Mass Puericide ===
Sesostris III probably began the oppression after observing the phenomenal growth rate of the Hebrew population. Tellingly, the Bible says that the Pharaoh was worried that the [[Israelite]]s might ally themselves to Egypt's enemies in war.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=7-10}}</ref> (This would be entirely consistent with the Exodus taking place toward the end of the Twelfth or Thirteenth Dynasty and the beginning of the Hyksos period.)

The [[Bible]] further names two cities that the Israelites built for the Egyptians: [[Pithom]] and [[Ramesses]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=11}}</ref> Some have speculated from these names that the Pharaoh of the Exodus was a Ramesside king, usually [[Ramesses II]]. But the notion that the city of Ramesses is actually named for a king named Ramesses is without even secular historical warrant.

In any event, so the Bible says, the Israelites multiplied more than ever.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=12-14}}</ref> That's when Sesostris (or Amenemhet) raised the stakes. He ordered the two senior [[Hebrew]] [[midwife|midwives]] to make sure to kill all newborn boys, but to let newborn girls live.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=16}}</ref> This is the first recorded instance of a governmental policy to use [[abortion]] or [[infanticide]] to accomplish [[genocide]].

The midwives did not openly defy Pharaoh's order. They simply didn't carry it out as he asked. They excused their behaviour by saying that Hebrew women were often far advanced in parturition before the midwives even arrived to assist them. Pharaoh's response was as drastic as it was draconian: he ordered his soldiers to throw every boy-child into the [[Nile River]].

=== The Birth of Moses ===
[[Moses]] was born at about this time, the son of [[Amram]] and [[Jochebed]]. Amram, a [[Levite]] and the son of [[Kohath]], one of [[Levi]]'s three named descendants in the preceding generation, already had two children by Jochebed: a daugher, [[Miriam]], and a son, [[Aaron]]. Moses' birth presented an immediate problem: how to conceal him from the king's soldiers?

Jochebed solved the problem in a unique manner: she built a basket for the baby, coated the basket with pitch, placed Moses into it, and set it floating down the Nile. In this, Moses' journey recalled the voyage of [[Noah's Ark]].

Eventually, Moses' little ark drifted into the waters outside the Royal residence of the Pharaoh's daughter. She herself was infertile, and saw Moses as a substitute for the child she could never have. She gave the child the name Moses, which literally means ''drawn out'' in Egyptian and Hebrew.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=2|verses=1-10}}</ref>

The name of this daughter of Pharaoh was probably [[Sobekneferu]].<ref name=Jaroncyk/> In this connection, one must remember that female members of the royal family were always described in terms of their relationship to Pharaoh, e.g. "Pharaon's Wife" or "Pharaoh's Sister" or, as in this case, "Pharaoh's Daughter."<ref name=Tyldesley>Tyldesley, Joyce A. ''Hatchepsut: the Female Pharaoh''. New York: Penguin Books, 1998 (ISBN 0140244646).</ref>

=== Moses in Exile ===
Sobekneferu (if it was she) had intended raising Moses as a prince of Egypt. Some authorities have suggested that Moses appears in the Twelfth Dynasty king lists as [[Amenemhet IV]].<ref name=Jaroncyk/>

But Moses identified not with the royal family but instead with his own people. Soon an incident occurred that required Moses to make a choice: he witnessed an Egyptian taskmaster beating a Hebrew. Moses looked this way and that, and then killed the Egyptian and buried him in the sand.

News like that travels fast. Two days later, Moses caught two Hebrews fighting and tried to settle the quarrel. The man at fault challenged Moses, saying, {{Bible quote|Who made thee a prince and a judge over us? intendest thou to kill me, as thou killedst the Egyptian?|book=Exodus|chap=2|verses=14|version=KJV}}

Moses fled immediately. His exile had begun. He was forty years old at the time, according to the testimony, centuries later, of [[Stephen]] before the [[Sanhedrin]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Acts|chap=7|verses=23}}</ref>

=== Moses Finds a Wife ===
Moses eventually came to the country of the [[Midianite|Midianites]]. There he fought against some shepherds who were harassing a number of women who were trying to water their own sheep.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=2|verses=17}}</ref> This won him the attention and favor of [[Jethro]], the father of these women. Eventually, Moses married the eldest of Jethro's daughters, [[Zipporah]]. Here the Book of [[Exodus]] records that he sired one son, [[Gershom]].

The Bible makes no attempt to identify these shepherds. Nor does [[Flavius Josephus]].<ref>[[Flavius Josephus|Josephus, Flavius]]. ''The Antiquities of the Jews'', 2.11.2.258-263. William Whiston, trans. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987, p. 70. ISBN 0913573868</ref>. The historical warrant for the popular supposition that these shepherds were [[Amalekite]]s is therefore lacking. However, the Amalekites ''were'' known to be shepherds--and, more to the point, the Hyksos, which some identify with the Amalekites, were known as the "Shepherd Kings."<ref name=Jaroncyk/><ref name=Hyksos>Authors unknown. "[http://www.specialtyinterests.net/hyksos.html The Hyksos]." ''SpecialtyInterests.com.'' Retrieved June 28, 2007.</ref> If these shepherds with whom Moses clashed ''were'' Amalekites, then this could have been the first hostile encounter that an Egyptian-trained man had with the race that conquered all of Egypt shortly after the Exodus and held it until the reign of King [[Saul]].

=== God Recruits Moses ===
Nearly forty more years passed, during which the original Pharaoh (presumably Amenemhet III) died and another Pharaoh (presumably [[Neferhotep I]]<ref name=Jaroncyk/><ref name=Neferhotep1>Authors unknown."[http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/2interkings/neferhotepI.html Entry for Neferhotep I]." ''[http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/Welcome.html Digital Egypt for Universities].'' [[London]], [[England]]: University College, 2000. Retrieved June 28, 2007.</ref>) reigned in his stead. Now [[God]] called to Moses, speaking from out of a bush that burned without being consumed. God made multiple signs to Moses to convince him to deliver a message to Pharaoh, and then to lead the Israelites out of Egypt when the time came. Because Moses pleaded that he was not a good speaker, God declared that his brother [[Aaron]] would assist him.

Moses was eighty years old, and Aaron eighty-three, when the two men went before Pharaoh.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=7|verses=7}}</ref>

=== The First Message ===
Moses and Aaron initially came in peace to Pharaoh, and asked his leave to lead the Israelites into the desert for a three-day period. Pharaoh indignantly refused, and then issued an order that the Israelites would have to gather their own straw to make bricks, and still make the same quota of bricks. This caused the [[Israelite|Israelites]] to look on Moses with extreme disfavour. This was probably the lowest point ever in Moses' life.

But this was all part of God's plan--for God intended to demonstrate His Power in a manner that no one then alive would forget.

=== The Ten Plagues ===
: ''Main Article: [[Egyptian plagues]]''
Because Pharaoh would not accede his wishes, Moses began issuing a series of threats of supernatural disaster, which the Pharaoh dismissed. Each of these disasters, called ''plagues'', was a direct strike at part of the Egyptian religious system and everything the Egyptians held sacred.

=== The Evacuation and Despoliation ===
The death of the first-born of man and beast among the Egyptians, including Pharaoh's own son, finally broke Pharaoh's will. He gave his assent for the Israelites to leave, and even encouraged his people to bribe the Israelites to leave with whatever jewels or precious metals the Israelites cared to carry with them. This was the "despoliation" of the Egyptians.

The [[Bible]] says that the "sojourn" of the children of Israel lasted 430 years.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=12|verses=40-41}}</ref> When those 430 years began is a difficult question, with some saying that it began with the entry of [[Jacob]] into Egypt, and others saying that it actually began with [[Abraham]]'s entry into [[Canaan]].

=== The Red Sea Crossing ===
: ''Main Article: [[Red Sea crossing]]''
But after Pharaoh let the Israelites leave, he changed his mind. Now he set after them, with his entire army, and determined to overtake them and wipe them out. But what actually happened is that ''Pharaoh'' was wiped out, along with his entire army.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=14}}</ref>

Traditionally, this occurred at the northermnost tip of the [[Gulf of Suez]], the western arm of the [[Red Sea]]--though some have since suggested that the crossing actually occurred at the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to the east.<ref name=Kovacs>Kovacs, Joe. "[http://wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=33168 Pharaoh's chariots found in Red Sea]?" ''[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/ WorldNetDaily.com],'' June 21, 2003. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref><ref name=Innerpeace>Petrovich, Michael, dir. "[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/Creation/redsea.html Crossing of the Red Sea]." ''[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/english.html Center for Natural Studies],'' n.d. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>

No archaeologist has ever found the remains of Neferhotep I. Furthermore, Neferhotep did not have a son to succeed him, but rather a brother, [[Sobekhotep IV]]. Shortly after Sobekhotep IV came to the throne, the Hyksos entered Egypt.<ref name=Hyksos/> However, it should be noted that many Royal burials of the Second Intermediate Period, along with many temples, are known to have been looted by the Hyksos following several bitter campaigns fought against the 16th and 17th Theban Dynasties. In addition the 13th Dynasty itself was already weakened due to a rise in the power of provincial and noble families, and it was common for succession during the Second Intermediate Period not to follow the Hereditary Principle.

== Physical evidence of the Exodus ==
No Egyptian texts of any kind, either Royal inscriptions, which may be interpreted as propagandistic, though generally do record the general theme of events, mention any events link conclusivly to the Exodus story. More significantly, no administrative documents point to it either, which are unconcerned with issues of a propaganda, being intended as purely internal documents for administrative purposes. No mention on either is made of a large amount of labourers being lost, nor of military manpower or equipment loss in subsequent pursuit.

In 2003, amateur diver Peter Elmer claimed to have discovered coral-encrusted chariot wheels and other chariot parts submerged in the Gulf of Aqaba, the eastern offshoot of the great body of water called the Red Sea today.<ref name=Kovacs/>. This is not, however, conclusive, as no physical artefacts from this alleged find have ever been seen by professional archaeologists, nor recovered for professional analysis, recording and conservation. Photographs presented as evidence are inconclusive, and appear to show some coral formations common in the Gulf of Aqaba area and a modern metallic object. No other evidence has been presented. In addition, given the claim that these events occurred during the 13th Dynasty, the Egyptian army would not be deploying chariots, which do not appear in Egypt until the Hyksos period, and are not deployed by Egyptian forces until the end of that period. The amateur himself claims to have spoken to an SCA official who stated the parts to be 18th Dynasty, from the New Kingdom.

In addition, the Biblical narrative indicates that the Israelites made their crossing far too soon for them to have successfully crossed the entire [[Sinai desert]] and peninsula to reach the Gulf of Aqaba. More likely, the Israelites crossed the Gulf of Suez--and the destruction of Neferhotep's army was so complete that not a single artifact was left. The Bible does, of course, say that not a single ''man'' was left of that army. However, this does not explain that lack of administrative documents in Egyptian records concerning either the loss or sourcing of replacement labour and military manpower and military equipment.

The revised chronology of David Down and John Ashton<ref name=Timing/> strongly suggests that the beginning of the Intermediate Period is the best time for the Exodus. By this scheme, the Hyksos overran Egypt when conditions could not have been more favourable to invaders: a country first devastated by multiple meterological, agricultural, and epidemiological disasters is suddenly deprived of its leader and its entire army in a single battle. This view, however, is not accepted by most Egyptologists.

== Chronological Placement of the Exodus ==
[[James Ussher]], in ''[[The Annals of the World]]'', placed the Exodus at 1491 BC. His primary assumptions consisted of:

# Accepting 562 BC as the death of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]].
# A direct reckoning of the dates-of-accession of the Kings of the Divided Kingdoms [[Northern Kingdom|Northern]] and [[Southern Kingdom|Southern]].
# The Bible's explicit statement that [[Solomon]] broke ground on the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] exactly 479 years after the Exodus.<ref name=Groundbreak>{{Bible ref|book=I_Kings|chap=6|verses-1}}</ref>

Today Ussher's original [[Date of the Exodus|date]] is sharply [[Biblical chronology dispute|contested]]. The three contenders for the date of the Exodus are:

# 1491 BC (Ussher)
# 1445-1446 BC ("The Early Date")
# 1290 BC ("The Late Date")

Virtually all of the arguments for the Late Date rest solely on arguments from conventional [[Egyptian chronology]], however. The Early Date is much better supported from Scripture, which specifically requires four hundred eighty years between the Exodus and the groundbreaking of the [[Temple]] built by [[Solomon]].<ref name=Groundbreak/> Several archaeologists have looked for battle-damage and other evidence for the Early Date in and around [[Jericho]], [[Ai]], and [[Hazor]], and have found it.<ref>Lorenzini, D. Massimiliano. "[http://www.angelfire.com/nm/massimolorenzini/exodus.html Evidence for the Early Date of the Exodus]." 2002. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>

The date preferred by [[Edwin R. Thiele]] (labeled "Early Date" above) is only forty-five years later than Ussher's. Thiele's sole warrant for favoring his date over Ussher's is his attempt to reconcile the king lists of the Divided Kingdoms [[Northern Kingdom|Northern]] and [[Southern Kingdom|Southern]] with the [[chronology]] of the [[Assyrian chronology|Assyrians]]. (For a detailed discussion, and a synoptic table showing the differing results for those king lists, see [[Biblical chronology dispute|here]].) Thiele, like Ussher, relies on the Temple groundbreaking interval described above to assign his date for the Exodus.

The Pharaoh of the Oppression, as stated above, was likely Sesostris III, a Twelfth Dynasty king. [[James Ussher]] initially supposed that the Pharaoh of the Exodus was not Ramesses II, but ''another'' Ramesses whom he mistakenly assumed ruled directly before Ramesses II and for the same number of years. Future scholars accepted Seti I and Ramesses II as the Pharaohs of the Oppression and Exodus, respectively, for decades. Recently, some scholars tried to make a case for other pairings of the Pharaohs of the Oppression and Exodus in the Eighteenth Dynasty rather than the Nineteenth. These included:

# [[Thutmose III]] and [[Amenhotep II]]
# [[Thutmose I]] and [[Thutmose III]]. These scholars also identified Pharaoh's daughter as [[Hatshepsut]], the first woman ever to rule as Pharaoh in her own right.

Still other scholars have attempted to identify Moses with Amenhotep IV, also known as [[Akhenaten]], the "heretical Pharaoh" who attempted to force a monolatic (a form of monotheism) belief system upon Egypt. This view has no archaeological merit. Following the collapse of the Amarna regime, monotheism disappeared from the archaeological record until the early-mid first millennium BC.

== The Exodus in Popular Culture ==
The Exodus has been the subject of many [[motion picture]] and [[television]] projects over the last fifty years. Most of these projects contain extra-Biblical interpolations for which no Scriptural or archaeological warrant exists. For example, Scripture clearly says that when Moses killed the Egyptian taskmaster, he did so in secret and did not want that fact known--because he was not prepared to face the consequences. (Not every deed of a recognized hero and leader of the Hebrew people was a good or wise deed.) The various motion-picture projects that have treated this story have shown Moses behaving negligently or even recklessly in the killing of the Egyptian, and left out entirely the context in which Moses found out that his deed was no longer secret.

More to the point, most of these projects have assumed that the Pharaoh of the Exodus was either Ramesses II or his son Merenptah. This supposition is based either on Late Date chronology.

== The "No Exodus" View ==
Many Egyptologists dispute that an Exodus, as described in the Biblical text, actually occured. Various theories regard it either as an exaggerated folktale, remembering the colonial struggle between the Egyptians and the Mittanians, and later the Hittites, for control of Syria-Palestine, and the captives both sides took from the local population, or perhaps of the Hyksos, a West Semitic people who entered Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, and forcibly expelled by Ahmose I at the founding of the New Kingdom.

the reasoning for such views is the lack of archaeological and textual evidence for the use of foreign labour on the truly massive scale depicted in the Biblical text, and the lack of evidence concerning it's sudden departure and ensuring conflict on the Red Sea, as well as the fantastical events that ensured.

=== Textual Evidence ===
The only Egyptian texts concerning the expulsion of a large number of Semitic people, subsequently "hounded" by Egyptian forces are the expulsion of the Hyksos circa 1580BC. These people were, like the Egyptians, polytheistic. After being expelled from Egypt their remnants were believed to have fled to Sharuhen near modern Gaza, where they were subsequently besieged.

No administrative papyri refer to an exodus of labourers, nor mentions seeking replacements. Whilst royal inscriptions may overlook such an embarrassment, administrative papyri had no such restrictions.

The loss of an army and equipment is likewise not mentioned, nor attempts to secure replacement labour and equipment. Sucha large loss would need large scale efforts to import and harvest timber and metal for replacement weapons, and recruitment of manpower resources to replace those killed.

=== Archaeological Record ===

Second Intermediate Period Semitic presence in Egypt is limited to Hyksos sites such as Avaris, whereas the Exodus claims the captives served Egyptian Pharaohs. However the large scale deployment of such people is not attested in the archaeological record. A Semitic presence can be detected in certain New Kingdom sites and records, but not in a systematic manner of a huge scale, such as the exodus would suggest. In either case however, there is no evidence of a monotheistic belief amongst this population.

=== Chronological Issues ===

Evidence of monotheistic belief in the Levant does not surface until the equivalent of the Egyptian Third Intermediate Period, which again does not correspond with the belief that the exodus of abrahamic people from Egypt took place prior to this.

In addition the theories postulating a date prior to the New Kingdom for the exodus still claim that the Egyptian army deployed chariots, which the Egyptians did not use until the end of the Second Intermediate Period.

=== Fantastical Acts ===

The Red Sea, though narrow, is an extension of the Rift Valley system, and is for the most part a deep sea. Even the Gulf of Suez, by far the shallowest geographic area of the Red Sea still is 200m deep in places. By contrast the Dover Strait is no more than 50m deep. Thus the idea of such waters being fordable by a people on foot and carrying goods is implausible, featuring wet sand, and sheer rock and sharp coral escarpments. The same reasons would likewise prevent the Egyptian army from being able to follow, especially with wheeled vehicles and horses, assuming a time period in which such equipment and animals were used.

== Related References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See Also ==
* [[Joseph]]
* [[Moses]]
* [[Passover]]
* [[Biblical chronology]]
* [[Biblical chronology dispute]]
* [[Anno Mundi]]
* [[Date of the Exodus]]

[[Category:Old Testament]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient History]]

Egyptian mythology

2009-03-17T21:18:26Z

Krysg: added Seshat

'''Egyptian mythology''' includes all the religious beliefs practiced by ancient [[Egypt]]ians. These beliefs greatly influenced the development of their culture, but there was never a unified [[theology|theological]] system. The Egyptian faith was based on a collection of ancient [[myth]]s, nature worship, and a number of deities. <ref>http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/egyptian.htm</ref>

==Deities==
'''[[Amun]]/Amun-Ra''' was the supreme state god of the New Kingdom, a Theban god, "mysterious of form" and associated with the wind who rode to greatness following the rise to prominence of his home city, and his association with the powerful sun god, [[Ra]].

'''Anubis''' was the god of [[embalming]] and was often represented by a [[jackal]] or other [[dog]], his brother is [[Horus]].

'''[[Horus]]''' is the Egyptian sky [[god]] who is often represented by the falcon, he said to have resurrected his dead father [[Osiris]].

'''[[Iah]]''' is an Ancient Egyptian lunar god, whose role was linked to that of Thoth in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and who came to be eclipsed to some degree by Khonsu from the New Kingdom onward. Some scholars regard the god as the personification of the lunar disc itself within Ancient Egyptian culture.

'''Imhotep''' was originally an historic figure but was later deified by the Egyptians into the [[god]] of [[medicine]]. In his mortal history he was credited with the design of the step [[pyramid]].

'''Isis''' is a goddess who is supposed to be the wife of [[Osiris]] and (in later times) the mother of [[Horus]].

'''[[Nekhbet]]''' is a vulture goddess, protectress of the [[Pharaoh]], along with Wadjet, and patron goddess of Upper Egypt.

'''Osiris''' is a god who was said to have been killed by his brother the god [[Set (god)|Set]], only to be resurrected by his son [[Horus]].

'''[[Ra]]''' is the supreme manifestation of the [[Egyptian]] sun god of Heliopolis and one of the most important members of the Ancient Egyptian pantheon. The Egyptians believed that each day the sun was re-born. In the morning after a bath and breakfast he took a journey across the sky in his heavenly boat and would spend an hour of each day inspecting each of his 12 provinces. When the sun went down in the evening [[Ra]] was believed to enter the underworld until the next morning. All night long Ra had to fight his enemy [[Apep]] the terrible cosmic serpent who lived in the underworld. Ra is usually depicted as a falcon wearing a sun disc on his head. The rulers of Ancient Egypt called themselves Pharaohs - literally "Sons of Ra" - as a means of establishing their divinity.

'''[[Seshat]]''' is a goddess of writing and measuring and the scribal arts, predating [[Thoth]]. Her name literally translates as “The Female Scribe”, and in later times she was regarded as a husband or sister of [[Thoth]].

'''Set''' is the brother of [[Osiris]] and uncle of [[Horus]], he is said to have killed Osiris, who was later resurrected by Horus, Set was then killed by Horus.

'''Thoth''' was an [[Egyptian]] [[god]] represented with the head of an [[ibis]], who was supposed to make sure neither good nor bad had too much power over the other.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]

Seshat

2009-03-17T21:15:35Z

Krysg: new article

'''Seshat''' is an Egyptian goddess of writing and measuring. Her name literally translates as “The Female Scribe”. Seshat had no cult centre, nor any temples dedicated to her in [[Ancient Egypt]], yet was present in the foundation ceremony of all temples, as the one who assisted the [[Pharaoh]] in the Stretching of the Cord ceremony that marked the start of construction work on a new religious structure.

Seshat is the only female, human or divine, depicted in the act of writing. Her position as a divine scribe predated that of [[Thoth]], who later came to eclipse her, and even with his arrival she retained her exclusive title as being the “Foremost” in the House of Books. Whilst Thoth was served as scribe to [[Ra]], [[Amun]] and the other great and good of the Egyptian pantheon, Seshat was regarded as the maintainer of the libraries, records and accounts of the gods, and though her mostly [[Old Kingdom]] priests, their earthly counterparts. She was also responcible for recording the jubilees and reigns of the Pharaohs throughout Egyptian history. With her omnipresent yet elite status, present in official religion but never appearing in common or "folk" religious contexts, she bears a striking similarity to another goddess closely related to Thoth, [[Ma’at]].

== Origins ==

Seshat is first recorded in the 2nd Dynasty where she is mentioned by [[Khasekhemwy]] in the Stretching of the Cord on a new temple building. She was not a “goddess of the people”, except as a possible patroness of scribes and architects, and so it seems unlikely that she enjoyed recognition or a following before the establishment of both the institutions of a scribal class and Kingship. The province or city from which she originated remain unknown.

== Characteristics & Responsibilities ==

Seshat was very much a goddess of the state, tied in the to scribal profession, a bulkwark of Egyptian officaldom, where she is depicted being involved in the census (from the [[Old Kingdom]] onwards), recording of accounts, notation and all kinds of writing and recording. Her title as She Who is Foremost in the House of Books also gives her a role as patroness of libraries in general.

She is also associated with the ceremonies of architecture, including the Stretching of the Cord ceremony and her title as Mistress of Builders and Mistress of the House of Architects bears out her responsibilities with regards to building and architecture. She is mentioned as being associated the Stretching of the Cord from the Early Dynastic period onwards.

Another of her key roles is recording the reigns and jubilees of the Pharaohs, as part of her responsibilities as a goddess of the scribal tradition, and she is often depicted with the notched palm stem that is used for recording time in this role.

Seshat has an unusual crown and attire. The seven pointed figure surmounted by a downward curving line, with a notch at the top of the curve, has been variously interpreted as a papyrus plant (pointing to it’s obvious scribal associations) or a seven pointed star surmounted by a downward pointing object, possibly horns or a bow. This may be an earlier pre-dynastic divine or royal standard. This chracteristic and unusual sign was occassionaly used as as hieroglyph in the spelling of her name.

Along with this she is seen wearing a leopard skin as worn by priests, or a long, tight fitting, leopard skin patterned dress, along with a diadem. In some depictions her dress, rather than a leopard skin design, has a pattern of stars. It is believed that the leopard skin was associated with a starry sky, and therefore the heavens and time (including eternity), hence it’s relevance to the priesthood (some of whom served as astronomers and timekeepers), and to Seshat. Occasionally, the bottom of her palm stem bears the Sn (“shen”) hieroglyph, ideogram for eternity, accompanied by a tadpole, the numerical hieroglyph for the value 100,000. Curiously, this was not the highest numerical glyph the Egyptians used, so it’s association here with eternity is quite interesting. When recording the jubilees and celebrations of the Pharaoh, her palm branch is often dressed with the symbols of the celebration. She is also sometimes depicted with the surveyors cord and mallet, as used in the Stretching of the Cord ceremony.

Seshat is always depicted as a anthropomorphic female.

== Associations and Prominence ==

As a goddess so heavily associated with the formal arts and professions of state, she doesn’t appear to have had much popular following amongst the commoners. However we do find a reference to there being a priesthood for the goddess, even though no individual cult centre is known to have existed. Prince Wep-em-Nefret, from 4th Dynasty the reign of [[Khufu]], records on his funerary stela found at Giza that he was a priest of Seshat as well as Overseer of Royal Scribes. This may imply that amongst scribes and architects Seshat enjoyed a “patroness” like status, giving her a degree of public worship in addition to a formal priesthood.

On the other hand it is also possible that certain scribes held the title “Priest of Seshat” in the same way that judges were considered “Priests of Ma’at”, in that in performing their duties there were honouring the goddess, as opposed to being priests in the literal sense of the term. Although most scholars today believe she did enjoy a formal priesthood, there are no known temples dedicated to her. She is, however, particularly prominent at Abydos, and a particularly beautiful and well known depiction of her can be found in Luxor temple. As such, a dedicated temple of her own may well have been seen as somewhat redundant, given her role in the founding ceremonies of all of them.

Seshat has a relatively simple set of associations, most obviously with [[Thoth]], who eclipses her in the [[New Kingdom]], but never replaces her. There are conflicting stories of their precise association, it being recorded that he is her husband, brother or father. Another name for Seshat, Sefkhet-Abwy, is mentioned in later texts, form the New Kingdom onwards.

She is also associated with [[Nephthys]] in the netherworld, probably due to her role in recording reigns and lives. As a result of this association, it should be no surprise that she is also associated to some degree with [[Isis]], though less explicitly.

== Titles ==

*She Who is Foremost in the House of Books
*Mistress of Builders
*Mistress of the House of Architects
*The Female Scribe (her name)

== Decline ==

Due to her crucial role in the Stretching of the Cord, and recording of jubilees and other official events, Seshat’s profile remained steady throughout the life of state backed Ancient Egyptian religion. Alas, her fortunes dived with it, for unlike Hapi, she never enjoyed such a significant role in common religion. No folk memory of Seshat is known to have endured after the enforcement of Christianity in Egypt during the Roman era.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]

Pharaoh

2009-03-15T20:53:08Z

Krysg: /* Biblical References */

[[Image:Tuthmosis III.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Thutmose III of the 18th Dynasty. This statue depicts him in a way that perfectly displays the official iconographic conventions of Egyptian art and ideology, with the Pharaoh as eternally serene, young and beautiful. The statue is considered a masterpiece of Egyptian sculpture. Greywacke, from Karnak Temple Cachette, now in Luxor Museum.]]
'''Pharaoh''' is the term generally used today to refer to the Kings of [[Ancient Egypt]], including the [[Hyksos]] and [[Ptolemaic]] rulers, but usually not the [[Persian]] rulers, though many of them did have a formal Egyptian royal titulary drawn up.

== Etymology of the Word ==

The term "pharaoh" derives from the Egyptian word ''pr-'3'', reconstructed as "per-'aa" and literally translates as "Great House", i.e. the royal palace. The word itself occurs from the Old Kingdom onward, but only within that context, i.e. ''smr pr '3'' "Courtier of the Great House", rather than referring to the ruler in person.

Towards the end of the 12th Dynasty, the context has shifted somewhat, being used in blessing or as a wish "Great House, may it liver, prosper and be in health", which although still referring to the palace the context appears to be shifting somewhat. It is from the late 18th Dynasty onward in the Amarna Letters that we obtain the first clear usage of the term ''pr-'3'' to refer to the person of the King himself, and from the 19th dynasty onwards it is used in exactly the same manner as "His Majesty" (''Hm.f''). The term continues to be used into the Greco-Roman era, where it even finds use in temple inscriptions.

== The Divine Kingship ==

The Pharaoh was a divine [[King]] (sometimes referred to as a God-King), who ruled as an [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarch]]. He was associated with numerous [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian gods]], but the most significant relationship was the Pharaoh being the living image or earthly incarnation of [[Horus]]. This was an extremely important foundation for Pharaonic ideology, as Horus is closely associated with the ideals of Kingship in theology, being the rightful successor to the murdered [[Osiris]]. It is also the oldest of the divine associations, dating back at least as far as the reign of [[menes|Narmer]], at the beginning of the Dynastic period. The Horus name in the royal titulary links directly to this association.

The Pharaoh was also the Son of [[Ra]], as explicitly stated in the royal titulary from the reign of [[Djedfra]] (4th Dyn.) onward. This was a very important association in the [[old kingdom|Old]] and [[Middle Kingdom]], when [[Ra]] was the supreme state god, and remained significant throughout Pharaonic history. When Amun became solarised in the 18th dynasty as [[Amun-Ra]], the Pharaoh came to be seen as the son of this combined form of the [[sun god]] as well.

The Pharaoh was also considered to be the son of [[Geb]], [[Nut]], [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], and [[Hathor]]. In addition he was also imbued with the traits of others gods at particular times. On the battlefield, [[Thutmose III]] was likened to the Theban war god [[Montu]], and [[Ramesses II]] to [[Sekhmet]], the avenging [[Eye of Ra]].

The Pharaoh could also be directly worshipped as an independent god in his own right, and it is known that temples to Senusret III, Ahmose I, Amunhotep II, Amunhotep III, and Ramesses II existed. In addition to these, every Pharoh was worshipped after his death in a mortuary cult, the central temple of which was the pyramid complex in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and the mortuary temple in later periods. These cults were state sponsored, sometimes for centuries following the death of the ruler concerned. Several Pharaohs were also worshipped outside [[Egypt]].

== The Dual Kingship ==

Egyptian philosophy was highly dualistic in nature, seeing two aspects being necessary to form a whole picture. For example, order could not exist without chaos, perhaps best seen in the Contendings of Horus and Set. The role of the Pharaoh was seen in a similar way, and by extension Egypt as a whole. Egypt was the “Two Lands”, which has is generally seen today as Upper and Lower Egypt, reflecting both philosophical view and political history. The title Lord of the Two Lands was an important part of the royal titulary, and is reflected in the idea of the dual crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt (red crown, white crown, and joined crowns), and also the “two ladies” name of the royal titulary. The two ladies were the vulture goddess [[Nekhbet]] (patron of Upper Egypt) and cobra goddess [[Wadjet]] (patron of Lower Egypt). The latter reared up upon the brow of the Pharaoh to spit and strike at his enemies, and quite commonly the head of Nekhbet was depicted alongside her, as on the mask of [[Tutankhamun]].

The idea of the Two Lands, as well as fitting in the with Egyptian thinking regarding the nature of the universe also preserved the historic memory of the original act of unification of Egypt into one nation circa 3200 – 3100 BC. Although unified, the administration maintained some divisions, including having two national treasuries, though usually under one treasurer.

== The Royal Names ==

The Pharaoh had five sets of royal names and titulary, as well as additional epithets and titles not discussed here. The main five names and titles were:

* The Horus Name: The oldest title, dating from the 1st Dynasty, links the Pharaoh to the god Horus. It is written in a serekh. This name was given to the Pharaoh upon his ascension to the throne, and was his “official” name during the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods.
* The Nebty Name: Sometimes called the “Two Ladies” name, links the Pharaoh with the patron goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt. Used first by Den of the 1st Dynasty, and clearly states that the Pharaoh is ruler of all Egypt. It was taken upon coronation.
* Golden Horus Name: It’s exactly symbolism is disputed, but apart from the obvious link to the Pharaoh as the incarnation of Horus (already established in the Horus name) the golden element most likely relates to the idea of enduring or eternity, qualities with which the metal was associated by the Egyptians. In addition Egyptian religion also mentions certain gods as having skin made of gold. It was taken upon coronation.
* The Prenomen: The nisw-bity or “King of Upper and Lower Egypt” name, was enclosed in a cartouche and from the 11th Dynasty onward always included the name of Ra within the name. I.e. User-Ma’at-Ra Setep-n-Ra (Translated as “Strong is the Justice of Ra, Chosen of Ra”) is the prenomen of Ramesses II. This was “official” name used from the Middle Kingdom onward. Is is often followed by the title “Lord of the Two Lands”. It too, was taken upon coronation.
* The Nomen: The “Son of Ra” name was also enclosed in a cartouche, and is the name used today to describe a particular individual. Ramesses was the nomen of Ramesses II. It was the Pharaoh’s birth name. Sometimes, and not uncommonly, the epithet “The Perfect God” is used in place of the “Son of Ra” prefix.

[[Image:AmenhotepII.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Amenhotep II, with Nemes headdress, false beard, and uraeus (cobra) upon his brow]]
[[Image:Tut_coffinette.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coffinette of Tutankhamun, with Nemes headdress, false beard,bearing the ceremonial crook and flail. The traditional ureaus aupon the brow is accompanied by the vulture head of Nekhbet]]
== Pharaonic Regalia ==

There is a rich variety of Pharaonic regalia, each element with it’s own symbolism.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100pt"|Piece
! width="700pt"|Symbolism

|-
| Crook and Flail
| Links to Osiris. Crook is symbolic of the Pharaoh’s responsibility to guide the country and people. As a sign in Egyptian hieroglyphs it forms the tri-consonantal HkA, most commonly used in the word “rule” and related words. The fail is of less certain original meaning, but is most likely related to the harvest, symbolic of the Pharaoh’s role as provider for the people.

|-
| Nemes Headdress
| A striped multi-piece headdress worn by Pharaohs from at least the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty, it’s originally symbolism is unknown, but was a core part of Pharaonic regalia to the end of Pharaonic period. It remains one of the most iconic symbols of Pharaonic Egypt today.

|-
| False Beard
| The false beard was platted, and intended to appear false, the strap holding it often appearing in sculptural depictions of the gods and Pharaohs. A beautiful example is on the coffin of Psusennes I.

|-
| Deshret (Red) Crown
| The crown of Lower Egypt, the delta region.

|-
| Hedjet (White) Crown
| The crown of Upper Egypt, the Nile valley.

|-
| Pshent (Double) Crown
| The joined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.

|-
| Khepresh Crown
| Small, closer fitting blue crown, seen from the New Kingdom onwards, often called a “war crown” though there no evidence to suggest it was regarded as such by the Egyptians.

|-
| Was Sceptre
| Not commonly seen being held by the Pharaoh, more often ascribed to “literal” gods, but found in royal burials. The was sceptre symbolises dominion.

|-
| Cobra
| Symbolises Wadjet, patron goddess of Lower Egypt, and universally seen upon the brow of the Pharaoh, often along with a vultures head, symbolising Nekhbet.

|}

== Ma’at ==

Although an [[absolute monarch]], the Pharaoh was obliged to rule in accordance with [[ma’at]], an Egyptian concept generally translated as “just”, but actually a wider ranging concept of “rightness” or “the correct order of things”. As a filial divine son, and as High Priest of Every Temple, the Pharaoh had an obligation to the gods to uphold ma’at on Earth, for it was described as both “what sustains the gods”. Those who did not live up to the obligation were treated harshly by future generations, their name being either blackened, or completely eliminated from monuments and King lists.

Egyptian culture also strongly emphasised continuity and tradition, stressing constantly the need to keep things as they always had been. As such, with a single exception, the Pharaohs of Egypt did not, contrary to Hollywood myth, rule purely on whim, but rather held the country on a pre-existing course, respecting institutions and traditions that were already ancient. As an example, the titulary [[Late Period]] officials are often identical to those from the Old Kingdom, having first appeared some 2,500 years before.

== Temple, State and Army ==

The Pharaoh was first and foremost the head of state. Contrary to popular belief, he was not the state itself. Upon the death of a Pharaoh, most administrative staff would remain and serve the successor, thus ensuring the machinery of government could continue to function efficiently. This process was smoothed in the Middle Kingdom with the introduction of co-regencies. Towards the end of one reign, the Pharaoh would make his successor co-regent alongside him, to help ensure a smooth succession. Day to day management of government offices was aided by a [[vizier]], and on occasion two viziers, one for Upper, and another for Lower Egypt.

The Pharaoh was also head of all temple cults. Egypt did not, technically, have high priests. The Pharaoh was the High Priest of Every Temple. All offerings were made in his name. High priests were simply his stand-ins. From the New Kingdom onwards, a prominent woman of his family (often a daughter, sometimes a wife) would hold the position of [[God’s Wife of Amun]]. There was no conflict between church and state, for the temples were, in effect, government offices.

He was also head of the military forces, both army and navy, and was advised by a military council.

== Great Pharaohs ==

There are any number of “great” Pharaohs, but those generally recognised are:

* [[Narmer]] / [[Menes]](?): Most likely unified Egypt.
* [[Djoser]]: Oversaw the world’s first large stone building.
* [[Neferirkara Kakai]]: Noted for being particularly kind.
* [[Senusret III]]: Took the Egyptian border south of the 2nd Cataract for the first time in history, with fortifications of great sophistication. Worshipped in Nubia.
* [[Ahmose I]]: Expelled the Hyksos. Re-unified Egypt. Founded the New Kingdom.
* [[Thutmose III]]: “Napoleon of Egypt”. Military genius who crossed the Euphrates and Orontes rivers to the north and advanced to Gebel Barkal in the south. Also a great patron of the arts and literature.
* [[Amunhotep III]]: Largely credited with transforming the New Kingdom from a militaristic to cultural super-power. Worshipped in Nubia.
* [[Ramesses II]]: Great and prolific builder. The “Ozymandias” of Shelley’s poem.
* [[Necho II]]: A great and ambitious ruler who won the reputation of being a failure by virtue of reigning during the Late Period. Started a canal to link the Nile to the Red Sea.

== Biblical References ==

Biblical writers exclusivly use the term "Pharaoh" when refering to the King of Egypt. There are only three instances in the Bible in which a Pharaoh was referred to by name: Shishak, Necoh, and Hophra, possibly corrosponding to [[Shoshenq I]] (22nd Dyn, reigned circa 943-922BC), [[Necho II]] (26th Dyn, reigned circa 610-595BC) and [[Haibra]], better known by the hellenized name "[[Apries]]", (26th Dyn, reigned 589-570BC).

== King Lists ==

''For a modern King List of the Pharaonic dynasties see [[king list|King List]]''

The Egyptians regarded a list of the reigns of all legitimate Pharaohs to be the single most important way of recording history, and numerous “King Lists” remain today, giving valuable information in aiding a reconstruction of Egyptian history. Early archaeologists relied heavily on these king lists, particularly that of Manetho, an Egyptian who wrote at the very beginning of the Ptolemaic era, which prior to the decipherment of hieroglyphs was the only King list known to historians.

With Champollion’s decipherment cam access to addition material, particularly the Abydos king lists, preserved in the Temple of Seti I, and later the Turin Canon.

The problem with the King Lists is that they preserve the history of Egypt in much the same way modern governments do, brush over or simply point black denying aspects of it which did not fit it with official ideology. In Egypt this led to striking of Pharaohs perceived s illegitimate being erased from record. As such it is only with the science of modern archaeology being able to more accurately interpret the archaeological record that we have been able to build a more complete and accurate [[king list|King List]].

== Bibliography ==

'''Note:''' This bibliography covers all aspects of the above article except the Biblical References section.
<div class="references-small">
* Dodson, A and Hilton, D (2004), ''The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Frankfort, H (1948), ''Kingship and the Gods'', University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London
* Gardiner, A (1957), ''Egyptian Grammar'' (3rd edition), Griffith Institute, Oxford
* Montet, P (1964), E''ternal Egypt: The Civilization of Ancient Egypt From Earliest Times to Conquest by Alexander the Great'', Phoenix, London
* Shaw, I et al. (2000), ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* Wilkinson, R (2000), ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Ziegler, C and Tiradritti, F (2002), ''The Pharaohs'', Thames and Hudson, London

[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Neo-Paganism

2009-03-04T13:38:28Z

Krysg: rebuild, add links

'''Neo-Paganism''' is a collective term for a wide variety of mostly modern non-Abrahamic religions, with [[Wicca]] being the most prominent, along with a large collection of personal, informal faiths. It can also include elclectic faiths such as blending of older religions, often pre-[[Christian]] European faiths with elements of modern religions, usually [[Wicca]].

It is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to [[Reconstructionism|Polytheistic Reconstructionist]] religions.

[[Category:Paganism]]

Neo-Paganism

2009-03-04T13:37:05Z

Krysg: rebuild, slight expansion. links

'''Neo-Paganism''' is a collective term for a wide variety of mostly modern non-Abrahamic religions, with [[Wicca]] being the most prominent, along with a large collection of personal, informal faiths. It can also include elclectic faiths such as blending of older religions, often pre-[[Christian]] European faiths with elements of modern religions, usually [[Wicca]].

It is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to [[reconstructionist|Polytheistic Reconstructionist]] religions.

[[Category:Paganism]]

Reconstructionism

2009-03-04T13:30:55Z

Krysg: New Article.

''This page deals with Polytheistic Reconstructionism. [[Christian Reconstructionism|For Christian Reconstructionism go here]]''

'''Polytheistic Reconstructionism''' is the practice of reviving an ancient polytheistic religion in at least a semi-historically accurate manner. The degree of historical accuracy can vary from an academic approach based on historical texts and [[archaeology]], though to a more mystical or spiritual approach that may border on more general [[Neo-Paganism|neo-pagan]] practice.

== Major Polytheistic Recontructionist Organisations ==

The most important of the New-Pagan religions tend to focus on [[Celtic]] and [[Norse]] religious traditions from northern Europe. However in recent years others have sought to reconstruct other religious practices, particularly those of the Classical and [[Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] pantheons.

=== Ypato Symboulio Ellinon Ethnikon - YSEE (Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes)===
The YSEE is the most organised and explicitly political of polytheistic reconstructionist religious organisations. Based in [[Athens]] and focused within [[Greece]] (though with international outreach in [[Cyprus]], the [[United States|US]] and [[Australia]]) it aims to win rights for followers of traditional [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] religion. It often accuses the Greek government of “Neo-[[Byzantium|Byzantine]]” behaviour in attempting to prevent Ancient Greek religious sites from being used for religious purposes and attempting to circumvent religious rights of non-Christians.

YSEE is actually an umbrella organisation for several smaller Hellenic Recontructionist groups based in Greece, but they now speak and operate mainly though YSEE

YSEE expects all it’s members to follow the Hellenic Gods.

=== Other Hellenic Recontructionist Groups ===
There are also [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] Recontructionist movements outside Greece, the most prominent of which are Elaion and Hellenion. The latter operates mostly online, though is based in the United States. Elaion specifically requires it’s members to worship only the Hellenic Gods.

=== Nova Roma ===
Nova Roma is a [[Roman]] recontructionist group, although they do not require that their members worship the Gods of Rome at the lower levels, though higher levels must be willing to do so as the office requires. Like Ethnakoi Hellenes they have a political dimension, though much less active, and take a long term view of their aims, and are more internationalist in nature. Membership is international.

=== Egyptian (Kemetic) Reconstructionism ===
[[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] Reconstructionism is both newer and older than the other main groups. Individuals had dedicated themselves to worship of the Gods of Egypt in a modern setting from the early 20th century, but as an organised group this didn’t emerge until the mid 1980’s. Various groups (Temples) tended to compete, and the idea of an umbrella organisation has yet to meet with success. The only current organisation of any significant scale is the House of Netjer (aka Kemetic Orthodox), though many smaller organisations continue to exist, including Per Heh, Per Ankh, and some attempts at umbrella organisations.

The House of Netjer requires it’s members to worship the [[Egyptian religion|Gods of Egypt]], but at lower levels does not forbid the worship of other gods in parallel, though priests may only serve the Gods of Egypt. House of Netjer is not technically polytheistic (a major reason for the division between it and others in Egyptian Reconstructionism) and adopts a monolatic view of the cosmos.

== Relations with the Neo-Pagan Community ==
Generally, due to the un-dogmatic nature of polytheistic religions, relations with other groups are mostly focused on non-interference and tolerance. However, followers of some [[Neo-Paganism|neo-pagan]] traditions, paticularly the more eclectic may be regarded by some followers of more "hard" polytheistic or reconstructionist faiths as being "fluffy". There is little real rivalry, however, and for the most part the ancient polytheistic approach of "Our Gods" and "Their Gods" is accepted.

== External Links ==
* YSEE: [http://www.ysee.gr/index-eng.php]
* Elaion: [http://www.elaion.org/]
* Hellenion: [http://www.hellenion.org/]
* Nova Roma: [http://www.novaroma.org/]
* House of Netjer: [http://www.kemet.org/]

[[Category:Paganism]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Kingdom of Kush

2009-03-03T16:52:14Z

Krysg:

The '''Kingdom of Kush''' flourished from about the 8th century B.C. to about A.D.350-400. It occupied both sides of the River [[Nile]] from about the “First Cataract” (Aswan) to the seventh near Khartoum in modern [[Sudan]]. This area, referred to in history books as Upper Nubia and known as Kush by the Egyptians, and ruled by Nubians, found itself under the rule of the kings from Egypt – Nubians who had formed the 25th Dynasty in Egypt in 770 B.C. but who had evacuated Egypt in 661 B.C. in the face of the Assyrian invasion – who continued to rule an “egyptianised” kingdom in Nubia.

Their palaces and burial pyramids, copied from Egypt, and the famous temple of the sun, mentioned by [[Herodotus]], have been excavated. The kingdom went through stages of prosperity and stress (a Roman attack which destroyed the city of Napata in 23B.C. is recorded) before falling into terminal degeneration during its last two or so centuries. It went out of existence as an independent state after an attack by Axum (a powerful [[Ethiopia]]n kingdom) in A.D. 350.

We are fortunate to be able to translate Kushite inscriptions and know the names of their later rulers from the existence of their Meriotic script, developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, and used parallel to it for some time.

[[Category: Ancient History]]
[[Category: Ancient Countries]]

Talk:Kingdom of Kush

2009-03-02T22:20:37Z

Krysg: reccomend this entry be deleted.

Err...since when is Kush part of Israel? Last I checked, it was in Africa. --[[User:Benp|Benp]] 20:46, 26 June 2008 (EDT)

----
This really should be deleted unless someone has some time to rewrite as a proper entry. This is incorrect. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 17:20, 2 March 2009 (EST)
----

Great Pyramid of Giza

2009-02-25T14:33:00Z

Krysg: Added image

[[Image:Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu.jpg|thumb|225px|right|The Great Pyramid of Khufu seen behind the Great Sphinx. The pyramid is the largest in Egypt, and one of the largest stone structures ever constructed. It is widely seen a s asymbol of the sophistication and organisational ability of Pharaonic civilization.]]

The '''Great Pyramid of Giza''' (2650 BC) is the largest of the Egyptian pyramids, and is believed to have been the final resting place of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Pharaoh]] [[Khufu]], although his remains were never located. It is one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] and is the only member of that list that is still mostly intact.

The structure It originally stood 481 feet high and was the tallest, and overall largest structure on [[Earth]] until the nineteenth century, and with the exception of certain dams, remains one of the largest man-made structures on the planet in terms of mass. It consists of approximately 2 million blocks of stone, each weighing more than two [[ton]]s.
Each side of the pyramid measures 751 feet across, and the lengths of the sides vary less than 0.1%. Each corner of the [[pyramid]] is precisely lined up with cardinal directions of the [[compass]].<ref>[http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/pyramid.html The Great Pyramid of Giza]</ref>

As a single project, the Great Pyramid was the most ambitious attempted by the Egyptians during the Old Kingdom, and was undoubtedly a triumph of engineering, mathematics, organisation and planning. It is considered by many to be a testament to the power, stability , beliefs and skills of the Old Kingdom state, and it’s ability to harness and deploy resources on a massive scale in a highly integrated operation spanning a huge area.

== Construction ==
The exact means of construction remain extremely contentious, but it is now accepted within the academic community that construction took around 20 years, meaning that it was both begun and completed within his reign. The workforce is estimated to have been around 20,000 strong, consisting of a mixture of full time professionals, administrative staff and temporary labourers who worked for approximately three months per year during the inundation (See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]]). Khufu set up local limestone quarries on-site to obtain the internal limestone blocks, though the fine, white limestone used for the outer casing stones (now robbed) had to be shipped across the [[Nile]] from [[Tura]].Various other stones were also used in the paving, causeway, valley and pyramid temples, including granite and travertine, shipped in from as far afield as [[Aswan]] and [[Hatnub]].

== See also ==
*[[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]
*[[Lighthouse of Alexandria]]

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient World Wonders]]

Amun

2009-02-25T14:28:20Z

Krysg:

[[Image:Amun-ram.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Statue of Amun as a ram, protecting the 25th Dynasty [[Pharaoh]], [[Taharqa]].]]
'''Amun''' is one of the most prominent gods of the [[Egyptian religion|Egyptian pantheon]], who became, in combination with Ra (as Amun-Ra), the dominant state god of the [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]] [[New Kingdom]].

== Nature and Chacteristics ==

Amun is one of the most well known yet also most shadowy of the Egyptian gods. Despite being supreme state god his role is far from clear cut. Originally a god associated with the wind, he was regarded as an unknowable, hidden deity, and his name reflects this, ''imn'' literally translating as “hide”. His association with the wind remains alongside his other roles, following his rise to prominence, as does his essentially hidden characteristic. He remains “mysterious of form”.

As supreme state god, Amun-Ra took on most aspects of the sun god, including his role as King of the Gods, and many solar connotations. He also adopted many aspects of the cult of the fertility god [[Min]], in his combined form of Amun-Min, usually portrayed as an ityphallic male.

Most importantly, in the New Kingdom he was regarded as one of the divine fathers of the [[Pharaoh]], and is featured in the “birth scenes” of the period, depicting the divine conception and birth of the Pharaoh.

His prominence in state religion did not dent his popularity in common religion, and he is frequently referred to in prayers as the protector of the common man and the unfortunate. He is described as the “Vizier of the Humble” and “He Who Comes at the Voice of the Poor”. In his role as Amun-of-the-road he also protected travellers.

[[Image:Amun.jpg|thumb|200px|right|New Kingdom gilded silver statuette of Amun-Ra, supreme state god of the New Kingdom period.]]
== Imagery ==

Amun was most often depicted as a human male, often wearing a crown featuring two plumes. As Amun-Ra a sun disc is added to the crown, symbolising his association with the [[sun god]]. Amun was also associated with the ram, and so could be depicted as a [[ram]] or with a rams head and horns. Rams horns could also be added to his crown in human form. A large number of ram headed [[sphinx|sphinxes]] have been excavated at [[Karnak]], where they embellished the avenue leading from the precinct of Amun-Ra to the temple harbour, and remain more or less in-situ today.

== Origins and Rise to Prominence ==

Despite his rise to national prominence, the cult of Amun was Theban in origin, and [[Thebes]] always remained his main cult centre, even following his association with [[Ra]], and Amun-Ra as a combined deity was never worshipped at the cult centre of Ra in [[Heliopolis]].

First mentioned in the [[Pyramid Texts]], he first comes to prominence in the 11th Dynasty, a period when a Theban dynasty reunified Egypt following the brief but severe chaos of the [[First Intermediate Period]]. However, as the Middle Kingdom rulers soon built a new capital city in the north, Amun’s power did not reach the status of supreme state god.

Following the division of Egypt between the Hyksos occupiers and the Theban Kingdom, the Thebans once again reunified Egypt, and Thebes became one of the foremost religious centres in Egypt. As Egypt had been reunified so the union of Amun with the cult of Ra from the (northern) city of Heliopolis was also cemented, and Amun-Ra quickly became the pre-eminent state god. The 18th Dynasty Pharaohs again had names associating them with Amun, and the estates of the god soon became the largest and wealthiest in Egypt, the fortunes bolstered by a generous share of the spoils of war captured by the Empire, and the flows of tribute that followed.

The influence of Amun soon spread into some of the new territories, particularly Kush, where his influence soon became so pervasive, that his cult there remained powerful and influential centuries after the departure of the Pharaoh’s colonial officials at the end of the 20th Dynasty.

During the 18th Dynasty, Amun became by far the biggest taxpayer in Egypt, and by some modern estimates his estates were responsible for over 25% of the economic activity in Egypt. It is now widely understood by Egyptologists that there was no conflict between Amun and the palace, for the two were essentially the same. The priesthood and the Pharaoh did not constitute two opposing power bases in Egypt, for they were one and the same thing. The Pharaoh was the high priest of every god, and all other priests were merely his representative stand ins for ceremonies. The wealth of Amun was essentially an extension of the state’s holdings, and it was understood from the Old Kingdom onwards that all the land and wealth of Egypt ultimately belonged to the Pharaoh.

== Repression During the Amarna Heresy ==

The Amarna heresy (circa 1353 to 1336 BC) changed the fortunes of Amun at a stroke. Initially tolerant of Amun and other gods besides his one-god, whom he associated with the sun disc (''itn'', often translated as “Iten”, “[[Aten]]”, or in older texts, “[[Aton]]”) the heretic ruler [[Akhenaten]] (as Amunhotep IV renamed himself) closed down the temples of Amun and all other gods, and confiscated their estates. Amun in paticular was then singled out, and all mentions to the god, including many of his images, were crudely hacked from the walls of public and private texts, including in names, and even in private tomb inscriptions.

However, the period was short, and almost immediately following the death of Akhenaten, his successors set about restoring order, rebuilding the shattered empire and it’s economy, and restoring the estates of the gods. The cult of Amun-Ra would benefit hugely from subsequent reigns, and Seti I and Ramesses II both added massively to the cult centre of Karnak and Luxor. For the rest of the New Kingdom, Amun-Ra’s predominance was assured.

== Late Period ==

The [[Late Period]] was a time of mixed blessings for the cult of Amun. Although [[Karnak]] continued to receive embellishments and expansion, the period all saw the rise of the cult of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]], and also previously minor gods such as [[Bast]].

However, outside of Egypt the cult of Amun had remained strong, particularly in [[Nubia]], where Egyptian cultural domination in the New Kingdom had essentially reformed Nubian society in it’s own image. The southerners, who maintained the zeal of the convert, briefly occupied parts, at times almost all of Egypt, ruling as the 25th Dynasty, greatly reiterating the dominance of Amun-Ra and making specific point of participating and honouring the festivals of the god.

Despite this turn in fortunes, the 30th Dynasty saw the rise to prominence of Isis and Osiris, and these cults would gradually begin to outshine that of Amun-Ra, despite his association by the Ptolemaic rulers of Amun-Ra with [[Zeus]], as Amonra Sonther, a hellenization of his Egyptian title ''imn-r’ nsw ntrw'', literally “Amun-Ra, King of the Gods”.

== Temples and Cult Centre ==

[[Karnak]] was the main cult centre of Amun-Ra, and remains the world’s largest religious complex. However, Amun had temples and shrines throughout Egypt and Nubia. In addition many sanctuaries in other temples were also established in his honour. “Amun of the Road” often accompanied military and trade missions abroad, where a sacred image of the god travelled with his own portable shrine. “[[The Report of Wenamun]]” makes mention of precisely this form of the god, and his shrine, whom has come with him on a mission to Byblos to obtain timber.

== The Theban Triad ==

The Theban triad generally consisted of Amun-Ra, his consort [[Mut]], and their son, the lunar deity [[Khonsu]]. At Karnak he shared the cult centre with another prominent Theban god, [[Montu]], a good of conflict and war. Amun-Ra, however, remained by far the most prominent god of the triad.

== Bibliography ==
<div class="references-small">
* '''Faulkner, R O (1969)''', ''The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* '''Gardiner, A (1973)''', ''Egyptian Grammar'', Griffith Institute, Oxford
* '''Newby, P H (1980)''', ''Warrior Pharaohs: The Rise and Fall of the Egyptian Empire'', Guild, London
* '''Shaw, I et al. (2000)''', ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* '''Wilkinson, R (2000)''', ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* '''Wilkinson, R (2003)''', ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Amun

2009-02-25T14:27:48Z

Krysg: added images

[[Image:Amun-ram.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Statue of Amun as a ram, protecting the 25th Dynasty [[Pharaoh]], [[Taharqa]].]]
'''Amun''' is one of the most prominent gods of the [[Egyptian religion|Egyptian pantheon]], who became, in combination with Ra (as Amun-Ra), the dominant state god of the [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]] [[New Kingdom]].

== Nature and Chacteristics ==

Amun is one of the most well known yet also most shadowy of the Egyptian gods. Despite being supreme state god his role is far from clear cut. Originally a god associated with the wind, he was regarded as an unknowable, hidden deity, and his name reflects this, ''imn'' literally translating as “hide”. His association with the wind remains alongside his other roles, following his rise to prominence, as does his essentially hidden characteristic. He remains “mysterious of form”.

As supreme state god, Amun-Ra took on most aspects of the sun god, including his role as King of the Gods, and many solar connotations. He also adopted many aspects of the cult of the fertility god [[Min]], in his combined form of Amun-Min, usually portrayed as an ityphallic male.

Most importantly, in the New Kingdom he was regarded as one of the divine fathers of the [[Pharaoh]], and is featured in the “birth scenes” of the period, depicting the divine conception and birth of the Pharaoh.

His prominence in state religion did not dent his popularity in common religion, and he is frequently referred to in prayers as the protector of the common man and the unfortunate. He is described as the “Vizier of the Humble” and “He Who Comes at the Voice of the Poor”. In his role as Amun-of-the-road he also protected travellers.

[[Image:Amun.jpg|thumb|250px|right|New Kingdom gilded silver statuette of Amun-Ra, supreme state god of the New Kingdom period.]]
== Imagery ==

Amun was most often depicted as a human male, often wearing a crown featuring two plumes. As Amun-Ra a sun disc is added to the crown, symbolising his association with the [[sun god]]. Amun was also associated with the ram, and so could be depicted as a [[ram]] or with a rams head and horns. Rams horns could also be added to his crown in human form. A large number of ram headed [[sphinx|sphinxes]] have been excavated at [[Karnak]], where they embellished the avenue leading from the precinct of Amun-Ra to the temple harbour, and remain more or less in-situ today.

== Origins and Rise to Prominence ==

Despite his rise to national prominence, the cult of Amun was Theban in origin, and [[Thebes]] always remained his main cult centre, even following his association with [[Ra]], and Amun-Ra as a combined deity was never worshipped at the cult centre of Ra in [[Heliopolis]].

First mentioned in the [[Pyramid Texts]], he first comes to prominence in the 11th Dynasty, a period when a Theban dynasty reunified Egypt following the brief but severe chaos of the [[First Intermediate Period]]. However, as the Middle Kingdom rulers soon built a new capital city in the north, Amun’s power did not reach the status of supreme state god.

Following the division of Egypt between the Hyksos occupiers and the Theban Kingdom, the Thebans once again reunified Egypt, and Thebes became one of the foremost religious centres in Egypt. As Egypt had been reunified so the union of Amun with the cult of Ra from the (northern) city of Heliopolis was also cemented, and Amun-Ra quickly became the pre-eminent state god. The 18th Dynasty Pharaohs again had names associating them with Amun, and the estates of the god soon became the largest and wealthiest in Egypt, the fortunes bolstered by a generous share of the spoils of war captured by the Empire, and the flows of tribute that followed.

The influence of Amun soon spread into some of the new territories, particularly Kush, where his influence soon became so pervasive, that his cult there remained powerful and influential centuries after the departure of the Pharaoh’s colonial officials at the end of the 20th Dynasty.

During the 18th Dynasty, Amun became by far the biggest taxpayer in Egypt, and by some modern estimates his estates were responsible for over 25% of the economic activity in Egypt. It is now widely understood by Egyptologists that there was no conflict between Amun and the palace, for the two were essentially the same. The priesthood and the Pharaoh did not constitute two opposing power bases in Egypt, for they were one and the same thing. The Pharaoh was the high priest of every god, and all other priests were merely his representative stand ins for ceremonies. The wealth of Amun was essentially an extension of the state’s holdings, and it was understood from the Old Kingdom onwards that all the land and wealth of Egypt ultimately belonged to the Pharaoh.

== Repression During the Amarna Heresy ==

The Amarna heresy (circa 1353 to 1336 BC) changed the fortunes of Amun at a stroke. Initially tolerant of Amun and other gods besides his one-god, whom he associated with the sun disc (''itn'', often translated as “Iten”, “[[Aten]]”, or in older texts, “[[Aton]]”) the heretic ruler [[Akhenaten]] (as Amunhotep IV renamed himself) closed down the temples of Amun and all other gods, and confiscated their estates. Amun in paticular was then singled out, and all mentions to the god, including many of his images, were crudely hacked from the walls of public and private texts, including in names, and even in private tomb inscriptions.

However, the period was short, and almost immediately following the death of Akhenaten, his successors set about restoring order, rebuilding the shattered empire and it’s economy, and restoring the estates of the gods. The cult of Amun-Ra would benefit hugely from subsequent reigns, and Seti I and Ramesses II both added massively to the cult centre of Karnak and Luxor. For the rest of the New Kingdom, Amun-Ra’s predominance was assured.

== Late Period ==

The [[Late Period]] was a time of mixed blessings for the cult of Amun. Although [[Karnak]] continued to receive embellishments and expansion, the period all saw the rise of the cult of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]], and also previously minor gods such as [[Bast]].

However, outside of Egypt the cult of Amun had remained strong, particularly in [[Nubia]], where Egyptian cultural domination in the New Kingdom had essentially reformed Nubian society in it’s own image. The southerners, who maintained the zeal of the convert, briefly occupied parts, at times almost all of Egypt, ruling as the 25th Dynasty, greatly reiterating the dominance of Amun-Ra and making specific point of participating and honouring the festivals of the god.

Despite this turn in fortunes, the 30th Dynasty saw the rise to prominence of Isis and Osiris, and these cults would gradually begin to outshine that of Amun-Ra, despite his association by the Ptolemaic rulers of Amun-Ra with [[Zeus]], as Amonra Sonther, a hellenization of his Egyptian title ''imn-r’ nsw ntrw'', literally “Amun-Ra, King of the Gods”.

== Temples and Cult Centre ==

[[Karnak]] was the main cult centre of Amun-Ra, and remains the world’s largest religious complex. However, Amun had temples and shrines throughout Egypt and Nubia. In addition many sanctuaries in other temples were also established in his honour. “Amun of the Road” often accompanied military and trade missions abroad, where a sacred image of the god travelled with his own portable shrine. “[[The Report of Wenamun]]” makes mention of precisely this form of the god, and his shrine, whom has come with him on a mission to Byblos to obtain timber.

== The Theban Triad ==

The Theban triad generally consisted of Amun-Ra, his consort [[Mut]], and their son, the lunar deity [[Khonsu]]. At Karnak he shared the cult centre with another prominent Theban god, [[Montu]], a good of conflict and war. Amun-Ra, however, remained by far the most prominent god of the triad.

== Bibliography ==
<div class="references-small">
* '''Faulkner, R O (1969)''', ''The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* '''Gardiner, A (1973)''', ''Egyptian Grammar'', Griffith Institute, Oxford
* '''Newby, P H (1980)''', ''Warrior Pharaohs: The Rise and Fall of the Egyptian Empire'', Guild, London
* '''Shaw, I et al. (2000)''', ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* '''Wilkinson, R (2000)''', ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* '''Wilkinson, R (2003)''', ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Great Pyramid of Giza

2009-02-25T13:21:51Z

Krysg: significant expansion, section on construction

The '''Great Pyramid of Giza''' (2650 BC) is the largest of the Egyptian pyramids, and is believed to have been the final resting place of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Pharaoh]] [[Khufu]], although his remains were never located. It is one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] and is the only member of that list that is still mostly intact.

The structure It originally stood 481 feet high and was the tallest, and overall largest structure on [[Earth]] until the nineteenth century, and with the exception of certain dams, remains one of the largest man-made structures on the planet in terms of mass. It consists of approximately 2 million blocks of stone, each weighing more than two [[ton]]s.
Each side of the pyramid measures 751 feet across, and the lengths of the sides vary less than 0.1%. Each corner of the [[pyramid]] is precisely lined up with cardinal directions of the [[compass]].<ref>[http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/pyramid.html The Great Pyramid of Giza]</ref>

As a single project, the Great Pyramid was the most ambitious attempted by the Egyptians during the Old Kingdom, and was undoubtedly a triumph of engineering, mathematics, organisation and planning. It is considered by many to be a testament to the power, stability , beliefs and skills of the Old Kingdom state, and it’s ability to harness and deploy resources on a massive scale in a highly integrated operation spanning a huge area.

== Construction ==
The exact means of construction remain extremely contentious, but it is now accepted within the academic community that construction took around 20 years, meaning that it was both begun and completed within his reign. The workforce is estimated to have been around 20,000 strong, consisting of a mixture of full time professionals, administrative staff and temporary labourers who worked for approximately three months per year during the inundation (See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]]). Khufu set up local limestone quarries on-site to obtain the internal limestone blocks, though the fine, white limestone used for the outer casing stones (now robbed) had to be shipped across the [[Nile]] from [[Tura]].Various other stones were also used in the paving, causeway, valley and pyramid temples, including granite and travertine, shipped in from as far afield as [[Aswan]] and [[Hatnub]].

== See also ==
*[[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]
*[[Lighthouse of Alexandria]]

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient World Wonders]]

Ra

2009-02-24T21:20:39Z

Krysg: /* Iconography & Imagery */

[[Image:Ra-Horakhti_Hathor.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Ra-Horakhti with Hathor (left), depicted in tomb of Nefertari (QV66)]]'''Ra''' is a prominent creator [[god]] in [[Ancient Egyptian religion]], and the most prominent aspect of the Heliopolitan [[Sun God]] (the triad of [[Atum]], Ra and [[Kehpri]]). The cult of Ra reached its zenith in the [[Old Kingdom]], when Ra became the primary state god of [[Egypt]].

== Name and Titutlary ==

The name of Ra can be directly translated in Egyptian as ‘Sun’. “[[The Litany of Ra]]” invokes the god 74 times with different names and titles, some linking Ra to [[Osiris]], stressing Ra’s importance in the [[netherworld]] and afterlife. Titles from this text include “He Who Has Command Over His Cave”, “He of the Netherworld” and “He Who Renews the Earth”.

He is also titled “Lord of [[Heliopolis]]”, and in the [[Book of the Dead]] as “King of the Gods”, “Sole Lord”, “Lord of the Gods” and “Power of Powers”, all of which emphasise sovereignty and kingship. “Unique One” and “Sole One” may refer to either creator or sovereign roles, whist “Lord of the Sky” and “Great Illuminator” emphasise solar attributes. “Sovereign Who Made the Gods” refers to both sovereign and creation roles.

== Iconography & Imagery ==

Ra is most frequently portrayed as a [[falcon]]-headed man with a sun disk, though he may also be seen in fully zoomorphic form with a Sun disk, and within composite images purely as a sun disk.

The falcon association strengthened the association between Ra and [[Horus]] (as [[Ra-Horakhti]]) and with concepts of Kingship in a wider sense. Indeed, it is various combinations of the Falcon and sun disc which form the strongest, most instantly recognisable and most enduring iconography for the cult of Ra.

The [[Mnevis]] bull also held solar associations, and was regarded as the herald of Ra. A bull was kept and buried with full honours in Heliopolis, where some burials have survived.

The [[Benu]] Bird was a sacred bird linked to Ra, in addition to Atum and Osiris, and is mentioned in the [[Pyramid Texts]] and the Book of the Dead. In the former, it is described as a [[Lapwing]], but by the [[New Kingdom]], has come to be depicted as a [[Heron]], the Lapwing having come to symbolise the Egyptian people.

On occasion Ra is also associated with the [[cat]], and a number of New Kingdom tomb scenes depict him in this form, slaying the [[serpent of chaos]].

== Associations and Links With Other Deities ==

Ra is the aspect of the [[Heliopolitan triad]] most associated with other deities, his associations with Amun (as Amun-Ra) and Horus (as Ra-Horakhti) being most important. The latter was particularly prominent in the [[19th Dynasty]], with numerous temples dedicated to Ra-Horakhti in [[Nubia]]. Ra was also associated with other major cults, including [[Sobek]] (Sobek-Ra), Osiris, [[Hathor]]/[[Sekhmet]], and [[Bast]], the goddesses being seen as daughters of Ra.

== Cult Centre and Other Centres of Worship ==

Heliopolis, located in the [[Ain-Shams]]/[[Matariyeh]] area of [[Cairo]], was the cult centre of Ra, and, indeed, the Atum–Ra-Khepri Heliopolitan triad, though many shrines and temples existed elsewhere. The site was heavily quarried from the [[Ptolemaic period]] onward, and little now remains

The earliest attested activity at the site dates to the reign of [[Djoser]], and there are surviving remains of work by [[Senusret I]] and numerous New Kingdom rulers. Development of the site appears to have ceased in the Ptolemaic era.

Other main temples included was a large temple to Ra-Horakhti located in [[Per-Ramesse]]s, as well as a shrines in many other temples, and numerous Egyptian built temples in occupied Nubia, the most significant being at [[Abu Simbel]] and [[Sebua]].

In addition to these are the [[Sun Temples]] of the [[5th Dynasty]], built as part of the [[pyramid]] complexes of the era. Their exact purpose has yet to be fully interpreted, as remains are fragmentary (only two have been excavated), and it is uncertain whether or not these temples existed as a focus for the cult of the individual [[Pharaohs]] who built them, or served the cult of Ra more directly. Further research is hampered by the present military status of the area in which they are located.

[[Sun courts]], where the Sun God could be honoured in any of his forms, also existed in most Egyptian temples, perhaps the one of the most impressive surviving examples being the Sun Court of [[Amunhotep III]] at [[Luxor Temple]].

== Festivals ==

The last month of the [[Egyptian year]], the 4th month of summer, was named “[[The Birth of Ra]]”, and his birthday was celebrated on the last day of the month, as was the first day of the new year, suggesting a single prolonged celebration.

== Impact on the Ideology of Divine Kingship ==

The Heliopolitan mythology had a huge impact upon the ideology and expression of the Pharaonic state. From the 4th Dynasty onward rulers take the title “Son of Ra”, a trend which would continue into the Greco-roman period.

There is evidence of earlier royal involvement in the cult, however, with Djoser erecting a shrine in Heliopolis, and bestowing important positions upon a high-ranking Heliopolitan priest, Imhotep. This suggests that the cult already had a key ideological role at this stage. Earlier still, the 2nd Dynasty ruler, Nebra is the first King to have a name invoking solar mythology. As such, it is clear that the solar cult was a key factor in shaping the nature of the Pharaonic state from an early period.

A series of interlinked tales preserved in Papyrus Westcar (P. Berlin 3033) are particularly telling of the role of the Sun God in the ideology of Divine Kingship. In the text, the 4th Dynasty ruler Khufu is told that his sons will only hold the throne for two generations, for Ra has caused the wife of one of his priests to bear his children, and that they shall rule.

== Impact on Funerary Beliefs and Practises ==

The Heliopolitan cult had a huge impact on funerary beliefs, most spectacularly in a revolution in royal funerary architecture. The solar connotations of the pyramid complex are widely accepted, and attested to by inscriptions found upon the capstone of [[Amenemhat III]].

During the 5th Dynasty, the design of the pyramid complex was modified to incorporate a Sun temple, and, beginning with [[Unas]], the Pyramid Texts are found inscribed in the burial chamber.

In these texts it is clear how the Heliopolitan solar mythology has influenced not only the imagery, but the nature of the royal afterlife. The Pharaoh now hopes to ascend to heaven where he may join the solar barque and sail with the Sun God (Pyramid Texts #407).

The solar cult also affected the non-royal afterlife. The [[Coffin Texts]] include numerous references to the Sun God, and maintain much of the celestial image of the afterlife found in the Pyramid Texts. In the New Kingdom the Coffin Texts are displaced by the more Osirian Book of the Dead, which would be used by both royals and commoners. However, the Solar Cult retains an important position in the new text, with numerous prayers to the Heliopolitan gods.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
*Faulkner, R (1938), The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 24, No. 1
*Faulkner, R (1972), The Egyptian Book of the Dead (1998 Rev. 2nd Edition), Chronicle Books, San Francisco
*Faulkner, R (1977), The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts Vol. II, Aris & Phillips, Warminster
*Gardiner, A (1957), Egyptian Grammar (3rd edition), Griffith Institute, Oxford
*Hornung, E (1999), Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife, Cornell University Press, Ithaca
*Lehner, M (1997), The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson, London
*Lichtheim, M (1973), Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol.I, University of California Press, Los Angeles
*Lichtheim, M (1976), Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol.II, University of California Press, Los Angeles
*Quirke, S (2001), The Cult of Ra, Thames & Hudson, London
*Shaw, I et al. (2000), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford
*Shaw, I & Nicholson, P (1995), British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, British Museum Press, London
*Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
*Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
*University College London (2003), Festivals in the Ancient Egyptian Calendar
http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/ideology/festivaldates.html - Accessed 19/10/2008

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]

Talk:Exodus of Israel

2009-02-23T12:39:04Z

Krysg: archaeological evidence

== Dual-user provenance ==

This article is a dual submission of original work. I am the same user as Temlakos on [[CreationWiki]], and this article is based upon [http://creationwiki.org/index.php?title=Exodus_of_Israel&oldid=105439 this version] of the CreationWiki article, which is entirely my own work.

== Archaeological Evidence ==
Some issues with this part of the entry I'd like to raise:

''"Egyptian history is of little to no help in substantiating the Exodus, much less dating it. The reason is that, to an Egyptian, history was not an objective inquiry into past events, but rather was a medium of propaganda. The willful destruction or defacement by succeeding Pharaohs of the monuments, stelae, and other records of his predecessors is a common theme in Egyptology"''

Doesn't address lack of archaeological evidence, i.e. workers accommodation, tools, huge and sudden increase in population, economic restructuring etc. Also administrative papyri?

''In 2003, amateur diver Peter Elmer discovered coral-encrusted chariot wheels and other chariot parts submerged in the Gulf of Aqaba, the eastern offshoot of the great body of water called the Red Sea today.[20] This is not, however, conclusive.''

Suggest rephrase. This suggests the evidence is solid but not conclusive. This find however is far from archaeologically sound and has not been published in any major archaeological journal, not has any evidence or further follow up work been presented. The SCA, meanwhile, has been not, as an institution, confirmed anything about this find.

''The revised chronology of David Down and John Ashton[1] strongly suggests that the beginning of the Intermediate Period is the best time for the Exodus.''

WHICH intermediate period? This could really use expansion, discussing the research and reasoning behind the "new chronology"

Talk:Ra-Horakhti

2009-02-22T23:47:41Z

Krysg:

Seriously recommend merging this article with [[Ra]] or making it a re-direct to [[Ra]]. There is insufficient information concerning Ra-Horakhti exclusively to create an entry entirely separate from the main entry in a non-specialist context. --[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 18:47, 22 February 2009 (EST)

Talk:Ra-Horakhti

2009-02-22T23:47:23Z

Krysg: STRONGLY RECCOMEND MERGE OR RE-DIRECT

Ra

2009-02-22T23:43:51Z

Krysg: /* Associations and Links With Other Deities */

[[Image:Ra-Horakhti_Hathor.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Ra-Horakhti with Hathor (left), depicted in tomb of Nefertari (QV66)]]'''Ra''' is a prominent creator [[god]] in [[Ancient Egyptian religion]], and the most prominent aspect of the Heliopolitan [[Sun God]] (the triad of [[Atum]], Ra and [[Kehpri]]). The cult of Ra reached its zenith in the [[Old Kingdom]], when Ra became the primary state god of [[Egypt]].

== Name and Titutlary ==

The name of Ra can be directly translated in Egyptian as ‘Sun’. “[[The Litany of Ra]]” invokes the god 74 times with different names and titles, some linking Ra to [[Osiris]], stressing Ra’s importance in the [[netherworld]] and afterlife. Titles from this text include “He Who Has Command Over His Cave”, “He of the Netherworld” and “He Who Renews the Earth”.

He is also titled “Lord of [[Heliopolis]]”, and in the [[Book of the Dead]] as “King of the Gods”, “Sole Lord”, “Lord of the Gods” and “Power of Powers”, all of which emphasise sovereignty and kingship. “Unique One” and “Sole One” may refer to either creator or sovereign roles, whist “Lord of the Sky” and “Great Illuminator” emphasise solar attributes. “Sovereign Who Made the Gods” refers to both sovereign and creation roles.

== Iconography & Imagery ==

Ra is most frequently portrayed as a [[falcon]]-headed man with a sun disk, though he may also be seen in fully zoomorphic form with a Sun disk, and within composite images purely as a sun disk.

The falcon association strengthened the association between Ra and [[Horus]] (as [[Ra–Horakhti]]) and with concepts of Kingship in a wider sense. Indeed, it is various combinations of the Falcon and sun disc which form the strongest, most instantly recognisable and most enduring iconography for the cult of Ra.

The [[Mnevis]] bull also held solar associations, and was regarded as the herald of Ra. A bull was kept and buried with full honours in Heliopolis, where some burials have survived.

The [[Benu]] Bird was a sacred bird linked to Ra, in addition to Atum and Osiris, and is mentioned in the [[Pyramid Texts]] and the Book of the Dead. In the former, it is described as a [[Lapwing]], but by the [[New Kingdom]], has come to be depicted as a [[Heron]], the Lapwing having come to symbolise the Egyptian people.

On occasion Ra is also associated with the [[cat]], and a number of New Kingdom tomb scenes depict him in this form, slaying the [[serpent of chaos]].

== Associations and Links With Other Deities ==

Ra is the aspect of the [[Heliopolitan triad]] most associated with other deities, his associations with Amun (as Amun-Ra) and Horus (as Ra-Horakhti) being most important. The latter was particularly prominent in the [[19th Dynasty]], with numerous temples dedicated to Ra-Horakhti in [[Nubia]]. Ra was also associated with other major cults, including [[Sobek]] (Sobek-Ra), Osiris, [[Hathor]]/[[Sekhmet]], and [[Bast]], the goddesses being seen as daughters of Ra.

== Cult Centre and Other Centres of Worship ==

Heliopolis, located in the [[Ain-Shams]]/[[Matariyeh]] area of [[Cairo]], was the cult centre of Ra, and, indeed, the Atum–Ra-Khepri Heliopolitan triad, though many shrines and temples existed elsewhere. The site was heavily quarried from the [[Ptolemaic period]] onward, and little now remains

The earliest attested activity at the site dates to the reign of [[Djoser]], and there are surviving remains of work by [[Senusret I]] and numerous New Kingdom rulers. Development of the site appears to have ceased in the Ptolemaic era.

Other main temples included was a large temple to Ra-Horakhti located in [[Per-Ramesse]]s, as well as a shrines in many other temples, and numerous Egyptian built temples in occupied Nubia, the most significant being at [[Abu Simbel]] and [[Sebua]].

In addition to these are the [[Sun Temples]] of the [[5th Dynasty]], built as part of the [[pyramid]] complexes of the era. Their exact purpose has yet to be fully interpreted, as remains are fragmentary (only two have been excavated), and it is uncertain whether or not these temples existed as a focus for the cult of the individual [[Pharaohs]] who built them, or served the cult of Ra more directly. Further research is hampered by the present military status of the area in which they are located.

[[Sun courts]], where the Sun God could be honoured in any of his forms, also existed in most Egyptian temples, perhaps the one of the most impressive surviving examples being the Sun Court of [[Amunhotep III]] at [[Luxor Temple]].

== Festivals ==

The last month of the [[Egyptian year]], the 4th month of summer, was named “[[The Birth of Ra]]”, and his birthday was celebrated on the last day of the month, as was the first day of the new year, suggesting a single prolonged celebration.

== Impact on the Ideology of Divine Kingship ==

The Heliopolitan mythology had a huge impact upon the ideology and expression of the Pharaonic state. From the 4th Dynasty onward rulers take the title “Son of Ra”, a trend which would continue into the Greco-roman period.

There is evidence of earlier royal involvement in the cult, however, with Djoser erecting a shrine in Heliopolis, and bestowing important positions upon a high-ranking Heliopolitan priest, Imhotep. This suggests that the cult already had a key ideological role at this stage. Earlier still, the 2nd Dynasty ruler, Nebra is the first King to have a name invoking solar mythology. As such, it is clear that the solar cult was a key factor in shaping the nature of the Pharaonic state from an early period.

A series of interlinked tales preserved in Papyrus Westcar (P. Berlin 3033) are particularly telling of the role of the Sun God in the ideology of Divine Kingship. In the text, the 4th Dynasty ruler Khufu is told that his sons will only hold the throne for two generations, for Ra has caused the wife of one of his priests to bear his children, and that they shall rule.

== Impact on Funerary Beliefs and Practises ==

The Heliopolitan cult had a huge impact on funerary beliefs, most spectacularly in a revolution in royal funerary architecture. The solar connotations of the pyramid complex are widely accepted, and attested to by inscriptions found upon the capstone of [[Amenemhat III]].

During the 5th Dynasty, the design of the pyramid complex was modified to incorporate a Sun temple, and, beginning with [[Unas]], the Pyramid Texts are found inscribed in the burial chamber.

In these texts it is clear how the Heliopolitan solar mythology has influenced not only the imagery, but the nature of the royal afterlife. The Pharaoh now hopes to ascend to heaven where he may join the solar barque and sail with the Sun God (Pyramid Texts #407).

The solar cult also affected the non-royal afterlife. The [[Coffin Texts]] include numerous references to the Sun God, and maintain much of the celestial image of the afterlife found in the Pyramid Texts. In the New Kingdom the Coffin Texts are displaced by the more Osirian Book of the Dead, which would be used by both royals and commoners. However, the Solar Cult retains an important position in the new text, with numerous prayers to the Heliopolitan gods.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
*Faulkner, R (1938), The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 24, No. 1
*Faulkner, R (1972), The Egyptian Book of the Dead (1998 Rev. 2nd Edition), Chronicle Books, San Francisco
*Faulkner, R (1977), The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts Vol. II, Aris & Phillips, Warminster
*Gardiner, A (1957), Egyptian Grammar (3rd edition), Griffith Institute, Oxford
*Hornung, E (1999), Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife, Cornell University Press, Ithaca
*Lehner, M (1997), The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson, London
*Lichtheim, M (1973), Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol.I, University of California Press, Los Angeles
*Lichtheim, M (1976), Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol.II, University of California Press, Los Angeles
*Quirke, S (2001), The Cult of Ra, Thames & Hudson, London
*Shaw, I et al. (2000), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford
*Shaw, I & Nicholson, P (1995), British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, British Museum Press, London
*Wilkinson, R (2000), The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
*Wilkinson, R (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London
*University College London (2003), Festivals in the Ancient Egyptian Calendar
http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/ideology/festivaldates.html - Accessed 19/10/2008

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian Mythology]]