Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

American History Homework Nine Answers - Student 24

2011-10-24T01:28:27Z

Kevinzamora:

JonathanR

1. In your opinion, the 2008 election that concluded on Tuesday is most similar to which election in history, and why?
I think it’s very similar to the election of 1861: Lincoln against Douglas. The election is similar because the candidates had their share of differences, and also it was a change of parties, (Buchanan, Democrat, to Lincoln, Republican) much like this past election.

:Superb.

2. Imperialism: a good or bad thing?
Generally, it’s not. Specifically, it is. I like to compare imperialism to guns: guns can be used for good, but the outcome of that good is a death. Imperialism is like Manifest Destiny because it’s the expansion of our country, but not quite. We have already reached the West coast, so I see it as the proverbial “stretching” of our country’s “legs.”

:Terrific insight in comparing it to goods, and Manifest Destiny.

3. Your thoughts on the progressive movement, please.
I like the progressive movement because it expanded more on “better government”, and I feel that if this had existed before 1850, when the Whig party collapsed, it could have been a middle ground between them, and the Federalists. So if you were going to have more government, you should have better government.

:Interesting insight again! Note that the Federalist Party ended in 1815, however.

4. Please explain the cartoon in the Minnesota Tribune, having the caption at top, "WHAT WILL HE DO!" and the caption at the bottom, "The eyes of the world are upon him." Include your description of the point of view of the cartoonist.
The child that the man is holding represents the Philippines, and the man holding him is President McKinley. The meaning of this is the decision of whether to “throw” the Filipino people into Spain, where there is conflict, or to keep them in America where no one wants them. And the view of the cartoonist, I’m going to say is Democratic.

:Another original insight!

:Your four answers are among the most creative in the class. I have to think about which one to use as a model answer. I think I'll pick your last line of #4. Perfect score: 40/40. Well done!--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 21:45, 15 November 2008 (EST)
[[Category:American History Homework Nine Answers]]
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Ephraim (tribe)

2011-10-24T01:28:23Z

Kevinzamora:

'''Ephraim''' was one of the 12 tribes of ancient [[Israel]]. Based in Canaan, it formed the House of Joseph along with together with the Tribe of Manasseh. It became the most powerful tribe of [[Israel]], due in part to its advantageous location.
[[category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Judaism]]
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Chancellor

2011-10-24T01:28:02Z

Kevinzamora: /* References */

[[Image:Van_Eyck_The_Virgin_and_Chancellor_Rolin.jpg|thumb|Chancellor Rolin - Van Eyck]]
'''Chancellor''' (Latin: cancellarius, Spanish: canciller), is an official of high rank: A secretary, [[Secretary of State]], or minister of a [[king]] or other high noble-man.<ref> [http://www.answers.com/Chancellor?cat=biz-fin Chancellor] </ref>

In the [[United States]], the name is used normally for the president of certain American Universities. In [[Mexico]] and [[Brazil]], it is used for the federal Secretary of Foreign Relations. In [[England]] the chief secretary of an embassy or titular head of a University. In [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] the Prime Ministers are called chancellors (head of [[government]]).

== See also ==

*[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Otto von Bismarck]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.cccco.edu/ Chancellor's Office] California Community College.
*[http://www.utsystem.edu/cha/ Office of the Chancellor] The University of Texas.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Government]]
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Obiter dictum

2011-10-24T01:27:58Z

Kevinzamora:

In [[law]], '''obiter dictum''' means "a remark in passing". Obiter dicta (the plural) are remarks made by [[court]]s in passing judgment which do not form a part of the reasoning necessary to decide the case. Such remarks are not binding on lower courts (or upon the court that made the remark).

[[Category:Legal Terms]]
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David Thorstad

2011-10-24T01:27:51Z

Kevinzamora:

'''David Thorstad''' (born 1941), is United States political activist and historian of the [[gay rights movement]]. Thorstad was a founding member of the North American Man-Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) and was also a former president of New York’s Gay Activists Alliance.

[[Category: Atheism]]
[[Category: Homosexuality]]
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Vodafone

2011-10-24T01:27:48Z

Kevinzamora:

'''Vodafone Group Plc''', a [[British]] company, is the world's largest wireless carrier.

On July 16, 2007, it denied a report that it was planning to make an historic $160 billion bid to buy Verizon Communications Inc., one of the largest telecommunications companies in the [[United States]].
[[category:business]]
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Genetic mutation

2011-10-24T01:27:36Z

Kevinzamora: /* External links */

In [[biology]], '''mutations''' are changes to the [[base pair]] sequence of [[genetic material]] (either [[DNA]] or [[RNA]]). Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during [[cell division]] and by exposure to [[ultraviolet]] or [[ionizing radiation|ionizing]] radiation, chemical [[mutagens]], or [[virus (biology)|viruses]], or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as [[meiosis]] or [[hypermutation]]. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into ''[[germline mutation]]s'', which can be passed on to descendants, and ''[[somatic mutation]]s''. The somatic mutations cannot be transmitted to descendants in animals. Plants sometimes can transmit somatic mutations to their descendants asexually or sexually (in case when flower buds develop in somatically mutated part of plant).

Mutations create variation in the [[gene pool]], and the less favorable (or ''deleterious'') mutations are removed from the gene pool by [[natural selection]], while more favorable (''beneficial'' or ''advantageous'') ones tend to accumulate, resulting in [[evolution]]ary change. For example, a butterfly may develop offspring with a new mutation caused say by ultraviolet light from the sun. In most cases, this mutation is not good, since obviously there was no 'purpose' for such change at the molecular level. However, sometimes a mutation may change, say, the butterfly's color, making it harder for predators to see it; this is an advantage and the chances of this butterfly surviving and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of butterflies with this mutation may form a large percentage of the species. [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|Neutral mutations]] are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] of either the species or the individuals who make up the species. These can accumulate over time due to [[genetic drift]]. The overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect, since [[DNA repair]] is able to mend most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise permanently mutated somatic cells.

==Classification==
[[Image:Types-of-mutation.png|right|thumb|An illustration of five types of chromosomal mutations.]]
===By effect on structure===
The sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. Structurally, mutations can be classified as:

* Small-scale mutations, such as affecting a small gene is one or a few nucleotides, including:
** '''[[Point mutation]]s''', often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single [[nucleotide]] for another. Most common is the [[transition (genetics)|transition]] that exchanges a [[purine]] for a purine (A ↔ G) or a [[pyrimidine]] for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). A transition can be caused by [[nitrous acid]], base mispairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as [[BrdU|5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU)]]. Less common is a [[transversion]], which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality). These changes are classified as transitions or transversions. An example of a transversion is [[adenine]] (A) being converted into a [[cytosine]] (C). There are also many other examples that can be found. Point mutations that occur within the [[protein]] coding region of a gene may be classified into three kinds, depending upon what the erroneous [[codon]] codes for:
*** [[Silent mutation]]s: which code for the same [[amino acid]].
*** [[Missense mutation]]s: which code for a different amino acid.
*** [[Nonsense mutation]]s: which code for a stop and can truncate the [[protein]].
** '''[[insertion (genetics)|Insertions]]''' add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. They are usually caused by [[transposable element]]s, or errors during replication of repeating elements (e.g. AT repeats). Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter [[splicing (genetics)|splicing]] of the [[mRNA]] ([[splice site mutation]]), or cause a shift in the [[reading frame]] ([[frameshift]]), both of which can significantly alter the gene product. Insertions can be reverted by excision of the [[transposable element]].
** '''[[Genetic deletion|Deletions]]''' remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions, these mutations can alter the [[reading frame]] of the gene. They are irreversible.

* Large-scale mutations in [[chromosome|chromosomal]] structure, including:
** '''Amplifications''' (or [[gene duplication]]s) leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them.
** '''[[Genetic deletion|Deletions]]''' of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions.
** Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct [[fusion gene]]s (e.g. [[bcr-abl]]). These include:
*** '''[[Chromosomal translocation]]s''': interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes.
*** '''Interstitial deletions''': an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes. For example, cells isolated from a human [[astrocytoma]], a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the "fused in glioblastoma" (fig) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase "ros", producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS). The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes oncogenic transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells).
*** '''[[Chromosomal inversion]]s''': reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment.
**'''[[Loss of heterozygosity]]''': loss of one [[allele]], either by a deletion or [[recombination]] event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles.

===By effect on function===
* '''Loss-of-function mutations''' are the result of gene product having less or no function. When the allele has a complete loss of function ([[null allele]]) it is often called an '''[[Muller's morphs|amorphic]] mutation'''. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often [[recessive]]. Exceptions are when the organism is [[haploid]], or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called [[haploinsufficiency]]).
* '''Gain-of-function mutations''' change the gene product such that it gains a new and abnormal function. These mutations usually have [[dominant gene|dominant]] phenotypes. Often called a [[Muller's morphs|neomorphic]] mutation.
* '''Dominant negative mutations''' (also called '''[[Muller's morphs|antimorphic]] mutations''') have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a [[Dominant gene|dominant]] or [[incomplete dominance|semi-dominant]] phenotype. In humans, [[Marfan syndrome]] is an example of a dominant negative mutation occurring in an [[autosomal dominant]] disease. In this condition, the defective glycoprotein product of the fibrillin gene (FBN1) antagonizes the product of the normal allele.
*'''Lethal mutations''' are mutations that lead to a phenotype incapable of effective reproduction.

===By aspect of phenotype affected===
* '''Morphological mutations''' usually affect the outward appearance of an individual. Mutations can change the height of a plant or change it from smooth to rough seeds.
* '''Biochemical mutations''' result in lesions stopping the enzymatic pathway. Often, morphological mutants are the direct result of a mutation due to the enzymatic pathway.

===Special classes===
*'''Conditional mutation''' is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive" conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition).
===Causes of mutation===
Two classes of mutations are spontaneous mutations (molecular decay) and induced mutations caused by [[mutagen]]s.

'''Spontaneous mutations''' on the molecular level include:
* Tautomerism - A base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom.
* Depurination - Loss of a purine base (A or G).
* Deamination - Changes a normal base to an atypical base; C → U, (which can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms), or spontaneous deamination of 5-methycytosine (irreparable), or A → HX (hypoxanthine).
* Transition - A purine changes to another purine, or a pyrimidine to a pyrimidine.
* Transversion - A purine becomes a pyrimidine, or vice versa.

'''Induced mutations''' on the molecular level can be caused by:
* Chemicals
** Nitrosoguanidine (NTG)
** Hydroxyamine NH3OH
** [[Base analog]]s (e.g. [[BrdU]])
** Simple chemicals (e.g. [[acid]]s)
** Alkylating agents (e.g. [[ENU|''N''-ethyl-''N''-nitrosourea (ENU)]]) These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrast, a base analog can only mutate the DNA when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA. Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions, transversions, or deletions.
** Methylating agents (e.g. [[ethyl methanesulfonate]] (EMS))
** Polycyclic [[hydrocarbons]] (e.g. [[benzopyrene]]s found in [[internal combustion engine]] [[exhaust]])
** DNA intercalating agents (e.g. [[ethidium bromide]])
** [[DNA crosslinker]] (e.g. [[platinum]])
** Oxidative damage caused by [[oxygen]](O)] [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s
* Radiation
** [[Ultraviolet]] radiation (nonionizing radiation) - excites electrons to a higher energy level. DNA absorbs one form, ultraviolet light. Two nucleotide bases in DNA - cytosine and thymine-are most vulnerable to excitation that can change base-pairing properties. UV light can induce adjacent thymine bases in a DNA strand to pair with each other, as a bulky dimer.
** [[Ionizing radiation]]

DNA has so-called hotspots, where mutations occur up to 100 times more frequently than the normal [[mutation rate]]. A hotspot can be at an unusual base, e.g., [[5-methylcytosine]].

[[Mutation rate]]s also vary across species. Evolutionary biologists have theorized that higher mutation rates are beneficial in some situations, because they allow organisms to evolve and therefore adapt more quickly to their environments. For example, repeated exposure of bacteria to antibiotics, and selection of resistant mutants, can result in the selection of bacteria that have a much higher mutation rate than the original population ([[mutator genotype|mutator strains]]).

==Harmful mutations==
Changes in DNA caused by mutation can cause errors in [[protein]] sequence, creating partially or completely non-functional proteins. To function correctly, each cell depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times. When a mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body, a medical condition can result. A condition caused by mutations in one or more genes is called a [[genetic disorder]]. However, only a small percentage of mutations cause genetic disorders; most have no impact on health. For example, some mutations alter a gene's DNA base sequence but don’t change the function of the protein made by the gene.

If a mutation is present in a [[germ cell]], it can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells. This is the case in [[hereditary disease]]s. On the other hand, a mutation can occur in a [[somatic cell]] of an organism. Such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell, and certain mutations can cause the cell to become malignant, and thus cause [[cancer]].

Often, gene mutations that could cause a genetic disorder are repaired by the [[DNA repair]] system of the cell. Each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair mistakes in DNA. Because DNA can be damaged or mutated in many ways, the process of DNA repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease.

==Beneficial mutations==
A very small percentage of all mutations actually have a positive effect. These mutations lead to new versions of proteins that help an organism and its future generations better adapt to changes in their environment. For example, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-32) confers [[HIV]] resistance to [[Zygosity|homozygotes]] and delays [[AIDS]] onset in [[Zygosity|heterozygotes]].<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_CCR5.htm]</ref> The CCR5 mutation is more common in those of European descent. One theory for the [[etiology]] of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-32 in the European population is that is conferred resistance to the [[bubonic plague]] in mid-14th century Europe.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/clues.html]</ref>

==References==
<references/>
* Leroi A. 2003. ''Mutants: On the form, varieties & errors of the human body''. 1:16-17. Harper Collins 2003
* Maki H. 2002. ''Origins of spontaneous mutations: specificity and directionality of base-substitution, frameshift, and sequence-substitution mutageneses''. Annual Review of Genetics 36:279-303.
* Taggart R. Starr C. ''Biology The Unity and Diversity of Life: Mutated Genes and Their Protein Products''. 14.4:227. Thompson Brooks/Cole 2006.
===Online books===
* Chapter 7, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=mutation+AND+mga%5Bbook%5D+AND+110363%5Buid%5D&rid=mga.section.996 The Molecular Basis of Mutation] in ''Modern Genetic Analysis'' by Anthony J. F. Griffiths, William M. Gelbart, Jeffrey H. Miller and [[Richard Lewontin|Richard C. Lewontin]] (1999) published by W. H. Freeman and Company ISBN 0-7167-3597-0.
* Chapter 9, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.section.1050 Instability of the human genome: mutation and DNA repair] in ''Human Molecular Genetics 2'' by Tom Strachan and Andrew P. Read (1999) published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
* ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd.preface.91 Genes and Disease]'' from the [[National Library of Medicine]] provides descriptions of mutations that cause human diseases. For example, a common mutation associated with [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=mutation+AND+gnd%5Bbook%5D+AND+138070%5Buid%5D&rid=gnd.section.207 Huntington disease] is an increased number of copies of repeated CGA triplets in the [[Huntingtin]] gene.
* ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gene GeneReviews]'' by Roberta A. Pagon, Editor-in-chief is made available by the [[University of Washington]] and contains peer-reviewed descriptions of heritable diseases written by experts. For example, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gene.chapter.brca1 BRCA1 and BRCA2 Hereditary Breast/Ovarian Cancer] describes mutations in [[BRCA1]] and [[BRCA2]] that are associated with predispositions to cancer.

==External links==
* [http://www.gate.net/~rwms/EvoMutations.html Examples of Beneficial Mutations]
* [http://www.q-pharm.com/home/contents/drug_d/order_form/online_services/mutagenesis Software for Mutated Proteins' Activity Prediction]

[[Category:Genetics]]
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Jaguar

2011-10-24T01:27:28Z

Kevinzamora: /* References */

{{Taxonomy
|name=Jaguar
|image=Jaguar.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom=Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Mammalia
|subclass=
|infraclass=
|superorder=
|order=Carnivora
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|families=
|family=Felidae
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus= Panthera
|subgenus=
|species=P. onca
|binomialname=
|syn=Yaguara<br/>el Tigre
|sub=
|alt=
|regionimg=
|pop=less than 10,000
|conservation=Threatened
}}
The '''jaguar''' is a carnivorous mammal that is a member of the Felidae family and one of four "big cats" in the Panthera genus. Although the jaguar has a brownish/yellow base fur color which is distinctively marked with rosette markings, it is often mistaken for the [[leopard]], which just has spots on its fur. <ref>http://www.abf90.dial.pipex.com/jaguar.htm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{Nb_zl_felines}}

[[Category:Animals]]
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Ralph Vaughan Williams

2011-10-24T01:27:20Z

Kevinzamora:

'''Ralph Vaughan Williams''' (pronounced "rafe") was a leading [[England|English]] composer of the first half of the [[Twentieth Century period (music)|20th century]]. Many of his works showed the influence of traditional English folk songs, and he was a prolific composer of [[religious]] [[music]] for the [[Church of England]]. He is primarily remembered for his symphonies, operas, and chamber music, though he also composed a number of film scores. His best-known works include the opera Pilgrim's Progress, based on the [[Pilgrim's Progress|book]] by [[John Bunyan]] of the same name, and orchestral works including the Sinfonia Antarctica and his second symphony "A London Symphony". Vaughan Williams was profoundly influenced by his experiences fighting in [[World War I]], where he worked as a stretcher-bearer and then in an [[artillery]] company, leading to his ultimate [[deaf|deafness]]. His later works took on a somewhat mystical tone.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaughan Williams, Ralph}}
[[Category:Composers]]
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Rotation speed

2011-10-24T01:27:17Z

Kevinzamora:

The '''rotation speed''' of any celestial body is the speed of a point on its [[equator]] as it rotates about its [[axis]].

The rotation speed determines the [[sidereal day]] of the object.
[[Category:Astronomy]]
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Joseph Cook

2011-10-24T01:27:13Z

Kevinzamora: /* Source */

{{PM
|dob=7 December
|yob=1860
|birthplace=Silverdale, Staffordshire, England
|dod=30 July
|yod=1947
|wife=Mary Cook
|party-raw=[[Liberal Party (Australia)|Liberal Party]]
|succ={{Succession
|hdg=Prime Minister
|start-date=24 June
|start-year=1913
|end-date=17 September
|end-year=1914
|prev=Andrew Fisher
|next=Andrew Fisher
}}
}}

The '''Rt. Hon. Joseph Cook''' was the first [[Australia|Australia's]] first [[Liberal Party (Australia)|Liberal Party]] [[Prime Minister]], although his party was a different organization to the present [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]].

Cook became Prime Minister as a result of the Liberal Party winning the 31 May 1913 election by one seat, although the party failed to win a majority in the [[senate]].
When the Senate twice refused to pass a government [[bill]], Cook sought a [[double dissolution]], but the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] won the subsequent election in both houses.

== Source ==
* National Museum of Australia, [http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/joseph_cook/ Joseph Cook]

{{Australian Prime Ministers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cook,Joseph}}
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Okhi

2011-10-24T01:26:51Z

Kevinzamora:

'''Okhi''' is the [[Greek]] word for "no." Okhi Day celebrates the Greek resistance of World War II.

On October 28, 1940, during [[World War II]], [[Italy|Italian]] dictator [[Mussolini]] demanded [[Greece]] surrender. In his famous reply, Greek Prime Minister [[Ioannis Metaxas]] simply said "Okhi." Italy invaded anyway, starting the [[Greco-Italian War]]. The Italian forces would be repelled, but the other [[Axis]] powers joined the fight, leading to [[Nazi]] occupation of Greece.

[[Category:World War II]]
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World History Homework Nine Answers - Student Five

2011-10-24T01:26:48Z

Kevinzamora:

Jenn V.

'''1. Now that you’ve taken the midterm exam, how might you have prepared better?'''

A) I should have studied more. (a term list could’ve helped tons!)

:Good point about a term list! Maybe next time ....

'''2. Religious wars in England: its loss, America’s gain. Explain.'''

A) During the 1600’s, there was some of the most horrible religious maltreatment in the history of the world. Protestants ruthlessly persecuted each other and there was also incessant conflict between Protestants and the Catholics. The conflict between Anglicans and Puritans in England was extremely severe, and caused many Puritans to flee to New England. This was England’s loss. America’s gain was when the Quakers were persecuted for their Quaker faith, and William Penn founded the state of Pennsylvania. It’s a good thing the Quakers were persecuted because without them coming to Pennsylvania, spreading their faith, and reaching out to people, America might have never turned out to be like it is today.

:Excellent. I may add to the model answers!

'''3. The French Revolution: all bad, or was there something good about it?'''

A) The French Revolution was a horrible massacre, and took many innocent lives throughout the “Reign of Terror”. I wouldn’t say anything good came out of that revolution, however when Napoleon was chosen to lead the French army, he seized all power of France the very next day as a dictator. I think once Louis XVI was executed and Napoleon took over, it was France’s turning point in history.

:Superb.

'''4. Pick another revolution and describe it.'''

A) The American Revolution began with the Declaration of Independence and was led with just a small fraction of colonists. Just like the French, The American Revolution was instigated by educated middle class people. The phrase “that all men are created equal” was frequently quoted by Abraham Lincoln, and was also original to the Declaration. An important individual in the happening of the American Revolution was John Locke. Locke was the one who came up with “life, liberty, and the pursuit of property.” Property, in this case, speaks in favor of pursuit to “happiness.” The patriots “abolished” the English rule, and this led to the creation of the United States.

:Fantastic answer.

'''5. Why do you think it took the world so long before revolutions started occurring?'''

A) I think way back in time, people did not have the right equipment, nor did they have the “idea” of a revolution. As time passed, many people became smarter. They realized that they could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Back then, perhaps the majority of citizens did not have the guts to do it. Revolutions continue today, though!

:I doubt that people are getting smarter over time, or that improved equipment made a difference. Both sides (ruler and people) have access to the same equipment. But your answer is good.

:50/50. Perfect!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 15:34, 5 April 2009 (EDT)

[[Category:World History lectures]]
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Coast

2011-10-24T01:26:37Z

Kevinzamora: /* References */

The '''Coast''' is a specific term that means land next to the [[ocean]]. <ref>http://www.thefreedictionary.com/coast</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Geography]]
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Aristotle

2011-10-24T01:26:34Z

Kevinzamora: /* External links */

[[File:Aristotle.jpg|thumb|150px|Aristotle]]

'''Aristotle''' (384BC - 322BC) was a [[Greek philosopher]] born in the city of Stageira in Chalcidice. He was a student of [[Plato]] and the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]]. Aristotle emphasized reason and observation of the natural world, and he is believed by many to be one of the most important [[philosopher]]s of all [[time]] and the founder of [[empiricism]], the ontological grounding of [[science]]. Aristotle is considered one of the earliest [[political|politics]] thinkers and called politics "the master science"<ref>http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-politics-of-aristotle-by-peter-l-phillips-simpson.jsp</ref>.

Aristotle came to the [[Academy]] when he was seventeen and stayed there for twenty years until the death of [[Plato]]. Aristotle’s approach was in stark contrast to Plato's. Whereas Plato thought all true [[knowledge]] could be obtained [[a priori]]—a [[disembodied]] [[mind]] floating in a featureless void with no sense [[experience]] could work out everything there is to know—Aristotle thought that the natural world needed to be studied and observed for knowledge to be gained. He embarked on the massive task of observing and compiling as much information as possible on everything he could study at the time. In contrast to Plato’s interest in physics and mathematics, Aristotle was fascinated by biology and classified over 500 animal species. He ultimately founded his own school, the Lyceum, and equipped it with specimens, libraries, maps and other objects found in modern [[university|universities]].

[[Charles Murray]] said, "(Aristotle) more or less invented [[logic]], which was of pivotal importance in human history (and no other civilization ever came up with it independently)." <ref>http://www.isteve.com/2003_QA_with_Charles_Murray_on_Human_Accomplishment.htm</ref>

Aristotle also formulated [[Virtue Ethics]], a code of living which emphasizes what sort of person we want to be when making a decision, rather than, as tends to be the focus in modern ethical thinking, the motives or the consequences of actions (see ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''). When Aristotle's teachings were brought back to Europe at the end of the [[Dark Ages]] by [[Arab]] [[merchant]]s, [[Aquinas]], eager to reconcile Catholicism with Aristotle's secular empiricism, developed [[Natural Law Theory]].

Aristotle was not a [[theist]] and rejected the existence of the [[Greek mythology|old gods]] many Athenians worshiped. However, he recognized the impossibility of an [[infinite regress]] of cause and effect in the natural world, and so postulated the [[Unmoved Mover]] as a [[first cause]] of the natural world. Some argue this makes Aristotle the first recorded [[deism|deist]], though he did not predate certain movements in Egypt and the Near East, and his Unmoved Mover can very effectively be understood as part of man's journey towards the God of Christianity.

Aristotle was mistaken about many things. He felt that heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects which, though intuitive, is false. Like many other Greek philosophers, Aristotle felt there were four basic elements of nature: fire, water, air and earth, and a fifth suggested by Aristotle, ether. Actually there are over 100 elements as set forth in the [[periodic table]], as well as more fundamental subatomic particles comprising the elements. Some modern philosophers have pointed out that by not testing many of his more intuitive propositions (e.g. the speed at which objects fall relative to their mass) Aristotle failed to exercise his empirical doctrine. Though accurate, most scholars agree that such examples are eclipsed by his opus of biological observations and categorization.

His extant writings span a wide range of disciplines, from logic, metaphysics and philosophy of mind, through ethics, political theory, aesthetics and rhetoric, and into such primarily non-philosophical fields as empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animal observation and taxonomy. In all these areas, Aristotle's theories have provided illumination, met with resistance, sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding readership. Because of its wide range and its remoteness in time, Aristotle's philosophy defies easy encapsulation. The long history of interpretation and appropriation of Aristotelian texts and themes—spanning over two millennia and comprising philosophers working within a variety of religious and secular traditions—has rendered even basic points of interpretation controversial. <ref>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/</ref> <ref>http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/aris.htm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Greek Philosophy]]

==External links==
*[http://www.4literature.net/Aristotle/ Works by Aristotle]

[[Category:Deists]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek Philosophers]]
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Aldrich Ames

2011-10-24T01:26:28Z

Kevinzamora:

'''Aldrich Ames''' (born 1941) was a [[CIA]] officer,working in the CIA's European department. Information passed by Ames to the [[KGB]] led to the execution of at least ten CIA intelligence informants. In 1994, Ames was arrested and convicted of espionage and sentenced to life imprisonment.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ames, Aldrich}}

[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]
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Atheism and belief

2011-10-24T01:26:19Z

Kevinzamora: /* Reference */

In the [[Western world]], the most common assertion used by [[militant atheism|militant and proselytizing atheists]] to support their position and discredit religion, [[Christian|Christianity]] or otherwise, is that [[atheism]] is ''factual'' or a ''knowledge system'', supported by evidence, whilst [[religion]]s are ''beliefs.’’ In asserting this, atheists attempt to tie atheism to verifiable [[science]]. In fact, rather than knowledge, '''''atheism is a belief,''''' a fact which has been acknowledged for centuries.

== Atheism and Belief - Belief and Knowledge ==
In order to fully comprehend the issues surrounding atheism and belief, a fundamental understanding of the terms "belief" and "knowledge" is necessary to understanding atheists’ claims, and how they fail.

Within [[epistemology]], [[knowledge]] is understood to be [[propositions]] that are backed up by [[data]].<ref>Fred I. Dretske, Perception, Knowledge, and Belief, 18.</ref>

'''For example:''' the proposition of [[gravity|universal gravitation]], that all bodies accelerate towards each other, is backed up by endless amounts of data and experience.

What’s more, the proposition makes predictions that are testable: if an apple is held above the ground and released, it will fall. Thus, the knowledge is understood to be [[scientific]].

[[belief|Beliefs]] within the realm of Christian faith are understood to propositions which are supported sufficiently but not exhaustively. [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] Dr. [[William Lane Craig]] contends the for the reasonableness of the Christian faith in his classic work ''Reasonable Faith''. <ref>http://www.bethinking.org/resurrection-miracles/intermediate/the-evidence-for-christianity-reasonable-faith-lecture-all-souls-church-london-.htm</ref> [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] assert there are multiple lines of evidence pointing the validity of the Christian faith. For example, the [[Apostle]]s of Christ appealed to being eyewitnesses of his resurrection.<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/guest/truthfulness.htm</ref> Also, Christian apologists contend that Christian faith not contradicted by evidence.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=bTwhLq9Xzm8C&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=christian+faith+and+law+of+non+contradiction&source=web&ots=9VefHmucvQ&sig=KbuFlFmRO2IqNH363pI5BYxNqH8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result</ref>

The above criteria can apply to any number of social, political, or even economic beliefs, but is very important in Christian religion. There is no ''absolute'' method of proving or disproving the existence of the Christian God, and Christianity relies on faith itself for salvation.<ref>Acts 16:30-31</ref> (Note, however, the existence of powerful evidence of biblical truth, unearthed by [[biblical archaeology]] plus Christian legal scholars have effectively argued that [[Christian legal apologetics|Western legal standards point to the resurrection of Christ when one examines the historical evidence]]. )

== Atheism and lack of knowledge ==
Less militant agnostic and atheist philosophers have acknowledged for centuries the impossibility of disproving God’s existence. Ex-atheist Alister McGrath, in Beyond Opinion, states that "all atheist philosophers concede that the nonexistence of God cannot be proved."<ref>Alister McGrath, "Challenges from Atheism," in Beyond Opinion: Living the Faith we Defend, 97.</ref>

Even [[T. H. Huxley]], one of [[Darwin]]’s chief supporters, acknowledged this. Huxley invented the term [[agnosticism]], literally meaning "without knowledge." While Huxley was utterly without Christian faith, the term agnosticism was indicative of the impossibility of proving or disproving God, as he noted “In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith…"<ref>Bernard Lightman, ''The Origins of Agnosticism: Victorian Unbelief and the Limits of Knowledge,'' 47.</ref> Thus any view of the universe, be it theism, atheism, or fence-sitting agnosticism entailed a sort of belief.

Contemporary atheist philosopher Kai Nielsen noted "All the proofs of God's existence may fail, but it still may be the case that God exists." <ref>Alister McGrath, “Challenges from Atheism,” in Beyond Opinion: Living the Faith we Defend, 97.</ref>

== Unscientific nature of atheism ==
[[Image:Newton.png|right|thumb|Newton could not explain gravity without an appeal to God]]

Atheists claim that scientific knowledge has replaced the need for appeals to God to explain the universe. This is easily demonstrated to be false, as countless legendary scientists found it necessary to invoke God to explain [[First cause|First Causes]] in the universe. [[Isaac Newton]] could explain what gravity ''did'' but not what ''caused it,'' and believed God kept the universe in motion.<ref>Ayval Leshem, ''Newton on Mathematics and Spiritual Purity,'' 2.</ref> While [[Albert Einstein]]'s theistic views were complex, he too could not explain the universe without God, and famously derided chaos in the universe by stating "God does not play dice."<ref>Hans Urs von Balthasar, ''Science, Religion and Christianity,'' 215.</ref> Even in the 21st century, no scientific theory attempts to replace appeals to God in explaining the universe's existence.

Indeed, atheists have merely usurped the mantle of "science" to disguise unevidenced assertions. They claim that [[evolution]] has been proven as scientific valid, that evolution necessarily proves [[abiogenesis]], and that abiogenesis precludes God and [[intelligent design|design]].<ref>For example, Dawkins, ''The God Delusion,'' 134.</ref> The first claim is refuted by numerous theistic scientists, the second is a belief, and the third is a philosophical absurdity. Atheists ''believe'' the universe can be explained without recourse to God, but have no actual evidence to back up their assertions.

== Belief and atheistic arguments ==
More militant atheists have denied that their belief system is just that, belief, and instead have attempted to paint atheism as logical and evidence based. However, their arguments invariably on [[axioms]] and [[assumptions]] which they cannot prove.

Belief in some of the simplest and most common atheist arguments follow:

=== Argument from ignorance ===
# We have no absolute evidence of God’s existence.
# [[Occam’s razor]] tells us that a Godless universe, being simpler than a universe with God, must be true.
# Therefore, God does not exist.

'''Problems:''' This argument relies on an [[Argument_from_ignorance#Argument_from_silence|appeal to ignorance]] (also known as an appeal from silence), a logical fallacy which states that since we do not have evidence of something, it must be false. It also misuses Occam’s Razor, which states that the argument with fewest ‘’assumptions’’ is most likely to be true. In truth, a designed universe only assumes a creator, while an atheistic universe assumes countless perfect items of blind natural forces improbabilistically occurring. (see: [[Origin of life]] and [[universal constants]] ).

=== Problem of evil ===
Responding to perhaps the oldest theological question, atheists claim that the existence of evil proves that if God existed, he would not allow suffering. As suffering exists, God must not. <ref>Barbara Omolade, “Faith Confronts Evil,” in Christian Faith and the Problem of Evil, 278-9.</ref>

'''Problems:''' This argument relies on an atheist ''belief'' that God cannot allow suffering, though Christian theologians and apologists have addressed the question for centuries. [[C. S. Lewis]] pointed out that suffering is a necessary result of human [[free will]], which God granted out of love, that humans might reach their full potential for virtue.<ref>C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, 574.</ref>

See [[Atheism and the Problem of Evil]] for a larger discussion.

=== Paradox of omnipotence ===
Atheists bring up the [[paradox of omnipotence]], which asks if God can create a stone so large he cannot lift in, in attempt to portray the notion of God as contradictory and thus absurd.

'''Problems:''' This argument relies on atheists’ ''belief'' that if God exists, his power is comprehensible to human reason, and is limited by our laws of logic and ideas of paradoxes.

== See also ==
*[[Resources for leaving atheism and becoming a Christian]]
* [[Atheism and beliefs]] for a list of commonly held beliefs of [[Western World]] atheists
* [[Atheism and the suppression of science]]
* [[History of Atheism]]
* [[Atheism videos]]
* [[Creation vs. Evolution Videos]]
* [[Epistemology]]
* [[Atheism and the Problem of Evil]]
* [[Agnosticism]]

{{Nb_Atheism}}

== Reference ==
<references />

[[category: atheism]]
[[category: philosophy]]
[[category: religion]]
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