Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Recess appointment

2012-04-24T16:12:08Z

KevinDavis: Undo revision 977639 by Torhor (talk)

'''Recess appointment''' is a Presidential appointment that requires no immediate confirmation, and is made when [[Congress]] is not in session.

A '''recess appointment''' is often made to avoid the requirement of confirmation by the Senate, which may oppose the appointment.

[[Category:United States Government]]

Redwood National Park

2012-04-24T16:09:32Z

KevinDavis: Undo revision 977637 by Torhor (talk)

{{Ib_Protected_area
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|width=300
|image=Blank USA outline.png
|base_width=288
|base_caption=US locator map
|x_pos= 6
|y_pos= 59
|area=265,758 acres (1,075.5 km²) {265,392 acres (1,074.0 km²) federal}
|location = [[California]]
|nearest_city = Crescent City, CA
|coords =
|established = January 1, 1968
|entrance_fee =
|visitation_num = 385,171
|visitation_year = 2007
|governing_body = [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]] & California Department of Parks and Recreation
|website=[http://www.nps.gov/redw/index.htm NPS - Redwood ]
}}

The '''Redwood National Park''' (109,207 square miles) is a park in northern [[California]], including 40 miles of pacific coastline, established in 1968 to preserve groves of ancient [[redwood]] trees.<ref>The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989</ref> Some of the trees are so large that they were cut through while making the road and cars can drive through them.

==References==

<References/>

{{Nb_US_national_parks}}

[[Category:California]]

Vatican City

2012-04-24T16:08:45Z

KevinDavis: Undo revision 977636 by Torhor (talk)

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The '''State of the Vatican City''' (or simply '''Vatican City''' or '''Holy See''') is an independent state of which the head of state and ruler is the Bishop of Rome — the [[Pope]], and the highest state functionaries are all clergymen of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The Vatican City houses the [[Holy See|Government of the Roman Catholic Church]] and is surrounded by the city of [[Rome]]. Until 1871 the Pope held civil power over a considerable territory, called the [[Papal States]]. This land was made a part of [[Italy]] during the unification of 1871. By the Treaty of the Lateran in 1929, Italy restored the Pope's temporal, or civil, power within the confines of Vatican City, which totals 108.7 acres in area.

==People==
Almost all of Vatican City's citizens live inside the Vatican's walls. The Vatican includes high-ranking dignitaries, priests, nuns, and guards, as well as about 3,000 lay workers who comprise the majority of the work force.

==Government and Institutions==
The Pope exercises supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power over the Holy See and the State of the Vatican City. [[Pope Benedict XVI]], former [[Cardinal]] Joseph Ratzinger of Germany, was elected and invested on April 19 and formally inaugurated on April 24, 2005.

The term "[[Holy See]]" refers to the composite of the authority, jurisdiction, and sovereignty vested in the Pope and his advisers to direct the worldwide Roman Catholic Church. As the "central government" of the Roman Catholic Church, the Holy See has a legal personality that allows it to enter into treaties as the juridical equal of a state and to send and receive diplomatic representatives. The Holy See has formal diplomatic relations with 175 nations, including the United States and many predominantly Muslim countries. The Holy See also maintains relations of a special nature with the Russian Federation and the Organization for the Liberation of [[Palestine]].

Created in 1929 to provide a territorial identity for the Holy See in Rome, the State of Vatican City is a recognized national territory under international law. The Holy See enters into international agreements and receives and sends diplomatic representatives.

===Administration of Vatican City State===
The Pope delegates the internal administration of the Vatican City to the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City. Vatican City maintains the Swiss Guards, a voluntary military force, as well as a modern security corps. It has its own post office, commissary, bank, railway station, electrical generating plant, television center, and publishing house. The Vatican also issues its own coins, stamps and Internet domain (.va). Vatican Radio, the official radio station, is one of the most influential in Europe. ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' is the semi-official newspaper, published daily in Italian, and weekly in English, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and French (plus a monthly edition in Polish).

===Administration of the Holy See===
[[Image:Ghjhn.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City]]
The Pope exercises his authority through the Roman Curia and the Papal Civil Service. The Roman Curia consists of the Secretariat of State, nine Congregations, three Tribunals, 11 Pontifical Councils, and a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. On September 15, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone as Secretary of State (a role equivalent to that of prime minister) and appointed Archbishop Dominique Mamberti as Secretary for Relations with States (equivalent to foreign minister).

Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which oversees church doctrine; the Congregation for Bishops, which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, which oversees all missionary activities; and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, which deals with international peace and social issues.

Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The Apostolic Penitentiary deals with matters of conscience; the Roman Rota is responsible for appeals, including annulments of marriage; and the Apostolic Signatura is the final court of appeal.

The Prefecture for Economic Affairs coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See, an investment fund dating back to the Lateran Pacts. A committee of 15 cardinals, chaired by the Secretary of State, has final oversight authority over all financial matters of the Holy See, including those of the Institute for Works of Religion, the Vatican bank.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--Pope Benedict XVI
*Secretary of State (Prime Minister)--Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone
*Deputy Secretary of State--Archbishop Leonardo Sandri
*Secretary for Relations with States (Foreign Minister)--Archbishop Dominique Mamberti
*Apostolic Nuncio (equivalent to Ambassador) to the United States--Archbishop Pietro Sambi
[[Image:Swiss guard.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Swiss Guards]]
The Vatican has its own [[Euro]] coins, [[postage stamp]]s, and postal service. Security is provided by the Pontifical Swiss Guard.

===Foreign Relations===
The Holy See conducts an active diplomacy. As noted, it maintains formal diplomatic relations with 175 nations; 78 of these maintain permanent resident diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See in Rome. The rest have missions located outside Italy with dual accreditation. The Holy See maintains 106 permanent diplomatic missions to nation-states. Furthermore, the Holy See has two separate permanent diplomatic missions: one to the European Union, another to the Russian Federation.

The Holy See is especially active in international organizations. The Holy See has diplomatic relations with the European Union (EU) in Brussels, it is a permanent observer of the United Nations Organization (UN), Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington, African Union (AU), World Tourist Organization (WToO), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Health Organization (WHO), World Food Program (WFP), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), United Nations International Drug Control Program (UNDCP), United Nations Center for Human Settlements (UNCHS), Latin Union (LU), International Organization for Migration (IOM), International Labor Organization (ILO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

The Holy See is also an observer on an informal basis of the World Meteorological Organization in Geneva (WMO), United Nations Committee of Peaceful Use of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), International Maritime Organization (IMO), African Asian Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

The Holy See is a member of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), International Telecommunication Satellite Organization (ITSO), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), International Grains Council (IGC), International Committee for Military Medicine (ICMM), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO).

In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in order to "give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself." The Holy See is also a participating state in the OSCE and a guest of honor to the Parliamentary Assembly of the OSCE.

Furthermore, the Holy See has a delegate to the Arab League (AL) in Cairo.

==History==
[[Image:Altar St Peter the Vatican.jpg|right|200px|Altar, St. Peter Basilica.]]
The Holy See's diplomatic history began in the fourth century, but the boundaries of the papacy's temporal power have shifted over the centuries. From the 8th century through the middle of the 19th century, the Popes held sway over the Papal States, which included a broad band of territory across central Italy. In 1860, after prolonged civil and regional unrest, Victor Emmanuel's army seized the Papal States, leaving only Rome and surrounding coastal regions under papal control.

In 1870, Victor Emmanuel captured Rome itself and declared it the new capital of Italy, ending papal claims to temporal power. Pope Pius IX and his successors disputed the legitimacy of these acts and proclaimed themselves to be "prisoners" in the Vatican. Finally, in 1929, the Italian Government and the Holy See signed three agreements resolving the dispute:
*A treaty recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the Holy See and creating the State of the Vatican City;
*A concordat defining the relations between the government and the church within Italy; and
*A financial convention providing the Holy See with compensation for its losses in 1870.
*A revised concordat, altering the terms of church-state relations, was signed in 1984.

====The Vatican Cemetery====
The first popes were buried near the body of St. Peter, in Vatican City. The Cemetery of Priscilla is the oldest general cemetery of Early Christian Rome and in several respects the most important. In this [[catacomb]] were buried Sts. Felix and Philip... In the latter half of the fourth century Pope St. Damasus (366-84) did much to beautify the ancient Roman cemeteries and to decorate the tombs of the most illustrious martyrs... After the middle of the ninth century the historic crypts had been emptied, and the bodies brought to Roman churches. Naturally, the written references to the catacombs ceased with the visitors, and a stray chapter in the "Mirabilia Urbis Romae" or an odd indication in the "Libri Indulgentiarum" kept alive the memory of those holy places which once attracted a world of pilgrims.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03510a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Catholicism]]
*[[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]
*[[Holy See]]
*[[Roman Curia]]
*[[Sistine Chapel]]

== External links ==

*[http://uk.geocities.com/hashanayobel/uvw/vatican.htm Vatican City]
*[http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/MV_Visite.html Vatican City] Virtual Tours.
*[http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/06/19/vatican.road.rage.ap/ Vatican issues 10 Commandments for drivers] CNN. June 19, 2007.

== References ==
<references/>

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!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3819.htm]}}}.
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Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3819.htm]

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Micronations]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Talk:Skype

2012-04-15T15:02:44Z

KevinDavis: Created page with "Skype has been owned by Microsoft for a few years now, so I updated the entry. ~~~~"

Skype has been owned by Microsoft for a few years now, so I updated the entry. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 11:02, 15 April 2012 (EDT)

Skype

2012-04-15T15:02:09Z

KevinDavis:

'''Skype''' is an [[internet]] company which allows people to make [[telephone]] calls over the internet. Skype was founded by Niklas Zennstrom and Janus Friis and is now owned by Microsoft.

== See also ==

*[[Digg]]
*[[PayPal]]

==Official Website==
* http://www.skype.com/

[[Category:Websites]]

Majoring in Mathematics

2012-02-27T14:13:05Z

KevinDavis: /* Liberal Bias */

This article is intended to provide a brief introduction to what [[college]] [[mathematics]] is all about. It is aimed at [[high school]] students who have enjoyed mathematics in high school, and are starting to think about what to study in college. This article is a work in progress -- please expand and leave suggestions at the talk page. The theorems and ideas mentioned here aren't all things that you'll necessarily encounter in classes; indeed, most of them you probably won't. Instead, they are presented to indicate the sorts of thinking and methods that go into mathematics, and the sorts of problems that mathematicians work on today.

Mathematics is a strong and marketable major for students, relatively (but not completely) free of [[liberal bias]].

Here is an outline of what I hope to write.

== What College Mathematics is Not ==
Before we look at the sorts of problems that actually ''are'' dealt with by mathematics in college, let's look at some that are not. Rest assured, many of the most painful aspects of math classes you've taken before aren't so bad in college!
# Simply learning more advanced versions of mathematical ideas from high school. Tired of learning tricks for integration? Majoring in math won't just teach you new methods to integrate functions -- if you've taken an introductory calculus class, chances are you already know the important ones! What it will do is force you to think carefully about basic questions about what an integral is. Given some subset of space, what does it really mean to find its volume?
# Doing lots of computations. Chances are you'll have to do a few, but most mathematics in college is based around "proofs" -- very careful and rigorous arguments which show that mathematical statements are true. Many proofs won't involve any computations at all!
# Learning a bag of tricks to do Olympiad-type problems. If you've ever taken the AMC, Math League, or other similar competition tests, and not done well, don't worry! Much of these tests check nothing more than whether you're familiar with some collection of techniques for solving special problems. One math professor at Harvard keeps in his desk a copy of a math competition on which he scored a perfect 0/120. Mathematical theory goes far beyond these problems.

Instead, college mathematics is about developing new ways to rigorously approach a wide array of problems. More than aiming to find tricky techniques to solve certain problems, it is about building powerful approaches that solve many problems, and learning to think rigorously about them.

== Liberal Bias ==
It is important to be aware that like many college degrees, mathematics has been subject to [[liberal bias]], in accordance with the liberal agenda, and widespread support of the [[Anthropogenic global warming theory|global warming hoax]]. Fortunately, more [[conservative]] fields such as real analysis and differential geometry are perfectly viable paths for a student to take.

== Major Topics of Study ==
Given that a math major won't just be getting more practice at the sorts of math encountered in high school, what is it about? Here's a list of some of the major fields that are the foundation of a mathematics education.

For each field, I plan to give a very general description and to describe a few problems/theorems that are nice results and capture some of the essence of a subject. I'll aim for a few paragraphs about each one. Then I will give a problem or two that is a much more open-ended question that has motivated the development of large amounts of theory. For now I have no written about any of these -- please leave feedback and suggestions on the talk page and I will try to arrive at the best set of motivating problems!

=== Algebra ===
# How many positions are there for a Rubik's cube. Brief discussion of group theory, and how a group acts on the Rubik's cube.

==== Bezout's theorem ====
It's a very basic fact that two lines intersect at exactly one point. But we can ask a similar question about other shapes. At how many points do two parabolas intersect? A circle and a line? The graphs of two cubics? A circle and a line may intersect at either 0 points (for example, the unit circle <math>x^2+y^2=0</math> and the line <math>y=2</math>), 1 point (if the line is tangent to the circle), or 2 points. It's easy to see that we can arrange for two parabolas to intersect at four points: just consider the examples <math>y=x^2-10</math> and <math>x=y^2-10</math>. Similarly, we can up with two cubics that intersect at nine points. You might be noticing a pattern here: a parabola is defined as the set of solutions to a polynomial equation in two variables, whose biggest exponent is 2: we say that a parabola has degree 2. For the same reasons, we say that a line has degree 1, and a cubic as degree 3. Bezout's theorem then gives a very rough answer to our question: a curve of degree m and a curve of degree n intersect in at most mn points.

We have seen that sometimes the number of intersections is less than this, but Bezout's theorem, properly generalized, says that the number of intersections is in fact ''equal'' to mn: in the case of the circle and the line given earlier, there are exactly two solutions as predicted, if we allow <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> to be complex numbers. Similarly, a point of tangency is in some sense a "double intersection", and should count twice: if we nudged the line just a little bit, the point of intersection would turn into two distinct points. After we make these adjustments (counting complex solutions, changing the setting to projective space, and counting points of tangency multiple times), Bezout's theorem provides a simple and elegant answer to our original motivating question: curves of degree m and degree n intersect at exactly mn points!

# Is the quintic solvable in radicals? And what in the world does this problem have to do with group theory?
# The ancient Greeks were fascinated by geometric constructions with straightedge and compass. They could bisect angles and take square roots, but they couldn't trisect angles or take cube roots. Why not?

==== Algebra and Number Theory ====
The development of the modern field of algebra has been deeply influenced by research in number theory. An example of a problem from number theory that has provided far-reaching motivation for work in pure algebra has been the question of unique factorization.

It's a well-known fact, the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], that every integer can be factored in a unique way as the product of prime numbers. It's natural to wonder whether this unique factorization holds in other simple rings, for example, the set of complex numbers whose real and complex parts are both integers (for example, <math>3+7i</math>). These are the so-called Gaussian integers, and there is a good notion of "prime", and that every Gaussian integer can be uniquely factored into primes! For example, 7+0i is a Gaussian prime, while 5+0i is not: <math>5+0i</math> factors as <math>(2+i)(2-i)<math>, and both <math>2-i</math> and <math>2+i</math> are prime. In general, it turns out that
a Gaussian integer <math>a+bi</math> is prime if either one of <math>a</math> or <math>b</math> is zero, and the other is a prime congruent to three mod 4, or if <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are nonzero, and <math>a^2+b^2</math> is a prime (in the usual sense).

So unique factorization works well for the Gaussian integers, but what about other settings? An example similar to the Gaussian integers is the set of real numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{7}</math>: note that <math>(a+b\sqrt{7})(c+d\sqrt{7}) = (ac+7bd)+(ad+bc)\sqrt{7}</math>, so the numbers of this form are closed under multiplication. Here too, and in many other cases, there is a good notion of unique factorization. It was formerly assumed that <math>\mathbb Z[\sqrt{d}]</math> would have unique factorization, but this turns out not to be the case. Consider the ring of complex numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{-5}</math>. We can write <math>6 = 2 \cdot 3 = (1-\sqrt{-5})(1+\sqrt{5})</math>. A bit more work shows that both of these are prime factorizations, and they're not equivalent! This discovery necessitated the careful investigation of unique factorization, a purely algebraic notion that had not been seriously considered. Ernst Kummer proposed a proof of [[Fermat's Last Theorem]] which failed only because it assumed some properties of unique factorization, but further consideration of this problem led to a revolution in algebra.

=== Linear Algebra ===
If you throw a beach ball into the air, letting it spin in any way whatsoever, and then catch it, all of its rotations will comprise one rotation about some axis. That is, there will be two "poles" that will end exactly where they started, and all other points will just have rotated around them. What does this have to do with orthogonal operators? What does it have to do with the fact that every cubic equation has at least one real root?

If you do the same with a ring (e.g. a Hula Hoop), spinning it and letting it fall on its original "footprint", there will be no points that land exactly on their original position (except in the case in which it didn't move at all.) What does this have to do with the fact that quadratic equations are ''not'' guaranteed to have any real roots?

(Something about eigenvectors of distinct eigenvalues of an orthogonal/Hermitian matrix being orthogonal, can't think of a cute example just now.)

=== Geometry ===

In college math, "geometry" does not refer to more work on Euclidean high school geometry. Instead, college geometry includes a challenging field known as "differential geometry." This includes Tensor Calculus, Riemannian Geometry,
Covariant Vector Fields, Minkowskian Manifolds, and General Relativity.

Some problems include:

# The Theorema Egregium - that there exists a quality inherent to a surface no matter how it is "bent."
# What happens if we remove some the Euclidean postulates taught in high school? Specifically, the parallel postulate?

==== The Double Bubble Conjecture ====
You've probably noticed that when you blow a soap bubble, it quickly stretches into a nearly spherical shape. But why should a bubble tend towards a spherical conformation, instead of a cube or an icosahedron? According to physics, the bubble will tend toward a shape with the lowest energy, and the physical effect of surface tension is that this lowest energy is achieved when the bubble is in the shape with the least possible surface area enclosing a given volume. For example, if we want to enclose one cubic inch of air, the smallest surface that could contain it is a perfect sphere. The proof of this case, for a simple bubble, involves techniques from the mathematical study of [[differential geometry]], but turns out not to be too difficult. Related problems in finding minimal surfaces, however, turn out to be quite fiendish, and involve computations of "mean curvature" related to the notions of curvature defined above. The double bubble conjecture is one such.

*insert a picture here!

What is the smallest possible surface area for two bubbles joined stuck together, each enclosing some fixed volume? Thinking back to childhood experience, we know such bubbles end up as two partial spheres, connected together at a perfectly flat surface. But there are many other possibilities: why couldn't it be two tetrahedra, connected along some wavy surface? Quite sophisticated mathematical techniques are needed to prove this seemingly obvious result. The proof was not completed until 2000, by a team of mathematicians including [[User:RSchlafly|Roger Schlafly]].

=== Topology ===
==== The Bridges of Konigsberg ====
The earliest roots of the modern study of topology (and [[graph theory]]) lie in [[Leonhard Euler]]'s investigations of a famous puzzle from the 1730s. The town of Konigsberg (now [[Kaliningrad]]) was bisected by a river, which contained two large islands. There were seven bridges connecting the islands, as indicated in the accompanying image. The problem asked for a walk through the town which would cross each bridge exactly once: every bridge must be crossed once, and none more than once.

[[Image:Konigsberg.jpg|center|alt=Layout of Konigsberg|Layout of Euler's Konigsberg]]

Euler proved that no such path existed, with the following simple and elegant argument: observe that the path one takes while on the islands is irrelevant to the problem at hand, and that all that matters is the order in which the bridges are traversed. Every time one enters one landmass by means of a bridge, he leaves it by means of another. This means that the number of bridges entering and exiting each landmass must be even, except possibly the landmass in which he starts and the one in which he ends (since he does not both enter and exit these). However, in Konigsberg, each of the four landmasses is served by an odd number of bridges! This means that no tour of the sort desired is possible.

This argument is fundamentally a "topological" one because of the recognition that the rigid shapes and geometry of the problem make no difference. If the shape of the islands were changed, or a bridge were moved but stayed between the same two islands, the solution of the problem would not be affected. The only thing that matters is the number of islands and which islands are connected by bridges. The modern field of topology is at its heart the study of geometric objects whose rigid shape is not important.

# Connection between topological spaces and algebraic groups
# Ham sandwich theorem (easy to state, harder to motivate solution. Possibly there's something better.

==== How can we tell the difference between a sphere and a torus? ====
This is the sort of question that motivated the development of the field of topology for many years. Recall that a [[torus]] is the shape of an inner tube, or the surface of a donut: it is a two-dimensional surface with one hole. If a torus were made out of clay, one could stretch and squish it, but it is intuitively clear that no amount of stretching could possibly deform in into a sphere: it's simply impossible to get rid of the hole! Similarly, a sphere made out of clay can't be deformed into a torus without ripping it. The question of why the two shapes are not the same is fundamentally a topological one: we are interested in some intrinsic geometric properties of these objects, but not their specific rigid shapes.

It turns out that methods from [[algebra]] provide the easiest way to prove that it is impossible to deform a sphere into a donut. Observe that a sphere has the following property: given any loop drawn on the sphere (say, a rubber band stretched around it somehow), it is possible to "contract" that loop to a point (i.e., to scrunch up the whole rubber band at one place). On the other hand, if a rubber band is placed on a donut in such a way that it loops around the central whole, there is no way to contract it to a single point. A crucial observation in the field of algebraic topology is that if a space can be obtained by squeezing and stretching a sphere, then it will still have the property that every loop is contractible. Since a torus doesn't, we conclude that it must be fundamentally different from a sphere. Arguments like this are the basis for the field of [[algebraic topology]], and this problem of contracting loops in a space is studied using the [[fundamental group]].

=== Analysis ===
# Riemann mapping theorem. State this in terms of conformal mappings of the unit disk and draw lots of pictures!

==== Fixed points ====
Often in mathematics or physics, it is interesting to think about what happens when we apply the same function repeatedly. For example, one might take a calculator, punch in a random number, and then hit the button "[[cosine|cos]]" repeatedly. What happens when we do this? If you try it, you might see something that looks like this:1.3, 0.267499, 0.964435, 0.569881, 0.841965, 0.665998, 0.7863, 0.706469, 0.760659, 0.724382, 0.748909, ...

It looks like these are getting closer and closer to some fixed number, and if you hit the button a few more times, you'd discover that indeed these terms approach some constant around C=0.739085. This is the value of C for which cos(C) = C. There's no way to solve for this C algebraically, but we can see from the [[intermediate value theorem]] that there must be some value of C for which this is the case, since cos(0) > 0 but cos(1) < 1.
Generally, a value x is called a '''fixed point''' of a function f if f(x)=x, and it is interesting to study when a function must have a fixed point. Although many functions have no fixed points, there are theorems that give certain conditions under which any function must have a fixed point.

One of the most famous such theorems is the Brouwer fixed-point theorem, which says in its simplest form that any continuous function <math>f: D^2 \to D^2</math> has a fixed point. This fact has a very intuitive description: if we take a sheet of graph paper (so we can label each point with coordinates), crumple it up, and set it on top of another sheet of graph paper, then there is some point on the crumpled up sheet which is directly above the corresponding point on the second sheet! While this sounds like a simple fact, proving it rigorously relies on the techniques of [[algebraic topology]].

Another celebrated example of a fixed point theorem is known as Sharkovsky's theorem. In addition to fixed points, some functions have points for which repeating the function several times yields the same result: for example, a value of x for which cos(cos(cos(x))) = x is called a 3-periodic point of the function cosine. Sharkovsky's theorem is the surprising result that if a continuous function f has points of period 3, then it has points of all other periods! For example, consider the quadratic <math>f(x) = -\frac{5}{2} x^2 + \frac{7}{2} +1</math> has f(0) = 1, f(f(0)) = f(1) = 2, f(f(f(0))) = f(f(1))=f(2) = 0. So 0 is a point of period 3 of f(x). Sharkovsky's theorem implies that there are points of every other period. For example, there is some x such that f(f(f(f(f(f(f(f(x)))))))=x! Solving this explicitly would involve solving a polynomial of degree 14, an extremely difficult task. But Sharkovsky's theorem guarantees that there is '''some''' value of x satisfying this.

==== Mathematical Billiards ====
Imagine that you're playing a game of pool on a standard rectangular table, but with a twist: there's no friction, so after you hit the ball, it continues along its trajectory forever. Obviously if you hit the ball so that its path is perpendicular to one of the walls of the table, it will bounce straight back, then off the opposite wall, straight back again, etc.: the ball will follow a repeating pattern of bouncing between the two walls forever. Similarly, if you aim just right, you can hit the ball so that it moves in a diamond-shaped path forever, bouncing off the middle of the sides of the walls repeatedly. A trajectory of the cue ball is called "periodic" if it's like one of these, in that the ball eventually ends up back where it started, and moving in the same direction. A trajectory is said to have "period p" if it hits the wall exactly <math>p</math> times in the course of this repeating cycle. The two examples given above have periods of two and four, respectively. One question we might ask is whether there is an orbit of period <math>p</math> for every possible choice of p. Can you come up with a path on the standard billiards table that has period 3? If not, can you prove that one doesn't exist?

As is often the case is mathematics, we attempt to generalize these results on periodic orbits to other situations. What if the billiards table is not rectangular, but triangular? It's true, but extremely difficult to prove, that given any triangular billiards table, there exists a periodic orbit of '''some''' period. The existence of periodic orbits is an extremely subtle question. This can be generalized even further, to ask whether all polygons admit periodic orbits. What about polyhedra? Can you imagine some periodic billiards orbits on a cube-shaped "table" (no gravity! think billiards in space).

The orbits that aren't periodic turn out to be just as interesting as those that are. Imagine that you place the cue ball at random on your billiards table, and smack it in some random direction. Chances are it won't end up in a periodic orbit -- putting the ball in a periodic orbit requires a very careful shot. So the ball will bounce around forever without retracing its path. But will it ever come back to the point where it started, perhaps moving in a different direction? The answer to this question is "no", but the Poincare Recurrence Theorem gives a somewhat satisfactory replacement: given any distance (e.g., an eighth of an inch), and any angle (e.g. two degrees), after some amount of time, the ball will be within that distance of its starting point, and directed within that angle of its initial path! This is a very suprising fact.

While this problem seems extremely elementary, sophisticated mathematical techiques from a range of fields of geometry and analysis have been brought to bear on it. Even so, many easily-stated questions remain open.

# Periodic orbits in billiards in polyhedra. I think it should be possible to say some interesting things about this but with some real content. Possibly there's a better idea.

Hard problem: What does an integral really mean? Babble a bit about integrating the characteristic function of Q.

=== Probability and Statistics ===
# Discussion of Benford's law, application to recognizing fraud.
# Understanding the concept of the "random variable"
# Proving the Central Limit Theorem

Motivating problem: Deriving conclusions from rarely occurring events, such as multiple no-hitters by the same pitcher. Specifically, how many no-hitters must a pitcher toss before one can conclude from that evidence alone that he is a great pitcher?

===Partial Differential Equations===
If you take a uniform circular metal disk and hold the temperatures at the periphery to some fixed pattern (say, lighting fires at some places and applying ice at others), and give it plenty of time to reach equilibrium, can you calculate the final temperature at every point inside? What does this have to do with Fourier series? (Hint: It has '''everything''' to do with Fourier series. This is the problem that Joseph Fourier was studying when he invented the series.)

=== Other fields ===
# Logic: still need a good problem
# Number theory: connected to the other fields above in many ways. Prime number theorem?
# Set theory: some discussion of axioms, maybe talk about AoC.
# applied mathematics, emphasizing the solution of partial differential equations which are essential to mechanical engineering

=== Related fields ===
Many other subjects are often considered parts of mathematics as well. Depending on specific undergraduate programs, a math major may or may not be required to take courses in these areas, but many of the same ideas are used in these subjects as in the others.
# Computer science: something about algorithmic complexity: maybe the fact that primality testing may be done in polynomial time?
# Computer science: How can Fourier transforms be used to multiply enormous integers much faster than normal methods?
...

=== Interplay ===
None of these fields exists in a vacuum, and there is rich interplay between them. If you insert "algebraic" or "differential" before the name of just about any branch of math, you get a more specialized, but important field. Motivate some of these connections:
# Algebra+topology: discussion of fundamental group.
# Analysis+topology: discuss conservative fields, and hint at de Rham cohomology without actually saying those words.
# Algebra+analysis: The set of derivations on the tangent bundle of a smooth manifold form a Lie algebra, connecting solutions to partial differential equations and algebra.

== So What? ==
After finishing a major in mathematics, most people don't keep working in pure math. But the ways of thinking and skills that the study of mathematics provide make available a wide range of career opportunities.

Specifically, mathematicians seeking to remain connected to their field pursue career opportunities in:
*actuary or insurance work
*defense-related work
*market trading analysis for investment banks
*mathematical modeling

Less-related fields that are also of some interest to mathematicians are:
*computer programming
*accounting
*K-12 teaching

Some mathematicians enter entirely unrelated fields. Math majors have the highest average scores of students in any field on the LSAT and GMAT, the tests required for entrance into law school and business school <ref>http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1430654</ref>: the skills acquired in studying mathematics in invaluable in the logic section of the LSAT and for subsequent careers in law.

== Further Reading ==
Numerous expository books cover the topics mentioned on this page, along with many others, in a very accessible way. Below are a few recommended books whose content is comparable to that of this article.
# ''Mathematics: The New Golden Age'', by Keith Devlin. Accessible discussions of many important ideas.
# ''Professor Stewart's Cabinet of Mathematical Curiosities'', by Ian Stewart. A similar book covering the exciting side of mathematics and requiring little background.
# ''Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics'', by John Derbyshire. Focuses on the famous [[Riemann hypothesis]] and related material.
# ''Hexaflexagons, Probability Paradoxes, and the Tower of Hanoi: Martin Gardner's First Book of Mathematical Puzzles and Games''. A collection of articles by one of mathematics' foremost expositors.
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Higher Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

Majoring in Mathematics

2012-02-27T14:12:48Z

KevinDavis: /* Liberal Bias */ fix wikilink

This article is intended to provide a brief introduction to what [[college]] [[mathematics]] is all about. It is aimed at [[high school]] students who have enjoyed mathematics in high school, and are starting to think about what to study in college. This article is a work in progress -- please expand and leave suggestions at the talk page. The theorems and ideas mentioned here aren't all things that you'll necessarily encounter in classes; indeed, most of them you probably won't. Instead, they are presented to indicate the sorts of thinking and methods that go into mathematics, and the sorts of problems that mathematicians work on today.

Mathematics is a strong and marketable major for students, relatively (but not completely) free of [[liberal bias]].

Here is an outline of what I hope to write.

== What College Mathematics is Not ==
Before we look at the sorts of problems that actually ''are'' dealt with by mathematics in college, let's look at some that are not. Rest assured, many of the most painful aspects of math classes you've taken before aren't so bad in college!
# Simply learning more advanced versions of mathematical ideas from high school. Tired of learning tricks for integration? Majoring in math won't just teach you new methods to integrate functions -- if you've taken an introductory calculus class, chances are you already know the important ones! What it will do is force you to think carefully about basic questions about what an integral is. Given some subset of space, what does it really mean to find its volume?
# Doing lots of computations. Chances are you'll have to do a few, but most mathematics in college is based around "proofs" -- very careful and rigorous arguments which show that mathematical statements are true. Many proofs won't involve any computations at all!
# Learning a bag of tricks to do Olympiad-type problems. If you've ever taken the AMC, Math League, or other similar competition tests, and not done well, don't worry! Much of these tests check nothing more than whether you're familiar with some collection of techniques for solving special problems. One math professor at Harvard keeps in his desk a copy of a math competition on which he scored a perfect 0/120. Mathematical theory goes far beyond these problems.

Instead, college mathematics is about developing new ways to rigorously approach a wide array of problems. More than aiming to find tricky techniques to solve certain problems, it is about building powerful approaches that solve many problems, and learning to think rigorously about them.

== Liberal Bias ==
It is important to be aware that like many college degrees, mathematics has been subject to [[liberal bias]], in accordance with the liberal agenda, and widespread support of the [[global warming hoax|Anthropogenic global warming theory]]. Fortunately, more [[conservative]] fields such as real analysis and differential geometry are perfectly viable paths for a student to take.

== Major Topics of Study ==
Given that a math major won't just be getting more practice at the sorts of math encountered in high school, what is it about? Here's a list of some of the major fields that are the foundation of a mathematics education.

For each field, I plan to give a very general description and to describe a few problems/theorems that are nice results and capture some of the essence of a subject. I'll aim for a few paragraphs about each one. Then I will give a problem or two that is a much more open-ended question that has motivated the development of large amounts of theory. For now I have no written about any of these -- please leave feedback and suggestions on the talk page and I will try to arrive at the best set of motivating problems!

=== Algebra ===
# How many positions are there for a Rubik's cube. Brief discussion of group theory, and how a group acts on the Rubik's cube.

==== Bezout's theorem ====
It's a very basic fact that two lines intersect at exactly one point. But we can ask a similar question about other shapes. At how many points do two parabolas intersect? A circle and a line? The graphs of two cubics? A circle and a line may intersect at either 0 points (for example, the unit circle <math>x^2+y^2=0</math> and the line <math>y=2</math>), 1 point (if the line is tangent to the circle), or 2 points. It's easy to see that we can arrange for two parabolas to intersect at four points: just consider the examples <math>y=x^2-10</math> and <math>x=y^2-10</math>. Similarly, we can up with two cubics that intersect at nine points. You might be noticing a pattern here: a parabola is defined as the set of solutions to a polynomial equation in two variables, whose biggest exponent is 2: we say that a parabola has degree 2. For the same reasons, we say that a line has degree 1, and a cubic as degree 3. Bezout's theorem then gives a very rough answer to our question: a curve of degree m and a curve of degree n intersect in at most mn points.

We have seen that sometimes the number of intersections is less than this, but Bezout's theorem, properly generalized, says that the number of intersections is in fact ''equal'' to mn: in the case of the circle and the line given earlier, there are exactly two solutions as predicted, if we allow <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> to be complex numbers. Similarly, a point of tangency is in some sense a "double intersection", and should count twice: if we nudged the line just a little bit, the point of intersection would turn into two distinct points. After we make these adjustments (counting complex solutions, changing the setting to projective space, and counting points of tangency multiple times), Bezout's theorem provides a simple and elegant answer to our original motivating question: curves of degree m and degree n intersect at exactly mn points!

# Is the quintic solvable in radicals? And what in the world does this problem have to do with group theory?
# The ancient Greeks were fascinated by geometric constructions with straightedge and compass. They could bisect angles and take square roots, but they couldn't trisect angles or take cube roots. Why not?

==== Algebra and Number Theory ====
The development of the modern field of algebra has been deeply influenced by research in number theory. An example of a problem from number theory that has provided far-reaching motivation for work in pure algebra has been the question of unique factorization.

It's a well-known fact, the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], that every integer can be factored in a unique way as the product of prime numbers. It's natural to wonder whether this unique factorization holds in other simple rings, for example, the set of complex numbers whose real and complex parts are both integers (for example, <math>3+7i</math>). These are the so-called Gaussian integers, and there is a good notion of "prime", and that every Gaussian integer can be uniquely factored into primes! For example, 7+0i is a Gaussian prime, while 5+0i is not: <math>5+0i</math> factors as <math>(2+i)(2-i)<math>, and both <math>2-i</math> and <math>2+i</math> are prime. In general, it turns out that
a Gaussian integer <math>a+bi</math> is prime if either one of <math>a</math> or <math>b</math> is zero, and the other is a prime congruent to three mod 4, or if <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are nonzero, and <math>a^2+b^2</math> is a prime (in the usual sense).

So unique factorization works well for the Gaussian integers, but what about other settings? An example similar to the Gaussian integers is the set of real numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{7}</math>: note that <math>(a+b\sqrt{7})(c+d\sqrt{7}) = (ac+7bd)+(ad+bc)\sqrt{7}</math>, so the numbers of this form are closed under multiplication. Here too, and in many other cases, there is a good notion of unique factorization. It was formerly assumed that <math>\mathbb Z[\sqrt{d}]</math> would have unique factorization, but this turns out not to be the case. Consider the ring of complex numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{-5}</math>. We can write <math>6 = 2 \cdot 3 = (1-\sqrt{-5})(1+\sqrt{5})</math>. A bit more work shows that both of these are prime factorizations, and they're not equivalent! This discovery necessitated the careful investigation of unique factorization, a purely algebraic notion that had not been seriously considered. Ernst Kummer proposed a proof of [[Fermat's Last Theorem]] which failed only because it assumed some properties of unique factorization, but further consideration of this problem led to a revolution in algebra.

=== Linear Algebra ===
If you throw a beach ball into the air, letting it spin in any way whatsoever, and then catch it, all of its rotations will comprise one rotation about some axis. That is, there will be two "poles" that will end exactly where they started, and all other points will just have rotated around them. What does this have to do with orthogonal operators? What does it have to do with the fact that every cubic equation has at least one real root?

If you do the same with a ring (e.g. a Hula Hoop), spinning it and letting it fall on its original "footprint", there will be no points that land exactly on their original position (except in the case in which it didn't move at all.) What does this have to do with the fact that quadratic equations are ''not'' guaranteed to have any real roots?

(Something about eigenvectors of distinct eigenvalues of an orthogonal/Hermitian matrix being orthogonal, can't think of a cute example just now.)

=== Geometry ===

In college math, "geometry" does not refer to more work on Euclidean high school geometry. Instead, college geometry includes a challenging field known as "differential geometry." This includes Tensor Calculus, Riemannian Geometry,
Covariant Vector Fields, Minkowskian Manifolds, and General Relativity.

Some problems include:

# The Theorema Egregium - that there exists a quality inherent to a surface no matter how it is "bent."
# What happens if we remove some the Euclidean postulates taught in high school? Specifically, the parallel postulate?

==== The Double Bubble Conjecture ====
You've probably noticed that when you blow a soap bubble, it quickly stretches into a nearly spherical shape. But why should a bubble tend towards a spherical conformation, instead of a cube or an icosahedron? According to physics, the bubble will tend toward a shape with the lowest energy, and the physical effect of surface tension is that this lowest energy is achieved when the bubble is in the shape with the least possible surface area enclosing a given volume. For example, if we want to enclose one cubic inch of air, the smallest surface that could contain it is a perfect sphere. The proof of this case, for a simple bubble, involves techniques from the mathematical study of [[differential geometry]], but turns out not to be too difficult. Related problems in finding minimal surfaces, however, turn out to be quite fiendish, and involve computations of "mean curvature" related to the notions of curvature defined above. The double bubble conjecture is one such.

*insert a picture here!

What is the smallest possible surface area for two bubbles joined stuck together, each enclosing some fixed volume? Thinking back to childhood experience, we know such bubbles end up as two partial spheres, connected together at a perfectly flat surface. But there are many other possibilities: why couldn't it be two tetrahedra, connected along some wavy surface? Quite sophisticated mathematical techniques are needed to prove this seemingly obvious result. The proof was not completed until 2000, by a team of mathematicians including [[User:RSchlafly|Roger Schlafly]].

=== Topology ===
==== The Bridges of Konigsberg ====
The earliest roots of the modern study of topology (and [[graph theory]]) lie in [[Leonhard Euler]]'s investigations of a famous puzzle from the 1730s. The town of Konigsberg (now [[Kaliningrad]]) was bisected by a river, which contained two large islands. There were seven bridges connecting the islands, as indicated in the accompanying image. The problem asked for a walk through the town which would cross each bridge exactly once: every bridge must be crossed once, and none more than once.

[[Image:Konigsberg.jpg|center|alt=Layout of Konigsberg|Layout of Euler's Konigsberg]]

Euler proved that no such path existed, with the following simple and elegant argument: observe that the path one takes while on the islands is irrelevant to the problem at hand, and that all that matters is the order in which the bridges are traversed. Every time one enters one landmass by means of a bridge, he leaves it by means of another. This means that the number of bridges entering and exiting each landmass must be even, except possibly the landmass in which he starts and the one in which he ends (since he does not both enter and exit these). However, in Konigsberg, each of the four landmasses is served by an odd number of bridges! This means that no tour of the sort desired is possible.

This argument is fundamentally a "topological" one because of the recognition that the rigid shapes and geometry of the problem make no difference. If the shape of the islands were changed, or a bridge were moved but stayed between the same two islands, the solution of the problem would not be affected. The only thing that matters is the number of islands and which islands are connected by bridges. The modern field of topology is at its heart the study of geometric objects whose rigid shape is not important.

# Connection between topological spaces and algebraic groups
# Ham sandwich theorem (easy to state, harder to motivate solution. Possibly there's something better.

==== How can we tell the difference between a sphere and a torus? ====
This is the sort of question that motivated the development of the field of topology for many years. Recall that a [[torus]] is the shape of an inner tube, or the surface of a donut: it is a two-dimensional surface with one hole. If a torus were made out of clay, one could stretch and squish it, but it is intuitively clear that no amount of stretching could possibly deform in into a sphere: it's simply impossible to get rid of the hole! Similarly, a sphere made out of clay can't be deformed into a torus without ripping it. The question of why the two shapes are not the same is fundamentally a topological one: we are interested in some intrinsic geometric properties of these objects, but not their specific rigid shapes.

It turns out that methods from [[algebra]] provide the easiest way to prove that it is impossible to deform a sphere into a donut. Observe that a sphere has the following property: given any loop drawn on the sphere (say, a rubber band stretched around it somehow), it is possible to "contract" that loop to a point (i.e., to scrunch up the whole rubber band at one place). On the other hand, if a rubber band is placed on a donut in such a way that it loops around the central whole, there is no way to contract it to a single point. A crucial observation in the field of algebraic topology is that if a space can be obtained by squeezing and stretching a sphere, then it will still have the property that every loop is contractible. Since a torus doesn't, we conclude that it must be fundamentally different from a sphere. Arguments like this are the basis for the field of [[algebraic topology]], and this problem of contracting loops in a space is studied using the [[fundamental group]].

=== Analysis ===
# Riemann mapping theorem. State this in terms of conformal mappings of the unit disk and draw lots of pictures!

==== Fixed points ====
Often in mathematics or physics, it is interesting to think about what happens when we apply the same function repeatedly. For example, one might take a calculator, punch in a random number, and then hit the button "[[cosine|cos]]" repeatedly. What happens when we do this? If you try it, you might see something that looks like this:1.3, 0.267499, 0.964435, 0.569881, 0.841965, 0.665998, 0.7863, 0.706469, 0.760659, 0.724382, 0.748909, ...

It looks like these are getting closer and closer to some fixed number, and if you hit the button a few more times, you'd discover that indeed these terms approach some constant around C=0.739085. This is the value of C for which cos(C) = C. There's no way to solve for this C algebraically, but we can see from the [[intermediate value theorem]] that there must be some value of C for which this is the case, since cos(0) > 0 but cos(1) < 1.
Generally, a value x is called a '''fixed point''' of a function f if f(x)=x, and it is interesting to study when a function must have a fixed point. Although many functions have no fixed points, there are theorems that give certain conditions under which any function must have a fixed point.

One of the most famous such theorems is the Brouwer fixed-point theorem, which says in its simplest form that any continuous function <math>f: D^2 \to D^2</math> has a fixed point. This fact has a very intuitive description: if we take a sheet of graph paper (so we can label each point with coordinates), crumple it up, and set it on top of another sheet of graph paper, then there is some point on the crumpled up sheet which is directly above the corresponding point on the second sheet! While this sounds like a simple fact, proving it rigorously relies on the techniques of [[algebraic topology]].

Another celebrated example of a fixed point theorem is known as Sharkovsky's theorem. In addition to fixed points, some functions have points for which repeating the function several times yields the same result: for example, a value of x for which cos(cos(cos(x))) = x is called a 3-periodic point of the function cosine. Sharkovsky's theorem is the surprising result that if a continuous function f has points of period 3, then it has points of all other periods! For example, consider the quadratic <math>f(x) = -\frac{5}{2} x^2 + \frac{7}{2} +1</math> has f(0) = 1, f(f(0)) = f(1) = 2, f(f(f(0))) = f(f(1))=f(2) = 0. So 0 is a point of period 3 of f(x). Sharkovsky's theorem implies that there are points of every other period. For example, there is some x such that f(f(f(f(f(f(f(f(x)))))))=x! Solving this explicitly would involve solving a polynomial of degree 14, an extremely difficult task. But Sharkovsky's theorem guarantees that there is '''some''' value of x satisfying this.

==== Mathematical Billiards ====
Imagine that you're playing a game of pool on a standard rectangular table, but with a twist: there's no friction, so after you hit the ball, it continues along its trajectory forever. Obviously if you hit the ball so that its path is perpendicular to one of the walls of the table, it will bounce straight back, then off the opposite wall, straight back again, etc.: the ball will follow a repeating pattern of bouncing between the two walls forever. Similarly, if you aim just right, you can hit the ball so that it moves in a diamond-shaped path forever, bouncing off the middle of the sides of the walls repeatedly. A trajectory of the cue ball is called "periodic" if it's like one of these, in that the ball eventually ends up back where it started, and moving in the same direction. A trajectory is said to have "period p" if it hits the wall exactly <math>p</math> times in the course of this repeating cycle. The two examples given above have periods of two and four, respectively. One question we might ask is whether there is an orbit of period <math>p</math> for every possible choice of p. Can you come up with a path on the standard billiards table that has period 3? If not, can you prove that one doesn't exist?

As is often the case is mathematics, we attempt to generalize these results on periodic orbits to other situations. What if the billiards table is not rectangular, but triangular? It's true, but extremely difficult to prove, that given any triangular billiards table, there exists a periodic orbit of '''some''' period. The existence of periodic orbits is an extremely subtle question. This can be generalized even further, to ask whether all polygons admit periodic orbits. What about polyhedra? Can you imagine some periodic billiards orbits on a cube-shaped "table" (no gravity! think billiards in space).

The orbits that aren't periodic turn out to be just as interesting as those that are. Imagine that you place the cue ball at random on your billiards table, and smack it in some random direction. Chances are it won't end up in a periodic orbit -- putting the ball in a periodic orbit requires a very careful shot. So the ball will bounce around forever without retracing its path. But will it ever come back to the point where it started, perhaps moving in a different direction? The answer to this question is "no", but the Poincare Recurrence Theorem gives a somewhat satisfactory replacement: given any distance (e.g., an eighth of an inch), and any angle (e.g. two degrees), after some amount of time, the ball will be within that distance of its starting point, and directed within that angle of its initial path! This is a very suprising fact.

While this problem seems extremely elementary, sophisticated mathematical techiques from a range of fields of geometry and analysis have been brought to bear on it. Even so, many easily-stated questions remain open.

# Periodic orbits in billiards in polyhedra. I think it should be possible to say some interesting things about this but with some real content. Possibly there's a better idea.

Hard problem: What does an integral really mean? Babble a bit about integrating the characteristic function of Q.

=== Probability and Statistics ===
# Discussion of Benford's law, application to recognizing fraud.
# Understanding the concept of the "random variable"
# Proving the Central Limit Theorem

Motivating problem: Deriving conclusions from rarely occurring events, such as multiple no-hitters by the same pitcher. Specifically, how many no-hitters must a pitcher toss before one can conclude from that evidence alone that he is a great pitcher?

===Partial Differential Equations===
If you take a uniform circular metal disk and hold the temperatures at the periphery to some fixed pattern (say, lighting fires at some places and applying ice at others), and give it plenty of time to reach equilibrium, can you calculate the final temperature at every point inside? What does this have to do with Fourier series? (Hint: It has '''everything''' to do with Fourier series. This is the problem that Joseph Fourier was studying when he invented the series.)

=== Other fields ===
# Logic: still need a good problem
# Number theory: connected to the other fields above in many ways. Prime number theorem?
# Set theory: some discussion of axioms, maybe talk about AoC.
# applied mathematics, emphasizing the solution of partial differential equations which are essential to mechanical engineering

=== Related fields ===
Many other subjects are often considered parts of mathematics as well. Depending on specific undergraduate programs, a math major may or may not be required to take courses in these areas, but many of the same ideas are used in these subjects as in the others.
# Computer science: something about algorithmic complexity: maybe the fact that primality testing may be done in polynomial time?
# Computer science: How can Fourier transforms be used to multiply enormous integers much faster than normal methods?
...

=== Interplay ===
None of these fields exists in a vacuum, and there is rich interplay between them. If you insert "algebraic" or "differential" before the name of just about any branch of math, you get a more specialized, but important field. Motivate some of these connections:
# Algebra+topology: discussion of fundamental group.
# Analysis+topology: discuss conservative fields, and hint at de Rham cohomology without actually saying those words.
# Algebra+analysis: The set of derivations on the tangent bundle of a smooth manifold form a Lie algebra, connecting solutions to partial differential equations and algebra.

== So What? ==
After finishing a major in mathematics, most people don't keep working in pure math. But the ways of thinking and skills that the study of mathematics provide make available a wide range of career opportunities.

Specifically, mathematicians seeking to remain connected to their field pursue career opportunities in:
*actuary or insurance work
*defense-related work
*market trading analysis for investment banks
*mathematical modeling

Less-related fields that are also of some interest to mathematicians are:
*computer programming
*accounting
*K-12 teaching

Some mathematicians enter entirely unrelated fields. Math majors have the highest average scores of students in any field on the LSAT and GMAT, the tests required for entrance into law school and business school <ref>http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1430654</ref>: the skills acquired in studying mathematics in invaluable in the logic section of the LSAT and for subsequent careers in law.

== Further Reading ==
Numerous expository books cover the topics mentioned on this page, along with many others, in a very accessible way. Below are a few recommended books whose content is comparable to that of this article.
# ''Mathematics: The New Golden Age'', by Keith Devlin. Accessible discussions of many important ideas.
# ''Professor Stewart's Cabinet of Mathematical Curiosities'', by Ian Stewart. A similar book covering the exciting side of mathematics and requiring little background.
# ''Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics'', by John Derbyshire. Focuses on the famous [[Riemann hypothesis]] and related material.
# ''Hexaflexagons, Probability Paradoxes, and the Tower of Hanoi: Martin Gardner's First Book of Mathematical Puzzles and Games''. A collection of articles by one of mathematics' foremost expositors.
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Higher Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

Talk:Majoring in Mathematics

2012-02-27T14:09:51Z

KevinDavis: /* Homomorphism */

This is an extremely rough outline for this new article. I will continue to expand it over the next few weeks based on feedback about the appropriateness of the problems and other suggestions for improvements. Please let me know what you think! --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:12, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
::well I was a math major in college many years ago (before Rubic's cube!) Suggest adding statistics.
:::Ah, good idea. At my undergrad school mathematics and statistics were separate programs, but I guess this isn't typical. I'll throw in a new section. I'm not much for statistics -- can anyone suggest some good problems? --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:20, 4 October 2009 (EDT)

Tremendous work, Mark. I'll try to add something for probability or statistics, which I studied.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:22, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
:Great, thanks. These are subjects in which I'm inexpert. Now I'm inclined to move Probability/Statistics to a "field" along with algebra, analysis, etc. Please add a nice problem or theorem if you have any in mind! --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:24, 4 October 2009 (EDT)

Terrific analysis on what college mathematics is not. That should be required reading for many seeking to major in math!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:30, 15 October 2009 (EDT)

Why is there no mention of the bible or theology in this article? It should be mentioned, as it is in [[Axiom_of_Infinity]], that the notion of an infinite set is somewhat blasphemous. [[User:Tomkup32|Tomkup32]] 10:58, 9 December 2009 (EST)

For Bezout's theorem, you have some inaccurate claims: the line x+y=0 and x+y=1 never interset. We need to move to projective space for the degree of the intersection to be exactly mn.

== Liberal bias ==

How can there be liberal bias in math? Does saying 1+1 = 2 have a motive?[[User:SusanP|SusanP]] 23:29, 9 February 2012 (EST)

:College math is not completely immune to liberal influences that have destroyed other subjects like physics.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:37, 9 February 2012 (EST)

:Can you give an example of liberal bias in math? --[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
:Possible liberal bias--the study of so-called "homomorphisms" in modern liberal algebra could be part of the gay agenda?--[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::No, sorry, that's absurd and I think you know it. "Homo" simply means same and is used in a wide variety of contexts that have nothing to do with liberal bias. Is homogenized milk liberal bias? Or homonyms? Homophones? I've already reverted your addition to the article once, so I won't do it again just yet, but please consider removing or modifying it yourself.--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 19:32, 24 February 2012 (EST)
::There is a crucial difference between your examples and my claim. A homophone describes two words sounding the same but being different. Bat is not a homophone with bat, that doesn't make sense. Saying wind and wind are homophones acknowledges that they sound the same but are different words. A homomorphism allows groups that are different, like Z_2xZ_2 and the Klein four group, to be treated as equal. Additionally the global warming obsession is prolific. I didn't mean my writing to sound flippant, and perhaps its tone can be improved, but it was certainly not meant as a joke.
:::I'm not sure I see the "crucial difference" you're seeing. I don't know what you mean by saying that homomorphisms "allow[] groups that are different . . . to be treated as equal." What do you mean by "treated as equal"? Obviously, if a homomorphism exists between two groups it shows that there are certain structural similarities between the two groups, but this hardly means that they are equal. The fact that 124 and 490 are both even shows that there are certain similarities between them (namely that each includes 2 in its prime factorization), but that doesn't mean we treat them as equal and it certainly isn't evidence that evenness is the result of some sort of liberal bias. Also, I think you have your examples backwards. Bat (animal) is a homophone with bat (sports) because both are pronounced the same but have different meanings. Wind (air flow) is not a homophone with wind (watches) because the pronunciation differs. They are, however, homographs. --[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 01:23, 26 February 2012 (EST)
::::Haha you are absolutely right, my apologies. I thought I had picked a word specifically with no homophones. Allow me to elaborate: saying that 124 and 490 are both even emphasizes similarities which is fine. But consider a statement like "there is only one group of order 3." There are clearly many, because you can define one on any set with 3 elements. Nevertheless, you will never hear discussion of the many different groups of order 3, they are all lumped together because of homomorphisms. Compare this with the professor value of refusing to distinguish between men and women. To say men and women are both children of God is to discuss similarities while acknowledging differences, as in saying 124 and 490 are both even. To say men and women are basically the same, as universities today do, is consistent with saying that groups are essentially the same. I hope that clarifies what I was struggling to say before. --[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
:::::They key point you are missing, however, is that in many, many subjects, such as in mathematical aptitude, there is no functional difference between male and female. So yes, in many situations, women and men are essentially the same.[[User:KenShomer|KenShomer]] 15:15, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::::::If that statement were true, then why are the top achievers on difficult math contests (such as the Putnam exam) more than 90% male, and less than 10% female?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:32, 26 February 2012 (EST)\
::::::: I can't vouch for this on a national level, but when I took the Putnam at UConn last year, about 90% of the participants were male. If that's true at a national level (and I don't know if it is) then it stands to reason. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 21:28, 26 February 2012 (EST)
::::::: It's gotten so bad that now they make women put red stickers on the exams so they can graded differently! Women often have separate prizes too.--Bogart12

::::::::I don't know why anyone (i.e., liberals) would expect or pretend that God created men and women to have absolutely identical aptitudes in everything. Men and women are physically very different.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 01:06, 27 February 2012 (EST)

:::::I think the problem is a lack of imprecision when using words like "same" or "equal". In mathematics such terms have very precisely defined meanings and so to say that all groups of order three are the same or are equal (or, equivalently, to say that "there is only one group of order 3") is not to say that all such groups are the same in all respects (obviously, this isn't true or they would all have the same name/description and we wouldn't even doubt there were more than one such group), but instead only says that all such groups behave similarly in all the ways that are (currently) important to mathematicians. When dealing with real world situations like mathematical aptitude and gender, it's much easier to speak imprecisely (either mistakenly or maliciously) and thus much more plausible that some suggested equivalences are the result of liberal bias and not some underlying similarities. I just don't see how that is possible, however, in the realm of mathematics, at least with respect to homomorphisms.
:::::This is getting a bit off topic, but if Andy and you are right and (liberal?) universities improperly equate the aptitude of men and women (by analogy, posit a homomorphism between men and women), we shouldn't conclude that the positing of all equivalences is liberal bias (by analogy, that homomorphisms are the result of liberal bias), but instead should conclude that universities are mistaken and that no such equivalence exists in this case (by analogy, there is no homomorphism between a group of order 3 and a group of order 4, say).--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 17:01, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::::Again though, the university claims more than "these sets have similar group structures on them," and goes so far as to insist that there is no reason to distinguish between them. [[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::::::Okay, so then universities are wrong to equate men and women in this way. What does that have to do with homomorphisms? Are we still disagreeing whether they serve a legitimate mathematical purpose or are instead the product of improper liberal bias?--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 21:54, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::::::It's central to liberal ideology to view these blasphemous notions as "useful." Next, you'll be defending relativity as useful, and that is a slippery slope my friend. We draw the line here at Conservapedia where ideas that are wrong are rejected, regardless of how useful we have been told they are.[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::::::::Maybe you weren't joking before, but this is clearly just a goof, right? You don't really intend that as an argument do you?--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 01:25, 27 February 2012 (EST)

== Examples of Liberal Math ==

The purported proof of [[Fermat's Last Theorem]] would be an example of liberal math.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:48, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:This may quickly move outside my area of understanding, but could you clarify this at all? Is the concern the use of the [[axiom of choice]] and/or non-[[ZF]] axioms? I've read our article and vaguely remember a book I read in high school, but other than the use of some non-standard techniques, I wasn't aware there was any serious doubt as to the validity of the proof. --[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 17:10, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:: What would be an example of Conservative Math? --[[User:BradleyS|BradleyS]] 17:13, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::[[Godel's Incompleteness Theorems]], and [[liberals]] ostracized [[Kurt Godel]] for it.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 17:41, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::: What is there that evidence that liberals ostracized Gödel? And what makes the Incompleteness Theorem conservative? --[[User:BradleyS|BradleyS]] 19:12, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::::Liberals kept Godel from obtaining tenure at most university math departments, and ostracized him in other ways. [[Bertrand Russell]], a leading leftist of that time, was humiliated by Godel's insight, which was conservative in how it debunked intellectual arrogance.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 19:33, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::::Exactly Andy, Whitehead and Russell were both in the middle of trying to "prove" everything when Godel administered a much-needed dose of humility. [[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]

::::::Right. A liberal claims to know almost everything. A conservative recognizes that the liberal actually knows almost nothing of value.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:39, 26 February 2012 (EST)

===Carbon Dating===
Using the most advanced scientific & mathematical calculations, the dating process is still prone to error. The [[Shroud of Turin]] is claimed as fabrication by the scientific community but the liberals fail to grasp their errors in calculating exposure to contamination, such as soot. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 19:37, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:That's not necessarily mathematics, but, archaeology + ''applied'' mathematics.[[User:JonM|JonM]] 19:50, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::Good point, but applied math is still math, and the example illustrates liberal use of math to convey an unjustified claim of "proof".--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 20:10, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::Hammers have been used throughout history for the construction of buildings intended to promote both liberal and conservative ideals. The hammer has no inherent political philosophy. The hammer is a tool, and though it can be used for liberal or conservative purposes, it is inherently a neutral party. Math is the same way. While math can be used to promote liberal ideals, and is often studied by liberals, it is not liberal or conservative. Math is a tool.[[User:KenShomer|KenShomer]] 22:11, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::::But hammers are not courses of study or an ideology. Math is. And all courses of study and ideologies are susceptible to liberal bias. Engineering, with its grounding in what works, is probably the most immune to [[liberal bias]]. Women's studies and English literature are probably the most susceptible to liberal bias.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:37, 26 February 2012 (EST)

== atheist and liberal idiocy extends to math: 2+2=5? (Lawrence Krauss vs William Lane Craig) ==

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NOrlIOm6eGM 2+2=5? (Lawrence Krauss vs William Lane Craig)] [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 20:33, 26 February 2012 (EST)

== Homomorphism ==

A homomorphism is a function/relation that maps one algebraic structure to another and preserves its structure. It does not equate them, so I removed it because its definition was erroneous. A comparison illustrates why the original definition is incorrect. If <math>f(x) = x+2</math>, then <math>f(3) = 5</math>. This is a relation that maps <math>\mathbb{R}</math> to <math>\mathbb{R} + 2</math>. It does not, however, equate them. Even though <math>f(x)</math> maps 3 to 5, it is not stating that <math> 3 = 5</math>. This is a simple example, but hopefully it illustrates the proper definition. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:09, 27 February 2012 (EST)

Talk:Majoring in Mathematics

2012-02-27T14:09:17Z

KevinDavis: /* Homomorphism */ new section

This is an extremely rough outline for this new article. I will continue to expand it over the next few weeks based on feedback about the appropriateness of the problems and other suggestions for improvements. Please let me know what you think! --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:12, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
::well I was a math major in college many years ago (before Rubic's cube!) Suggest adding statistics.
:::Ah, good idea. At my undergrad school mathematics and statistics were separate programs, but I guess this isn't typical. I'll throw in a new section. I'm not much for statistics -- can anyone suggest some good problems? --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:20, 4 October 2009 (EDT)

Tremendous work, Mark. I'll try to add something for probability or statistics, which I studied.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:22, 4 October 2009 (EDT)
:Great, thanks. These are subjects in which I'm inexpert. Now I'm inclined to move Probability/Statistics to a "field" along with algebra, analysis, etc. Please add a nice problem or theorem if you have any in mind! --[[User:MarkGall|MarkGall]] 23:24, 4 October 2009 (EDT)

Terrific analysis on what college mathematics is not. That should be required reading for many seeking to major in math!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:30, 15 October 2009 (EDT)

Why is there no mention of the bible or theology in this article? It should be mentioned, as it is in [[Axiom_of_Infinity]], that the notion of an infinite set is somewhat blasphemous. [[User:Tomkup32|Tomkup32]] 10:58, 9 December 2009 (EST)

For Bezout's theorem, you have some inaccurate claims: the line x+y=0 and x+y=1 never interset. We need to move to projective space for the degree of the intersection to be exactly mn.

== Liberal bias ==

How can there be liberal bias in math? Does saying 1+1 = 2 have a motive?[[User:SusanP|SusanP]] 23:29, 9 February 2012 (EST)

:College math is not completely immune to liberal influences that have destroyed other subjects like physics.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:37, 9 February 2012 (EST)

:Can you give an example of liberal bias in math? --[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
:Possible liberal bias--the study of so-called "homomorphisms" in modern liberal algebra could be part of the gay agenda?--[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::No, sorry, that's absurd and I think you know it. "Homo" simply means same and is used in a wide variety of contexts that have nothing to do with liberal bias. Is homogenized milk liberal bias? Or homonyms? Homophones? I've already reverted your addition to the article once, so I won't do it again just yet, but please consider removing or modifying it yourself.--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 19:32, 24 February 2012 (EST)
::There is a crucial difference between your examples and my claim. A homophone describes two words sounding the same but being different. Bat is not a homophone with bat, that doesn't make sense. Saying wind and wind are homophones acknowledges that they sound the same but are different words. A homomorphism allows groups that are different, like Z_2xZ_2 and the Klein four group, to be treated as equal. Additionally the global warming obsession is prolific. I didn't mean my writing to sound flippant, and perhaps its tone can be improved, but it was certainly not meant as a joke.
:::I'm not sure I see the "crucial difference" you're seeing. I don't know what you mean by saying that homomorphisms "allow[] groups that are different . . . to be treated as equal." What do you mean by "treated as equal"? Obviously, if a homomorphism exists between two groups it shows that there are certain structural similarities between the two groups, but this hardly means that they are equal. The fact that 124 and 490 are both even shows that there are certain similarities between them (namely that each includes 2 in its prime factorization), but that doesn't mean we treat them as equal and it certainly isn't evidence that evenness is the result of some sort of liberal bias. Also, I think you have your examples backwards. Bat (animal) is a homophone with bat (sports) because both are pronounced the same but have different meanings. Wind (air flow) is not a homophone with wind (watches) because the pronunciation differs. They are, however, homographs. --[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 01:23, 26 February 2012 (EST)
::::Haha you are absolutely right, my apologies. I thought I had picked a word specifically with no homophones. Allow me to elaborate: saying that 124 and 490 are both even emphasizes similarities which is fine. But consider a statement like "there is only one group of order 3." There are clearly many, because you can define one on any set with 3 elements. Nevertheless, you will never hear discussion of the many different groups of order 3, they are all lumped together because of homomorphisms. Compare this with the professor value of refusing to distinguish between men and women. To say men and women are both children of God is to discuss similarities while acknowledging differences, as in saying 124 and 490 are both even. To say men and women are basically the same, as universities today do, is consistent with saying that groups are essentially the same. I hope that clarifies what I was struggling to say before. --[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
:::::They key point you are missing, however, is that in many, many subjects, such as in mathematical aptitude, there is no functional difference between male and female. So yes, in many situations, women and men are essentially the same.[[User:KenShomer|KenShomer]] 15:15, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::::::If that statement were true, then why are the top achievers on difficult math contests (such as the Putnam exam) more than 90% male, and less than 10% female?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:32, 26 February 2012 (EST)\
::::::: I can't vouch for this on a national level, but when I took the Putnam at UConn last year, about 90% of the participants were male. If that's true at a national level (and I don't know if it is) then it stands to reason. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 21:28, 26 February 2012 (EST)
::::::: It's gotten so bad that now they make women put red stickers on the exams so they can graded differently! Women often have separate prizes too.--Bogart12

::::::::I don't know why anyone (i.e., liberals) would expect or pretend that God created men and women to have absolutely identical aptitudes in everything. Men and women are physically very different.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 01:06, 27 February 2012 (EST)

:::::I think the problem is a lack of imprecision when using words like "same" or "equal". In mathematics such terms have very precisely defined meanings and so to say that all groups of order three are the same or are equal (or, equivalently, to say that "there is only one group of order 3") is not to say that all such groups are the same in all respects (obviously, this isn't true or they would all have the same name/description and we wouldn't even doubt there were more than one such group), but instead only says that all such groups behave similarly in all the ways that are (currently) important to mathematicians. When dealing with real world situations like mathematical aptitude and gender, it's much easier to speak imprecisely (either mistakenly or maliciously) and thus much more plausible that some suggested equivalences are the result of liberal bias and not some underlying similarities. I just don't see how that is possible, however, in the realm of mathematics, at least with respect to homomorphisms.
:::::This is getting a bit off topic, but if Andy and you are right and (liberal?) universities improperly equate the aptitude of men and women (by analogy, posit a homomorphism between men and women), we shouldn't conclude that the positing of all equivalences is liberal bias (by analogy, that homomorphisms are the result of liberal bias), but instead should conclude that universities are mistaken and that no such equivalence exists in this case (by analogy, there is no homomorphism between a group of order 3 and a group of order 4, say).--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 17:01, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::::Again though, the university claims more than "these sets have similar group structures on them," and goes so far as to insist that there is no reason to distinguish between them. [[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::::::Okay, so then universities are wrong to equate men and women in this way. What does that have to do with homomorphisms? Are we still disagreeing whether they serve a legitimate mathematical purpose or are instead the product of improper liberal bias?--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 21:54, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::::::It's central to liberal ideology to view these blasphemous notions as "useful." Next, you'll be defending relativity as useful, and that is a slippery slope my friend. We draw the line here at Conservapedia where ideas that are wrong are rejected, regardless of how useful we have been told they are.[[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]
::::::::Maybe you weren't joking before, but this is clearly just a goof, right? You don't really intend that as an argument do you?--[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 01:25, 27 February 2012 (EST)

== Examples of Liberal Math ==

The purported proof of [[Fermat's Last Theorem]] would be an example of liberal math.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:48, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:This may quickly move outside my area of understanding, but could you clarify this at all? Is the concern the use of the [[axiom of choice]] and/or non-[[ZF]] axioms? I've read our article and vaguely remember a book I read in high school, but other than the use of some non-standard techniques, I wasn't aware there was any serious doubt as to the validity of the proof. --[[User:JustinD|JustinD]] 17:10, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:: What would be an example of Conservative Math? --[[User:BradleyS|BradleyS]] 17:13, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::[[Godel's Incompleteness Theorems]], and [[liberals]] ostracized [[Kurt Godel]] for it.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 17:41, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::: What is there that evidence that liberals ostracized Gödel? And what makes the Incompleteness Theorem conservative? --[[User:BradleyS|BradleyS]] 19:12, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::::Liberals kept Godel from obtaining tenure at most university math departments, and ostracized him in other ways. [[Bertrand Russell]], a leading leftist of that time, was humiliated by Godel's insight, which was conservative in how it debunked intellectual arrogance.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 19:33, 26 February 2012 (EST)

:::::Exactly Andy, Whitehead and Russell were both in the middle of trying to "prove" everything when Godel administered a much-needed dose of humility. [[User:Bogart12|Bogart12]]

::::::Right. A liberal claims to know almost everything. A conservative recognizes that the liberal actually knows almost nothing of value.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:39, 26 February 2012 (EST)

===Carbon Dating===
Using the most advanced scientific & mathematical calculations, the dating process is still prone to error. The [[Shroud of Turin]] is claimed as fabrication by the scientific community but the liberals fail to grasp their errors in calculating exposure to contamination, such as soot. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 19:37, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:That's not necessarily mathematics, but, archaeology + ''applied'' mathematics.[[User:JonM|JonM]] 19:50, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::Good point, but applied math is still math, and the example illustrates liberal use of math to convey an unjustified claim of "proof".--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 20:10, 26 February 2012 (EST)
:::Hammers have been used throughout history for the construction of buildings intended to promote both liberal and conservative ideals. The hammer has no inherent political philosophy. The hammer is a tool, and though it can be used for liberal or conservative purposes, it is inherently a neutral party. Math is the same way. While math can be used to promote liberal ideals, and is often studied by liberals, it is not liberal or conservative. Math is a tool.[[User:KenShomer|KenShomer]] 22:11, 26 February 2012 (EST)

::::But hammers are not courses of study or an ideology. Math is. And all courses of study and ideologies are susceptible to liberal bias. Engineering, with its grounding in what works, is probably the most immune to [[liberal bias]]. Women's studies and English literature are probably the most susceptible to liberal bias.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:37, 26 February 2012 (EST)

== atheist and liberal idiocy extends to math: 2+2=5? (Lawrence Krauss vs William Lane Craig) ==

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NOrlIOm6eGM 2+2=5? (Lawrence Krauss vs William Lane Craig)] [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 20:33, 26 February 2012 (EST)

== Homomorphism ==

A homomorphism is a function/relation that maps one algebraic structure to another. It does not equate them, so I removed it because its definition was erroneous. A comparison illustrates why the original definition is incorrect. If <math>f(x) = x+2</math>, then <math>f(3) = 5</math>. This is a relation that maps <math>\mathbb{R}</math> to <math>\mathbb{R} + 2</math>. It does not, however, equate them. Even though <math>f(x)</math> maps 3 to 5, it is not stating that <math> 3 = 5</math>. This is a simple example, but hopefully it illustrates the proper definition. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:09, 27 February 2012 (EST)

Majoring in Mathematics

2012-02-27T14:05:06Z

KevinDavis: /* Liberal Bias */ see talk page for detailed explanation

This article is intended to provide a brief introduction to what [[college]] [[mathematics]] is all about. It is aimed at [[high school]] students who have enjoyed mathematics in high school, and are starting to think about what to study in college. This article is a work in progress -- please expand and leave suggestions at the talk page. The theorems and ideas mentioned here aren't all things that you'll necessarily encounter in classes; indeed, most of them you probably won't. Instead, they are presented to indicate the sorts of thinking and methods that go into mathematics, and the sorts of problems that mathematicians work on today.

Mathematics is a strong and marketable major for students, relatively (but not completely) free of [[liberal bias]].

Here is an outline of what I hope to write.

== What College Mathematics is Not ==
Before we look at the sorts of problems that actually ''are'' dealt with by mathematics in college, let's look at some that are not. Rest assured, many of the most painful aspects of math classes you've taken before aren't so bad in college!
# Simply learning more advanced versions of mathematical ideas from high school. Tired of learning tricks for integration? Majoring in math won't just teach you new methods to integrate functions -- if you've taken an introductory calculus class, chances are you already know the important ones! What it will do is force you to think carefully about basic questions about what an integral is. Given some subset of space, what does it really mean to find its volume?
# Doing lots of computations. Chances are you'll have to do a few, but most mathematics in college is based around "proofs" -- very careful and rigorous arguments which show that mathematical statements are true. Many proofs won't involve any computations at all!
# Learning a bag of tricks to do Olympiad-type problems. If you've ever taken the AMC, Math League, or other similar competition tests, and not done well, don't worry! Much of these tests check nothing more than whether you're familiar with some collection of techniques for solving special problems. One math professor at Harvard keeps in his desk a copy of a math competition on which he scored a perfect 0/120. Mathematical theory goes far beyond these problems.

Instead, college mathematics is about developing new ways to rigorously approach a wide array of problems. More than aiming to find tricky techniques to solve certain problems, it is about building powerful approaches that solve many problems, and learning to think rigorously about them.

== Liberal Bias ==
It is important to be aware that like many college degrees, mathematics has been subject to [[liberal bias]], in accordance with the liberal agenda, and widespread support of the [[global warming hoax]]. Fortunately, more [[conservative]] fields such as real analysis and differential geometry are perfectly viable paths for a student to take.

== Major Topics of Study ==
Given that a math major won't just be getting more practice at the sorts of math encountered in high school, what is it about? Here's a list of some of the major fields that are the foundation of a mathematics education.

For each field, I plan to give a very general description and to describe a few problems/theorems that are nice results and capture some of the essence of a subject. I'll aim for a few paragraphs about each one. Then I will give a problem or two that is a much more open-ended question that has motivated the development of large amounts of theory. For now I have no written about any of these -- please leave feedback and suggestions on the talk page and I will try to arrive at the best set of motivating problems!

=== Algebra ===
# How many positions are there for a Rubik's cube. Brief discussion of group theory, and how a group acts on the Rubik's cube.

==== Bezout's theorem ====
It's a very basic fact that two lines intersect at exactly one point. But we can ask a similar question about other shapes. At how many points do two parabolas intersect? A circle and a line? The graphs of two cubics? A circle and a line may intersect at either 0 points (for example, the unit circle <math>x^2+y^2=0</math> and the line <math>y=2</math>), 1 point (if the line is tangent to the circle), or 2 points. It's easy to see that we can arrange for two parabolas to intersect at four points: just consider the examples <math>y=x^2-10</math> and <math>x=y^2-10</math>. Similarly, we can up with two cubics that intersect at nine points. You might be noticing a pattern here: a parabola is defined as the set of solutions to a polynomial equation in two variables, whose biggest exponent is 2: we say that a parabola has degree 2. For the same reasons, we say that a line has degree 1, and a cubic as degree 3. Bezout's theorem then gives a very rough answer to our question: a curve of degree m and a curve of degree n intersect in at most mn points.

We have seen that sometimes the number of intersections is less than this, but Bezout's theorem, properly generalized, says that the number of intersections is in fact ''equal'' to mn: in the case of the circle and the line given earlier, there are exactly two solutions as predicted, if we allow <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> to be complex numbers. Similarly, a point of tangency is in some sense a "double intersection", and should count twice: if we nudged the line just a little bit, the point of intersection would turn into two distinct points. After we make these adjustments (counting complex solutions, changing the setting to projective space, and counting points of tangency multiple times), Bezout's theorem provides a simple and elegant answer to our original motivating question: curves of degree m and degree n intersect at exactly mn points!

# Is the quintic solvable in radicals? And what in the world does this problem have to do with group theory?
# The ancient Greeks were fascinated by geometric constructions with straightedge and compass. They could bisect angles and take square roots, but they couldn't trisect angles or take cube roots. Why not?

==== Algebra and Number Theory ====
The development of the modern field of algebra has been deeply influenced by research in number theory. An example of a problem from number theory that has provided far-reaching motivation for work in pure algebra has been the question of unique factorization.

It's a well-known fact, the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], that every integer can be factored in a unique way as the product of prime numbers. It's natural to wonder whether this unique factorization holds in other simple rings, for example, the set of complex numbers whose real and complex parts are both integers (for example, <math>3+7i</math>). These are the so-called Gaussian integers, and there is a good notion of "prime", and that every Gaussian integer can be uniquely factored into primes! For example, 7+0i is a Gaussian prime, while 5+0i is not: <math>5+0i</math> factors as <math>(2+i)(2-i)<math>, and both <math>2-i</math> and <math>2+i</math> are prime. In general, it turns out that
a Gaussian integer <math>a+bi</math> is prime if either one of <math>a</math> or <math>b</math> is zero, and the other is a prime congruent to three mod 4, or if <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are nonzero, and <math>a^2+b^2</math> is a prime (in the usual sense).

So unique factorization works well for the Gaussian integers, but what about other settings? An example similar to the Gaussian integers is the set of real numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{7}</math>: note that <math>(a+b\sqrt{7})(c+d\sqrt{7}) = (ac+7bd)+(ad+bc)\sqrt{7}</math>, so the numbers of this form are closed under multiplication. Here too, and in many other cases, there is a good notion of unique factorization. It was formerly assumed that <math>\mathbb Z[\sqrt{d}]</math> would have unique factorization, but this turns out not to be the case. Consider the ring of complex numbers of the form <math>a+b\sqrt{-5}</math>. We can write <math>6 = 2 \cdot 3 = (1-\sqrt{-5})(1+\sqrt{5})</math>. A bit more work shows that both of these are prime factorizations, and they're not equivalent! This discovery necessitated the careful investigation of unique factorization, a purely algebraic notion that had not been seriously considered. Ernst Kummer proposed a proof of [[Fermat's Last Theorem]] which failed only because it assumed some properties of unique factorization, but further consideration of this problem led to a revolution in algebra.

=== Linear Algebra ===
If you throw a beach ball into the air, letting it spin in any way whatsoever, and then catch it, all of its rotations will comprise one rotation about some axis. That is, there will be two "poles" that will end exactly where they started, and all other points will just have rotated around them. What does this have to do with orthogonal operators? What does it have to do with the fact that every cubic equation has at least one real root?

If you do the same with a ring (e.g. a Hula Hoop), spinning it and letting it fall on its original "footprint", there will be no points that land exactly on their original position (except in the case in which it didn't move at all.) What does this have to do with the fact that quadratic equations are ''not'' guaranteed to have any real roots?

(Something about eigenvectors of distinct eigenvalues of an orthogonal/Hermitian matrix being orthogonal, can't think of a cute example just now.)

=== Geometry ===

In college math, "geometry" does not refer to more work on Euclidean high school geometry. Instead, college geometry includes a challenging field known as "differential geometry." This includes Tensor Calculus, Riemannian Geometry,
Covariant Vector Fields, Minkowskian Manifolds, and General Relativity.

Some problems include:

# The Theorema Egregium - that there exists a quality inherent to a surface no matter how it is "bent."
# What happens if we remove some the Euclidean postulates taught in high school? Specifically, the parallel postulate?

==== The Double Bubble Conjecture ====
You've probably noticed that when you blow a soap bubble, it quickly stretches into a nearly spherical shape. But why should a bubble tend towards a spherical conformation, instead of a cube or an icosahedron? According to physics, the bubble will tend toward a shape with the lowest energy, and the physical effect of surface tension is that this lowest energy is achieved when the bubble is in the shape with the least possible surface area enclosing a given volume. For example, if we want to enclose one cubic inch of air, the smallest surface that could contain it is a perfect sphere. The proof of this case, for a simple bubble, involves techniques from the mathematical study of [[differential geometry]], but turns out not to be too difficult. Related problems in finding minimal surfaces, however, turn out to be quite fiendish, and involve computations of "mean curvature" related to the notions of curvature defined above. The double bubble conjecture is one such.

*insert a picture here!

What is the smallest possible surface area for two bubbles joined stuck together, each enclosing some fixed volume? Thinking back to childhood experience, we know such bubbles end up as two partial spheres, connected together at a perfectly flat surface. But there are many other possibilities: why couldn't it be two tetrahedra, connected along some wavy surface? Quite sophisticated mathematical techniques are needed to prove this seemingly obvious result. The proof was not completed until 2000, by a team of mathematicians including [[User:RSchlafly|Roger Schlafly]].

=== Topology ===
==== The Bridges of Konigsberg ====
The earliest roots of the modern study of topology (and [[graph theory]]) lie in [[Leonhard Euler]]'s investigations of a famous puzzle from the 1730s. The town of Konigsberg (now [[Kaliningrad]]) was bisected by a river, which contained two large islands. There were seven bridges connecting the islands, as indicated in the accompanying image. The problem asked for a walk through the town which would cross each bridge exactly once: every bridge must be crossed once, and none more than once.

[[Image:Konigsberg.jpg|center|alt=Layout of Konigsberg|Layout of Euler's Konigsberg]]

Euler proved that no such path existed, with the following simple and elegant argument: observe that the path one takes while on the islands is irrelevant to the problem at hand, and that all that matters is the order in which the bridges are traversed. Every time one enters one landmass by means of a bridge, he leaves it by means of another. This means that the number of bridges entering and exiting each landmass must be even, except possibly the landmass in which he starts and the one in which he ends (since he does not both enter and exit these). However, in Konigsberg, each of the four landmasses is served by an odd number of bridges! This means that no tour of the sort desired is possible.

This argument is fundamentally a "topological" one because of the recognition that the rigid shapes and geometry of the problem make no difference. If the shape of the islands were changed, or a bridge were moved but stayed between the same two islands, the solution of the problem would not be affected. The only thing that matters is the number of islands and which islands are connected by bridges. The modern field of topology is at its heart the study of geometric objects whose rigid shape is not important.

# Connection between topological spaces and algebraic groups
# Ham sandwich theorem (easy to state, harder to motivate solution. Possibly there's something better.

==== How can we tell the difference between a sphere and a torus? ====
This is the sort of question that motivated the development of the field of topology for many years. Recall that a [[torus]] is the shape of an inner tube, or the surface of a donut: it is a two-dimensional surface with one hole. If a torus were made out of clay, one could stretch and squish it, but it is intuitively clear that no amount of stretching could possibly deform in into a sphere: it's simply impossible to get rid of the hole! Similarly, a sphere made out of clay can't be deformed into a torus without ripping it. The question of why the two shapes are not the same is fundamentally a topological one: we are interested in some intrinsic geometric properties of these objects, but not their specific rigid shapes.

It turns out that methods from [[algebra]] provide the easiest way to prove that it is impossible to deform a sphere into a donut. Observe that a sphere has the following property: given any loop drawn on the sphere (say, a rubber band stretched around it somehow), it is possible to "contract" that loop to a point (i.e., to scrunch up the whole rubber band at one place). On the other hand, if a rubber band is placed on a donut in such a way that it loops around the central whole, there is no way to contract it to a single point. A crucial observation in the field of algebraic topology is that if a space can be obtained by squeezing and stretching a sphere, then it will still have the property that every loop is contractible. Since a torus doesn't, we conclude that it must be fundamentally different from a sphere. Arguments like this are the basis for the field of [[algebraic topology]], and this problem of contracting loops in a space is studied using the [[fundamental group]].

=== Analysis ===
# Riemann mapping theorem. State this in terms of conformal mappings of the unit disk and draw lots of pictures!

==== Fixed points ====
Often in mathematics or physics, it is interesting to think about what happens when we apply the same function repeatedly. For example, one might take a calculator, punch in a random number, and then hit the button "[[cosine|cos]]" repeatedly. What happens when we do this? If you try it, you might see something that looks like this:1.3, 0.267499, 0.964435, 0.569881, 0.841965, 0.665998, 0.7863, 0.706469, 0.760659, 0.724382, 0.748909, ...

It looks like these are getting closer and closer to some fixed number, and if you hit the button a few more times, you'd discover that indeed these terms approach some constant around C=0.739085. This is the value of C for which cos(C) = C. There's no way to solve for this C algebraically, but we can see from the [[intermediate value theorem]] that there must be some value of C for which this is the case, since cos(0) > 0 but cos(1) < 1.
Generally, a value x is called a '''fixed point''' of a function f if f(x)=x, and it is interesting to study when a function must have a fixed point. Although many functions have no fixed points, there are theorems that give certain conditions under which any function must have a fixed point.

One of the most famous such theorems is the Brouwer fixed-point theorem, which says in its simplest form that any continuous function <math>f: D^2 \to D^2</math> has a fixed point. This fact has a very intuitive description: if we take a sheet of graph paper (so we can label each point with coordinates), crumple it up, and set it on top of another sheet of graph paper, then there is some point on the crumpled up sheet which is directly above the corresponding point on the second sheet! While this sounds like a simple fact, proving it rigorously relies on the techniques of [[algebraic topology]].

Another celebrated example of a fixed point theorem is known as Sharkovsky's theorem. In addition to fixed points, some functions have points for which repeating the function several times yields the same result: for example, a value of x for which cos(cos(cos(x))) = x is called a 3-periodic point of the function cosine. Sharkovsky's theorem is the surprising result that if a continuous function f has points of period 3, then it has points of all other periods! For example, consider the quadratic <math>f(x) = -\frac{5}{2} x^2 + \frac{7}{2} +1</math> has f(0) = 1, f(f(0)) = f(1) = 2, f(f(f(0))) = f(f(1))=f(2) = 0. So 0 is a point of period 3 of f(x). Sharkovsky's theorem implies that there are points of every other period. For example, there is some x such that f(f(f(f(f(f(f(f(x)))))))=x! Solving this explicitly would involve solving a polynomial of degree 14, an extremely difficult task. But Sharkovsky's theorem guarantees that there is '''some''' value of x satisfying this.

==== Mathematical Billiards ====
Imagine that you're playing a game of pool on a standard rectangular table, but with a twist: there's no friction, so after you hit the ball, it continues along its trajectory forever. Obviously if you hit the ball so that its path is perpendicular to one of the walls of the table, it will bounce straight back, then off the opposite wall, straight back again, etc.: the ball will follow a repeating pattern of bouncing between the two walls forever. Similarly, if you aim just right, you can hit the ball so that it moves in a diamond-shaped path forever, bouncing off the middle of the sides of the walls repeatedly. A trajectory of the cue ball is called "periodic" if it's like one of these, in that the ball eventually ends up back where it started, and moving in the same direction. A trajectory is said to have "period p" if it hits the wall exactly <math>p</math> times in the course of this repeating cycle. The two examples given above have periods of two and four, respectively. One question we might ask is whether there is an orbit of period <math>p</math> for every possible choice of p. Can you come up with a path on the standard billiards table that has period 3? If not, can you prove that one doesn't exist?

As is often the case is mathematics, we attempt to generalize these results on periodic orbits to other situations. What if the billiards table is not rectangular, but triangular? It's true, but extremely difficult to prove, that given any triangular billiards table, there exists a periodic orbit of '''some''' period. The existence of periodic orbits is an extremely subtle question. This can be generalized even further, to ask whether all polygons admit periodic orbits. What about polyhedra? Can you imagine some periodic billiards orbits on a cube-shaped "table" (no gravity! think billiards in space).

The orbits that aren't periodic turn out to be just as interesting as those that are. Imagine that you place the cue ball at random on your billiards table, and smack it in some random direction. Chances are it won't end up in a periodic orbit -- putting the ball in a periodic orbit requires a very careful shot. So the ball will bounce around forever without retracing its path. But will it ever come back to the point where it started, perhaps moving in a different direction? The answer to this question is "no", but the Poincare Recurrence Theorem gives a somewhat satisfactory replacement: given any distance (e.g., an eighth of an inch), and any angle (e.g. two degrees), after some amount of time, the ball will be within that distance of its starting point, and directed within that angle of its initial path! This is a very suprising fact.

While this problem seems extremely elementary, sophisticated mathematical techiques from a range of fields of geometry and analysis have been brought to bear on it. Even so, many easily-stated questions remain open.

# Periodic orbits in billiards in polyhedra. I think it should be possible to say some interesting things about this but with some real content. Possibly there's a better idea.

Hard problem: What does an integral really mean? Babble a bit about integrating the characteristic function of Q.

=== Probability and Statistics ===
# Discussion of Benford's law, application to recognizing fraud.
# Understanding the concept of the "random variable"
# Proving the Central Limit Theorem

Motivating problem: Deriving conclusions from rarely occurring events, such as multiple no-hitters by the same pitcher. Specifically, how many no-hitters must a pitcher toss before one can conclude from that evidence alone that he is a great pitcher?

===Partial Differential Equations===
If you take a uniform circular metal disk and hold the temperatures at the periphery to some fixed pattern (say, lighting fires at some places and applying ice at others), and give it plenty of time to reach equilibrium, can you calculate the final temperature at every point inside? What does this have to do with Fourier series? (Hint: It has '''everything''' to do with Fourier series. This is the problem that Joseph Fourier was studying when he invented the series.)

=== Other fields ===
# Logic: still need a good problem
# Number theory: connected to the other fields above in many ways. Prime number theorem?
# Set theory: some discussion of axioms, maybe talk about AoC.
# applied mathematics, emphasizing the solution of partial differential equations which are essential to mechanical engineering

=== Related fields ===
Many other subjects are often considered parts of mathematics as well. Depending on specific undergraduate programs, a math major may or may not be required to take courses in these areas, but many of the same ideas are used in these subjects as in the others.
# Computer science: something about algorithmic complexity: maybe the fact that primality testing may be done in polynomial time?
# Computer science: How can Fourier transforms be used to multiply enormous integers much faster than normal methods?
...

=== Interplay ===
None of these fields exists in a vacuum, and there is rich interplay between them. If you insert "algebraic" or "differential" before the name of just about any branch of math, you get a more specialized, but important field. Motivate some of these connections:
# Algebra+topology: discussion of fundamental group.
# Analysis+topology: discuss conservative fields, and hint at de Rham cohomology without actually saying those words.
# Algebra+analysis: The set of derivations on the tangent bundle of a smooth manifold form a Lie algebra, connecting solutions to partial differential equations and algebra.

== So What? ==
After finishing a major in mathematics, most people don't keep working in pure math. But the ways of thinking and skills that the study of mathematics provide make available a wide range of career opportunities.

Specifically, mathematicians seeking to remain connected to their field pursue career opportunities in:
*actuary or insurance work
*defense-related work
*market trading analysis for investment banks
*mathematical modeling

Less-related fields that are also of some interest to mathematicians are:
*computer programming
*accounting
*K-12 teaching

Some mathematicians enter entirely unrelated fields. Math majors have the highest average scores of students in any field on the LSAT and GMAT, the tests required for entrance into law school and business school <ref>http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1430654</ref>: the skills acquired in studying mathematics in invaluable in the logic section of the LSAT and for subsequent careers in law.

== Further Reading ==
Numerous expository books cover the topics mentioned on this page, along with many others, in a very accessible way. Below are a few recommended books whose content is comparable to that of this article.
# ''Mathematics: The New Golden Age'', by Keith Devlin. Accessible discussions of many important ideas.
# ''Professor Stewart's Cabinet of Mathematical Curiosities'', by Ian Stewart. A similar book covering the exciting side of mathematics and requiring little background.
# ''Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics'', by John Derbyshire. Focuses on the famous [[Riemann hypothesis]] and related material.
# ''Hexaflexagons, Probability Paradoxes, and the Tower of Hanoi: Martin Gardner's First Book of Mathematical Puzzles and Games''. A collection of articles by one of mathematics' foremost expositors.
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Higher Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

2011-12-04T21:11:08Z

KevinDavis: Undo revision 942776 by Brettsworld (talk) Soviet-style communism, as it became known, ''was'' achieved

{{Country
|name =''Союз Советских Социалистических Республик Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik''
|map =Soviet union rel 1986.jpg
|flag =600px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png
|arms =Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg.png
|capital =Moscow
|government =Communist
|language =Russian (de facto)
|area =8,649,538 sq. mi. (1991)
|pop =293,047,571 (1991)
|pop-basis =
}}
The '''Soviet Union''' (Russian: Советский Союз, ''Sovyetskiy Soyuz''), formally the '''Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''' (or '''USSR''') (Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик, ''Soyuz Sovietskykh Sotsialisticheskykh Respublik'', abbreviated ''СССР'') existed 1917-1991, then broke into 15 separate countries, most notably [[Russia]]. It was the most powerful established [[socialist]] states in history, coming to power under [[Lenin]] in 1918 and killing millions of its peasants to establish a ruthless Communist dictatorship under [[Joseph Stalin]] in the 1930s. After cooperating with the USSR (1939-41), the Nazi Germans under [[Adolf Hitler]] invaded in a war to the death. The USSR defeated the Nazis in [[World War II]] (1941-45), and took control of most of Eastern Europe, turning formerly independent countries into Communist satellites. It was the primary antagonist of the United States during the [[Cold War]] (1947-1989); it then collapsed because of American pressure and its own internal economic and social failures. At its height the USSR covered one-sixth of the earth's land area, stretching from eastern Europe across north Asia to the Pacific Ocean.

==Geography==
[[File:Siberian cat.jpg|thumbnail|300px|The [[Siberia]]n [[cat]] is the national cat of [[Russia]].
 
 
(photo obtained from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bugsy_outside4.jpg Wikimedia commons], photographer: Jan Warner, see: [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en license agreement])]]
Located in the middle and northern latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the Soviet Union's 22.4 million square kilometers included one-sixth of the earth's usable land area. Its western portion, more than half of all Europe, made up 25% of its area; this, however, was where 72% of the people lived and where most industrial and agricultural activities were concentrated. The largest region was the lightly populated [[Siberia]], a land between the Urals and the Pacific that for centuries was infamous as a place of exile, a land of endless expanses of snow and frigid temperatures.

Extending for over 60,000 kilometers, the Soviet border was the world's longest national frontier, sharing a common border with twelve countries, six on each continent. In Asia, its neighbors were the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (North Korea), [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]], and [[Turkey]]; in [[Europe]], it bordered [[Romania]], [[Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Poland]], [[Norway]], and [[Finland]].

Approximately two-thirds of the frontier was bounded by water, forming the longest and, owing to its proximity to the North Pole, probably the most useless coastline of any country. Apart from Murmansk, which receives the warm currents of the Gulf Stream, the northern coast is locked in ice much of the year. The search for a warm water port was a central theme throughout Russian history.

A dozen seas, part of the water systems of three oceans--the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific--washed over Soviet shores.
*Size: Approximately 22,402,200 square kilometers (land area 22, 272,000 square kilometers); slightly less than 2.5 times size of United States.
*Location: Occupies eastern portion of European continent and northern portion of Asian continent. Most of country north of 50° north latitude.
*Topography: Vast steppe with low hills west of Ural Mountains; extensive coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; deserts in Central Asia; mountains along southern boundaries.
*Climate: Generally temperate to Arctic continental. Winters vary from short and cold along Black Sea to long and frigid in Siberia. Summers vary from hot in southern deserts to cool along Arctic coast. Weather usually harsh and unpredictable. Generally dry with more than half of country receiving fewer than forty centimeters of rainfall per year, most of Soviet Central Asia northeastern Siberia receiving only half that amount.
*Land Boundaries: 19,933 kilometers total: Afghanistan 2,384 kilometers' China 7,520 kilometers; Czechoslovakia 98 kilometers; Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) 17 kilometers; Finland 1,313 kilometers, Hungary 135 kilometers; Iran 1,690 kilometers; Mongolia 3,441 kilometers; Norway 196 kilometers; Poland 1,215 kilometers; Romania 1,307 kilometers; and Turkey 617 kilometers.
*Water Boundaries: 42,777 kilometers washed by oceanic systems of Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific.
*Land Use: 11 percent of land arable; 16 percent meadows and pasture; 41 percent forest and woodland; and 32 percent other, including tundra.
*Natural Resources: Oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, timber, gold, manganese, lead, zinc, nickel, mercury, potash, phosphates, and most strategic minerals.

===Administrative-Political-Territorial Divisions===
The USSR was divided into fifteen union republics - the largest administrative and political units - officially known as Soviet republics or union republics. Theoretically they were independent countries; in practice they were controlled by the Kremlin. Nationality, size of the population, and location were the determinants for republic status. By far the largest and most important was the Russian Republic, containing about 51% of the population. In 1989 Russians made up over 51% of the Soviet population and were politically, economically and culturally the dominant nationality, there are more than 100 other nationality groups that make up Soviet society. Fourteen other major nationalities also have their own republics: in the European part are the [[Lithuania]]n, [[Latvia]]n, [[Estonia]]n, [[Belarus|Belarusian]], [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], and [[Moldavia]]n republics; the [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n, Azerbaydzhan, and [[Armenian]] republics occupy the Caucasus; and Soviet Central Asia is home to the Kazakh, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kirgiz, and Tadzhik republics.

The Soviet republics were subdivided into administrative subdivisions called autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts, autonomous okruga, kraia, or most often oblasts. These subdivisions made the country easier to manage and some served to recognize additional nationalities.

==People==
[[Image:Solzhenitsyn.jpg‎|thumb|150px|right|The [[Nobel Prize]] winning [[Russia|Russian]] author [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] was exiled from the Soviet Union due to his criticism of the Soviet government.]]
The official Soviet census of 1989 listed over 100 nationalities in the Soviet Union. Each had its own history, culture, and language. Each possessed its own sense of national identity and national consciousness. The position of each nationality in the Soviet Union depended to a large degree on its size, the percentage of the people using the national language as their first language, the degree of its integration into the Soviet society, and its territorial-administrative status. This position was also dependent on each nationality's share of membership in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), the number of students in higher institutions, the number of scientific workers, and the urbanization of each nationality.

The various nationalities differed greatly in size. On the one hand, the [[Russia]]ns, who constituted about 50.8 percent of the population, numbered about 145 million in 1989. On the other hand, half of the nationalities listed in the census together accounted for only 0.5 percent of the total population, most of them having fewer than 100,000 people. Twenty-two nationalities had more than 1 million people each. Fifteen of the major nationalities had their own union republics, which together comprised the federation known as the Soviet Union.

The nationalities having union republic status commanded more political and economic power than other nationalities and found it easier to maintain their own language and culture. In 1989 some nationalities formed an overwhelming majority within their own republics; one nationality (the Kazakhs), however, lacked even a majority. In addition to the fifteen union republics, individual nationalities had their own territorial units, such as autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts, and autonomous okruga. The remaining nationalities did not have territorial units of their own and in most cases only constituted minorities in the Russian Republic.

The nationalities that have had a significant political and economic impact on the Soviet Union include the fifteen nationalities that have their own union republics and the non-union republic nationalities that numbered at least 1 million people in 1989. They are the Slavic nationalities, the Baltic nationalities, the nationalities of the Caucasus, the Central Asian nationalities, and a few other nationalities.
*Population: 293,047,571 (1991 estimate). Average annual growth rate 0.9 percent. Density twelve persons per square kilometer; 75 percent of people lived west of Ural Mountains.
*Nationalities: 51 percent of population Russian, 15 percent Ukrainian, 6 percent Uzbek, nearly 4 percent Belorussian, and 24 percent about 100 other nationalities.
[[File:Bezhnoznik u stanka 15-1929.jpg|thumb|260px|A Soviet propaganda poster disseminated in the ''Bezbozhnik'' (''Atheist'') magazine depicting [[Jesus]] being dumped from a wheelbarrow by an industrial worker as well as a smashed church [[bell]]; the text advocates Industrialisation Day as an alternative replacement to the [[Christian]] Transfiguration Day. see: [[Militant atheism]] ]]
*Religions: Religious worship was authorized by Constitution, but Marxism-Leninism, the official ideology, was militantly [[Atheism|atheistic]] (see: [[Militant atheism]]). Reliable statistics are unavailable, but about 18 percent was Russian Orthodox; 17 percent Muslim; and nearly 7 percent Roman Catholic, Protestant, Armenian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, and Jewish combined. Officially, most of remainder was atheist.
*Languages: Russian was the official language. Over 200 other languages and dialects were spoken, often as the primary tongue; 18 languages were spoken by groups of more than 1 million each. About 75 percent of people spoke Slavic languages.
*Education: Highly centralized school system with standardized curriculum. Attendance was compulsory through eleventh grade. Strong emphasis on training for vocations selected by central authorities. Indoctrination in Marxist-Leninist ideology at all levels. Science and technology emphasized at secondary level and above. As of 1979 census, official literacy rate 99.8 percent for persons between nine and forty-nine years old. Over 5.3 million studied at universities and institutes, nearly 50 percent part time. All education free, and in many cases students received stipends.
*Health and Welfare: Medical care by government health institutions; free, but of poor quality for general public despite having the highest number of physicians and hospital beds per capita in world. Welfare and pension programs provided, albeit marginally, for substantial segments of population.

===Population===
Seven official censuses have been taken in the Soviet Union (1920, 1926, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989). Both the quality and the quantity of the data have varied: in 1972 seven volumes totaling 3,238 pages were published on the 1970 census. In contrast, the results of the 1979 census were published more than five years later in a single volume of 366 pages.

According to the census of 1989, on the day of the census, January 12, the population of the Soviet Union was estimated to be 286,717,000. This figure maintained the country's long-standing position as the world's third most populous country after China and India. In the intercensal period (1979-88), the population of the Soviet Union grew from 262.4 million to 286.7 million, a 9 percent increase.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced declining birth rates, increasing divorce rates, a trend toward smaller nuclear families, and increasing mobility and urbanization. Major problems associated with such factors as migration, tension among nationality groups, uneven fertility rates, and high infant and adult mortality became increasingly acute, and various social programs and incentives were introduced to deal with them.

===Religion===
Over one-third of the people in the Soviet Union, an officially [[Atheism|atheistic]] state, professed religious belief. [[Christianity]] and Islam had the most believers. Christians belonged to various churches: Orthodox, which had the largest number of followers; Catholic; and Baptist and various other Protestant sects. The majority of the Islamic faithful were Sunni. Judaism also had many followers. Other religions, which were practiced by a relatively small number of believers, included Buddhism, Lamaism, and shamanism, a religion based on primitive spiritualism.

The role of religion in the daily lives of Soviet citizens varied greatly. Because Islamic religious tenets and social values of Muslims are closely interrelated, religion appeared to have a greater influence on Muslims than on either Christians or other believers. Two-thirds of the Soviet population, however, had no religious beliefs. About half the people, including members of the CPSU and high-level government officials, professed atheism. For the majority of Soviet citizens, therefore, religion seemed irrelevant.

==Government==
[[File:200px-Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg.png|thumbnail|200px|Coat of arms of the Soviet Union]]
:''Main article: [[Soviet Union government]]''
The Soviet Union administered the country's economy and society through decisions made by the leading political institution in the country, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU).

In the late 1980s, the government appeared to have many characteristics in common with Western, democratic political systems. For instance, a constitution established all organs of government and granted to citizens a series of political and civic rights. A legislative body, the Congress of People's Deputies, and its standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, represented the principle of popular sovereignty. The Supreme Soviet, which had an elected chairman who functioned as head of state, oversaw the Council of Ministers, which acted as the executive branch of the government. The chairman of the Council of Ministers, whose selection was approved by the legislative branch, functioned as head of government. A constitutionally based judicial branch of government included a court system, headed by the Supreme Court, which was responsible for overseeing the observance of Soviet law by government bodies. According to the Constitution of 1977, the government had a federal structure, permitting the republics some authority over policy implementation and offering the national minorities the appearance of participation in the management of their own affairs.

In practice, however, the government differed markedly from Western systems. In the late 1980s, the CPSU performed many functions that governments of other countries usually perform. For example, the party decided on the policy alternatives that the government ultimately implemented. The government merely ratified the party's decisions to lend them an aura of legitimacy. The CPSU used a variety of mechanisms to ensure that the government adhered to its policies. The party, using its nomenklatura authority, placed its loyalists in leadership positions throughout the government, where they were subject to the norms of [[democratic centralism]]. Party bodies closely monitored the actions of government ministries, agencies, and legislative organs.

The content of the Soviet Constitution differed in many ways from typical Western constitutions. It generally described existing political relationships, as determined by the CPSU, rather than prescribing an ideal set of political relationships. The Constitution was long and detailed, giving technical specifications for individual organs of government. The Constitution included political statements, such as foreign policy goals, and provided a theoretical definition of the state within the ideological framework of Marxism-Leninism. The CPSU could radically change the constitution or remake it completely, as it has done several times in the past.

The Council of Ministers acted as the executive body of the government. Its most important duties lay in the administration of the economy. The council was thoroughly under the control of the CPSU, and its chairman - the prime minister - was always a member of the Politburo. The council, which in 1989 included more than 100 members, is too large and unwieldy to act as a unified executive body. The council's Presidium, made up of the leading economic administrators and led by the chairman, exercised dominant power within the Council of Ministers.

According to the Constitution, as amended in 1988, the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union was the Congress of People's Deputies, which convened for the first time in May 1989. The main tasks of the congress were the election of the standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, and the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, who acted as head of state. Theoretically, the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet wielded enormous legislative power. In practice, however, the Congress of People's Deputies met only a few days in 1989 to approve decisions made by the party, the Council of Ministers, and its own Supreme Soviet. The Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and the Council of Ministers had substantial authority to enact laws, decrees, resolutions, and orders binding on the population. The Congress of People's Deputies had the authority to ratify these decisions.

The government lacked an independent judiciary. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts and applied the law, as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union lacked an [[Adversary proceeding|adversary court procedure]]. Under Soviet law, which derived from Roman law, a procurator worked together with a judge and a defense attorney to ensure that civil and criminal trials uncovered the truth of the case, rather than protecting individual rights.

The Soviet Union was a federal state made up of fifteen republics joined together in a theoretically voluntary union. In turn, a series of territorial units made up the republics. The republics also contained jurisdictions intended to protect the interests of national minorities. The republics had their own constitutions, which, along with the all-union Constitution, provide the theoretical division of power in the Soviet Union. In 1989, however, the CPSU and the central government retained all significant authority, setting policies that were executed by republic, provincial (''oblast'', ''krai'', and autonomous subdivisions), and district (''raion'') governments.

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the Soviet Union]]''
===Lenin===
The Soviet Union was established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) on territory generally corresponding to that of the old Russian Empire. A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd overthrew the imperial government in March 1917, leading to the formation of the Provisional Government, which intended to establish democracy in Russia. At the same time, to ensure the rights of the working class, workers' councils (''soviets'') sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir I. Lenin, agitated for socialist revolution in the soviets and on the streets, and they seized power from the Provisional Government in November 1917. Only after the ensuing Civil War (1918-21) and foreign intervention was the new communist government secure.

From its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves beginning March 1918. After unsuccessfully attempting to centralize the economy during the Civil War, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist with nationalized industry in the 1920s. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for Soviet leaders to contend for power in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. By gradually consolidating influence and isolating his rivals within the party, [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph V. Stalin]] became the sole leader of the Soviet Union by the end of the 1920s.

===Stalin===
[[Image:Stalin-140508 27880t.jpg|right|225px|thumb|[[Joseph Stalin]], the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953, founded the League of Militant Atheists, whose chief aim was to propagate [[militant atheism]] and eradicate [[religion]].<ref name=Hesemann-Strieber>{{cite book|author=Michael Hesemann, Whitley Strieber|title=The Fatima Secret|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tx-BEpkJBq8C&pg=PT107&dq=Joseph+Stalin+militant+atheism&hl=en&ei=-DeRTpLrJoPi0QHo88wi&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=Joseph%20Stalin%20militant%20atheism&f=false|quote=Lenin's death in 1924 was followed by the rise of Joseph Stalin, "the man of steel," who founded the "Union of Militant Atheists," whose chief aim was to spread [[atheism]] and eradicate religion. In the following years it devastated hundreds of churches, destroyed old icons and relics, and persecuted the clergy with unimaginable brutality.|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|date=2000|accessdate=09 October 2011}}</ref> See also: [[Atheism]] ]]
In 1928 [[Joseph Stalin]] introduced the First Five-Year Plan for building a socialist economy. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization; in agriculture, the state appropriated the peasants' property to establish collective farms. These sweeping economic innovations produced widespread misery, and millions of peasants perished during forced collectivization. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s when Stalin began a purge of the party; out of this purge grew a campaign of terror that led to the execution or imprisonment of untold millions of people from all walks of life. Yet despite this turmoil, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before World War II.

===World War II===
Stalin tried to divide up Eastern Europe with Germany by concluding the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact with Adolf Hitler in 1939. The USSR took over the Baltics (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) and the eastern half of Poland, while going to war with [Finland]]. Communists across the world ended their diatribes against fascism, while Stalin provided the German war machine with supplies of oil and grain. Europe was not big enough for two dictators, so in June 1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union. The U.S. and Britain formed an alliance with Stalin to fight the Nazis, and poured in [[Lend Lease]] aid. After many humiliating defeats and the loss of three mission soldiers, the Red Army finally stopped the Nazi offensive at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942-43 and then overran much of eastern Europe before Germany surrendered in 1945. Although severely ravaged in the war, the Soviet Union emerged from the conflict as one of the world's great powers.
===Cold War===
During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded its economy, using resourcs stripped from defeated Germany. The Red Army imposed Communist political control over postwar Eastern Europe, except for Yugoslavia and Albania. The active Soviet foreign policy helped bring about the [[Cold War]], starting about 1947, which turned its wartime allies, Britain and the United States, into foes. Within the Soviet Union, repressive measures continued in force; Stalin apparently was about to launch a new purge when he died in 1953.
===Khrushchev===
[[File:Nikita Krushchev.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Nikita Khrushchev]] liked to threaten and bully, often using "brinkmanship" (the threat of nuclear weapons); ''Time'' Sept. 8, 1961]]

see: [[Nikita Khrushchev]]

After three years of a join leadership, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] seized power, denounced Stalin's use of terror and effectively reduced repressive controls over party and society. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive, and foreign policy toward China and the United States suffered reverses. Khrushchev's colleagues in the leadership removed him from power in 1964.

===Brezhnev ===
Following the ouster of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued, which lasted until [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid I. Brezhnev]] established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent figure in Soviet political life. Brezhnev presided over a period of détente with the West while at the same time building up Soviet military strength; the arms buildup contributed to the demise of [[détente]] in the late 1970s. Also contributing to the end of détente was the [[Soviet-Afghan War|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in December 1979.

After some experimentation with economic reforms in the mid-1960s, the Soviet leadership reverted to established means of economic management. Industry showed slow but steady gains during the 1970s, while agricultural development continued to lag. In contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of cautious conservatism and aversion to change. Brezhnev was succeeded by former KGB head Yuri Andropov.

===Reagan challenge===
Friction with the west continued in the 1980's, especially with the United States and its new president, [[Ronald Reagan]], who saw the Soviet Union for what it was and branded it an "evil empire," partially in response to the Afghanistan occupation. Reagan negotiated with West Germany to provide sites for the basing of Pershing II medium-range ballistic missiles, which was bitterly opposed by Moscow. A short period of confrontation existed between the two superpowers during the period of late-1983 through 1984, beginning with the tragic Soviet attack on a commercial airliner, [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], over international waters near Sakhalin Island on September 1, 1983, and killing 269 civilians, including a sitting U.S. Congressman, [[Larry McDonald]]; this was followed by events within a military exercise known as Able Archer, in which a falling satellite was mistaken for an incoming ICBM and almost triggered a major war. Reagan's [[Strategic Defense Initiative]], a space-based missile defense system critics derisively dubbed "Star Wars" as well as his expansion of the United States military, also prompted a new, expensive arms race.

Andropov and his successor, Konstantin Chernenko, kept the communist system under Brezhnev intact, but upon Chernenko's death [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became party chairman.

===Gorbachev and the end of Communism===
see [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]

A reformer, he introduced a series of economic and political reforms known as ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openess") and ''[[perestroika]]'' ("restructuring"), which began to creak open the doors of the Soviet's closed system. A failed attempt to reign in the three [[Baltic States]] in 1989 led to a domino-effect of [[Warsaw Pact]] countries abandoning communism; a coup attempt against Gorbachev in 1991 by hard-liners trying to keep their tattering empire ended within days. The USSR was formally dissolved on Christmas day 1991 by [[Boris Yeltsin]], freeing many from its tyranny. The main successor state to the Soviet Union is [[Russia]]; the effort to form a "Commonwealth of Independent States" went nowhere, and the 15 republics of the USSR are now independent states.

==See Also==
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Soviet Union government]]
*[[Nazi Germany]]
*[[Korean Airlines Flight 007]]
*[[Soviet Officers of KAL 007 Shootdown]]
*[[KAL 007: Timeline of Interception and Shootdown]]
*[[Anatoly Kornukov]]
*[[The Soviet/ U.S naval confrontation]]
*[[KAL 007 and the Soviet Top Secret Memos]]

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1990)
* Ingram, Philip. ''Russia and the USSR, 1905-1991'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Russia-1905-1991-Cambridge-History-Programme/dp/0521568676/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232394134&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Keep, John L. H. ''Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945-1991'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/25055927?title=Last%20of%20the%20Empires%3a%20A%20History%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union%2c%201945-1991 online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union: 1917-1991'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54365219 online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Who's Who in Russia since 1900,'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/103052094?title=Who's%20Who%20in%20Russia%20since%201900 online edition]
* Malia, Martin. ''Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Tragedy-History-Socialism-Russia/dp/0684823136/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232396454&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Nove, Alec. ''An Economic History of the USSR 1917-1991'' (3rd ed. 1993)
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003), by a leading conservative
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. ''The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States.'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24265044# online edition]
===Lenin and Stalin===
* Bullock, Alan. ''Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives'' (1992), a double biography covering each man in separate but parallel chapters
* Lee, Stephen J. ''Stalin and the Soviet Union'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/108215209?title=Stalin%20and%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Stalin and Stalinism'' (3rd ed 2003), 172pp
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: A Biography'' (2004), along with Tucker the standard biography
* Service, Robert. ''Lenin: A Biography'' (2002)
* Tucker, Robert C. ''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879-1929'' (1973); ''Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929-1941.'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103246514 online edition] with Service, a standard biography; [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Ulam, A. B. ''Stalin'' (1973), good older biography; replaced by Tucker and Service
* Wood, Alan. ''Stalin and Stalinism'', (2004), 105pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108863368 online edition]
===Peoples, society, culture===
* Cole, J. P. ''Geography of the Soviet Union'' (1984) [http://www.questia.com/read/7724372?title=Geography%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Davis, Nathaniel. ''A Long Walk to Church: A Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/30537968?title=A%20Long%20Walk%20to%20Church%3a%20A%20Contemporary%20History%20of%20Russian%20Orthodoxy online edition]
* Denber, Rachel. ''The Soviet Nationality Reader: The Disintegration in Context'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/97474829?title=The%20Soviet%20Nationality%20Reader%3a%20The%20Disintegration%20in%20Context online edition]
* Lane, David. ''Soviet Society under Perestroika'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/103443652?title=Soviet%20Society%20under%20Perestroika online edition]
* Lapidus, Gail Warshofsky. ''Women, Work, and Family in the Soviet Union'' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/read/106056669?title=Women%2c%20Work%2c%20and%20Family%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Lutz, Wolfgang Lutz, Sergei Scherbov, Andrei Volkov. ''Demographic Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union before 1991'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/103849492?title=Demographic%20Trends%20and%20Patterns%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20before%201991 online edition]
* Wixman, Ronald. ''The Peoples of the USSR: An Ethnographic Handbook'' (1984) [http://www.questia.com/read/582240?title=The%20Peoples%20of%20the%20USSR%3a%20An%20Ethnographic%20Handbook online edition]

===1918-1939===
* Daniels, R. V., ed. ''The Stalin Revolution'' (1965)
* Davies, Sarah, and James Harris, eds. ''Stalin: A New History,'' (2006), 310pp, 14 specialized essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Stalin-New-History-Sarah-Davies/dp/0521616530/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494353&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* De Jonge, Alex. ''Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union'' (1986)
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila, ed. ''Stalinism: New Directions,'' (1999), 396pp excerpts from many scholars on the impact of Stalinism on the people (little on Stalin himself) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109468478 online edition]
* Hoffmann, David L. ed. ''Stalinism: The Essential Readings,'' (2002) essays by 12 scholars
* Pipes, Richard. ''A Concise History of the Russian Revolution'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Russian-Revolution/dp/0679745440/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393501&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search], by a leading conservative
* Tucker, Robert. ''Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalinism-Historical-Interpretation-Robert-Tucker/dp/0765804832/ref=sr_1_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193876953&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]

===[[Gulag]] and Terror===
* Applebaum, Anne. ''Gulag: A History.'' 2003. 736 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Gulag-History-ANNE-APPLEBAUM/dp/B0007NMYPY/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494284&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/79044140?title=The%20Great%20Terror%3a%20A%20Reassessment online edition]
* Pohl, J. Otto. ''Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/9465022?title=Ethnic%20Cleansing%20in%20the%20USSR%2c%201937-1949 online edition]
* Rosefielde, Steven. "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s" ''Europe-Asia Studies,'' Vol. 48, No. 6 (Sep., 1996), pp. 959-987 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0966-8136(199609)48%3A6%3C959%3ASIPPNE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]

===World War II===
* Brandon, Ray, and Wendy Lower, eds. ''The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization.'' (2008). 378 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=24078 online review], on the Holocaust
* Broekmeyer, Marius. ''Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941-1945.'' 2004. 315 pp.
* Overy, Richard. ''The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia.'' 2004. 448 pp. focus on 1930-45 [http://www.amazon.com/Dictators-Hitlers-Germany-Stalins-Russia/dp/B000FTCH5W/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494219&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Priestland, David. ''Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalinism-Politics-Mobilization-David-Priestland/dp/0199245134/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494105&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Roberts, Geoffrey. ''Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953'' (2006).

===Cold War===
* see [[Cold War]]
* Craig, Campbell, and Yuri Smirnov. ''Truman, Stalin, and the Bomb'' (2008)
* Gaddis, John. ''A New History of the Cold War'' (2006)
* Holloway, David. ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalin-Bomb-Soviet-Atomic-1939-1956/dp/0300066643/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193876689&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Mastny, Vojtech. ''The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98422373 online edition] [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History/dp/0807859583/ref=pd_bbs_sr_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
===Khruschev, Gorbachev===
* Brown, Archie. ''The Gorbachev Factor'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/109878423?title=The%20Gorbachev%20Factor online edition]
* Dallin, Alexander, and Gail W. Lapidus. ''The Soviet System: From Crisis to Collapse'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/100838053?title=The%20Soviet%20System%3a%20From%20Crisis%20to%20Collapse online edition]
* Matlock, Jack. ''Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended'' (2005), by leading conservative [http://www.amazon.com/Reagan-Gorbachev-How-Cold-Ended/dp/0812974891/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Taubman, William. ''Khrushchev: The Man and His Era'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Khrushchev-Man-His-William-Taubman/dp/0393324842/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393626&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History/dp/0807859583/ref=pd_bbs_sr_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html Library of Congress detailed country study on the Soviet Union]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/intro2.html The Soviet Union and the United States]
*State Defense Committee Decree No. 5859ss [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/l2tartar.html "On the Crimean Tatars"], The Kremlin, May 11, 1944.

[[category:Russian History]]
[[Category:Former Countries]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Communist States]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]

Talk:Shockofgod

2011-12-02T15:49:31Z

KevinDavis:

==Typos==
I just wanted to point out a few typos in this page, because it is linked to on the front page. In the second sentence, "'''cummulatively,'''" should be "'''cumulatively'''" if I'm not mistaken. Also, in the first section after the Table of Contents, "'''In June of 2011, Shockofgoddeclared'''" should have a space before "'''declared'''." That's all I can find at the moment; please let me know if there is anything else I can do. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 20:35, 30 November 2011 (EST)
:Hi everyone. Could someone please address the aforementioned copy-editing mistakes? Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 10:49, 2 December 2011 (EST)

User talk:JonG

2011-12-02T15:39:05Z

KevinDavis:

[[User talk:JonG/Archive|Archive 1]]
{{welcome|sig=<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 20:23, 23 April 2010 (EDT)}}

== Blocked users ==

Hi Jon. If you check the logs, you'll see that I had posted those messages on two users' pages ''before'' they were blocked. I was trying to draw the attention of other users to ensure that they were blocked, since I don't have the ability myself. Let me know if you need help finding the logs and I'll be happy to help. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 08:40, 2 December 2011 (EST)
:They drew enough attention to themselves with their edits and usernames. If a future violator isn't blocked in a "timely fashion", then write on a [http://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&group=sysop SysOp's] talk page. [[User:JonG|~ ]][[User_talk:JonG|JonG]][[Special:Contributions/JonG| ~]] 09:36, 2 December 2011 (EST)
::When user names are inappropriate, I feel that expedience overrides silence as a primary concern. Also, as I was editing at the time before it disabled, I wanted to be on the record as aware of the problem. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 10:39, 2 December 2011 (EST)

User talk:JonG

2011-12-02T13:40:06Z

KevinDavis: /* Blocked users */ new section

Talk:Shockofgod

2011-12-01T01:35:22Z

KevinDavis: Created page with "==Typos== I just wanted to point out a few typos in this page, because it is linked to on the front page. In the second sentence, "'''cummulatively,'''" should be "'''cumulativel..."

User talk:CPalmer

2011-11-22T13:51:11Z

KevinDavis: /* Talk page fix */ new section

Archive: [[User talk:CPalmer/Archive2008|2008]] | [[User talk:CPalmer/Archive2009a|Jan-Apr 2009]] | [[User talk:CPalmer/Archive2009b|May-Dec 2009]]

== Basic rights only ==

12:14, 23 January 2008 LowKey (Talk | contribs) New user account ‎ {{unsigned|LowKey}}

:::Added. Congratulations to you!--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:56, 9 April 2010 (EDT)

== Categorizing ==

Thanks for adding categories to some of my entries (Urim and Thummim, Mary Celeste). I seem to have a mental block about creating categories; I constantly forget to do it. [[User:EMorris|EMorris]] 15:55, 8 February 2011 (EST)
:No problem, Morris!--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:14, 17 June 2011 (EDT)

== Hey ==

Thanks for doing all the work on cats and stuff.--[[User:JamesWilson|JamesWilson]] 10:10, 29 July 2011 (EDT)
:No problem - thank you for noticing. There are still just under 1000 uncategorised pages, so there's plenty more to do.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:20, 29 July 2011 (EDT)
::Don't worry. I may not have the time I did 2 years or so ago, but I can help with those categories. [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 14:11, 11 August 2011 (EDT)
I just wanted to give you kudos too for all the work you've been doing in adding the cats! Great job! --[[User:SharonW|SharonW]] 12:54, 11 August 2011 (EDT)
:::Thanks for your kind words, though of course my slow, steady progress is its own reward.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 08:34, 12 August 2011 (EDT)
==Username==
Hi! What's wrong with it? It's the Italian for "God is abundance", isn't it? Is there a word problem? --[[User:Dioporco|Dioporco]] 11:20, 16 August 2011 (EDT)
:I think it means "God pig". So you can see why I thought it was blasphemous. "Porco" certainly means "pig" - perhaps someone has been having a joke at your expense?--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:23, 16 August 2011 (EDT)

== Thanks for the re-add ==

Thanks for re-adding me to your accursed list...:) [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 09:45, 17 August 2011 (EDT)

== Granted extra privileges ==

Your account has been granted the extra privileges of blocking rights and SkipCatcha. Congratulations!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 10:29, 17 August 2011 (EDT)
:Thanks! I'll try and put them to good use.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 10:30, 17 August 2011 (EDT)
::Congrats! I guess you're not the fourth longest-running basic rights user anymore.--[[User:JamesWilson|JamesWilson]] 10:54, 17 August 2011 (EDT)
:::No, that honour will pass to someone else.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:00, 17 August 2011 (EDT)

You broke your record, but congrats! RE emails - I created a CP only email and posted the address on my user page. That way, if anyone wants to get a hold of me they can. --[[User:SharonW|SharonW]] 11:07, 17 August 2011 (EDT)

==Working together==

Thanks for the [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Role_3&diff=908095&oldid=908093 cats] and [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Role_3&diff=908096&oldid=908095 links] to [[Role 3]]. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 12:18, 31 August 2011 (EDT)

:No problem. Good work creating the content, which is the greater part of the work.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 12:36, 31 August 2011 (EDT)

== Great block! ==

Great block!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 12:05, 10 October 2011 (EDT)
:Thank you! It seemed quite a clear-cut case.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 12:16, 10 October 2011 (EDT)

== Comment erroneously posted on main user page ==

You know that Benp has now quit? --[[User:NickCope|NickCope]] 12:17, 11 October 2011 (EDT)

:It doesn't really matter for the purposes of the list. I still like him, and he will remain there until I am inspired to add other people. Of course, if he is still absent the next time I make an addition, that will count against him and he may be in line for removal!--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 12:35, 11 October 2011 (EDT)
::And now it seems that you yoruself are no longer with us. Sic transit.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 08:25, 12 October 2011 (EDT)

== Spam ==

Hi CPalmer. I posted a comment on [[User talk:Billyclark123|this talk page]] because I'm worried that user might be a spam program trying to piggyback off the site to get hits to the advertising link he posted on his user page. See my comment for the details. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 08:45, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

:I see what you are saying but as far as I know, there is no rule against posting links on one's user page. If the user were to start spamming on other pages, that would certainly be unacceptable.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 08:56, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
::My only concern would be that a search engine would index it, see that the exact same content has been posted elsewhere, and flag this site as a spam site (or at least a site where spammers have free reign). Yes, it's not fair, but I've read about Google's PageRank algorithm taking similar procedures to protect against malware and JavaScript vulnerabilities that edit page content. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 12:38, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

==Back==

Are you "Dr. Pal" from the old days? :-) --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 09:50, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

:No - I don't know a Dr Pal. I've always been CPalmer.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 09:51, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

::Sorry, I guess I was thinking of "PalMD". --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 14:31, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

== Categories ==

Kudos: That was a herculean task! [[User:AugustO|AugustO]] 09:19, 18 November 2011 (EST)
:Thanks! Though technically I think it is a Sisyphean task, since people do keep on creating new pages...--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 10:40, 18 November 2011 (EST)

Thanks for [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Pregnancy_test&diff=prev&oldid=939223 the cat]. Don't kill it! --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 21:39, 21 November 2011 (EST)

== Talk page fix ==

Thanks for reverting the code breakage on my page; I had undone the problem on Mr. Schlafly's page, but I could not block the troublesome user so he was free to continuing breaking pages. Thanks for the help! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 08:51, 22 November 2011 (EST)

King David

2011-11-16T22:29:30Z

KevinDavis: Add comma

[[Image:King David.jpg|right|thumb|300px|King David playing the [[harp]] (Domenico Zampieri 1581-1641)]]
'''King David''' was the second king of [[Israel]] from 1010-970 BC.

With [[God]]'s help, he defeated [[Goliath]], the [[champion]] of the [[Philistines]]. Later he captured [[Jerusalem]], which he made the capital city. David greatly extended the borders of [[Israel]], which he ruled as a united kingdom.

==Genealogy==

David was from the tribe of Judah, with his genealogy being given in Ruth 4:18-22. It is held that it is this tribe that Genesis 49:10 speaks of the [[Messiah]] coming from.<ref>http://www.letusreason.org/Juda1.htm</ref> (Genesis 49:10; cf. 2 Samuel 7:12-16; Matt.1:2 , Heb. 7:14-17). David was the youngest of 8 sons of Jesse, who also had 2 daughters. (1Sam. 16:8-12; 17:2; 1Chr. 2:13-16<ref>see Keil & Delitzsch, 1Chrn. 2:9-41</ref>) The name ''David'', like the similar name Jedidish (2Sam. 12:25), comes from a root meaning “to love." David is the only person who bears that name in the Bible. David's ancestor Nahshon was chieftain of the whole tribe of Judah, (Num. 1:7; 2:3; 1Chr. 2:10) and brother-in-law of Aaron the high priest. (Exo. 6:23) The name of David's mother is not given, but it is recorded that David later placed his parents under the protection of the king of Moab, which some surmise may indicate that his mother was from that country, as the mother of his grandfather Obed was Ruth the Moabitess. <ref>International Standard Bible Encyclopedia on David, James Orr, M.A., D.D., General Editor</ref> (1Sam. 22:3; 22:1) It appears that David had a devoted father, thus giving David a good spiritual heritage.

== Before becoming King ==

David worked as a shepherd of sheep, and which would require both tending to the needs of sheep as well as defending them, not only against marauders from the surrounding deserts, but also from the lions and bears which inhabited the country. This was work which, while then unknown to him, helped prepared him to later defend and lead Israel. The descriptions given of him in this regard indicates obedience to his father and diligence in his work.

David was called "the least of his father's household". He was brought into [[Saul|King Saul's]] household to play the harp to calm Saul's nerves, which had been increasingly troubled since he had sinned against [[God]], and was told by [[Samuel]] that the kingship would be taken from him and given to another by God. David witnessed all of the warriors of [[Israel]] cower before a great Philistine giant, [[Goliath]] who would taunt them daily. David, a young shepherd boy, who had no military training, stood up and accepted Goliath's challenge. Saul offered him his armor, but David declined. David slew Goliath with a sling stone and cut off his head, which motivated the armies of Israel to rise up and scatter the Philistines. Saul became jealous of David and what he had accomplished, especially when he heard the people singing "Saul has slain his thousands, and David, his tens of thousands."

David continued to play the harp for Saul, but it did not have the same affect. One day when David was playing Saul threw a spear at him to try to kill him; it missed. With the help of Saul's son [[Jonathan]], who was David's best friend, David fled the palace and went into hiding. David fled Israel twice due to being hunted by Saul, gaining refuge with the Philistines. (1Sam. 21:10; Ps. 34:1; 1Sam. 27:1,2) Almost all commentators see these instances as acts of weakness and deception.<ref>Adam Clarke, LL.D., F.S.A, Matthew Henry</ref> During the latter stay in Philistine territory David attacked Canaanites which Israel was to have destroyed previously, while keeping the full reality of it from Achish.<ref>Keil & Delitzsch, 1Sa 27:8-9 </ref> As a result of his alliance with the Philistines, David almost became part of the battle in which Saul and Jonathan were slain, but was Providentially delivered from this battle. (1Sam. 29) Being sent back by the Philistine's king Achish, David and his men discovered that the Amalekites had taken captive all their wives, and their sons, and their daughters. At this point, David was in danger of being stoned by his own people, but "David encouraged himself in the LORD his God." (1Sam. 29) Twice David could have killed Saul, and though he was urged to do so, his deep reverence for the Lord's anointed would not allow it. Instead, David cut off a piece of his robe (which he later felt was itself wrong) the first time, and the second time he took Saul's spear and the a cruse of water, to demonstrate his innocence to Saul. (1Sam. 24; 26) After the first instance Saul was contrite, but soon he pursued David and his followers again. After the second instance Saul pursued David no more. Finally, Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in battle with the Philistines. (2Sam. 31) David grieved, executed the man that actually killed Saul (a case of assisted suicide), and he became king of [[Judah]]. (2Sam. 1; 2) There was long war between the house of Saul and the house of David: but David waxed stronger and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker. (2Sam. 3:1) Finally Saul's son [[Ish-Bosheth]] was murdered in his own bed. The killers took the head to David seeking a reward, but instead David executed them for unjustly killing their own king. (2Sam. 4) Such killers are set in contrast to David, whose actions show his reverence towards those whom God appointed, and that he was not one who grasped at power or riches.

==David's character and call==

David is revealed as a type of person who was "lovable." It is recorded that both Saul and Jonathan loved David, (1Sam. 16:21; 18:1,3; 20:17) as did all Saul's servants, (1Sam. 18:20,28) and all Israel and Judah, (1Sam. 18:16) and Saul's daughter, Michal. (1Sam. 18:20,28) David overall expressed great love for God, love toward others, and even toward personal adversaries, though he was also a mighty man of war. (Ps. 23; 73; 35; 69; 18) In addition, he was a man who served in many functions and situations, and manifested different gifts, and was called "the sweet psalmist of Israel" (2Sam. 23:1,2) who spoke by the Spirit of God.<ref>International Standard Bible Encyclopedia</ref>

Outside of the record of his birth in Ruth 4:17,22, David is first revealed as the one chosen by God to replace king Saul, due to his disobedience, which revealed serious foundational character faults.<ref>Matthew Henry, 1Sam. 13; 15</ref> [[Samuel]], while yet mourning for Saul, is sent by the God of Israel to the house of Jesse the Bethlehemite to anoint a new king, but he is not told which one it is. Saul's jealous character which will later greatly threaten David is seen revealed here by Samuel's response that Saul would kill him if this mission was known to him. The Lord provides the correct context, and Samuel comes to Bethlehem, in which he sanctifies Jesse and his sons, and calls them to the sacrifice. (1Sam. 16:1-5)

The eldest son of Jesse comes first before Samuel, and prophet that he is, yet Samuel wrongly concludes he must be the Lord's anointed. This results in the famous statement by God, that "man looketh on the outward appearance, but the LORD looketh on the heart." (v. 7) One by one the other sons of Jesse are set before Samuel, but none of them are chosen. David is out keeping the flock, and upon Samuel's inquiry as to whether any more sons remain and insistence that he come, David is called. Here, like as the Bible recorded the appearance of Saul before his anointing, (1Sam. 9:2) so it also notes that David was "goodly" (KJV) and “ruddy”, and of a beautiful countenance. The Lord then tells Samuel to anoint him as “he is the one.” (1Sam. 16:6-13)

However, the man he is to replace (King Saul), who was once anointed with the [[Holy Spirit]] and became a new man, (1Sam. 10:5-7) now loses this anointing and becomes affected by an evil spirit sent by (or allowed to come by) God in judgment.<ref>Keil & Delitzsch; Dr. John Gill, 1Sam. 16:14</ref> (1Sam. 16:14) Saul's servants close to him discern this and advise he send them to find a man gifted to play the harp, which one of the servants recommends David for. Saul sends for David, and his father sends him off with provisions. At first Saul loves him greatly, and he is appointed Saul's armorbearer. Having found favor in his sight, Saul requests of Jesse that David be allowed to stand before the king on a more permanent basis. (cf. Num. 16:9; Dt. 10:8; Dan. 1:5)

While David was appointed to be Saul's armorbearer (perhaps one of many), it is not recorded that he served as such in any battles, and the character and ability of David as a soldier is most fully provided in 1 Samuel 17. David's real ministry is manifested as that of his anointed playing of a harp type instrument, which drove the evil spirit away when he played so that Saul became well for a time. (1Sam. 16:14-23) However, as seen in the next chapter where David is back home, his service here appears to have been temporary, perhaps for now going backwards and forwards from Saul to feed his father's sheep in Bethlehem as needed.<ref>Keil & Delitzsch, 1Sa 17:1-54</ref>

==David and Goliath==

The story of David and [[Goliath]] is one of the most famous stories of the Bible, and reveals much about David's faith and courage.

The context is that as there was war between Saul and the Philistines all his days, (1Sam. 14:52) here the Philistines are once again gathered together for battle against Israel, facing off in the hilly region between the mountains of Judah and the plain of Philistia.<ref>Keil & Delitzsch, ibid.</ref> It is thought by Calmet that this war happened eight years after the anointing of David, and ten or twelve years after the war with the Amalekites.<ref>Adam Clarke, LL.D., F.S.A., (1715-1832), 1Sam. 17:1</ref> A well armed, literal giant named [[Goliath]], whose height has been estimated to be between approx. 9 feet nine inches to 11 feet,<ref>Clarke, 1Sam. 17:4</ref> daily taunted the “servants to Saul” for 40 days, morning and evening, defying them to provide a man to fight and kill him, with the winner to gain the submission of all their respective opponent. Upon hearing his defiance, the Israelites were “dismayed, and greatly afraid.” (1Sam. 17:1-11)

Meanwhile, David's father had become frail, and his 3 oldest sons had followed Saul to the battle. David returned home to feed his sheep.<ref>Gill, 1Sam. 17:15</ref> With the Philistine crisis now ongoing for 40 days, Jesse instructs David to take provisions to the camp of his sons, and some cheese for their captain. David was to inquire as to their condition, and to (apparently) bring some evidence of their welfare back, as they were in conflict with the Philistines in the valley of Elah. (1Sam. 17:12-19)

David thus leaves his sheep with a caretaker, and goes to the battle, as both Israel and the Philistines were going forth in preparation to fight, being set in array against each other, and into which David runs. He greets and talks to his brethren, but as he does he hears Goliath speaking his words of defiance. This sends the Israelites around him fleeing, and they declare what manner of reward Saul shall give to the the man who slays Goliath, that of great riches, Saul's daughter in marriage, and freedom from any slavery one might be under. David inquires of this from those close by him, “for who is this uncircumcised Philistine, that he should defy the armies of the living God”, and is it confirmed. When David's oldest brother hears of Davids words, his response is not one of encouragement but chastisement, accusing David of neglecting his sheep and of ill motives, that of coming just to see the battle. David's response indicates he has heard such before but will not be dissuaded, saying, “What have I now done? Is there not a cause?”, and which question he repeats to others. (1Sam. 17:20-30)

However, when King Saul hears of David's words, then he calls for him. To him David asserts there is no cause to fear Goliath, as David “thy servant will go and fight with this Philistine.” Saul protests that his youth disallows fighting such a seasoned man of war, to which David responds by stating how he killed both a lion and a bear who were after his sheep. David goes on to assert that Goliath shall be as one of them, “seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God”, for the LORD who delivered him previously would do so in this battle. This is seen to example David's basic hatred of evil, and his faith toward God, and fearless character in faith.<ref>Matthew Henry, 1Sa 17:31-39</ref> At this Saul gives David his blessing, but proceeds to arm David with his armor. This David does put on, but finds Saul's armor unsuitable for him, and which would burden him rather than being his defense. Instead, David takes five smooth stones out of the brook, places then in a shepherd's bag, and with his sling in his hand he drew near to the Philistine. (1Sam. 17:32-40)

Goliath, with his shield bearer, looks around and sees David and scorns the ruddy handsome youth, and drawing closer, he expresses that he is insulted that they would send such a lowly warrior (as David appears to be), and also perhaps mistakes David's slingshot for something else. He curses David by his pagan gods, and invites him to battle, so that he may give his flesh "unto the fowls of the air, and to the beasts of the field." David's response is known as classic, contrasting the giants reliance upon earthly means of warfare with David's reliance upon God, in whose name he fights, with the purpose being that “all the earth may know that there is a God in Israel.” And so that “this assembly shall know that the LORD saveth not with sword and spear: for the battle is the LORD'S.” (1Sa 17:45-47) Similar statements of faith would be later be made by certain good kings of Israel, (2Chrn. 14:11 32:8), and his his reliance upon God is also seen in Jonathan, another warrior of faith for Israel. (1Sa 14:12)

When the Philistine arises and comes toward David then he charges to meet him, and using his slingshot launches one stone that hits the giant in the forehead, who then falls upon his face to the earth. David next uses Goliath's sword to cut off his head, at which point the Philistines flee, with Israel soon in pursuit. David saves both Goliath's head and his armor. (1Sa 17:48-54) That the text (vs. 50,51) says that David “slew” (KJV) the Philistine with the stone, while the next verse attributes the means of death to David cutting off his head, may refer to Goliath being as good as dead from the stone in lieu of what would happen next. (cf. Gn. 20:3)

Saul then inquires as to who son this hero was, and which seems odd considering that David had been chosen to serve him previously, (1Sam. 16:23), but which many commentators see as due to Saul's troubled mind. Says Henry, “Saul had forgotten him, being melancholy and mindless, and little thinking that his musician would have spirit enough to be his champion; and therefore, as if he had never seen him before, he asked whose son he was. Abner was a stranger to him, but brought him to Saul (1Sam. 17:57), and he gave a modest account of himself, 1Sam. 7:58. And now he was introduced to the court with much greater advantages than before, in which he owned God's hand performing all things for him.” Other objections to the text are also made and dealt with. <ref>[http://www.tektonics.org/af/davegol.html Smooth Stones, James Patrick Holding]</ref><ref>[http://www.carm.org/bible-difficulties/joshua-esther/who-killed-goliath-david-or-elhanan Who killed Goliath, David or Elhanan?, Matthew J. Slick]</ref>

==David and Jonathan==
{{See also|David and Jonathan}}

The committed friendship and Godly brotherly love between these two notable Biblical characters, amidst much danger and stress, makes their story one of the most remarkable ones in the [[Bible]]. The story of their friendship is mainly told in [[I Samuel]], chapters 13-23,31 and 2 Samuel 1, two books which contain the history of the kingdom of God in Israel, from the termination of the age of the judges to the close of the reign of king David.<ref>Keil & Delitzsch</ref>

Both Jonathan and David were daring warriors for Israel in its theocratic kingdom, in the land which formerly was that of Canaan, in which dangerous enemies were yet to be fought. In addition, the paranoia of [[King Saul]] over losing his kingdom to David, who was anointed by God through the prophet Samuel to be king, caused David, and finally his fellow compatriot Jonathan (who recognized his future kingship), to be in danger of life.

While the story of David and Jonathan is revealed as an example of platonic love in the cause of righteousness, pro-homosex proponents labor to construe it as a physically homoerotic affair, and charge the writers of the Bible with [[homophobia]] for covering it up, as it lacks the necessary descriptions used elsewhere to denote eroticism.

In response, traditional exegesis evidences that the Bible makes basic laws as well as human sexual behavior (in particular) evident, in their respective contexts, with David and Jonathan's love being manifest a supreme example of non-sexual brotherly love, with all accounts of their affection critically lacking the descriptions needed to postulate or establish erotic love. As manifested by his sacrificial loyalty to David, holy brotherly affection, and commitment to the future of the kingdom, Jonathan's love for David is seen as being of a superior platonic kind than that the mere romantic or erotic “love of women”.<ref>Matthew Henry</ref> And that such homoeroticism expression would be radically contrary to explicit commands and the transcendent ethos of Israel. (See [[Homosexuality and biblical interpretation]]) It is also nonsensical to suggest that David was a homosexual, since the Bible clearly documents the contrary (see, e.g., 2 Samuel 5:13<ref>[http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=2Sa&c=5&v=13&t=KJV#13 2 Samuel 5:13 (KJV)]</ref>).

== David as King ==

David greatly expanded the borders of Israel, defeating every foe he faced. However, his own life was not without controversy. He lost his child due to his [[adultery]] with [[Bathsheba]]; one of his sons [[Absalom]] killed his brother [[Amnon]] after he raped and discarded his sister [[Tamar]]; later Absalom rebelled against David and forced him to flee. David took back his throne, but Absalom was killed even though David had ordered his life to be spared. David also had to live through a revolt by [[Sheba]], but he too was vanquished. Furthermore, because David sinned in taking a census of the land, 70 thousand people fell to pestilence. And yet through it all, David was called a man after God's own heart, due to his true and deep grievings for his wrongs. In fact, Scripture records that <blockquote>"David did [that which was] right in the eyes of the LORD, and turned not aside from any [thing] that he commanded him all the days of his life, save only in the matter of Uriah the Hittite."<ref>I Kings 15:5 (KJV) [http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/popup.pl?book=1Ki&chapter=15&verse=5&version=kjv#5]</ref></blockquote> David wrote most of the [[Psalms]] in the Bible including the famous Psalm 23, ''The Lord is my Shepherd''

David died after ruling 40 years, 33 of them in Jerusalem, and set up his son [[Solomon]] as his successor. David was not allowed to build the temple because he was a man of 'blood' (a military commander), but his son could. David was part of the lineage of [[Jesus]].

== References ==

[[I Samuel]], [[II Samuel]], [[I Kings]]

<References/>

== See also ==

*[[Sculpture]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.bible-history.com/isbe/D/DAVID/ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, David]
*[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1032929.html Recent Archaeological find pointing to support for the Biblical extent and character of David's Kingdom. Shows archaeological approach and limitations]

{{DEFAULTSORT: David, King}}

[[Category:Ancient History]]
[[category:Biblical Persons]]
[[Category:Kings of Israel]]
[[Category: Biblical Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Jewish People]]

Guerilla warfare

2011-11-14T14:17:39Z

KevinDavis: Created redirect of common spelling error to facilitate searches; I have made this spelling mistakes before as well

#REDIRECT [[Guerrilla warfare]]

Guerilla

2011-11-14T14:16:53Z

KevinDavis: Redirected page to Guerrilla warfare

#REDIRECT [[Guerrilla warfare]]

Talk:Guerrilla

2011-11-14T14:16:18Z

KevinDavis:

This article is neither [[Terrorism]] nor [[American Revolution]]. Try making your edit to one of those pages, and see if it stands. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:42, 26 February 2008 (EST)
:I was citing the fact that Guerrilla tactics were used by the American revolutionaries. This is true under every definition of terrorism. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm] [http://naiadonline.ca/book/01Glossary.htm] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrorism]. I am not interested in expanding this article in general, merely citing a true fact. [[User:Chevrefuqae|Chevrefuqae]] 21:53, 26 February 2008 (EST)
::Guerrilla warfare is not always terrorism. And one of your definitions says "''Many terrorist acts, especially against an occupying military or against illegal occupants are acts of war or resistance, and not terrorism. "''. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:48, 26 February 2008 (EST)
:::By that definition, many of the terrorists in Iraq and Afghanistan aren't really terrorists, as many of them (excluding, of course, those such as al-Qaeda who specifically target civilians) only attack US military targets (in this case, the US Military represents an occupying military force). [[User:Chevrefuqae|Chevrefuqae]] 21:51, 26 February 2008 (EST)
::::You disagree with the source you provided? [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:54, 26 February 2008 (EST)
This should be merged with [[Guerrilla warfare]]. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:52, 26 February 2008 (EST)

== Merger with [[Guerrilla warfare]] ==

Per the tag I posted on this page and the [[guerrilla]] page, I believe these two pages should be merged. As topics, they are inseparable, since one cannot have guerrillas without guerrilla warfare. Maybe the page on guerrilla warfare could have a section on the history of the term or information pulled from the guerrilla article, but I do think they should be merged. Does anyone have any objections? Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:15, 14 November 2011 (EST)

Talk:Guerrilla warfare

2011-11-14T14:15:59Z

KevinDavis: Created page with "==Merger== Per this discussion, I support merging Guerrilla with this article. Please see the relevant discussion on '''that''..."

==Merger==
Per [[Talk:Guerrilla#Merger_with_Guerilla_warfare|this discussion]], I support merging [[Guerrilla]] with this article. Please see the relevant discussion on '''that''' page to post comments. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:15, 14 November 2011 (EST)

Talk:Guerrilla

2011-11-14T14:15:12Z

KevinDavis: /* Merger with Guerilla warfare */ new section

This article is neither [[Terrorism]] nor [[American Revolution]]. Try making your edit to one of those pages, and see if it stands. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:42, 26 February 2008 (EST)
:I was citing the fact that Guerrilla tactics were used by the American revolutionaries. This is true under every definition of terrorism. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm] [http://naiadonline.ca/book/01Glossary.htm] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrorism]. I am not interested in expanding this article in general, merely citing a true fact. [[User:Chevrefuqae|Chevrefuqae]] 21:53, 26 February 2008 (EST)
::Guerrilla warfare is not always terrorism. And one of your definitions says "''Many terrorist acts, especially against an occupying military or against illegal occupants are acts of war or resistance, and not terrorism. "''. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:48, 26 February 2008 (EST)
:::By that definition, many of the terrorists in Iraq and Afghanistan aren't really terrorists, as many of them (excluding, of course, those such as al-Qaeda who specifically target civilians) only attack US military targets (in this case, the US Military represents an occupying military force). [[User:Chevrefuqae|Chevrefuqae]] 21:51, 26 February 2008 (EST)
::::You disagree with the source you provided? [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:54, 26 February 2008 (EST)
This should be merged with [[Guerrilla warfare]]. [[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] 21:52, 26 February 2008 (EST)

== Merger with [[Guerilla warfare]] ==

Per the tag I posted on this page and the [[guerrilla]] page, I believe these two pages should be merged. As topics, they are inseparable, since one cannot have guerrillas without guerrilla warfare. Maybe the page on guerrilla warfare could have a section on the history of the term or information pulled from the guerrilla article, but I do think they should be merged. Does anyone have any objections? Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:15, 14 November 2011 (EST)

Guerrilla

2011-11-14T14:13:41Z

KevinDavis:

{{merge|Guerrilla warfare}}

'''Guerrillas''' are [[fighter]]s that do not use normal military [[tactics]]. Guerrillas do not wear standard military uniforms; rather they often disguise themselves as civilians. Guerrillas will also hide in wilderness areas. [[Terrorism]] is a form of guerrilla warfare.

Guerrilla tactics have been used by many forces throughout history;

*The Spanish forces when Napoleon invaded Spain;
*The [[communist]] forces of [[Mao Zedong]];
*The [[Viet Cong]] of the [[Vietnam War]];
*The [[Minutemen]] of the [[American Revolution]];
*Mujahideen in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]]

[[Category:Military]]

Guerrilla warfare

2011-11-14T14:13:23Z

KevinDavis: Maybe this article should be merged?

{{merge|Guerrilla}}

[[Guerrilla warfare]] ([[Spanish]]: ''guerrilla'' "small war") is warfare where one or more sides use unconventional tactics such as stealth, intelligence, [[sabotage]], [[assassination]] and [[espionage]], combined with small raids against larger more conventional forces. The Spanish resistance to [[Napoleon]] after their nation had been "defeated" is a classic example of guerrilla warfare. Other oft drawn-upon examples of guerilla warfare are those of the Colonial troops during the [[Revolutionary War]] and the [[Viet Cong]] resistance during the [[Vietnam War]].

==See also==
*[[Asymmetric warfare]]

[[Category:Military]]

Worst College Majors

2011-11-04T03:42:36Z

KevinDavis: Standarize section header

The '''worst college majors''' are fields of study that leave the student with relatively few job opportunities and often a distorted or ultra-[[liberal]] view of the world. If the student incurred debt in attending college, then he is left with obligations without any practical way to pay for them.

We encourage college students and employers to improve this list over time.

==Majors==
# Women's studies,<ref>"Women’s studies ... is disappearing from British universities. ... Students have begun to realise, too, that women’s studies is useless for getting you a job. It’s no coincidence that the subject’s collapse coincided with the introduction of tuition fees. The moment you start paying for something is the moment you consider whether it’s really worthwhile." [http://www.theinsider.com/news/639292_The_End_Of_Women_s_Studies_And_Other_Useless_Qualifications]</ref><ref>http://www.boundless.org/2000/features/a0000225.html</ref><ref>http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/why-is-gender-studies-dominated-by-one-gender-1.289830</ref> sometimes included as part of "gender studies"<ref>http://www.whitman.edu/content/genderstudies</ref>
# [[Atheism|Secularism]]<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/08/us/08secular.html</ref>
#[[Homosexuality|LGBT]] studies<ref>http://www.yale.edu/lgbts/</ref><ref>http://www.lgbts.umd.edu/</ref>
# Film<ref name=georgetown>[http://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/whatsitworth-complete.pdf What's It Worth?] Georgetown University, July 2011</ref>
# English Literature/Literary Criticism
# Music Therapy<ref name="georgetown" />
# Dance<ref name="georgetown" />
# Interior Design<ref name="yahoolist" />
# Art History<ref name=yahoolist>[http://finance.yahoo.com/college-education/article/110196/20-worst-paying-college-degrees-in-2010 20 Worst-Paying College Degrees in 2010] Yahoo! Finance, 08/12/2010</ref>
# Comic Book Art
# Surfing Studies
# Golf Management – University of Birmingham / Florida Gulf Coast University
# Communications
# [[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]
# Architecture <ref>http://www.foxbusiness.com/slideshow/personal-finance/2010/06/28/worst-fields-graduates/#slide=5</ref>
# Degrees leading to careers in investment banking and corporate work<ref>http://www.foxbusiness.com/slideshow/personal-finance/2010/06/28/worst-fields-graduates/#slide=3</ref>
# Journalism <ref>http://www.foxbusiness.com/slideshow/personal-finance/2010/06/28/worst-fields-graduates/#slide=4</ref>
# Psychology<ref name="georgetown" />
# Fashion Design
# Theater<ref name="georgetown" />
# Horticulture<ref name="yahoolist" />
# Human Resources<ref name="yahoolist" />
# Photography<ref name="georgetown" />
# Video game design<ref>One observer noted that not even the video game industry typically hires people who majored in video game design.</ref>
# Forestry/Range Management/Wildlife Management
# Environmental Studies
# Outdoor Recreation
# Fine Art<ref>http://www.artcareer.net/faqs/job-market-outlook-for-artists-and-designers/</ref><ref name="yahoolist" />
# Astronomy
# Anthropology
# Sociology
# History of Music

==Courses==
# Football Culture
# Queer Musicology – UCLA
# The Science of Harry Potter – Frostburg University <ref>CBS News: ''Harry Potter Goes To College: Professor Uses Boy Wizard To Explores Links Between Magic, Science'', by Bootie Cosgrove-Mather, Sept. 26, 2003 [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/11/19/national/main584456.shtml] ''...Frostburg State President Catherine R. Gira said she isn't worried that some may view a Harry Potter class as trivial. "Irrespective of the specific title of the course, the 'magic' in the fiction is being analyzed by applying concepts of physics, chemistry, biology and engineering. This honors course creatively packages scientific principles in a contemporary way that will interest today's students," Gira said.''</ref>
# Native American Feminism - University of Michigan
# Cyber Feminism - Cornell University
# Feminist New Black Man - Occidental College <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HvlL_lDk4ko Jason Mattera At CPAC, YouTube]</ref>
# Philosophy and Star Trek – Georgetown University in Washington <ref> [http://courses.georgetown.edu/index.cfm?Action=View&CourseID=PHIL-180 Georgetown University Course Listing]</ref>
# Emotional Literacy<ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1076368/Schools-councils-waste-300-000-useless-emotional-literacy-course-faraway-island-sun.html</ref>
# Media Genres, the study of zombies - University of Baltimore <ref>[http://www.aolnews.com/weird-news/article/university-of-baltimore-pop-culture-class-focuses-on-zombies/19625044?test=latestnews College Course Preps Pupils for Zombie Apocalypse, AOL News, September 9, 2010]</ref>
# The Science of Superheroes - UC Irvine <ref>[http://www.newsrealblog.com/2010/11/14/the-top-8-california-schools-that-are-like-totally-wasting-your-money/ The Top 8 California Schools that Are, Like, Totally Wasting Your Money, NewsRealBlog, November 14, 2010]</ref>
# Field Equipment Operation (tractor driving) - UC Davis
# Hip Hop: The Politics of Culture - UC San Diego
# History of Surfing - UC Santa Barbara
# Labor Studies - UM Saint Louis & UM Kansas City <ref>[http://www.thehotjoints.com/2011/04/25/video-college-course-teaches-violent-union-tactics/ Video: College Course Teaches Violent Union Tactics, The Hot Joints, April 25, 2011]</ref>
# Arguing with Judge Judy - UC Berkeley
# Self-Esteem - Cal State Fresno
# Gaga for Lady Gaga: Sex, Gender, and Identity- University of Virginia-Charlottesville<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/09/10/lady-gaga-college-class_n_712540.html</ref>
# Pilot Brewery (brewmaster) - UC Davis
# Search for Extraterrestial Intelligence - UC Berkeley
# Ecology of Renewable Natural Resources - Texas Tech University <ref>[http://www.depts.ttu.edu/officialpublications/courses/NRM.php Texas Tech University Course Listing]</ref>

== External Links ==

* [http://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/whatsitworth-complete.pdf What's It Worth? The Economic Value of College Majors] - Comprehensive report at [[Georgetown University]] website
* [http://learnfinancialplanning.com/best-worst-college-majors-degree/ Best and Worst College Majors]
* [http://www.toptenz.net/to-10-useless-college-classes-degrees.php Top 10 Useless College Degrees & Classes]
[[Category:college]]
[[Category:education]]

== References ==

<references/>

Terri Schiavo

2011-10-29T20:03:03Z

KevinDavis:

[[Image:TerriSchiavo.jpg|right|thumb|Terri Schiavo before her injury]]
'''Terri Schiavo''' (Dec. 3, 1963 – Mar. 31, 2005)
was a [[coma]] victim whose plight came to national attention early in the [[Bush Administration (Dubya)|Bush Administration]]. The legal issues split the country as much as the [[abortion|abortion issue]].

While on a weight-loss diet, Schiavo consumed too little potassium, resulting in a condition diagnosed as a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her husband and her parents became locked in a lengthy legal battle over whether to keep her alive. Florida Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and his brother [[President Bush]] sided with the parents, who believed their daughter was responsive. Despite a special law passed to prevent her death, courts finally decided to terminate her life support on March 18, 2005, and she died of starvation and dehydration within two weeks.

Schiavo was diagnosed by physicians as being brain-damaged after her husband reported that she had collapsed in their home early in the morning.

==Controversy==

The case struck raw nerves on both sides of the liberal-conservative divide, pitting largely atheistic and materialistic supporters of [[euthanasia]] and "right-to-die" against predominantly religious supporters of "[[right to life]]" and [[human rights]].

===Keep her alive===

Many patients observed to be in a brain-damaged state like Terri's have surprisingly recovered, including several highly publicized cases shortly after Terri died from dehydration.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4511511.stm</ref><ref>http://cornellsun.com/node/23962</ref>
During this time, one of Terri's nurses states that Terri frequently spoke (saying "help me" and "Mommy") and recognized familiar people.
Yet she was forced to die by dehydration over the objections of her parents, her brother and sister, her church, and millions of Americans.

===Let her die===

George Felos, an attorney prominent in the right-to-die movement and described as "pro-death"<ref>http://www.personal.psu.edu/glm7/m211.htm</ref> represented Mr. Schiavo and applied to the Pinellas County-Pasco County Circuit [[probate court]] for the right to remove Terri's feeding tube. A judge ordered her death despite objections by everyone in Terri's own family and several medical professionals.<ref>http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf</ref> His order not only required removal of Terri's feeding tube, but ordered the arrest of people who peacefully attempted to give drinking water to Terri rather than let her die of dehydration.<ref>http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2005/mar/05032402.html</ref>

Terri Schiavo was not terminally ill, but she was determined to be in a "[[persistent vegetative state]]". This conclusion was reached by neurologists hired on the side seeking her death, but disputed by neurologists hired by Terri’s parents. Her parents were given the right to a comprehensive examination of Terri by order of the Florida 6th Judicial Circuit court. Two neurologists selected by Michael Schiavo, one radiologist and one neurologist selected by Terri’s parents, and one neurologist selected by the court examined Terri and her medical history thoroughly. The judge declared that Terri was in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of improvement.[http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf]

==Role of husband==

While still married to Terri, Michael Schiavo [[adultery|started a new family with another woman]], whom he eventually married after Terri's death, while insisting on retaining legal authority over Terri despite the objections of her parents and siblings.<ref>http://www.sptimes.com/2005/03/26/Tampabay/She_s_the_other_woman.shtml]</ref>

==Legal dispute==
The legal dispute over Schiavo's death lasted seven years, beginning with the filing of a petition in 1998 with the Pinellas County (Florida) Circuit Court for permission to remove her feeding tube, and ending with her death in 2005. During the same time, Mr. Schiavo increasingly came under the influence of attorney George Felos, who is prominent in the pro-death movement. A nurse suggested misconduct by Mr. Schiavo during his visits, alleging evidence that Mr. Schiavo may have been harming Terri.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/forum/?date=050320&a=2&message=105</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/9/22/165543.shtml</ref> Following Terri's death, the county coroner refused to allow an independent autopsy or even an independent review of its autopsy, and claimed without independent verification that Terri's brain had half the normal mass for a woman her age. Her body was then quickly cremated, destroying any possible exculpatory evidence.

Leading up to Terri's death in 2003, a court ordered the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. This prompted the Florida legislature to pass '[[Terri's Law]]' in under a week, authorizing the personal involvement of Governor [[Jeb Bush]] to overrule the finding of the court. The governor immediately ordered the reinsertion of the feeding tube. Terri's Law was later ruled unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court, finding that state and federal constitutions prohibit the interference of the governor or legislature within a specific judicial case.

Neither an Act of Congress nor any federal court overturned the probate judge's order that Terri be dehydrated to death.

== Autopsy ==

The State and Schiavo's estranged husband refused to allow an independent autopsy, and Schiavo was cremated after her death. The State did perform its own autopsy and reported these results that lack independent verification:<ref>http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday186.htm</ref> <ref>http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/schiavo/61305autopsyrpt.pdf</ref>

# “Neuropathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain—or any brain, for that matter—cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state.”
# The changes in the cortex were most severe in the occipital lobes, “with relative preservation of the frontal and temporal lobes.”
# Oral feedings, based on autopsy findings and past medical records, were “potentially harmful or, at least, extremely dangerous to Mrs. Schiavo’s health and welfare” because of the risk of aspiration.
# The only evidence for an eating disorder was the initial low serum potassium, which could have resulted from the fluid load and epinephrine administered during her resuscitation.
# The autopsy showed no signs of remote trauma to neck structures, but with 15 years delay, “even bony anomalies would have likely resolved.” External signs of trauma should have been apparent on her hospital admission just after her collapse. “Subtle trauma related to commotio cordis or nontraumatic asphyxia is also possible,” as are “drugs/toxins not typically detected by hospital toxicologic screening.”
# Severe, irreversible brain damage that left that organ discolored and scarred, shriveled to half its normal size, and damaged in nearly all its regions, including the one responsible for vision.
# Brain damage "was irreversible . . . no amount of treatment or rehabilitation would have reversed" it.

==Similar cases==
* Nancy Cruzan. An American woman left in allegedly vegetative state after a car accident.
* Sue Rodriguez. A Canadian woman with a terminal illness who desired an assisted suicide.
* Spiro Nikolouzos. An American whose life support the hospital wished to end. His family fought this, claiming that the hospital wished to end his life purely because his Medicare coverage was running out. Under the Texas Futile Care Law, the Texas hospital could legally override the will of a family if given approval by an ethics committee.
*Haleigh Poutre. An American child beaten into a coma by a foster parent whom the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] is attempting to remove from life support. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/01/25/who_failed_haleigh_poutre/]
*Jessie Ramirez. An American man who suffered severe head trauma during a car accident, and was diagnosed as being a Persistent Vegetative State. Based on this diagnosis, his wife requested that life support be removed only 1 week after the accident. His parents fought to keep him on life support despite his wife's interference and an [[Arizona]] judge ordered his feeding tube replaced. He recovered 3 weeks after the accident. [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1858135/posts]

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080218/EDITORIAL/864194763 False Compassion] - Washington Times editorial by Terri's brother
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schiavo, Terri}}

[[Category:Victims]]
[[Category:Women|Schiavo, Terri]]
[[Category:Right to life]]

George Felos

2011-10-29T20:00:56Z

KevinDavis: Redirected page to Terri Schiavo#Let her die

#REDIRECT [[Terri_Schiavo#Let_her_die]]

Terri Schiavo

2011-10-29T19:55:24Z

KevinDavis: Fixed reference for "pro-death," because Felos has certainly been described this way

[[Image:TerriSchiavo.jpg|right|thumb|Terri Schiavo before her injury]]
'''Terri Schiavo''' (Dec. 3, 1963 – Mar. 31, 2005)
was a [[coma]] victim whose plight came to national attention early in the [[Bush Administration (Dubya)|Bush Administration]]. The legal issues split the country as much as the [[abortion|abortion issue]].

While on a weight-loss diet, Schiavo consumed too little potassium, resulting in a condition diagnosed as a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her husband and her parents became locked in a lengthy legal battle over whether to keep her alive. Florida Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and his brother [[President Bush]] sided with the parents, who believed their daughter was responsive. Despite a special law passed to prevent her death, courts finally decided to terminate her life support on March 18, 2005, and she died of starvation and dehydration within two weeks.

Schiavo was diagnosed by physicians as being brain-damaged after her husband reported that she had collapsed in their home early in the morning.

==Controversy==

The case struck raw nerves on both sides of the liberal-conservative divide, pitting largely atheistic and materialistic supporters of [[euthanasia]] and "right-to-die" against predominantly religious supporters of "[[right to life]]" and [[human rights]].

===Keep her alive===

Many patients observed to be in a brain-damaged state like Terri's have surprisingly recovered, including several highly publicized cases shortly after Terri died from dehydration.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4511511.stm</ref><ref>http://cornellsun.com/node/23962</ref>
During this time, one of Terri's nurses states that Terri frequently spoke (saying "help me" and "Mommy") and recognized familiar people.
Yet she was forced to die by dehydration over the objections of her parents, her brother and sister, her church, and millions of Americans.

===Let her die===

George Felos, an attorney prominent in the right-to-die movement and described as "pro-death"<ref>http://www.personal.psu.edu/glm7/m211.htm</ref> represented Mr. Schiavo and applied to the Pinellas County-Pasco County Circuit [[probate court]] for the right to remove Terri's feeding tube. A judge ordered her death despite objections by everyone in Terri's own family and several medical professionals.<ref>http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf</ref> His order not only required removal of Terri's feeding tube, but ordered the arrest of people who peacefully attempted to give drinking water to Terri rather than let her die of dehydration.<ref>http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2005/mar/05032402.html</ref>

Terri Schiavo was not terminally ill, but she was determined to be in a "[[persistent vegetative state]]". This conclusion was reached by neurologists hired on the side seeking her death, but disputed by neurologists hired by Terri’s parents. Her parents were given the right to a comprehensive examination of Terri by order of the Florida 6th Judicial Circuit court. Two neurologists selected by Michael Schiavo, one radiologist and one neurologist selected by Terri’s parents, and one neurologist selected by the court examined Terri and her medical history thoroughly. The judge declared that Terri was in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of improvement.[http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf]

==Role of husband==

While still married to Terri, Michael Schiavo [[adultery|started a new family with another woman]], whom he eventually married after Terri's death, while insisting on retaining legal authority over Terri despite the objections of her parents and siblings.<ref>http://www.sptimes.com/2005/03/26/Tampabay/She_s_the_other_woman.shtml]</ref>

==Legal dispute==
The legal dispute over Schiavo's death lasted seven years, beginning with the filing of a petition in 1998 with the Pinellas County (Florida) Circuit Court for permission to remove her feeding tube, and ending with her death in 2005. During the same time, Mr. Schiavo increasingly came under the influence of attorney George Felos, who is prominent in the pro-death movement. A nurse suggested misconduct by Mr. Schiavo during his visits, alleging evidence that Mr. Schiavo may have been harming Terri.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/forum/?date=050320&a=2&message=105</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/9/22/165543.shtml</ref> Following Terri's death, the county coroner refused to allow an independent autopsy or even an independent review of its autopsy, and claimed without independent verification that Terri's brain had half the normal mass for a woman her age. Her body was then quickly cremated, destroying any possible exculpatory evidence.

Leading up to Terri's death in 2003, a court ordered the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. This prompted the Florida legislature to pass '[[Terri's Law]]' in under a week, authorizing the personal involvement of Governor [[Jeb Bush]] to overrule the finding of the court. The governor immediately ordered the reinsertion of the feeding tube. Terri's Law was later ruled unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court, finding that state and federal constitutions prohibit the interference of the governor or legislature within a specific judicial case.

Neither an Act of Congress nor any federal court overturned the probate judge's order that Terri be dehydrated to death.

== Autopsy ==

The State and Schiavo's estranged husband refused to allow an independent autopsy, and Schiavo was cremated after her death. The State did perform its own autopsy and reported these results that lack independent verification:<ref>http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday186.htm</ref> <ref>http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/schiavo/61305autopsyrpt.pdf</ref>

# “Neuropathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain—or any brain, for that matter—cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state.”
# The changes in the cortex were most severe in the occipital lobes, “with relative preservation of the frontal and temporal lobes.”
# Oral feedings, based on autopsy findings and past medical records, were “potentially harmful or, at least, extremely dangerous to Mrs. Schiavo’s health and welfare” because of the risk of aspiration.
# The only evidence for an eating disorder was the initial low serum potassium, which could have resulted from the fluid load and epinephrine administered during her resuscitation.
# The autopsy showed no signs of remote trauma to neck structures, but with 15 years delay, “even bony anomalies would have likely resolved.” External signs of trauma should have been apparent on her hospital admission just after her collapse. “Subtle trauma related to commotio cordis or nontraumatic asphyxia is also possible,” as are “drugs/toxins not typically detected by hospital toxicologic screening.”
# Severe, irreversible brain damage that left that organ discolored and scarred, shriveled to half its normal size, and damaged in nearly all its regions, including the one responsible for vision.
# Brain damage "was irreversible . . . no amount of treatment or rehabilitation would have reversed" it.

==Similar cases==
* Nancy Cruzan. An American woman left in allegedly vegetative state after a car accident.
* Sue Rodriguez. A Canadian woman with a terminal illness who desired an assisted suicide.
* Spiro Nikolouzos. An American whose life support the hospital wished to end. His family fought this, claiming that the hospital wished to end his life purely because his Medicare coverage was running out. Under the Texas Futile Care Law, the Texas hospital could legally override the will of a family if given approval by an ethics committee.
*Haleigh Poutre. An American child beaten into a coma by a foster parent whom the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] is attempting to remove from life support. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/01/25/who_failed_haleigh_poutre/]
*Jessie Ramirez. An American man who suffered severe head trauma during a car accident, and was diagnosed as being a Persistent Vegetative State. Based on this diagnosis, his wife requested that life support be removed only 1 week after the accident. His parents fought to keep him on life support despite his wife's interference and an [[Arizona]] judge ordered his feeding tube replaced. He recovered 3 weeks after the accident. [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1858135/posts]

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080218/EDITORIAL/864194763 False Compassion] - Washington Times editorial by Terri's brother

[[Category:Victims]]
[[Category:Women|Schiavo, Terri]]
[[Category:Right to life]]

Social Justice

2011-10-29T19:53:02Z

KevinDavis: Fix wording issues

'''Social Justice''', also known as economic justice, is a term describing the redistribution of wealth for the common good of all. However, this comes at the expense of wage earners and liberty by demanding a society to conform. Those who work and have must give to those who don't work and don't have. This is the fundamental basis of [[Marxism]] and championed by [[liberal]] progressives. Everyone shall have equal advantages and everyone will have equal disadvantages. In reality it creates two classes, those with power and everyone else.

Many Christian organizations strongly support social justice. However, this is a trap promoted by liberal Christianity claiming [[Jesus]] was a [[socialist]]. We are to help the less fortunate but we are not to become the less fortunate in the process. We are to give according to our abilities but social justice violates "thou shall not steal" and takes what is yours. The National Council of Churches, the group that translates the Bible to the New Revised Standard Version, is an advocate of Social Justice. <ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100320/glenn-beck-keeps-social-justice-debate-alive/index.html Glenn Beck Keeps 'Social Justice' Debate Alive Christian Post, March 20, 2010]</ref>

===The Roman Catholic Church and Social Justice===

The Roman Catholic Church advocates social justice that is based on charity and support for all mankind, its key points being respect for the human person, equality and difference among men, human solidarity. In brief, they seek respect, equal dignity, encourage charity, reduce excessive social and economic inequalities, the elimination of sinful inequalities, and the sharing of spiritual goods. <ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm Vatican- Social Justice]</ref>

The Church's support of the teaching began largely with Rerum Novarum, an encyclical letter written by Pope Leo XIII, published in 1891.<ref>http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html</ref> The 1962 - 1965 [[Second Vatican Council]] produced an Apostolic Constitution called Gaudium et Spes which stated in Paragraph 90:

"The council, considering the immensity of the hardships which still afflict the greater part of mankind today, regards it as most opportune that an organism of the universal Church be set up in order that both the justice and love of Christ toward the poor might be developed everywhere. The role of such an organism would be to stimulate the Catholic community to promote progress in needy regions and international social justice."<ref>http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html</ref>

Based on the above statement, in 1967 Pope Paul VI created a Pontifical Commission called Justice and Peace, later re-named by Pope John Paul II The Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
* [http://biggovernment.com/kashiver/2010/03/21/obamacare-a-social-justice-nightmare-for-the-whole-world/ Obamacare: A Social Justice Nightmare for the Whole World]
* [http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100320/glenn-beck-keeps-social-justice-debate-alive/index.html Glenn Beck Keeps 'Social Justice' Debate Alive]
* [http://www.networklobby.org NETWORK - A National Catholic Social Justice Lobby (advocate of Obamacare & Abortion)]
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm Vatican page of Social Justice]

[[Category:Marxism]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Christianity]]

Social Justice

2011-10-29T19:51:57Z

KevinDavis:

'''Social Justice''', also known as economic justice, is a term describing the redistribution of wealth for the common good of all. However, this comes at the expense of wage earners and liberty by demanding a society to conform. Those who work and have must give to those who don't work and don't have. This is the fundamental basis of [[Marxism]] and championed by [[liberal]] progressives. Everyone shall have equal advantages and everyone will have equal disadvantages. In reality it creates two classes, those with power and everyone else.

Many Christian organizations strongly support social justice. However, this is a trap promoted by liberal Christianity claiming [[Jesus]] was a [[socialist]]. We are to help the less fortunate but we are not to become the less fortunate in the process. We are to give according to our abilities but social justice violates "thou shall not steal" and takes what is yours. The National Council of Churches, the group that translates the Bible to the New Revised Standard Version, is an advocate of Social Justice. <ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100320/glenn-beck-keeps-social-justice-debate-alive/index.html Glenn Beck Keeps 'Social Justice' Debate Alive Christian Post, March 20, 2010]</ref>

===The Roman Catholic Church and Social Justice===

The Roman Catholic Church advocates social justice that is based on charity and support for all mankind. Key points being; Respect for the human person, Equality and difference among men, Human solidarity. In brief; respect, equal dignity, encourage charity, reduce excessive social and economic inequalities, the elimination of sinful inequalities, and the sharing of spiritual goods. <ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm Vatican- Social Justice]</ref>

The Church's support of the teaching began largely with Rerum Novarum, an encyclical letter written by Pope Leo XIII, published in 1891.<ref>http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html</ref> The 1962 - 1965 [[Second Vatican Council]] produced an Apostolic Constitution called Gaudium et Spes which stated in Paragraph 90:

"The council, considering the immensity of the hardships which still afflict the greater part of mankind today, regards it as most opportune that an organism of the universal Church be set up in order that both the justice and love of Christ toward the poor might be developed everywhere. The role of such an organism would be to stimulate the Catholic community to promote progress in needy regions and international social justice."<ref>http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html</ref>

Based on the above statement, in 1967 Pope Paul VI created a Pontifical Commission called Justice and Peace, later re-named by Pope John Paul II The Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
* [http://biggovernment.com/kashiver/2010/03/21/obamacare-a-social-justice-nightmare-for-the-whole-world/ Obamacare: A Social Justice Nightmare for the Whole World]
* [http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100320/glenn-beck-keeps-social-justice-debate-alive/index.html Glenn Beck Keeps 'Social Justice' Debate Alive]
* [http://www.networklobby.org NETWORK - A National Catholic Social Justice Lobby (advocate of Obamacare & Abortion)]
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm Vatican page of Social Justice]

[[Category:Marxism]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Christianity]]

User:KevinDavis

2011-10-28T18:13:56Z

KevinDavis: /* Email */

'''I do not always have a chance to watch pages, especially talk pages, where I respond to posts. Therefore, if you post a reply to me, please also let me know on my talk page and include a link to the page. Thank you!'''

==About==
My name is Kevin Davis; I'm a programmer by hobby and a writer by trade. I haven't used Mediawiki before, but I learn quickly with computers and have used various CMS systems before, so hopefully it won't be too much of a problem to pick up the basic syntax here. I focus on grammar and syntax quite a bit, as some may have realized, but if this ever creates any tension because I focus too much on seemingly minor errors, forgive me. Please post on my [[User talk:KevinDavis|talk page]] or '''email me''' if you have any questions or concerns. I used to travel quite a bit for my various jobs; now, I'm quite happy to be back in the States living a calm, relaxing, and ''stationary'' life!

==Email==
My email address is [http://www.google.com/recaptcha/mailhide/d?k=01YlCr5ACLpJhY4JPPOsMOnQ==&c=q4BSV2BRKU1mKoEAbeF_fj-pFvRaRfS65CLD8l2Fq2I= kevi...@gmail.com] if you need to write me. Sorry about the inconvenience of the ReCaptcha link; I had my raw email address up for a few days and was already receiving spam. '''This address is the best way to contact me.'''

==Pages==
* [[Sharpe ratio]]
* [[Treynor ratio]]
* [[User:KevinDavis/sandbox|My sandbox]]
* [[Template:ConservativeDictionary]] - wrote the template for reuse on multiple pages.
* [[Template:ConservativeDictionaryIndex]] - index page for the dictionary.
* [[User:KevinDavis/quote]] - Eventually, I hope to move this to [[Template:Quote]] for wider use on the site.
* [[User:KevinDavis/lorem]] - Sample text to test formatting; for personal and development use only (as of now). Any other use on the site is welcome, as far as I am concerned.

[[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 23:08, 18 September 2011 (EDT)

==Date==
Today is {{CURRENTDAYNAME}}, {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}, {{CURRENTYEAR}}.

==Locked pages that need categories==

Classroom prayer

2011-10-28T12:09:02Z

KevinDavis: Added reference, per email

'''Classroom prayer''' is teacher-led, state-sanctioned [[prayer]] in schools. The Supreme Court case [[Engel v. Vitale]] (1962) banned classroom prayer from [[public schools]] in the [[United States]], and in Florida in 2009 school administrators were prosecuted for praying at a school-affiliated, adult-only event.<ref>http://www.baptistmessenger.com/story/30D869A1C3EB8104A87DD4CA8659031D . They were ultimately acquitted.</ref> Classroom prayer has been banned in [[government]] schools in most other Western European countries also.

Most private schools, even religious schools, imitate government and do not allow classroom prayer. Some Christian institutions, including many Catholic schools, do allow teacher-led prayers at special school events, such as school assemblies, school sporting events, and graduation exercises, but rarely allow it in the classroom. Some language teachers at religious schools teach the students the Lord's Prayer or the Hail Mary in the respective language(s) and begin each day's instruction with one or the other.

Christian [[homeschooling]] classes, in contrast, often begin with a classroom prayer and the students benefit enormously from it.

Some private or religious schools hold religious assemblies, including religious services such as the Roman Catholic Mass, that permit prayer outside of the classroom, away from intellectual pursuits.

Prayer was encouraged, allowed and practiced in [[U.S.]] public schools from colonial times until 1962, when the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in ''[[Engel v. Vitale]]'' banned school prayer, citing the [[First Amendment]]'s prohibition on the government respecting an establishment of religion a precedent for its ruling. The UK has a little-observed legal requirement that all pupils "shall on each school day take part in an act of collective worship," except where the parent of the pupil has asked for the pupil to be excused from this.<ref> [http://www.england-legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/ukpga_19980031_en_7#pt2-ch6 School Standards and Framework Act 1998 part 2 chapter 6]</ref>

[[Atheistic]] groups herald this as a great victory for their ideology, as since 1962 U.S. taxpayers have been compelled to fund and support a nominally secular but effectively atheistic position for the 90% of [[American]] students who attend [[public school]]. Supporters of the decision claim that there is a "separation of church and state" in the [[U.S. Constitution]], echoing the phrase used by Jefferson in his letter to the Danbury Baptists,<ref>http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html</ref> though no such phrase exists in the actual text of the [[First Amendment]] (the relevant part of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]).

It has been demonstrated that when classroom prayer is allowed, a corresponding drop in crime, teen pregnancy, drug use, and obesity occurs, further bolstering the argument to allow prayer in the classroom. <ref>http://www.helium.com/items/1792560-the-impact-of-banning-prayer-from-the-public-school-classroom </ref><ref>Halverson, Delia T. ''Teaching Prayer in the Classroom: Experiences for Children and Youth.'' Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1989. Print. </ref>

== Examples of wrongful suppression of student prayer ==
Since 1962, and primarily since the 1990s, many students across the U.S. who engaged in prayer have found themselves targeted by overzealous teachers and school administrators.

In 1994, at Waring Elementary School in St. Louis, Missouri, fourth-grader Raymond Raines was sent to the principal's office after a teacher spotted him bowing his head in prayer before lunch. Raymond was eventually separated from his classmates and given a week's detention for his continued prayers.<ref>http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=34772</ref> His mother, Ellen Raines, eventually withdrew Raymond from the school and enrolled him in a private school where he could practice his faith without persecution.<ref>http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9806E4DC1139F933A25751C1A962958260</ref>

On May 5, 1995, U.S. district judge Samuel Kent issued a ruling against students uttering the name of Jesus during prayer at a high school graduation in Texas, stating, "And make no mistake, the court is going to have a United States marshal in attendance at the graduation. If any student offends this court, that student will be summarily arrested and will face up to six months incarceration in the Galveston County Jail for contempt of court. Anyone who thinks I'm kidding about this better think again. Anyone who violates these orders, no kidding, is going to wish that he or she had died as a child when this court gets through with it."<ref>http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56479</ref>

On January 15, 2002, in Wilton, New York, kindergartener Kayla Broadus was stopped by her teacher from saying the "God is great, God is good" table prayer out loud with her friends before snack time.<ref>http://www.cjonline.com/stories/041302/usw_nation.shtml</ref> The Saratoga Springs City school district sided with the teacher, claiming the prayer was a violation of the supposedly constitutional "separation of church and state." Kayla's parents filed a lawsuit against the school and received a temporary restraining order from U.S. District Judge David Hurd on February 5, 2002, against the school's suppression of Kayla's prayer. On February 8, 2002, Judge Hurd issued a preliminary injunction against the school ordering it to allow Kayla to say grace with her friends. Following the injunction, the school decided to settle the embarrassing case, saying that Kayla could pray without inviting her friends to join her (as this was inexplicably deemed "disruptive").

From 2004 to 2006, a [[public school]] banned [[Bible]] study by children ... ''during recess''. A teacher complained about the use of the Bible and the principal then censored the study activity, according to a sworn statement by a teacher told to stop it. Principal "Summa, having learned of a complaint by a teacher and of the students' Bible study, told fourth-grade teacher Virginia Larue to nix the group's recess meeting. Larue did, according to her deposition. In that sworn statement, Larue said she briefly informed Summa of a parental complaint about the Bible study, and Summa then instructed her to end the practice, citing fear over 'separation of church and state.' Larue later told one of Luke's Bible study colleagues the group could no longer meet at recess, according to the deposition."<ref>http://knoxnews.com/news/2008/jan/03/recess-bible-study-spurs-lawsuit/</ref>

In 2005, a New Jersey award-winning high school football coach, Marcus Borden, was ordered by his intolerant school district not to bow his head or "take a knee" during any player-initiated prayers. Borden resigned from coaching in October over the issue. Borden later sued and a trial judge ruled in his favor, but school officials and their allies appealed to the 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. In a unanimous judgement from 2008, the court overturned the ruling of the trial judge, determining that Borden's actions would be construed by a neutral observer as promoting religion. In response, the superintendent of schools was "very pleased" with the ruling.<ref>http://ebs.gmnews.com/news/2008-04-17/Front_Page/005.html</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Political Terms]]
[[category:Establishment Clause]]

Classroom prayer

2011-10-28T02:32:06Z

KevinDavis: Remove superfluous hyphens

'''Classroom prayer''' is teacher-led, state-sanctioned [[prayer]] in schools. The Supreme Court case [[Engel v. Vitale]] (1962) banned classroom prayer from [[public schools]] in the [[United States]], and in Florida in 2009 school administrators were prosecuted for praying at a school-affiliated, adult-only event.<ref>http://www.baptistmessenger.com/story/30D869A1C3EB8104A87DD4CA8659031D . They were ultimately acquitted.</ref> Classroom prayer has been banned in [[government]] schools in most other Western European countries also.

Most private schools, even religious schools, imitate government and do not allow classroom prayer. Some Christian institutions, including many Catholic schools, do allow teacher-led prayers at special school events, such as school assemblies, school sporting events, and graduation exercises, but rarely allow it in the classroom. Some language teachers at religious schools teach the students the Lord's Prayer or the Hail Mary in the respective language(s) and begin each day's instruction with one or the other.

Christian [[homeschooling]] classes, in contrast, often begin with a classroom prayer and the students benefit enormously from it.

Some private or religious schools hold religious assemblies, including religious services such as the Roman Catholic Mass, that permit prayer outside of the classroom, away from intellectual pursuits.

Prayer was encouraged, allowed and practiced in [[U.S.]] public schools from colonial times until 1962, when the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in ''[[Engel v. Vitale]]'' banned school prayer, citing the [[First Amendment]]'s prohibition on the government respecting an establishment of religion a precedent for its ruling. The UK has a little-observed legal requirement that all pupils "shall on each school day take part in an act of collective worship," except where the parent of the pupil has asked for the pupil to be excused from this.<ref> [http://www.england-legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/ukpga_19980031_en_7#pt2-ch6 School Standards and Framework Act 1998 part 2 chapter 6]</ref>

[[Atheistic]] groups herald this as a great victory for their ideology, as since 1962 U.S. taxpayers have been compelled to fund and support a nominally secular but effectively atheistic position for the 90% of [[American]] students who attend [[public school]]. Supporters of the decision claim that there is a "separation of church and state" in the [[U.S. Constitution]], echoing the phrase used by Jefferson in his letter to the Danbury Baptists,<ref>http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html</ref> though no such phrase exists in the actual text of the [[First Amendment]] (the relevant part of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]).

It has been demonstrated that when classroom prayer is allowed, a corresponding drop in crime, teen pregnancy, drug use, and obesity occurs, further bolstering the argument to allow prayer in the classroom. <ref>http://www.helium.com/items/1792560-the-impact-of-banning-prayer-from-the-public-school-classroom </ref>

== Examples of wrongful suppression of student prayer ==
Since 1962, and primarily since the 1990s, many students across the U.S. who engaged in prayer have found themselves targeted by overzealous teachers and school administrators.

In 1994, at Waring Elementary School in St. Louis, Missouri, fourth-grader Raymond Raines was sent to the principal's office after a teacher spotted him bowing his head in prayer before lunch. Raymond was eventually separated from his classmates and given a week's detention for his continued prayers.<ref>http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=34772</ref> His mother, Ellen Raines, eventually withdrew Raymond from the school and enrolled him in a private school where he could practice his faith without persecution.<ref>http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9806E4DC1139F933A25751C1A962958260</ref>

On May 5, 1995, U.S. district judge Samuel Kent issued a ruling against students uttering the name of Jesus during prayer at a high school graduation in Texas, stating, "And make no mistake, the court is going to have a United States marshal in attendance at the graduation. If any student offends this court, that student will be summarily arrested and will face up to six months incarceration in the Galveston County Jail for contempt of court. Anyone who thinks I'm kidding about this better think again. Anyone who violates these orders, no kidding, is going to wish that he or she had died as a child when this court gets through with it."<ref>http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56479</ref>

On January 15, 2002, in Wilton, New York, kindergartener Kayla Broadus was stopped by her teacher from saying the "God is great, God is good" table prayer out loud with her friends before snack time.<ref>http://www.cjonline.com/stories/041302/usw_nation.shtml</ref> The Saratoga Springs City school district sided with the teacher, claiming the prayer was a violation of the supposedly constitutional "separation of church and state." Kayla's parents filed a lawsuit against the school and received a temporary restraining order from U.S. District Judge David Hurd on February 5, 2002, against the school's suppression of Kayla's prayer. On February 8, 2002, Judge Hurd issued a preliminary injunction against the school ordering it to allow Kayla to say grace with her friends. Following the injunction, the school decided to settle the embarrassing case, saying that Kayla could pray without inviting her friends to join her (as this was inexplicably deemed "disruptive").

From 2004 to 2006, a [[public school]] banned [[Bible]] study by children ... ''during recess''. A teacher complained about the use of the Bible and the principal then censored the study activity, according to a sworn statement by a teacher told to stop it. Principal "Summa, having learned of a complaint by a teacher and of the students' Bible study, told fourth-grade teacher Virginia Larue to nix the group's recess meeting. Larue did, according to her deposition. In that sworn statement, Larue said she briefly informed Summa of a parental complaint about the Bible study, and Summa then instructed her to end the practice, citing fear over 'separation of church and state.' Larue later told one of Luke's Bible study colleagues the group could no longer meet at recess, according to the deposition."<ref>http://knoxnews.com/news/2008/jan/03/recess-bible-study-spurs-lawsuit/</ref>

In 2005, a New Jersey award-winning high school football coach, Marcus Borden, was ordered by his intolerant school district not to bow his head or "take a knee" during any player-initiated prayers. Borden resigned from coaching in October over the issue. Borden later sued and a trial judge ruled in his favor, but school officials and their allies appealed to the 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. In a unanimous judgement from 2008, the court overturned the ruling of the trial judge, determining that Borden's actions would be construed by a neutral observer as promoting religion. In response, the superintendent of schools was "very pleased" with the ruling.<ref>http://ebs.gmnews.com/news/2008-04-17/Front_Page/005.html</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Political Terms]]
[[category:Establishment Clause]]

Public schools in the United States

2011-10-28T02:31:21Z

KevinDavis: /* Prayer */ Fix year; Clinton gave his announcement in 1998, not 1995

[[File:800px-Warning signs at CHS.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Because of violence, vandalism, and other undesirable elements, this public school has a glaring sign warning of the on-campus surveillance cameras at its parking lot entrance.]]
[[Public schools]] in the [[United States]] have become predominantly [[liberal]] and [[atheistic]]<ref>[http://www.exodusmandate.org/art_exodus_from_public_schools_gets_helping_hand.htm Exodus from "public schools" gets a helping hand], Exodus Mandate, Sept 15, 1998</ref><ref>For example, "in 2005, officials at East Brunswick High School adopted a policy prohibiting representatives of the school district from participating in student-initiated prayer." [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=61806]</ref><ref>From 2004 to 2006, a [[public school]] banned [[Bible]] study by children ... ''during recess''. A teacher complained about the use of the Bible and the principal then censored the study activity, according to a sworn statement by a teacher told to stop it. Principal "Summa, having learned of a complaint by a teacher and of the students' Bible study, told fourth-grade teacher Virginia Larue to nix the group's recess meeting. ... Larue later told one of Luke's Bible study colleagues the group could no longer meet at recess."[http://knoxnews.com/news/2008/jan/03/recess-bible-study-spurs-lawsuit/]</ref><ref>[[Atheists]] routinely impose their views on [[public schools]], though liberals deny it. For example, a court prohibited a moment of silence in [[Illinois]] "Township High School District 214 after atheist activist Rob Sherman challenged" it.[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-moment_of_silence_bothmay30,0,7722271.story]</ref>
government institutions that employ 3 million people and spend $411.5 billion annually at a cost of $10,770 per student.<ref>[http://www.edreform.com/index.cfm?fuseAction=section&pSectionID=15&cSectionID=97 Statistics about education]</ref> Spoken [[prayer]], the [[Ten Commandments]], and sharing of [[faith]] are expressly forbidden in public schools' classrooms during school hours, and teaching of [[morality]] is implicitly disfavored.<ref>''See, e.g.'', ''[[Stone v. Graham]]'' (1980) (excluding Ten Commandments from public school).</ref><ref>A public school banned [[Bible]] study by children ... ''during recess''. A teacher complained about the use of the Bible and the principal then censored the study activity, according to a sworn statement by a teacher told to stop it. [http://knoxnews.com/news/2008/jan/03/recess-bible-study-spurs-lawsuit/]</ref> [[Homosexual Agenda|Homosexual indoctrination]] is common as early as elementary school in more [[liberal]] states.<ref>http://www.massresistance.org/media/video/brainwashing.html</ref> The failures of underperforming public schools are paradigm of [[socialism]], along with [[landfills]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] healthcare system.

The following are characteristics of US public schools:

*30% of public school students fail to graduate from [[high school]],<ref name="graduate">"Only 70% of all students in public high schools graduate, and only 32% of all students leave high school qualified to attend four-year colleges."[http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/ewp_03.htm]</ref> and more than 40% of minorities fail to graduate;<ref>"Only 71 percent of kids graduate from high school within four years, and for minorities the numbers are even worse -- 58 percent for Hispanics and 55 percent for African Americans," [Bill Gates] wrote. "If the decline in childhood deaths [in developing countries] is one of the most positive statistics ever, these are some of the most negative."[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/29/AR2009032901353.html?wpisrc=newsletter]</ref> the real drop-out rate may be 50%.<ref>http://www.2theadvocate.com/news/47272207.html</ref>
*Nearly 70% of students leave high school unqualified to attend four-year college, and many are unable to hold a steady job.<ref name="graduate"/>
*A 2007 study funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse found that 77% of students between eighth and 12th grade had used illicit drugs.<ref>According to Monitoring the Future, a study funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, illicit drug use is up among students between eighth and 12th grade. In 1991, 62 percent had used illicit drugs. In 2007, the number jumped to 77 percent. [http://www.battlecreekenquirer.com/article/20081207/NEWS08/812070305/1002]</ref> Fatal overdoses are common but underreported.<ref>Fatal overdoses are common, although often underreported.[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B01E5DB123EF932A25750C0A9629C8B63 Reporting of a heroin overdose by 16-year-old [[public school]] student was an exception to the underreporting].</ref> Public schools are required to present [[Drug education|drug "education"]] to kids.
*More than 60% of public school teenagers (in one regional study) watch more than 3 hours of television a day, compared with a national average of 35%<ref>http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2008/dec/01/memphis-youth-make-progress-on-risky-behavior/ (study of Memphis students)</ref>
*About half of the viable pregnancies among girls attending public school end in [[abortion|abortions]] and about half end in birth. Public schools "[[Sex education|educate]]" kids about sex.<ref>"There is zero shame [to [[teenage pregnancy]]]," the school nurse observed.[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/12/AR2008121203507.html]</ref>
*"About 160,000 students miss school daily because they [[fear]] being [[Bully|bullied]]," and students viciously fight each other and post videos of it on [[YouTube|Youtube.com]].<ref>One victim is now "being [[homeschooled]] at state expense."[http://starbulletin.com/2008/05/18/news/story01.html]</ref>
*20% of students had been dangerously "[[binge drinking]]" in the previous 30 days, and 50% of seniors regularly drink illegally, according to a 2007 study of Ottawa County, Michigan.<ref>The Grand Rapids Press The Grand Rapids Press: Ottawa County confronts teen drinking, By Greg Chandler, December 04, 2008[http://www.mlive.com/news/grand-rapids/index.ssf/2008/12/ottawa_county_confronts_teen_d.html]</ref><ref name="Oregon">http://www.mlive.com/chronicle/news/index.ssf/2008/12/ottawa_co_youth_survey_surpris.html</ref>
*10-20% of students become [[Addiction|addicted]] to [[cigarettes]]<ref name="Oregon"/><ref>http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2008/dec/01/memphis-youth-make-progress-on-risky-behavior/</ref>
*35% of students are overweight<ref name="health">http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2008/nov/29/students-health-needs-attention/</ref>
*Health screening of public schools in Memphis, Tennessee, found that nearly 10% of students have mental health problems<ref name="health"/>.
*More than 10% of public high schools have a [[Homosexual Agenda|pro-homosexual]] student club
*The majority of public school students are completely ignorant about the [[Bible]], even as [[Bible history|history]] and literature
*California public schools, largest in the nation, now rank at the bottom in academic achievement.<ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/us/us_california_broken_schools/2009/06/21/227552.html High-Spending California School System Collapsing] AP, June 21, 2009</ref>

==History==

In 1647, [[Massachusetts]] [[Puritans]] enacted the second law, after Scotland in 1616,<ref>The Social, Economic & Political Reasons for the Decline of Gaelic in Scotland [http://www.scottishhistory.com/articles/highlands/gaelic/gaelic_page1.html]</ref> establishing universal public [[school]]s in the English-speaking world to block the attempts by "ould deluder Satan to keepe men from the whole knowledge of the Scriptures".<ref>''Family Encyclopedia of American History'' (Reader's Digest 1975)</ref> Each settlement larger than 50 families was required to pay a [[teacher|schoolmaster]] to teach reading, writing and religious doctrine to the [[children]] in the community. Beginning in 1670, Massachusetts provided [[taxation|tax]] funding for school maintenance. This model was then copied throughout the colonies, and even throughout the world.

Many children did not attend public school for the first two centuries. It was not until 1852 that Massachusetts became the first state to require attendance by students aged 6 through 16, and it was not until 1918 that all states had [[compulsory attendance]] laws. High schools did not generally exist until after the [[Civil War]], and the first American [[kindergarten]] didn't exist until 1856 in Watertown, Wisconsin.

==Views on morals==

===So-called "character education"===

In response to the perception that public schools have stopped teaching morality, many state education departments have or are in the process of developing "morality" that avoid good and evil, right and wrong, and instead present under the heading of "character" education.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3971/is_199910/ai_n8866284]</ref> The lack of appreciation for right and wrong can surprise outsiders, and even school principals. When one public school student was charged with [[felony]] [[computer crime]] for altering the grades of 20 students, the principal said, we "want to teach them what's right and wrong, and it's tough for some kids to catch on to the idea that changing grades is the wrong thing to do."<ref>http://cw2.trb.com/news/kwgn-student-grade-felony,0,7871401.story</ref> The impact of the removal of morality from the [[public school]] curriculum (which is also used in private schools) is that "more than one in three boys (35 percent) and one-fourth of the girls (26 percent) — a total of 30 percent overall — admitted stealing from a store within the past year."<ref>http://charactercounts.org/programs/reportcard/index.html</ref>

=== Prayer ===

:''See also: [[Classroom prayer]]''

The White House announced the release of Revised Religious Guidelines for America's Public Schools on May 29, 1998. Within this announcement, President [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] stated, "Nothing in the [[First Amendment]] converts our public schools into religion-free zones, or requires all religious expression to be left behind at the school house door." --President Clinton, July 12, 1998<ref>http://www.ed.gov/PressReleases/05-1998/wh-0530.html</ref>

In 2003, the Education Department released the following guidelines that clarified and added requirements to Public Schools to ensure the religious rights of students.<ref>http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=17550</ref>
<blockquote>
Schools that don’t allow students to pray outside the classroom or that prohibit teachers from holding religious meetings among themselves could lose federal money, the Education Department said late last week. 
 
The guidance reflects the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration’s push to ensure that schools give teachers and students as much freedom to pray as the courts have allowed. 
The department makes clear that teachers cannot pray with students or attempt to shape their religious views.
The instructions, released by the department on Feb. 7, broadly follow the same direction given by the Clinton administration and the courts. Prayer is generally allowed provided it happens outside the class and is initiated by students, not by school officials. 
 
The department, however, also offered some significant additions, including more details on such contentious matters as moments of silence and prayer in student assemblies. And for the first time, federal funds are tied to compliance with the guidelines. The burden is on schools to prove compliance through a yearly report.
</blockquote>

===Teaching the Bible in Public Schools ===
The [[National Council on Bible Curriculum in Public Schools]]<ref>http://www.bibleinschools.net/</ref> (NCBCPS) provides a program for teaching the Bible in public schools. Currently, the NCBCPS's Bible curriculum has been voted into 462 school districts (over 1,900 high schools) in 38 states. Over 210,000 students have already taken this course nationwide, on the high school campus, during school hours, for credit.

==Educational outcomes==

===Declining literacy ===
Since the rapid expansion and liberalization of public schools after [[World War II]], students' [[literacy]] levels have dropped significantly. While the average 14-year-old had a vocabulary of 25,000 words in 1945, the equivalent student in 2000 had a vocabulary of only 10,000 words, a severe disadvantage in an increasingly textual world.<ref>''Utne Reader'' (July-August 2000), 28-9.</ref>

===Liberal bias in textbooks===
:''See also: [[Textbook bias]]''

[[Textbook]]s (K-12) have been systematically analyzed in a study funded by the U.S. government. The 1986 findings were that massive, systematic [[liberal bias]] exists, resulting in several information blackouts in four key areas of modern American life—[[marriage]], [[religion]], [[politics]], and [[business]]. While an actual conspiracy was then ruled out, the cause was found to be a "a very widespread [[secular]] and [[liberal]] mindset" pervading "the leadership in the world of education [and textbook publishing]"<ref> ''Censorship: Evidence of Bias in Our Children's textbooks'', [[Paul C. Vitz]], Servant Books, 1986, ISBN 0-89283-305-X</ref>.

Professor Larry Schwikart, of the [[University of Dayton]], wrote a book about biased textbooks. False claims common in those texts included that the [[Founding Fathers]] wanted a "wall of [[Separation of church and state|separation" between church and state]], that "[[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] only because he needed [[Black Soldiers in the Civil War|black soldiers]]", and that "[[Mikhail Gorbachev]], not [[Ronald Reagan]], was responsible for ending the [[Cold War]]". <ref>http://www.emailwire.com/release/20086-Controversial-Historian-on-the-Price-of-Business-Show.html</ref>

===Non-Dismissal of Tenured Teachers===
Due to the strength of the nation's teachers' [[Labor union|union]], it is nearly impossible to fire a bad performing teacher with [[tenure]]. The process can take years and involves countless steps to even attempt. The union claims that the protections are needed against arbitrary and malicious lawsuits.

The New York public schools system has approximately 700 teachers accused of insubordination to sexual misconduct. They remain in seclusion from the classroom but are paid full salaries until their cases are heard, sometimes from months to years later. All because their union contract makes it extremely difficult to fire them. <ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/us_rubber_rooms/2009/06/22/227959.html 700 NYC Teachers Paid to Do Nothing] AP, June 22, 2009</ref>

[[File:Pathtodismissal.JPG|center|thumb|800px| Flow chart for firing teachers in the nations second largest [[school district]], Los Angeles Unified School district]]

==Graduates==
=== Before 1962 ===
Given that public schools educate about 90% of [[Americans]], it is astounding how few prominent Americans attended public school after the banning of school prayer in 1962. Here is an impressive list of prominent Americans who attended public schools ''before'' the banning of prayer.

*[[Ronald Reagan]]<ref>http://www.dixonil.com/reagan/reagan2.htm</ref> graduated from Dixon High School, Illinois
*[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]<ref>http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/press_releases/2007/PR07_11_August_02_2007_Eisenhower_Co_Sponsor_Little_Rock.pdf</ref> attended Abilene High School in Abilene, Kansas
*[[Richard M. Nixon]]<ref>http://www.nndb.com/edu/836/000068632/</ref> attended Fullerton and Whittier High Schools, California
*[[Gerald Ford]]<ref>http://www.visitgrandrapids.org/ford-facts.php</ref> attended Grand Rapids South High School, Michigan
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]<ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/062/000023990/</ref> attended Johnson City High School, Texas
*[[Harry S Truman]]<ref>http://www.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/103truman/103visual1.htm</ref> attended Independence High School, Missouri
*[[H. Ross Perot]]<ref>http://www.famoustexans.com/rossperot.htm</ref> attended public schools and Texarkana Junior College, Texas
*[[Richard Cheney]]<ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/598/000022532/</ref> graduated from Natrona County High School in Casper, Wyoming.
*[[Colin Powell]] graduated from Morris High School, NY in 1954 and received his B.A. in geology from the City College of New York in 1958 <ref>http://gale.cengage.com/free_resources/bhm/bio/powell_c.htm</ref>
*[[Billy Graham]] graduated from Sharon High School, NC in May 1936<ref>http://online-bibleconcordance.com/Ministers/BillyGraham.aspx</ref>
*[[Michael Medved]] graduated from Palisades High School, CA <ref>michaelmedved.townhall.com/About.aspx</ref>
*[[The Wright Brothers]] attended public schools in Richmond, India and Dayton OH but did not graduate <ref>http://www.kyrene.org/schools/brisas/sunda/inventor/wright/index.html</ref>
*[[Roy Jay Glauber]], Nobel laureate, graduated from Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, NY in 1941. <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/738/000138324/</ref>
*[[Frederick Reines]], Nobel laureate, attended Union Hill High School, NJ, during the late 1930's. <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/052/000099752/</ref>
*[[Oliver North]], US Army Officer, political commentator, graduated from Ockawamick High School in 1961. <ref>http://libraryoflibrary.com/E_n_c_p_d_Ollie_North.html</ref>

=== After 1962 ===
Here is a mostly unimpressive list of people who attended public school ''after'' prayer was banned in 1962:

*[[Brad Pitt]], actor, graduated from Kickapoo High School in Springfield, Missouri, 1981; dropped out of college.<ref>http://www.rolemodel.net/brad_pitt.cfm
</ref>
*[[Tom Cruise]], actor, attended several public high schools including Glen Ridge High School, New Jersey during the 1970's. <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/791/000022725/
</ref>
*[[John Sununu]], former one-term Senator from [[New Hampshire]], graduated from Salem High School in the 1970's;<ref>http://www.sununu.senate.gov/biography.html</ref> claiming to be [[pro-life]], Sununu arranged for the nomination of [[David Souter]] to the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], where he then repeatedly voted on the side of [[abortion]]
*[[John Edwards]], indicted in 2011 on allegations arising from his affair with a mistress, was a former one-term Senator from [[North Carolina]] and two-time unsuccessful candidate for nomination for president, attended public school in Robbins, N.C. during the 1960's.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/newshour/vote2004/primaries/edwards_bio.html</ref>
*[[Spike Lee]], producer, actor, graduated from John Dewey High School, Brooklyn, NY.<ref>http://movies.nytimes.com/person/99175/Spike-Lee/biography</ref>
*[[Laura Bush]] attended James Bowie Elementary School, San Jacinto Junior High School, and Midland Lee High School in Midland, Texas (Graduated 1964); came out in support of [[gay marriage]] and [[abortion]] in 2010.<ref>http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/laura-bush-supports-gay-marriage-abortion/story?id=10629213</ref>
*[[William J. Clinton]]<ref>http://www.hotsprings.org/things_to_do/historic_hotsprings/presidents_hometown.asp</ref> graduated from Hot Springs High School in Arkansas in 1964, and became the only president impeached in the 20th century.
*Anthony Weiner, a congressman who resigned in disgrace in 2011 after first denying but then confirming an indecent use of [[Twitter]], graduated from a public high school in [[Brooklyn]].
*[[Steve Jobs]], founder of [[Apple Inc.]], graduated from Homestead High School in Cupertino, CA in 1972; his colleague, [[Steve Wozniak]], graduated from the same high school in 1968.
*[[Eminem]], a [[liberal]] [[rapper]], repeatedly failed 9th grade in public school and ultimately dropped out.
*[[Alan Colmes]], a liberal news commentator, attended public school in [[New York City]].
*[[Sarah Palin]], vice presidential candidate on the [[Republican Party]] ticket in 2008 and favorite of some [[Tea Party]] groups, went to [[Wasilla High School]] and graduated in 1982 and then attended 5 different colleges before becoming more [[conservative]] later in life.<ref>http://outhouserag.typepad.com/outhouserag/2008/09/sarah-palin-198.html</ref>
*[[Rick Perry]], [[Texas]] governor, infringed on [[parental rights]] by requiring young girls to receive an HPV vaccine.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==

*[[Public school culture]]
*[[Teacher Pay]]
*[[Atheism and public schools]]
*[[Parental rights]] (focusing on the rights of parents to control the education, upbringing and disclipline of their children)
*[[Education in the United Kingdom]]

[[category:Schools]]
[[category:United States History]]
{{Liberalism}}

Sex education

2011-10-28T02:28:50Z

KevinDavis: /* Sex Education in England */ Fix reference

'''Sex Education''' is classroom instruction on [[human reproduction]] and [[sexuality]]. It is typically taught by both [[Public schools|public]] and private schools, with parents usually given the option of withdrawing their children if they feel the content to be inappropriate or have personal or religious objections.

The appropriate content for sex education is a subject of political dispute within the United States, and within other countries. The greatest division is between the comprehensive and [[abstinence]]-only schools of thought. Proponents of comprehensive sex education believe that instruction should include education on methods of [[contraception]], as a means to prevent the twin threats of pregnancy and the transmission of sexually-transmitted infections. Proponents of abstinence education maintain that instructing unmarried teenagers on contraception is implicitly endorsing sexual activity outside of marriage, and so sex education should omit contraception and instead concentrate on helping teenagers to avoid pressure towards pre-marital sexual activity, and to wait until they are in a monogamous, married relationship to begin sexual activity.

In general, comprehensive education is favored by [[liberal|liberals]] while abstinence-only education is favored by [[conservative|conservatives]].

As well as subjects directly related to physical sexual acts, sex education may also include instruction or guidance on relationship management, self-control, pregnancy, the physiological changes of puberty, sexual orientation, and sometimes the morality of sex. This variety adds to the political controversy, with varying groups advocating the inclusion or exclusion of specific components.

Sex education is typically taught at varying points throughout education, either as a separate short course (often with a visiting specialist teacher) or as a module in the science curriculum. Thus an individual student will go through several sex education courses, each one imparting information considered appropriate for their age at the time.

==Abstinence Only==
[[Federal funding]] for abstinence only education across the country has increased during the decade, but still does not equal the amount of money the government gives to [[Planned Parenthood]], a single organization, each year.<ref>http://www.latimes.com/news/education/la-na-abstinence24apr24,1,5905418.story</ref><ref>http://www.gopusa.com/commentary/mmalkin/2008/mm_06041.shtml</ref>

== Sex Education in England ==
In England the National Curriculum <ref>[http://www.dfes.gov.uk National Curriculum]</ref> requires all schools to offer comprehensive sex education as part of Personal, Social and Health Education, from junior school on. These classes are opt-out: All children take the lessons unless their parents have previously requested otherwise.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Sexuality]]

Terri Schiavo

2011-10-27T12:53:54Z

KevinDavis: /* Autopsy */ Typo

[[Image:TerriSchiavo.jpg|right|thumb|Terri Schiavo before her injury]]
'''Terri Schiavo''' (Dec. 3, 1963 – Mar. 31, 2005)
was a [[coma]] victim whose plight came to national attention early in the [[Bush Administration (Dubya)|Bush Administration]]. The legal issues split the country as much as the [[abortion|abortion issue]].

While on a weight-loss diet, Schiavo consumed too little potassium, resulting in a condition diagnosed as a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her husband and her parents became locked in a lengthy legal battle over whether to keep her alive. Florida Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and his brother [[President Bush]] sided with the parents, who believed their daughter was responsive. Despite a special law passed to prevent her death, courts finally decided to terminate her life support on March 18, 2005, and she died of starvation and dehydration within two weeks.

Schiavo was diagnosed by physicians as being brain-damaged after her husband reported that she had collapsed in their home early in the morning.

==Controversy==

The case struck raw nerves on both sides of the liberal-conservative divide, pitting largely atheistic and materialistic supporters of [[euthanasia]] and "right-to-die" against predominantly religious supporters of "[[right to life]]" and [[human rights]].

===Keep her alive===

Many patients observed to be in a brain-damaged state like Terri's have surprisingly recovered, including several highly publicized cases shortly after Terri died from dehydration.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4511511.stm</ref><ref>http://cornellsun.com/node/23962</ref>
During this time, one of Terri's nurses states that Terri frequently spoke (saying "help me" and "Mommy") and recognized familiar people.
Yet she was forced to die by dehydration over the objections of her parents, her brother and sister, her church, and millions of Americans.

===Let her die===

George Felos, an attorney prominent in the right-to-die movement and described as "pro-death"<ref>http://www.northcountrygazette.org/articles/101205TerriSchiavo.html</ref> represented Mr. Schiavo and applied to the Pinellas County-Pasco County Circuit [[probate court]] for the right to remove Terri's feeding tube. A judge ordered her death despite objections by everyone in Terri's own family and several medical professionals.<ref>http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf</ref> His order not only required removal of Terri's feeding tube, but ordered the arrest of people who peacefully attempted to give drinking water to Terri rather than let her die of dehydration.<ref>http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2005/mar/05032402.html</ref>

Terri Schiavo was not terminally ill, but she was determined to be in a "[[persistent vegetative state]]". This conclusion was reached by neurologists hired on the side seeking her death, but disputed by neurologists hired by Terri’s parents. Her parents were given the right to a comprehensive examination of Terri by order of the Florida 6th Judicial Circuit court. Two neurologists selected by Michael Schiavo, one radiologist and one neurologist selected by Terri’s parents, and one neurologist selected by the court examined Terri and her medical history thoroughly. The judge declared that Terri was in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of improvement.[http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf]

==Role of husband==

While still married to Terri, Michael Schiavo [[adultery|started a new family with another woman]], whom he eventually married after Terri's death, while insisting on retaining legal authority over Terri despite the objections of her parents and siblings.<ref>http://www.sptimes.com/2005/03/26/Tampabay/She_s_the_other_woman.shtml]</ref>

==Legal dispute==
The legal dispute over Schiavo's death lasted seven years, beginning with the filing of a petition in 1998 with the Pinellas County (Florida) Circuit Court for permission to remove her feeding tube, and ending with her death in 2005. During the same time, Mr. Schiavo increasingly came under the influence of attorney George Felos, who is prominent in the pro-death movement. A nurse suggested misconduct by Mr. Schiavo during his visits, alleging evidence that Mr. Schiavo may have been harming Terri.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/forum/?date=050320&a=2&message=105</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/9/22/165543.shtml</ref> Following Terri's death, the county coroner refused to allow an independent autopsy or even an independent review of its autopsy, and claimed without independent verification that Terri's brain had half the normal mass for a woman her age. Her body was then quickly cremated, destroying any possible exculpatory evidence.

Leading up to Terri's death in 2003, a court ordered the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. This prompted the Florida legislature to pass '[[Terri's Law]]' in under a week, authorizing the personal involvement of Governor [[Jeb Bush]] to overrule the finding of the court. The governor immediately ordered the reinsertion of the feeding tube. Terri's Law was later ruled unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court, finding that state and federal constitutions prohibit the interference of the governor or legislature within a specific judicial case.

Neither an Act of Congress nor any federal court overturned the probate judge's order that Terri be dehydrated to death.

== Autopsy ==

The State and Schiavo's estranged husband refused to allow an independent autopsy, and Schiavo was cremated after her death. The State did perform its own autopsy and reported these results that lack independent verification:<ref>http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday186.htm</ref> <ref>http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/schiavo/61305autopsyrpt.pdf</ref>

# “Neuropathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain—or any brain, for that matter—cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state.”
# The changes in the cortex were most severe in the occipital lobes, “with relative preservation of the frontal and temporal lobes.”
# Oral feedings, based on autopsy findings and past medical records, were “potentially harmful or, at least, extremely dangerous to Mrs. Schiavo’s health and welfare” because of the risk of aspiration.
# The only evidence for an eating disorder was the initial low serum potassium, which could have resulted from the fluid load and epinephrine administered during her resuscitation.
# The autopsy showed no signs of remote trauma to neck structures, but with 15 years delay, “even bony anomalies would have likely resolved.” External signs of trauma should have been apparent on her hospital admission just after her collapse. “Subtle trauma related to commotio cordis or nontraumatic asphyxia is also possible,” as are “drugs/toxins not typically detected by hospital toxicologic screening.”
# Severe, irreversible brain damage that left that organ discolored and scarred, shriveled to half its normal size, and damaged in nearly all its regions, including the one responsible for vision.
# Brain damage "was irreversible . . . no amount of treatment or rehabilitation would have reversed" it.

==Similar cases==
* Nancy Cruzan. An American woman left in allegedly vegetative state after a car accident.
* Sue Rodriguez. A Canadian woman with a terminal illness who desired an assisted suicide.
* Spiro Nikolouzos. An American whose life support the hospital wished to end. His family fought this, claiming that the hospital wished to end his life purely because his Medicare coverage was running out. Under the Texas Futile Care Law, the Texas hospital could legally override the will of a family if given approval by an ethics committee.
*Haleigh Poutre. An American child beaten into a coma by a foster parent whom the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] is attempting to remove from life support. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/01/25/who_failed_haleigh_poutre/]
*Jessie Ramirez. An American man who suffered severe head trauma during a car accident, and was diagnosed as being a Persistent Vegetative State. Based on this diagnosis, his wife requested that life support be removed only 1 week after the accident. His parents fought to keep him on life support despite his wife's interference and an [[Arizona]] judge ordered his feeding tube replaced. He recovered 3 weeks after the accident. [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1858135/posts]

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080218/EDITORIAL/864194763 False Compassion] - Washington Times editorial by Terri's brother

[[Category:Victims]]
[[Category:Women|Schiavo, Terri]]
[[Category:Right to life]]

Terri Schiavo

2011-10-27T12:53:05Z

KevinDavis: Fix spacing

[[Image:TerriSchiavo.jpg|right|thumb|Terri Schiavo before her injury]]
'''Terri Schiavo''' (Dec. 3, 1963 – Mar. 31, 2005)
was a [[coma]] victim whose plight came to national attention early in the [[Bush Administration (Dubya)|Bush Administration]]. The legal issues split the country as much as the [[abortion|abortion issue]].

While on a weight-loss diet, Schiavo consumed too little potassium, resulting in a condition diagnosed as a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her husband and her parents became locked in a lengthy legal battle over whether to keep her alive. Florida Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and his brother [[President Bush]] sided with the parents, who believed their daughter was responsive. Despite a special law passed to prevent her death, courts finally decided to terminate her life support on March 18, 2005, and she died of starvation and dehydration within two weeks.

Schiavo was diagnosed by physicians as being brain-damaged after her husband reported that she had collapsed in their home early in the morning.

==Controversy==

The case struck raw nerves on both sides of the liberal-conservative divide, pitting largely atheistic and materialistic supporters of [[euthanasia]] and "right-to-die" against predominantly religious supporters of "[[right to life]]" and [[human rights]].

===Keep her alive===

Many patients observed to be in a brain-damaged state like Terri's have surprisingly recovered, including several highly publicized cases shortly after Terri died from dehydration.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4511511.stm</ref><ref>http://cornellsun.com/node/23962</ref>
During this time, one of Terri's nurses states that Terri frequently spoke (saying "help me" and "Mommy") and recognized familiar people.
Yet she was forced to die by dehydration over the objections of her parents, her brother and sister, her church, and millions of Americans.

===Let her die===

George Felos, an attorney prominent in the right-to-die movement and described as "pro-death"<ref>http://www.northcountrygazette.org/articles/101205TerriSchiavo.html</ref> represented Mr. Schiavo and applied to the Pinellas County-Pasco County Circuit [[probate court]] for the right to remove Terri's feeding tube. A judge ordered her death despite objections by everyone in Terri's own family and several medical professionals.<ref>http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf</ref> His order not only required removal of Terri's feeding tube, but ordered the arrest of people who peacefully attempted to give drinking water to Terri rather than let her die of dehydration.<ref>http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2005/mar/05032402.html</ref>

Terri Schiavo was not terminally ill, but she was determined to be in a "[[persistent vegetative state]]". This conclusion was reached by neurologists hired on the side seeking her death, but disputed by neurologists hired by Terri’s parents. Her parents were given the right to a comprehensive examination of Terri by order of the Florida 6th Judicial Circuit court. Two neurologists selected by Michael Schiavo, one radiologist and one neurologist selected by Terri’s parents, and one neurologist selected by the court examined Terri and her medical history thoroughly. The judge declared that Terri was in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of improvement.[http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf]

==Role of husband==

While still married to Terri, Michael Schiavo [[adultery|started a new family with another woman]], whom he eventually married after Terri's death, while insisting on retaining legal authority over Terri despite the objections of her parents and siblings.<ref>http://www.sptimes.com/2005/03/26/Tampabay/She_s_the_other_woman.shtml]</ref>

==Legal dispute==
The legal dispute over Schiavo's death lasted seven years, beginning with the filing of a petition in 1998 with the Pinellas County (Florida) Circuit Court for permission to remove her feeding tube, and ending with her death in 2005. During the same time, Mr. Schiavo increasingly came under the influence of attorney George Felos, who is prominent in the pro-death movement. A nurse suggested misconduct by Mr. Schiavo during his visits, alleging evidence that Mr. Schiavo may have been harming Terri.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/forum/?date=050320&a=2&message=105</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/9/22/165543.shtml</ref> Following Terri's death, the county coroner refused to allow an independent autopsy or even an independent review of its autopsy, and claimed without independent verification that Terri's brain had half the normal mass for a woman her age. Her body was then quickly cremated, destroying any possible exculpatory evidence.

Leading up to Terri's death in 2003, a court ordered the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. This prompted the Florida legislature to pass '[[Terri's Law]]' in under a week, authorizing the personal involvement of Governor [[Jeb Bush]] to overrule the finding of the court. The governor immediately ordered the reinsertion of the feeding tube. Terri's Law was later ruled unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court, finding that state and federal constitutions prohibit the interference of the governor or legislature within a specific judicial case.

Neither an Act of Congress nor any federal court overturned the probate judge's order that Terri be dehydrated to death.

== Autopsy ==

The State and Schiavo's estranged husband refused to allow an independent autopsy, and Schiavo was cremated after her death. The State did perform its own autopsy and reported these result that lack independent verification:<ref>http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday186.htm</ref> <ref>http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/schiavo/61305autopsyrpt.pdf</ref>

# “Neuropathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain—or any brain, for that matter—cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state.”
# The changes in the cortex were most severe in the occipital lobes, “with relative preservation of the frontal and temporal lobes.”
# Oral feedings, based on autopsy findings and past medical records, were “potentially harmful or, at least, extremely dangerous to Mrs. Schiavo’s health and welfare” because of the risk of aspiration.
# The only evidence for an eating disorder was the initial low serum potassium, which could have resulted from the fluid load and epinephrine administered during her resuscitation.
# The autopsy showed no signs of remote trauma to neck structures, but with 15 years delay, “even bony anomalies would have likely resolved.” External signs of trauma should have been apparent on her hospital admission just after her collapse. “Subtle trauma related to commotio cordis or nontraumatic asphyxia is also possible,” as are “drugs/toxins not typically detected by hospital toxicologic screening.”
# Severe, irreversible brain damage that left that organ discolored and scarred, shriveled to half its normal size, and damaged in nearly all its regions, including the one responsible for vision.
# Brain damage "was irreversible . . . no amount of treatment or rehabilitation would have reversed" it.

==Similar cases==
* Nancy Cruzan. An American woman left in allegedly vegetative state after a car accident.
* Sue Rodriguez. A Canadian woman with a terminal illness who desired an assisted suicide.
* Spiro Nikolouzos. An American whose life support the hospital wished to end. His family fought this, claiming that the hospital wished to end his life purely because his Medicare coverage was running out. Under the Texas Futile Care Law, the Texas hospital could legally override the will of a family if given approval by an ethics committee.
*Haleigh Poutre. An American child beaten into a coma by a foster parent whom the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] is attempting to remove from life support. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/01/25/who_failed_haleigh_poutre/]
*Jessie Ramirez. An American man who suffered severe head trauma during a car accident, and was diagnosed as being a Persistent Vegetative State. Based on this diagnosis, his wife requested that life support be removed only 1 week after the accident. His parents fought to keep him on life support despite his wife's interference and an [[Arizona]] judge ordered his feeding tube replaced. He recovered 3 weeks after the accident. [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1858135/posts]

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080218/EDITORIAL/864194763 False Compassion] - Washington Times editorial by Terri's brother

[[Category:Victims]]
[[Category:Women|Schiavo, Terri]]
[[Category:Right to life]]

Terri Schiavo

2011-10-27T12:52:43Z

KevinDavis: Formatted references as normal size

[[Image:TerriSchiavo.jpg|right|thumb|Terri Schiavo before her injury]]
'''Terri Schiavo''' (Dec. 3, 1963 – Mar. 31, 2005)
was a [[coma]] victim whose plight came to national attention early in the [[Bush Administration (Dubya)|Bush Administration]]. The legal issues split the country as much as the [[abortion|abortion issue]].

While on a weight-loss diet, Schiavo consumed too little potassium, resulting in a condition diagnosed as a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her husband and her parents became locked in a lengthy legal battle over whether to keep her alive. Florida Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and his brother [[President Bush]] sided with the parents, who believed their daughter was responsive. Despite a special law passed to prevent her death, courts finally decided to terminate her life support on March 18, 2005, and she died of starvation and dehydration within two weeks.

Schiavo was diagnosed by physicians as being brain-damaged after her husband reported that she had collapsed in their home early in the morning.

==Controversy==

The case struck raw nerves on both sides of the liberal-conservative divide, pitting largely atheistic and materialistic supporters of [[euthanasia]] and "right-to-die" against predominantly religious supporters of "[[right to life]]" and [[human rights]].

===Keep her alive===

Many patients observed to be in a brain-damaged state like Terri's have surprisingly recovered, including several highly publicized cases shortly after Terri died from dehydration.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4511511.stm</ref><ref>http://cornellsun.com/node/23962</ref>
During this time, one of Terri's nurses states that Terri frequently spoke (saying "help me" and "Mommy") and recognized familiar people.
Yet she was forced to die by dehydration over the objections of her parents, her brother and sister, her church, and millions of Americans.

===Let her die===

George Felos, an attorney prominent in the right-to-die movement and described as "pro-death"<ref>http://www.northcountrygazette.org/articles/101205TerriSchiavo.html</ref> represented Mr. Schiavo and applied to the Pinellas County-Pasco County Circuit [[probate court]] for the right to remove Terri's feeding tube. A judge ordered her death despite objections by everyone in Terri's own family and several medical professionals.<ref>http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf</ref> His order not only required removal of Terri's feeding tube, but ordered the arrest of people who peacefully attempted to give drinking water to Terri rather than let her die of dehydration.<ref>http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2005/mar/05032402.html</ref>

Terri Schiavo was not terminally ill, but she was determined to be in a "[[persistent vegetative state]]". This conclusion was reached by neurologists hired on the side seeking her death, but disputed by neurologists hired by Terri’s parents. Her parents were given the right to a comprehensive examination of Terri by order of the Florida 6th Judicial Circuit court. Two neurologists selected by Michael Schiavo, one radiologist and one neurologist selected by Terri’s parents, and one neurologist selected by the court examined Terri and her medical history thoroughly. The judge declared that Terri was in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of improvement.[http://abstractappeal.com/schiavo/WolfsonReport.pdf]

==Role of husband==

While still married to Terri, Michael Schiavo [[adultery|started a new family with another woman]], whom he eventually married after Terri's death, while insisting on retaining legal authority over Terri despite the objections of her parents and siblings.<ref>http://www.sptimes.com/2005/03/26/Tampabay/She_s_the_other_woman.shtml]</ref>

==Legal dispute==
The legal dispute over Schiavo's death lasted seven years, beginning with the filing of a petition in 1998 with the Pinellas County (Florida) Circuit Court for permission to remove her feeding tube, and ending with her death in 2005. During the same time, Mr. Schiavo increasingly came under the influence of attorney George Felos, who is prominent in the pro-death movement. A nurse suggested misconduct by Mr. Schiavo during his visits, alleging evidence that Mr. Schiavo may have been harming Terri.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/forum/?date=050320&a=2&message=105</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/9/22/165543.shtml</ref> Following Terri's death, the county coroner refused to allow an independent autopsy or even an independent review of its autopsy, and claimed without independent verification that Terri's brain had half the normal mass for a woman her age. Her body was then quickly cremated, destroying any possible exculpatory evidence.

Leading up to Terri's death in 2003, a court ordered the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. This prompted the Florida legislature to pass '[[Terri's Law]]' in under a week, authorizing the personal involvement of Governor [[Jeb Bush]] to overrule the finding of the court. The governor immediately ordered the reinsertion of the feeding tube. Terri's Law was later ruled unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court, finding that state and federal constitutions prohibit the interference of the governor or legislature within a specific judicial case.

Neither an Act of Congress nor any federal court overturned the probate judge's order that Terri be dehydrated to death.

== Autopsy ==

The State and Schiavo's estranged husband refused to allow an independent autopsy, and Schiavo was cremated after her death. The State did perform its own autopsy and reported these result that lack independent verification:<ref>http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday186.htm</ref> <ref>http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/schiavo/61305autopsyrpt.pdf</ref>

# “Neuropathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain—or any brain, for that matter—cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state.”
# The changes in the cortex were most severe in the occipital lobes, “with relative preservation of the frontal and temporal lobes.”
# Oral feedings, based on autopsy findings and past medical records, were “potentially harmful or, at least, extremely dangerous to Mrs. Schiavo’s health and welfare” because of the risk of aspiration.
# The only evidence for an eating disorder was the initial low serum potassium, which could have resulted from the fluid load and epinephrine administered during her resuscitation.
# The autopsy showed no signs of remote trauma to neck structures, but with 15 years delay, “even bony anomalies would have likely resolved.” External signs of trauma should have been apparent on her hospital admission just after her collapse. “Subtle trauma related to commotio cordis or nontraumatic asphyxia is also possible,” as are “drugs/toxins not typically detected by hospital toxicologic screening.”
# Severe, irreversible brain damage that left that organ discolored and scarred, shriveled to half its normal size, and damaged in nearly all its regions, including the one responsible for vision.
# Brain damage "was irreversible . . . no amount of treatment or rehabilitation would have reversed" it.

==Similar cases==
* Nancy Cruzan. An American woman left in allegedly vegetative state after a car accident.
* Sue Rodriguez. A Canadian woman with a terminal illness who desired an assisted suicide.
* Spiro Nikolouzos. An American whose life support the hospital wished to end. His family fought this, claiming that the hospital wished to end his life purely because his Medicare coverage was running out. Under the Texas Futile Care Law, the Texas hospital could legally override the will of a family if given approval by an ethics committee.
*Haleigh Poutre. An American child beaten into a coma by a foster parent whom the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] is attempting to remove from life support. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/01/25/who_failed_haleigh_poutre/]
*Jessie Ramirez. An American man who suffered severe head trauma during a car accident, and was diagnosed as being a Persistent Vegetative State. Based on this diagnosis, his wife requested that life support be removed only 1 week after the accident. His parents fought to keep him on life support despite his wife's interference and an [[Arizona]] judge ordered his feeding tube replaced. He recovered 3 weeks after the accident. [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1858135/posts]

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080218/EDITORIAL/864194763 False Compassion] - Washington Times editorial by Terri's brother

[[Category:Victims]]
[[Category:Women|Schiavo, Terri]]
[[Category:Right to life]]

Samuel Adams

2011-10-26T21:18:09Z

KevinDavis: fix grammar

{{Founding Fathers
|image=Savage Samuel Adams.jpg
|State:=Massachusetts
|Religion:=Christian- Congregationalist <ref>http://www.adherents.com/gov/Founding_Fathers_Religion.html</ref>
|Founding Documents:=[[Declaration of Independence]], [[Articles of Confederation]]
}}
'''Samuel Adams''' (1722-1803) was an early [[American]] governor, lawyer and signer of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. Adams was the second cousin of [[John Adams]], the second President of the United States, and was known for his great animosity toward England's presence in the colonial affairs.<ref> http://ushistory.org/declaration/signers/adams_s.htm</ref>
{{cquote|'''If you love wealth more than liberty, the tranquility of servitude better than the animating contest of freedom, depart from us in peace. We ask not your counsel nor your arms. Crouch down and lick the hand that feeds you. May your chains rest lightly upon you and may posterity forget that you were our countrymen.'''}}
Adams was a strong and vocal opponent of many of the British Parliament acts to raised revenues in the American Colonies.

At the age of 14, Adams attended [[Harvard]] College, where he received a Masters of Arts degree in 1743. After graduating, Adams started a business which failed and then entered politics full-time, and won a place in the Massachusetts legislature.

In protest of the 1765 passing of the [[Stamp Act]], Adams led in the founding and organizing of the [[Sons Of Liberty]].<ref>http://www.americansonsofliberty.com/samadams.htm </ref>

In 1773, Adams and Boston citizens were so outraged with England's [[Tea Act]], which granted the East Indian Company a monopoly on the sale of tea to the American Colonies, that they dumped the British cargo boats into Boston Harbor. This early revolutionary action is referred to as the [[Boston Tea Party]].

In response to the Boston Tea Party, Britain passed laws that closed the Boston Harbor and restricted town meetings, the act was referred to as the "Intolerable Acts". Adams urged a boycott of the British Trade by the American Colonies.

As a member of the [[Massachusetts]] legislature, Adams and four others were elected to serve in the [[Continental Congress|First Continental Congress]] (1774). He again served in the Second Continental Congress where he pushed for full independence from English rule. Adams served in the Continental Congress until 1781, when he returned to Boston. In 1793, he was elected as Governor of Massachusetts and served until 1797. Adams is the oldest governor the state of Massachusetts has ever had.<ref> http://www.americansonsofliberty.com/samadams.htm</ref>

==Quotes==

*"Constitution be never construed... to prevent the people of the United States who are peaceable citizens from keeping their own arms."<ref> A proposal that Adams made in 1788. [http://books.google.com/books?id=wwQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA267&dq=adams+%22peaceable+citizens+from+keeping+their+own+arms%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES p 267]</ref>

*"May your chains sit lightly upon you, and may posterity forget that ye were our countrymen! <ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/268/8/18.html The World’s Famous Orations. America: I. (1761–1837). 1906.]</ref>

*"When vain aspiring men possess highest seats in govt, country will need experienced patriots to prevent its ruin." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6pILAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=When+vain+aspiring+men+possess+highest+seats+in+govt,+country+will+need+experienced+patriots+to+prevent+its+ruin&ei=9rqaS8b4BIGuyAT65532Cg&cd=3 The Writings of Samuel Adams: 1778-1802‎ - Page 213, Samuel Adams - History - 1908]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adams, Samuel}}
[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[category:Taxation]]
[[Category: Tax Revolts]]
[[category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]

Samuel Adams

2011-10-26T21:17:47Z

KevinDavis: fix spacing

{{Founding Fathers
|image=Savage Samuel Adams.jpg
|State:=Massachusetts
|Religion:=Christian- Congregationalist <ref>http://www.adherents.com/gov/Founding_Fathers_Religion.html</ref>
|Founding Documents:=[[Declaration of Independence]], [[Articles of Confederation]]
}}
'''Samuel Adams''' (1722-1803) was an early [[American]] governor, lawyer and signer of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. Adams was the second cousin of [[John Adams]], the second President of the United States, and was known for his great animosity toward England's presence in the colonial affairs.<ref> http://ushistory.org/declaration/signers/adams_s.htm</ref>
{{cquote|'''If you love wealth more than liberty, the tranquility of servitude better than the animating contest of freedom, depart from us in peace. We ask not your counsel nor your arms. Crouch down and lick the hand that feeds you. May your chains rest lightly upon you and may posterity forget that you were our countrymen.'''}}
Adams was a strong vocal opponent of many of the British Parliament acts to raised revenues in the American Colonies.

At the age of 14, Adams attended [[Harvard]] College, where he received a Masters of Arts degree in 1743. After graduating, Adams started a business which failed and then entered politics full-time, and won a place in the Massachusetts legislature.

In protest of the 1765 passing of the [[Stamp Act]], Adams led in the founding and organizing of the [[Sons Of Liberty]].<ref>http://www.americansonsofliberty.com/samadams.htm </ref>

In 1773, Adams and Boston citizens were so outraged with England's [[Tea Act]], which granted the East Indian Company a monopoly on the sale of tea to the American Colonies, that they dumped the British cargo boats into Boston Harbor. This early revolutionary action is referred to as the [[Boston Tea Party]].

In response to the Boston Tea Party, Britain passed laws that closed the Boston Harbor and restricted town meetings, the act was referred to as the "Intolerable Acts". Adams urged a boycott of the British Trade by the American Colonies.

As a member of the [[Massachusetts]] legislature, Adams and four others were elected to serve in the [[Continental Congress|First Continental Congress]] (1774). He again served in the Second Continental Congress where he pushed for full independence from English rule. Adams served in the Continental Congress until 1781, when he returned to Boston. In 1793, he was elected as Governor of Massachusetts and served until 1797. Adams is the oldest governor the state of Massachusetts has ever had.<ref> http://www.americansonsofliberty.com/samadams.htm</ref>

==Quotes==

*"Constitution be never construed... to prevent the people of the United States who are peaceable citizens from keeping their own arms."<ref> A proposal that Adams made in 1788. [http://books.google.com/books?id=wwQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA267&dq=adams+%22peaceable+citizens+from+keeping+their+own+arms%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES p 267]</ref>

*"May your chains sit lightly upon you, and may posterity forget that ye were our countrymen! <ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/268/8/18.html The World’s Famous Orations. America: I. (1761–1837). 1906.]</ref>

*"When vain aspiring men possess highest seats in govt, country will need experienced patriots to prevent its ruin." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6pILAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=When+vain+aspiring+men+possess+highest+seats+in+govt,+country+will+need+experienced+patriots+to+prevent+its+ruin&ei=9rqaS8b4BIGuyAT65532Cg&cd=3 The Writings of Samuel Adams: 1778-1802‎ - Page 213, Samuel Adams - History - 1908]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adams, Samuel}}
[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[category:Taxation]]
[[Category: Tax Revolts]]
[[category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]

Dinosaur

2011-10-25T12:41:33Z

KevinDavis: /* Dinosaurs and birds */

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
|sub=
|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' are usually believed to be extinct animals ranging in size from a few ounces to some of the largest land animals ever to exist.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, Edward Drinker Cope (1847-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

===History of dinosaurs===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Creation science]] asserts that the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of [[creation]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth|6,000 years ago]], along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans, thus [[Counterexamples to Evolution|debunking the Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

Creation science shows that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

[[Archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence supports the [[faith and science|logical]] conclusion that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.[citation needed]

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, there are numerous references throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are clearly references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref> although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. However, the Biblical descriptions do not fit those creatures, note that hippopotamuses and elephants do not have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creation science rejects the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creation science shows that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creation science cites a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of sightings of dinosaur-like creatures reported by the [[best of the public]].
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of Carlisle Cathedral appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, showing that dragons were real creatures and were actually very likely dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref> Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] New Years' Day celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the Wollemi Pine <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.
*Some believe the [[Loch Ness Monster]] to be a [[Plesiosaur]].

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
[[Creation science]] shows that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creation science also cites the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref> <ref> Find the full quote on [http://books.google.com/books?id=mAIjnLp6r_MC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Ernst+Mayr+1942+%22It+must+be+admitted,+however,+that+it+is+a+considerable+strain+on+one%27s+credulity+to+assume%22&source=bl&ots=TRDzBtumPF&sig=XwvnT327A9sn3Uvs0RLOaQNo5Zo&hl=en&ei=P6H6Te37LMSwhAf03fimAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false], starting from line 6. </ref> }}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creation scientists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creation science also shows that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===
The view of [[atheism|atheists]], evolutionists and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to evolutionists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

Evolutionists speculate that a mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], it is theorized that vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists speculate that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones indicates them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Creation science shows that those methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.<ref>http://creation.com/radiometric-dating-questions-and-answers</ref>

Creation science points out that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus shows that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists show there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==Description==

===''[[Saurischia]]''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''[[Ornithischia]]''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

== In Popular Culture ==
Dinosaurs have been a fixture of popular culture since their discovery. It is theorized that some of the myths of fantastical creatures stem from the accidental discovery of dinosaur fossils. More recently, dinosaurs have featured in popular stories including books, movies, television, video games, even music.

Dinosaurs were introduced to a wide modern audience when movies like the Jurassic Park series were released.
== See also ==

*[[Evolution]]
*[[Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]
*[[Irreligion and superstition]]
*[[Young earth creationism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Dinosaur

2011-10-25T12:41:03Z

KevinDavis: /* Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings */ removed superfluous period

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
|sub=
|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' are usually believed to be extinct animals ranging in size from a few ounces to some of the largest land animals ever to exist.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, Edward Drinker Cope (1847-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

===History of dinosaurs===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Creation science]] asserts that the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of [[creation]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth|6,000 years ago]], along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans, thus [[Counterexamples to Evolution|debunking the Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

Creation science shows that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

[[Archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence supports the [[faith and science|logical]] conclusion that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.[citation needed]

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, there are numerous references throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are clearly references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref> although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. However, the Biblical descriptions do not fit those creatures, note that hippopotamuses and elephants do not have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creation science rejects the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creation science shows that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creation science cites a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of sightings of dinosaur-like creatures reported by the [[best of the public]].
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of Carlisle Cathedral appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, showing that dragons were real creatures and were actually very likely dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref> Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] New Years' Day celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the Wollemi Pine <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.
*Some believe the [[Loch Ness Monster]] to be a [[Plesiosaur]].

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creation science shows that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creation science also cites the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref> <ref> Find the full quote on [http://books.google.com/books?id=mAIjnLp6r_MC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Ernst+Mayr+1942+%22It+must+be+admitted,+however,+that+it+is+a+considerable+strain+on+one%27s+credulity+to+assume%22&source=bl&ots=TRDzBtumPF&sig=XwvnT327A9sn3Uvs0RLOaQNo5Zo&hl=en&ei=P6H6Te37LMSwhAf03fimAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false], starting from line 6. </ref> }}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creation scientists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creation science also shows that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===
The view of [[atheism|atheists]], evolutionists and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to evolutionists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

Evolutionists speculate that a mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], it is theorized that vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists speculate that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones indicates them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Creation science shows that those methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.<ref>http://creation.com/radiometric-dating-questions-and-answers</ref>

Creation science points out that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus shows that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists show there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==Description==

===''[[Saurischia]]''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''[[Ornithischia]]''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

== In Popular Culture ==
Dinosaurs have been a fixture of popular culture since their discovery. It is theorized that some of the myths of fantastical creatures stem from the accidental discovery of dinosaur fossils. More recently, dinosaurs have featured in popular stories including books, movies, television, video games, even music.

Dinosaurs were introduced to a wide modern audience when movies like the Jurassic Park series were released.
== See also ==

*[[Evolution]]
*[[Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]
*[[Irreligion and superstition]]
*[[Young earth creationism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Dinosaur

2011-10-25T12:40:21Z

KevinDavis: /* Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings */ typo

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
|sub=
|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' are usually believed to be extinct animals ranging in size from a few ounces to some of the largest land animals ever to exist.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, Edward Drinker Cope (1847-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

===History of dinosaurs===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Creation science]] asserts that the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of [[creation]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth|6,000 years ago]], along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans, thus [[Counterexamples to Evolution|debunking the Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

Creation science shows that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

[[Archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence supports the [[faith and science|logical]] conclusion that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.[citation needed]

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, there are numerous references throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are clearly references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref> although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. However, the Biblical descriptions do not fit those creatures, note that hippopotamuses and elephants do not have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creation science rejects the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creation science shows that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creation science cites a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of sightings of dinosaur-like creatures reported by the [[best of the public]].
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of Carlisle Cathedral appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, showing that dragons were real creatures and were actually very likely dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] New Years' Day celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the Wollemi Pine <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.
*Some believe the [[Loch Ness Monster]] to be a [[Plesiosaur]].

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creation science shows that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creation science also cites the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref> <ref> Find the full quote on [http://books.google.com/books?id=mAIjnLp6r_MC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Ernst+Mayr+1942+%22It+must+be+admitted,+however,+that+it+is+a+considerable+strain+on+one%27s+credulity+to+assume%22&source=bl&ots=TRDzBtumPF&sig=XwvnT327A9sn3Uvs0RLOaQNo5Zo&hl=en&ei=P6H6Te37LMSwhAf03fimAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false], starting from line 6. </ref> }}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creation scientists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creation science also shows that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===
The view of [[atheism|atheists]], evolutionists and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to evolutionists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

Evolutionists speculate that a mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], it is theorized that vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists speculate that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones indicates them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Creation science shows that those methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.<ref>http://creation.com/radiometric-dating-questions-and-answers</ref>

Creation science points out that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus shows that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists show there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==Description==

===''[[Saurischia]]''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''[[Ornithischia]]''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

== In Popular Culture ==
Dinosaurs have been a fixture of popular culture since their discovery. It is theorized that some of the myths of fantastical creatures stem from the accidental discovery of dinosaur fossils. More recently, dinosaurs have featured in popular stories including books, movies, television, video games, even music.

Dinosaurs were introduced to a wide modern audience when movies like the Jurassic Park series were released.
== See also ==

*[[Evolution]]
*[[Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]
*[[Irreligion and superstition]]
*[[Young earth creationism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Talk:Age of the Earth

2011-10-24T16:40:09Z

KevinDavis: /* Why the removal? */

The statement that "Charles Lyell supported Hutton's idea in 1830, in Principles of Geology" seems inadequate. Did Lyell set forth a scientific theory about an Old Earth in 1830? I'm skeptical.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 12:38, 18 June 2007 (EDT)
:Lyell was a geologist who created several theories related to the geologic age of the earth, including I believe uniformitarianism, and contained in his book ''Principles of Geology''. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:50, 18 June 2007 (EDT)
::Here's a copy of "Principles of Geology". The table of Contents is in HTML, but the text in PDF. [http://www.esp.org/books/lyell/principles/facsimile/contents.htm] The first few chapters are about the development of ideas of the age of the earth.--[[User:Epicurius|Steve]] 13:45, 18 June 2007 (EDT)

==Helium diffusion, polonium halos, C14 dating==

All of these methods give ample evidence for a young earth(C14 works best for more recent things). I was wondering if anyone wanted to write about these(If not, I can do some independent research for this article, but I'm in school right now so I can't promise anything).

-- [[User:RichardT|RichardT]][[user talk:RichardT|Talk]] 23:26, 4 September 2007 (EDT)
:We already briefly discuss these in [[Young Earth Creationism]]. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 07:53, 5 September 2007 (EDT)

== Reversion explanation ==

The article doesn't say that individual scientists haven't been around for billions of years, it says that the scientific ''community'' hasn't been around that long. The people of God ''have'' been around for six thousand or so years, so have direct, first-hand records of the earliest days of creation. [[User:Jcw|Jcw]] 15:41, 7 June 2011 (EDT)

:The age of the scientific community and what the term "scientific community" means can be debated, and that's the point - this debate and the current debate over which group has the more accurate age of the Earth shouldn't be in the overview section of the article but instead represented in the sections dealing with the controversy over the age of the Earth. --[[User:Mike127|Mike127]] 17:41, 8 June 2011 (EDT)

==Atheism and Old Earth Theories==

The opening section of this article currently states that “atheists ... insist that Earth is somehow 4.5 billion years old” but it implies that all atheists (or only atheists) believe the Earth is billions of years old. This is incorrect and the section should be clarified: it is the majority scientific community that assert the Earth is billions of years old, regardless of religious orientations of individuals in this community. Simply put, not all atheists believe the Earth is billions of years old and not all Christians or others with religion believe the Earth is only thousands of years old. --[[User:Mike127|Mike127]] 22:40, 10 June 2011 (EDT)

: Would you likewise object to a statement that "Republicans oppose Obama's policies"?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:16, 10 June 2011 (EDT)

:: Yes, it's to general of a statement – ''conservatives'' oppose the ''liberal policies'' of the Obama administration, or it can be said that the Republican Party (leadership) opposes the Obama administration. Not all Republicans are conservative on all issues (e.g. the Log Cabin Republicans) and not all of Obama's polices are liberal (e.g. keeping Guantanamo Bay's prison open). The statement would be similar to asserting that Republicans agree on all issues (otherwise why would Republicans bother to have a presidential primary) and that the Obama administration is consistently liberal (they've done plenty of flip flopping to try and gain votes in the upcoming election). So bringing this back to the current article, the overview section (or opening section, whatever one would like to call it) should be more explicit on which groups are putting forward the Young-Earth vs. Old-Earth theories. When it comes to Old-Earth theories - "atheists" is to general of a term and insinuates that those of the scientific community that support Old-Earth theories are without religion. --[[User:Mike127|Mike127]] 23:55, 10 June 2011 (EDT)

::: Your objection would silence many useful observations. Under your view, is it wrong to say that obesity is unhealthy? There may be one case out of a million where the person is actually better off getting fatter. If that case exists, would you object to commenting about the majority?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 19:53, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

:::: Unfortunately, you've missed my point. What I was referring to is the need to avoid over generalizing and casting all old Earth supporters into the ranks of atheists; there is a need to rework the opening section of this article for greater clarity. To say that supporters of an old Earth are atheists is making too big of an assumption, especially if one's religion espouses an old Earth.
:::: And I hardly think your analogy of obesity and health applies to your original loaded question regarding the political persuasions of Americans: I'm sure far more than 1 in a million Democrats oppose Obama and far more than 1 in a million Republicans support Obama's more conservative polices - America's not that black & white, nor is the issue of who are the supporters of old Earth vs. young Earth. --[[User:Mike127|Mike127]] 22:44, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

=6 thousand years old=

I was wondering, is there a reason why this number is written in this way? personally I would either say "6,000 years old" or "six thousand years old", but I wanted to ask for your opinions before changing it. --[[User:LeonardO|Leo-from-UK]] 19:42, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

:No particular reason. Either of your suggested edits would be fine.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 19:48, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

:Thanks, change implemented. Personally I think that little, apparently meaningless details like this improve the perceived quality of an encyclopedia. I chose 6,000 years because it's more "visually immediate" than "six thousand". --[[User:LeonardO|Leo-from-UK]] 19:53, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

::You're right. Thanks.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 19:54, 14 June 2011 (EDT)

=Exact age=

I have not been able to find out an exact age. It is always referred to as "about 6,000 y.o".
Has anyone found a study calculating the exact age of the Earth ? --[[User:ARamis|ARamis]] 20:02, 6 September 2011 (EDT)

: No, I haven't, and wouldn't expect to find one. Dates of events far more recent than creation are in dispute.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 20:14, 6 September 2011 (EDT)
::Tends to be anywhere from 5-10k years. Depends on if you follow ushers example and dont think there mght be some names missing from the lists of names in genesis and the gospels.--[[User:SeanS|SeanS]] 22:24, 19 September 2011 (EDT)

== Why the removal? ==

Why was the mention of Old Earth removed? The fact of the matter is, the majority of the scientific community has accepted radiometric dating as true, and that the Earth is in fact 4 billion years old. Also, why does it matter what historic figures felt the age of the Earth to be. Isn't this an appeal to tradition? Our ancestors also believed that, prior to Christianity, the Sun and Moon were Gods. Should their opinions be held to be correct as well? [[User:JohnPaulJonesRevWar|JohnPaulJonesRevWar]] 08:32, 24 October 2011 (EDT)
:::First, must? Second, secularist/deistic fashions among scientists don't carry a lot of weight. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 08:54, 24 October 2011 (EDT)
::::So if they disagree with you they are automatically inferior and their opinion matters less? That's dancing awfully close to censorship isn't it? [[User:JohnPaulJonesRevWar|JohnPaulJonesRevWar]] 09:39, 24 October 2011 (EDT)
:::::I don't see in his reply anywhere that he stated he disagreed with those ideas, and whether or not anyone does is irrelevant. Passing scientific fads never carry much weight, regardless of our personal views on the matter. (Conservative, please correct me if I misstate your views). Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 12:40, 24 October 2011 (EDT)

User talk:JohnPaulJonesRevWar

2011-10-24T13:18:18Z

KevinDavis: keep comments and replies from a single conversation on the same talk page. I specifically asked you to do this in my post, did I not?

==Edits==
I undid [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Age_of_the_Earth&action=historysubmit&diff=930838&oldid=924790 this edit] and [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Dinosaur&action=historysubmit&diff=930842&oldid=927314 this edit] for two reasons. In the former, I think that if you want to discuss the topic, avoid using "mis-informed" because it comes across as insulting. In the latter case, see my edit comment; it's extremely difficult to prove to a 100% certainty that dinosaurs are extinct, especially when the oceans are so vast. Marine dinosaurs could still exist, and there in fact may be evidence to suggest that conclusion. Thus, I reverted it, because even though dinosaurs are usually believed to be extinct, we don't want to eliminate doubt in cases where it does exist. '''Remember that if you reply to this comment, please reply on ''this talk page'', not my own.''' Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 08:26, 24 October 2011 (EDT)
:Agreed, and I apologize for being so crude with my wording. I have amended my edit, but insist that it be mentioned that the YEC movement represents a minority in the scientific community and that they are the only ones who view the evidence as conclusively in favor of the YEC movement. [[User:JohnPaulJonesRevWar|JohnPaulJonesRevWar]] 08:29, 24 October 2011 (EDT)
::I specifically asked that you reply to my comments on this page, right? It makes life much easier if we all keep related conversations to a single talk page. Accordingly, I moved your comment back to this page. Put all further replies in this conversation on '''this page'''. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:18, 24 October 2011 (EDT)

User talk:KevinDavis

2011-10-24T13:17:55Z

KevinDavis:

== I want to start correcting misspelled words ==

:Go right ahead. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 13:30, 19 August 2011 (EDT)
::Thank you. I have a script searching for commonly misspelled words at the moment. Hopefully it will return something. [[User:KevinDavis|KevinDavis]] 09:38, 20 August 2011 (EDT)

==Spell check==
In case of essays where it says no other contributions, I think minor spelling corrections are fine. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 11:28, 19 August 2011 (EDT)
::Ok thank you. I'll refrain if a correction would change the meaning at all (I don't know why it would, but still). [[User:KevinDavis|KevinDavis]] 09:37, 20 August 2011 (EDT)

== RE:James Bond? ==

Yes, that is correct.--[[User:GOPFan2011|GOPFan2011]] 13:40, 5 September 2011 (EDT)

== Style ==

[http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Samuel_Johnson&action=historysubmit&diff=912711&oldid=912612 Regarding this]: there are two ways to approach quotes and punctuation. One format (which I prefer) is to only have the quotes represent the quote punctuation, i.e. if there is a comma or period at the end of the quote then put that punctuation, if not leave punctuation outside of the quote. Some others prefer to have all punctuation within a quote. One is based on quotation correctness logic, the other is based on uniformity. Which does Conservapedia prefer so that can be established (or you'll have to be doing a lot of changes to switch it over :) )? I do have a program that can swap the punctuation more easily so I can handle some of it without a problem. [[User:Ottava|Ottava]] ([[user talk:Ottava|talk]]) 10:19, 9 September 2011 (EDT)
:I was always taught that punctuation is placed within quotes, regardless of context or content (with a few rare exceptions, none of which I've seen used here). I've used that method for years in my work, and it's what I pass on to my students. However, if you have any lingering questions, I would ask [[User:Aschlafly]], since he's who I've turned to for help with other issues. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 10:22, 9 September 2011 (EDT)
::[http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/quotation_%28speech%29_marks_punctuation_in_or_out.htm Looking briefly] online, it appears it is more of a UK/US thing, and looking at some of my critical books it seems to be a pre-1980 (logic) vs post-1980 (uniform). [[User:Ottava|Ottava]] ([[user talk:Ottava|talk]]) 10:47, 9 September 2011 (EDT)
:::As my education has always been in the US, perhaps that's why I defer to it. I would always use the US standard, since that's my personal preference, but if you choose to alternate between them, it would make sense to use the US standard for American web sites (of which this site is an example) and the UK standard for UK sites. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 12:40, 9 September 2011 (EDT)

== Pearl S. Buck and ''The Good Earth'' ==

Buck living in China was suspicious? Really? A child of Christian missionaries stationed in China who later married a Christian missionary? How is that suspicious?

I admit I haven't read the book in a while, so I would appreciate it if you would please explain and ''reference'' the connections to communism you believe exist in ''The Good Earth'' - otherwise I'm going to remove it. --[[User:SharonW|SharonW]] 00:32, 23 September 2011 (EDT)
:Later in life, Buck was highly critical of her father; specifically, see her work ''Fighting Angel'', which portrays her father in less than a flattering light. Buck explicitly described her father's missionary work as part and parcel of Western imperialism. Hardly a positive view of evangelical efforts, wouldn't you agree? Also, several of her political views (particularly, her support for "women's rights" and the left-leaning progressive movements) led to substantial disagreement between her and the Presbyterian group that employed her as a missionary, thus leading directly to her resignation from that group. Finally, her husband worked primarily as an agricultural economist for the Chinese government; his missionary work was a distant second to his agricultural studies. Marxists critized his work in later years, but the vast majority of this criticism occurred during the Cultural Revolution in China, which in its nationalistic fervor lashed out at all ideas Western, regardless of their political orientation.

:I believe I have presented enough about Pearl S. Buck and her husband to satisfy your curiosity. As for ''The Good Earth'' itself, I won't engage you with too much detail, for the sake of brevity. However, the novel contains a sizeable amount of discussion of the protagonist's agrarian background, which exemplifies the agrarian school of thought popular with Chinese Communists. Mao himself was famous for his application of Marxist principles to the primarily agrarian economy of China, despite Marx's idea that a revolution could only occur in an advanced industrial society. Although ''The Good Earth'' contains elements of Algerian novels of the 19th century, it also contains numerous anti-capitalist implications, i.e. the mob that destroys the house of a wealthy city dweller, and Wang Lung's sadness at the end of the novel, despite his hard work and the affluence he has provided for his family. Finally, his actions involving the concubine Lotus make me question the moral standing of the author.

:I hope that the information above is informative; if you have any other questions, feel free to let me know. Thank you! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 19:12, 23 September 2011 (EDT)

::Kevin, Sorry I haven't responded before this - we've recently moved, and our house is decorated in the Early American Box motif, as well as I lost a friend way too young this past week. I'm hoping to get a chance this weekend to pick up a copy of ''The Good Earth'', and maybe one or two others written by Buck, so I can read/re-read them before trying to discuss them with you! ;-) As I said previously, it's been *ahem* a year or two since I've read anything by her, and at the time, I probably just read it to enjoy the story, without looking for any deeper meaning/intent. Thanks for being patient with me! --[[User:SharonW|SharonW]] 23:23, 28 September 2011 (EDT)
:::My apologies on my late response as well. Normally, I am completely unable to access the site because of connection problems on the server end, so I can't check my talk page or see that you have replied. I think reading ''The Good Earth'' would certainly be helpful. However, if you wish to continue our discussion, could you perhaps email me at the email address on my user page? As of now, that is the only way I can reliably continue our discussion, unfortunately. My condolences on your friend, as well. I've lost friends and family members of my own in recent years, and even though the emotional pain is never the same between people, I can certainly understand how difficult it can be. Take care, [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 14:25, 1 October 2011 (EDT)

== Good stuff ==

Excellent work on the categories just lately!--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 08:24, 12 October 2011 (EDT)
:Thank you! I hadn't explored Mediawiki's Special Pages before, but I found that page and figured it was a good place to apply my editing time. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 08:29, 12 October 2011 (EDT)
::That's good news. I've been making a dent in the uncategorized list lately by doing a few each day, but there are still a few hundred. Well done on [[Goat]] in particular - that had been on the list for a long time indeed.
::You might find [[User:CPalmer/Interiotlinks|this page of links]] useful in addition to the Special Pages page, for maintenance-type things-to-do.--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 08:32, 12 October 2011 (EDT)

== Spam ==

It seems that you were right about the spam. Good vigilance!--[[User:CPalmer|CPalmer]] 11:36, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
:Happy to help as much as I can! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 12:38, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

== RE: Tables ==

HTML element aren't just for presentation; HTML elements have semantic values. Tables are only meant to be used to create something with rows and columns, ''and'' they're supposed to represent tabled as well. The div element is meant to create and represent blocks. The simplified MediaWiki syntax for tables is meant to replace table-relate elements, not the div element. In addition, HTML is a markup language, not a programming language. I don't need to be a software developer in order to understand it. Webpage designs and online publications are my specialty; I know HTML and CSS inside and out. --[[User:Michaeldsuarez|Michaeldsuarez]] 15:34, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
:Hi Michael. I know HTML isn't a programming language, and I didn't refer to it as such. The reason I stated that the Mediawiki developers probably understand it better than you or I is because web developers normally have a high level of experience with HTML, ''as well as'' the programming languages behind a web site. For example, PHP, which outputs raw HTML code when run through a web server, requires knowledge of HTML. If you're exceptionally worried about semantics, then there's probably no harm in your corrections. However, for someone who lists on his user page that he's a sysop at a wiki, please remember that replies to talk page posts should go on talk pages. As someone with a lot of web development experience, please remember that. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 15:49, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
::Alright, but didn't I post my reply on a talk page? --[[User:Michaeldsuarez|Michaeldsuarez]] 16:05, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
:::My apologies; in my haste to post before I left I wasn't clear enough. Normally, replies should be placed on the same talk page as the post to which they're responding. In this case, it would have made logical sense to post your reply on your talk page, since that's where my comment was placed. It keeps threads together and prevents subjects from being broken up amongst numerous pages. Basic Internet sense, as far as I know. Just something to keep in mind for the future; thanks! [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 17:09, 14 October 2011 (EDT)
::::Alright. I'll keep that in mind. --[[User:Michaeldsuarez|Michaeldsuarez]] 22:05, 14 October 2011 (EDT)

==Journalism==
Thank you so much! That really means a lot to me. And I plan to hold myself to a high standard. Unfortunately, I don't think Andrew and Conservative saw that comment the same way you did. Given all their talking about the "liberal mainstream media bias" and that I'm not in any of Andrew's classes, I worry that they might distrust me in the future. Conservative has already accused me of being an "obsessive atheist" for my questions once. Do I have reason to worry or am I being a little paranoid? :/ --[[User:SpenserL|SpenserL]] 14:44, 19 October 2011 (EDT)
:I don't know enough to comment on that particular issue. There is very much a liberal bias in many "mainstream" media outlets, but I think the problem is not so much that the people running them are liberal; these people simply do not care, more often than not. Although that sounds bleak, it means that biases that occur do so as a result of individual people (the majority, unfortunately) with those political beliefs. This gives you a great chance, because if you are actually free from bias, your publications will reflect that. The institutional bias occurs because most people in the business are ''not'' free of such biases. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 15:45, 19 October 2011 (EDT)

==My Source==
Discussion moved back to user's talk page, found [[User_talk:Gelatin#Abortion|here]]. Please respond to a talk page comment on the talk page where it was made, not on a different page. It's quite frustrating to need to move between several pages in order to continue a discussion. Keeping discussions on the same page makes archiving and finding conversations significantly easier. [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 17:30, 19 October 2011 (EDT)

== Condescension ==
Comment moved to [[User talk:JohnPaulJonesRevWar#Edits|here]]. '''Please keep all replies and comments on their related talk pages.''' [[User:KevinDavis|Kevin Davis]] [[User talk:KevinDavis|Talk]] 09:17, 24 October 2011 (EDT)

User talk:JohnPaulJonesRevWar

2011-10-24T12:26:46Z

KevinDavis: Created page with "==Edits== I undid [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Age_of_the_Earth&action=historysubmit&diff=930838&oldid=924790 this edit] and [http://www.conservapedia.com/index...."

Age of the Earth

2011-10-24T12:23:46Z

KevinDavis: I think you need to reword it without "mis-informed"

''See also [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth]].''

The '''Age of the Earth''' has been a matter of interest to humans for millennia. The subject is still debated today, particularly between [[young Earth Creationism|young-Earth scientists]], who believe that the Earth is only approximately 10-6,000 years old, and [[Old Earth Creationism|Old Earth creationists]] and scientists who argue that Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old.<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/22/opinion/polls/main965223.shtml</ref> The scientific evidence [[young earth creationism|points to a young age of the earth and the universe]]. The biblical creation organization [[Creation Ministries International]] published an article entitled ''[http://creation.com/age-of-the-earth 101 evidences for a young age of the earth and the universe]'', that provides much of the scientific evidence in support of a young Earth.

== Historical views ==
[[Image:Landscape.jpg|right|300px]]
For most of recorded history, humans of many backgrounds viewed the age of the Earth to be around 6,000 years,<ref>Burnet, p. 258.</ref> such as St. Barnabas and St. Irenæus.<ref>Burnet, p. 259.</ref>

In 1830, Dr. Hales published a list of 120 historical authorities from various cultures who had decided on an officiall [[date of creation]]. These ranged from 6984 B.C. to 3616 B.C.<ref>Batten 2002 quotes from "Young’s Analytical Concordance of the Holy Bible", 1879 8th Edition, 1939, which relates this, and reproduces the selection of the dates from Young.</ref>

Included in Hales' list is [[James Ussher]], who calculated the famous date of 4004 B.C. for creation. Young-Earth creationists still consider this date to be close to the actual date.

In 1778 George-Louis Lecrerc, Count of Buffon, proposed that the Earth was about 74,832 years old.<ref name="ingv">INGV</ref>
[[James Hutton]], whilst not proposing a date, dismissed the Biblical account and claimed in 1785 that there was not evidence of a beginning at all.<ref name="ingv" />
[[Charles Lyell]] supported Hutton's idea in 1830, in ''Principles of Geology''.<ref name="ingv" />

In 1854 [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] estimated an age of between 20 and 40 million years.<ref name="ingv" />
Around the same time [[Lord Kelvin]] put his mind to deriving an age, and came up with a range between 20 million years and 400 million years. He later refined that down to between 20 million and 40 million years.<ref name="ingv" /> More recent discoveries of radioactivity and mantle convection explain why the assumptions Helmholtz and Kelvin made resulted in dates that are much lower than current uniformitarian estimates.

The 1911 edition of the [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] discussed dates up to 500 million years.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, pp 650-651.</ref>

By about 1930, J. H. Jeans was arguing for an age of the Earth of around two billion years.<ref>Universal History of the World, p.76.</ref>

Using circular logic -- assuming that decay rates somehow remained constant despite necessarily changing physical characteristics as time approached the origin -- [[atheists]] insist that the Earth is 4.5 billion years based on an implausible assumption of constancy in [[Potassium-argon dating|Potassium-argon (K:Ar) decay rates]] and other radiometric methods.<ref>Peck, 2000, p.376.</ref>

== Geology ==

[[Image:516XZRGNCKL AA240 .jpg|right|300px]]
[[William R. Corliss]] is a cataloger of scientific [[Anomaly|anomalies]] (observations and facts that challenge prevailing scientific [[paradigm]]s) and has published many works on the subject.<ref name="sf">[http://www.science-frontiers.com/ Science Frontiers] (Corliss' web-site)</ref>
He also wrote 13 books for the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), a dozen educational booklets for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC), and a dozen articles for the [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF). <ref>Corliss, 2002</ref> The science magazine ''[[New Scientist]]'' had an article which focused on the career of William Corliss.<ref>Adrian Hope, ''Finding a Home for Stray Fact'', New Scientist, July 14, 1977, p. 83</ref>
''New Scientist'' wrote regarding Corliss's work: "All I can say to Corliss is carry on cataloging". <ref>Quoted on the [http://www.science-frontiers.com/sourcebk.htm Science Frontiers web-site]</ref> [[Arthur C. Clarke]] described Corliss as "[[Charles Fort|Fort]]'s latter-day - and much more scientific - successor."<ref>Clarke, Arthur C. (1990) ''Astounding Days: A Science Fictional Autobiography''. Gollancz. Page 110</ref>

Corliss's work on geological anomalies catalogs scores of anomalies which challenge the [[old-earth]] [[paradigm]].<ref>[http://www.science-frontiers.com/sourcebk.htm#Geology Geological Catalogs] (Science Frontiers)</ref>

== Bibliography ==
* Burnet, Thomas, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/ste/ste36.htm The Sacred Theory of the Earth, chapter V], 1691.
* Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition (1911). [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:Tim_Starling On-line page facsimiles].
* Hammerton, J.A. (Ed.), "Universal History of the World" (8 volumes) The Educational Book Co., London, c1930.
* Batten, Don, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/417 Old-earth or young-earth belief: Which belief is the recent aberration?], ''Creation'' 24(1):24–27, December 2001.
* [http://www.ingv.it/~roma/SITOINGLESE/activities/geomagnetismo/analysistheory/historicalresearch/age.html The age of the Earth] (Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV)).
*Peck WH, Valley JW, Wilde SA, and Graham CM (2000) Ion microprobe Evidence for Pre-4.4 Ga Continental Crust and Low Temperature Water/Rock Interaction. ''Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr'', vol 32, no. 7.

== External Links ==
*[http://creation.com/age-of-the-earth Age of the earth] by [[Creation Ministries International]]
*[http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-8-how-old-is-the-earth How old is the earth?] - ''Refuting evolution'' - Chapter 8 by Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] at [[Creation Ministries International]]
*[http://creation.com/young-age-of-the-earth-universe-qa Age of the Earth and Universe] by [[Creation Ministries International]]

== Notes ==
<references />
[[Category:Geology]]

Dinosaur

2011-10-24T12:23:04Z

KevinDavis: it's extremely difficult to prove that something is extinct, especially when you consider marine dinosaurs. the oceans are so vast it's impossible to be 100% certain

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
|sub=
|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' are usually believed to be extinct animals ranging in size from a few ounces to some of the largest land animals ever to exist.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, Edward Drinker Cope (1847-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

===History of dinosaurs===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Creation science]] asserts that the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of [[creation]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth|6,000 years ago]], along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans, thus [[Counterexamples to Evolution|debunking the Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

Creation science shows that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

[[Archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence supports the [[faith and science|logical]] conclusion that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.[citation needed]

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, there are numerous references throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are clearly references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref> although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. However, the Biblical descriptions do not fit those creatures, note that hippopotamuses and elephants do not have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creation science rejects the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creation science shows that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creation science cites a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of sightings of dinosaur-like creatures reported by the [[best of the public]].
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
** Engravings in the floor of Carlisle Cathedral appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, showing that dragons were real creatures and were actua very likely dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] New Years' Day celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the Wollemi Pine <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.
*Some believe the [[Loch Ness Monster]] to be a [[Plesiosaur]].

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creation science shows that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creation science also cites the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref> <ref> Find the full quote on [http://books.google.com/books?id=mAIjnLp6r_MC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Ernst+Mayr+1942+%22It+must+be+admitted,+however,+that+it+is+a+considerable+strain+on+one%27s+credulity+to+assume%22&source=bl&ots=TRDzBtumPF&sig=XwvnT327A9sn3Uvs0RLOaQNo5Zo&hl=en&ei=P6H6Te37LMSwhAf03fimAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false], starting from line 6. </ref> }}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creation scientists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creation science also shows that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===
[[File:PzMyers2.jpg|thumbnail|251px|right|There is excellent evidence that dinosaurs and man coexisted. During a visit to the [[Creation Museum]], the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[PZ Myers]] had noticeably greater difficulty than others climbing on and off a dinosaur model due to the fact that he was overweight and out of shape.[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQQl2TMrgbM VIDEO] See also: [[Atheism and obesity]] and [[Evolutionists who have had problems with being overweight and/or obese]]
 
 
(photo obtained from [http://www.flickr.com/photos/reuvenim/4426093513/ Flickr], see [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en license agreement]) ]]
The view of [[atheism|atheists]], evolutionists and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to evolutionists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

Evolutionists speculate that a mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], it is theorized that vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists speculate that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones indicates them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Creation science shows that those methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.<ref>http://creation.com/radiometric-dating-questions-and-answers</ref>

Creation science points out that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus shows that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists show there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==Description==

===''[[Saurischia]]''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''[[Ornithischia]]''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

== In Popular Culture ==
Dinosaurs have been a fixture of popular culture since their discovery. It is theorized that some of the myths of fantastical creatures stem from the accidental discovery of dinosaur fossils. More recently, dinosaurs have featured in popular stories including books, movies, television, video games, even music.

Dinosaurs were introduced to a wide modern audience when movies like the Jurassic Park series were released.
== See also ==

*[[Evolution]]
*[[Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]
*[[Irreligion and superstition]]
*[[Young earth creationism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

William Forsyth Sharpe

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