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World War II

2013-05-29T17:59:58Z

Johnpeterslusarski: more specific

{{World War 2
| image =WWII collage.JPG
| conflict =
| date =1939-1945
| location =Europe North and eastern Africa Eastern Asia Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean 
| combatant1 ='''Allies''' [[Great Britain]] [[France]] [[Soviet Union]] (from 1941) [[China]] [[United States]] (from 1941) [[Poland]] [[Denmark]] [[Norway]] [[Belgium]] [[Luxembourg]] [[Canada]] [[Australia]] [[New Zealand]] [[Netherlands]] [[Yugoslavia]] [[Greece]] [[Italy]](from 1943 to 1945)
| combatant2 ='''Axis''' [[Nazi Germany]] [[Italy]](until 1943) [[Japan]] [[Hungary]](1941–45) [[Romania]](1941–44) [[Bulgaria]](1941–44) [[Italian Social Republic]] (1943-1945)
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}
'''World War II''' was a global set of conflicts, beginning in 1931 in Asia, 1935 in Africa, and 1939 in Europe, all lasting until 1945, in which the [[Allies|Allied powers]] (led after the Fall of France by the [[British Commonwealth]], and including the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Republic of China]], among many other nations), completely defeated the [[Axis Powers]] (led by [[Third Reich|Nazi Germany]], and including [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]]). Although Japan's war against China began in 1937, the main conflict started in September 1939 when Germany and the Soviet Union divided [[Poland]]; [[Britain]] and [[French Third Republic|France]] then declared war on Germany.

The conflict was the deadliest in human history with estimated deaths ranging from 50 million to over 70 million soldiers and civilians.<ref>http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Second</ref> It ended with the Soviet Union dominant in a part of Central Europe and all of Eastern Europe, and the U.S. and its allies dominant in Western Europe, a part of Central Europe and Scandinavia, setting the stage for the [[Cold War]].
==Causes==
:''See: [[Causes of World War II]]''

==War Begins in Europe==
[[File:58692.gif|thumb|300px|right|By terms of a secret protocol to the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], [[Poland]] was partitioned with Germany and the USSR each occupying 200,000 square kilometers.]]
:''See also: [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]]''

In the immediate run up to WWII, there were frequent reports of trespassing Polish troops. On August 31, 1939 German covert operatives staged a fake attack by Polish troops on a German radio station. WWII started on September 1, 1939, when German troops invaded Poland. Hitler justified this as a defensive act, pointing to the frequent border incidents, and said famously that from this moment on Germany would strike back.

The major tactical innovation of the war was the use of combined arms warfare, typified by the German doctrine of [[blitzkrieg]]. In this style of warfare armor, infantry, artillery and air power (see [[Luftwaffe]]) all coordinate to achieve overwhelming superiority at point on the enemy lines. Armor and fast-moving infantry units then exploit the gap and penetrate deep behind enemy lines. The objective is to cause a widespread collapse of the enemy's ability to fight. It was particularly effective during the early stages of the war, before the Allies developed effective countermeasures.
On September 17, 1939, Poland was invaded from the east by Hitler’s ally, [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]].

In 1939-1940, eastern Poland, [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Bessarabia]] were invaded and annexed by the Soviet Union.

==War in the West==
[[Image:Caen_sniper.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A Canadian soldier in the ruins of Caen, 9 July 1944]]
Once the invasion of Poland was complete, German forces regrouped while French and British forces remained on the defensive, leading US commentators to dub it the [[Sitskreig|Phoney War]]. May 10 1940 made clear that the war was real, as Germany invaded France, occupying neutral countries such as the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]] in the process. Resistance by the British and French armies proved ineffective, and France was soon surrendered. British and French troops were routed and evacuated mainland Europe at [[Dunkirk]]. France was divided into the northern [[Occupied France]] and the collaborationist [[Vichy regime]] in the south of France, including [[Corsica]].

The collapse and occupation of France, together with Germany's non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union,<ref>[http://nobsopus.blogspot.com/2007/01/celebrations-marking-60-years-since-end.html Celebrations Marking 60 Years Since the End of World War II], Pavel Vitek, ''Russkii vopros - Studies'', No. 1 2005. Translation from Russian.</ref>, Germany's alliance with fascist Italy and an expansionist Japan, the benevolent neutrality of fascist Spain, and the fact that little of Europe was outside Axis control, led many to assume that Britain had been defeated. Indeed it would appear that the seemingly foolish decision of the relatively weak Britain to continue the war took the Axis powers off guard. This decision ensured the remaining British Empire was still involved in the war, with Japan threatening many British possessions in Asia.

In 1940 [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] were invaded by German forces, to preempt a British occupation of Norway and occupy its coastline and ports to be used by the [[Kriegsmarine]]. Norway also contained a source of [[Heavy water]], potentially crucial in the construction of an atomic weapon. The operation was successful, but losses were heavy, especially to the Kriegsmarine. This was soon followed by the British troops invited by [[Iceland]] and American occupation of [[Greenland]]. (The goal was to prevent any increase in the range of German air and submarine activity, brought about the occupation of these lands - and of the Azores at the request of the Portuguese Government.)

With Britain the sole opposing European nation, the [[Battle of Britain]] commenced. The [[Luftwaffe]] attempted to achieve aerial dominance over the south of Britain, in order to allow a sea based invasion of the British Isles to proceed. From 10th July to the end of October the [[Royal Air Force]] and the Luftwaffe fought for dominance; the resilience of the RAF, which counted in its ranks also Commonwealth personnel, US volunteers and Polish and Czech exiles, and the use of [[radar]] and its associated early warning systems, had forced a rethink of German tactics. It was the first significant setback for the Germans in the War. They now concentrated on the great population centers, especially London, hoping that huge civilian casualties would weaken morale and lead to a lessening of the war effort by the populace. The period that followed, popularly known as [[the Blitz]], lasted into May 1941. Around 40,000 civilians and civil defense workers died; but the Germans failed to reach their objectives and their resources were soon diverted to the Eastern front as Hitler began concentrating on the impending invasion of the Soviet Union.

With the pressure off their airbases the RAF was now able to increase its nightly raids on industrial sites in Germany and occupied lands. Because of the inability to correctly target these sites, the raids soon turned into “area bombing”, and German civilian casualties rose. These raids were to reach further into Germany as the war progressed and were greatly increased when American bombers began their sorties.

==Finnish Wars==

The Soviet Union invaded [[Finland]], a neutral, on November 30 1939. This conflict came to be known as the "Winter War". Despite the overwhelming numbers of the Red Army, the Finnish resistance was strong and the battle was hard fought before the Soviet army took control. Outside powers (including the U.S.) considered intervention to help Finland; only a little aid trickled in and Finland was forced to sue for peace. The peace treaty signed in March 1940 favored the Soviets, but they paid heavily for their victory with 200,000 dead. Finland lost 25,000 dead, and had to absorb 400,000 refugees from areas turned over to the Soviets. In 1941 Finland joined Germany in attacking the Soviets, in the "Continuation War" (1941-44), but lost again. An armistice in Sept. 1944 stabilized the border, using March 1940 lines; in addition Finland had to pay heavy reparations and had to remain neutral in the [[Cold War]].<ref> Roger R. Reese, "Lessons of the Winter War: a Study in the Military Effectiveness of the Red Army, 1939-1940," ''Journal of Military History'' 2008 72(3): 825-852 </ref>

==Soviet-German War==
1941 marked the major turning point in the war in Europe, when the Germans undertook [[Operation Barbarossa]] - the invasion of the Soviet Union. Stalin was repeatedly informed by his own spies and anti-German countries that Germany was about to attack; he rejected the accurate reports and paid dearly for the blunder.

In June--behind schedule because of diversions in the Balkans--the Germans launched their massive war against the Soviet Union (known as the "Great Patriotic War" in Russia). It was by far the largest, bloodiest, and most decisive phase of World War II. Outside observers in the first few months figured that Germany would win easily. But the Nazi armies were split three ways, logistics became worse and worse as distances grew, and none met their objective by the time the extreme Russian winter of 1941-42 set in. Blitzkrieg had failed against the Soviets, and the Germans lacked the resources to fight a long war against a country with such vast areas and so many more people. The Luftwaffe, which promised to overcome the slowness of ground travel, failed to provide adequate support and was soon matched and outnumbered by the Soviet air force.<ref> The best studies of this theater are by [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=30&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=glantz+david&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_isbn=&as_issn= David Glantz]</ref>

In the third year of war Germany began to suffer from a lack of important resources such as oil. Hitler therefore ordered the German army to take the city of Stalingrad and the oil fields of Baku in South Russia. The operation failed after the 6th German army was encircled in Stalingrad and completely annihilated. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]] marked a turning point in the war and the Soviet Union started launching their own offensives. After a time of comparatively slow progress, the brilliant Soviet officer, Konstantin Rokossovsky, engineered "Operation Bagration", named-so after the Napoleonic Russian hero. The operation was extremely successful for the Soviets, leading to around 600,000 Soviet casualties and over 500,000 German casualties, including over 60,000 German vehicles and tanks. Even the Germans' best officer, Erich von Manstein, couldn't turn the situation around. Finally, in 1945, Soviet troops stormed Berlin, and forced Nazi Germany into capitulation.

==Far East==

After Pearl Harbor, the Japanese juggernaut seemed unstoppable. In the south, they conquered the [[Philippines]], the oil-rich Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, and extended their reach as far as the Solomon Islands. In the west, they seized [[Burma]] and the vital port at [[Rangoon]], and even attacked British forces at [[Ceylon]]. The Japanese empire now reached as far as [[Wake Island]] in the east and the [[Aleutian Islands]] to the north. Attacks on Japanese targets, including the Doolittle raid, boasted American morale, but did little material damage. In May 1942, Japanese forces were finally halted at the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]], which cost the Americans a precious [[aircraft carrier]], but saved southern [[New Guinea]]. At the [[Battle of Midway]] a month later, the Japanese lost four of their best carriers, suffering a blow to their sea power from which they never recovered.

The Americans took the offensive in August with a landing on the island of [[Guadalcanal]]. The overall American offensive strategy was two-pronged. Forces in the south advanced up the Solomon island chain and New Guinea, while in the central Pacific, Marines took island after island, including [[Battle of Tarawa|Tarawa]], Eniwetok, [[Saipan]], and [[Guam]]. The two lines of attack came together at the Philippines.

Integral to the strategy was the policy of island hopping. Many Japanese strongholds were bypassed, allowing the American forces to concentrate on more strategically significant islands. For example, [[Truk]] and Rabaul were home to major Japanese air and naval bases, but once the bases were neutralized, there was no reason to take on the troops there. This policy not only saved thousands of American (and Japanese) lives, it shortened the war by at least several months.

The American invasion of the Philippines took place in late October of 1944 when Marines landed on Leyte Island. A few days later, the US Navy shattered what was left of Japanese naval power in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. The Japanese fought hard, however, and Leyte took two months to secure. When the Americans landed on the other islands, they found the troops there equally unwilling to retreat, but with American superiority in almost every area, the outcome was never really in doubt. [[Manila]] was captured by March, and the American position had become solid enough that leaders could start preparing for the final stage: [[Operation Downfall|the invasion of Japan]]. The first step was taken when the island of [[Okinawa]] was captured in June after two months of heavy fighting. Operation Olympic, the invasion of [[Kyushu]], was scheduled for November 1945, followed by Operation Coronet, the invasion of [[Honshu]], in March of 1946.

The Japanese, soldiers and civilians alike, were expected to put up a fierce defense. Army Chief of Staff [[George C. Marshall]] believed that Japan would fight to the last man, and insisted on preparing for a land invasion of Japan with an army of 2,000,000 men anticipating a tremendous number of casualties. Some analysts estimated the number of projected casualties from Operation Olympic alone at 250,000 dead and wounded.<ref>Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy, by Craig L. Symonds, the Naval Institute, 1995</ref> For this reason, Washington strongly requested the Soviets declare war on Japan. At the Potsdam conference in mid-July 1945, Stalin told President Truman the Soviets would declare war on Japan but would not give a firm timetable.<ref>Wheeler (1983) p. 58</ref>
[[Image:Ww2-asia usma.edu pic.gif|thumb|300px|left|Time Line of Pacific War]]

==Japanese capitulation==
After the successful atom bomb test in the U.S., President Truman was left with the immense task of deciding what to do with the power of the atomic bomb. Truman assembled a committee to advise him. The committee recommended the bomb should be used on the Japanese Empire mainland to save American lives and produce maximum shock to try to convince the Japanese to surrender.<ref>Wheeler (1983) pp. 58-60</ref> Therefore, on August 6, 1945, a B-29 Superfortress, the "Enola Gay" piloted by Paul Tibbet, dropped an atomic bomb (now called a nuclear weapon) on [[Hiroshima]]. Japan did not respond, so on August 9, "Bocks Car", a B-29 piloted by Frederick C. Bock dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki.<ref>Wheeler (1983) pp. 94-101</ref>

The Soviet Union declared war on Japan at midnight August 8, 1945, in response to the American requests and in a last-minute grab for the spoils of war. It invaded Manchuria and Korea with 1.6 million troops; the Japanese army disintegrated. The Soviets captured 600,000 military and civilian prisoners of war; most of whom never returned home again.<ref>Wheeler (1983) p. 156</ref> It was no longer possible for the Imperial Army to defend the emperor. On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito by radio broadcast announced Japan would accept the terms of the Allies, unconditional surrender.<ref>Wheeler (1983) pp. 165-167</ref> By follow up message, the Japanese government stated they were surrendering with the understanding the Emperor would remain on the throne and would not be hung as a war criminal. Washington agreed, saying the authority of the emperor would be "subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers." On September 2, 1945, the Japanese Emperor formally surrendered all Japanese forces to the Allies in a famous ceremony aboard the battleship ''USS Missouri'' in Tokyo Bay. This was the ending of World War II, after six years almost to the day.

==Effects of war on empires==

*[[Iron Curtain]]
:The Red army conquered practically everything east of the "Iron Curtain," destroying independent national governments and making them all subservient to Moscow. The US grudgingly tolerated this imperialism until 1947, when it was Greece's turn. Then the US drew the line and adopted a policy of [[containment]]. Because of the geography of war, [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Albania]] escaped the Red Army. They fell under the control of independent Communists--Yugoslavia received American support, and Albania turned to Red China for help against the Soviets.

*[[British Empire]]
:The war effectively bankrupted Britain, which soon gave up India (which then included Pakistan and Ceylon) and many of its other colonies.

* French Empire
:France saluted its overseas Empire as the savior of France, and wanted control back. That led to nasty large scale wars in Algeria and Vietnam, which France lost.

*the Netherlands and Indonesia
:The Dutch returned to the [[Dutch East Indies]] to face an insurrection they could not handle. Dutch acknowledged in 1949 the sovereignty of [[Indonesia]], a non-Communist state.

*Supremacy of the USA in the Western World
:The war left the U.S. with a vastly stronger economy than anyone else. To save on budget deficits the military was demobilized, but the long-term strategy was in confusion after Roosevelt's death.

==See also==
===Land war===
[[Image:Bradley.jpg|thumb|290px|''Time'' Dec. 4, 1944]]
* [[Battle of the Bulge]], Dec. 1944
* [[Battle of Okinawa]], spring 1945
* [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], 1937-45
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], US general
* [[Omar Bradley]], US general
* [[George S. Patton, Jr.]], US general
===Air war===
* [[Luftwaffe]], German air force
* [[World War II in the Air]]
* [[Bombing of Japan]]
* [[Bombing of Germany]]
===Naval===
* [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]], Dec. 1941
* [[Battle of Midway]], June 1942
* [[Chester W. Nimitz]], US Admiral

===Homefronts===
* [[Holocaust]], killing the Jews

===Leaders===
* [[Charles de Gaulle]], France
* [[Adolf Hitler]], Germany
* [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], US
* [[Winston Churchill]], Britain
* [[Joseph Stalin]], Russia
* [[Chiang Kai-shek]], China
* [[Benito Mussolini]], Italy
* [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], Canada
* [[John Curtin]], Australia

==Further reading==
For a more detailed guide, see [[Bibliography of World War II]]

* Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot, eds. ''Oxford Companion to World War II'' (in Britain titled ''Oxford Companion to the Second World War'' (2005; 2nd ed. 2009). the best reference book; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-World-War-II/dp/019280670X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236549909&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Times Atlas of the Second World War'' (1995)
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II'', (1994) the best overall view of the war.
* Wheeler, Keith. ''The Fall of Japan'' (1983)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* United States Department of the Navy/Navy Historical Center's [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-4.htm Fleet Admiral Chester William Nimitz]
* [http://www.onpower.org/history_wwii.html/ World War II]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=12&articleID=139 "On the Brink of World War II: Justus Doenecke’s ''Storm on the Horizon''," by Ralph Raico]
*[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~epf/1997/padilla.html Kursk: The Turning Point on the Eastern Front in World War II], by Roberto R. Padilla II
* [http://encyc.org/WorldWarII World War II - Encyc]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/working_papers/article.asp?id=1499 "Government and the Economy: The World Wars," by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=113 "How War Amplified Federal Power in the Twentieth Century," by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.independent.org/store/book_detail.asp?bookID=65 ''Depression, War and Cold War'', by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/article.asp?id=138 "Wartime Prosperity?", by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=1431 Pearl Harbor]
[[Category:World War II| ]]
[[Category:Wars]]

Eastern Europe

2013-05-29T17:55:54Z

Johnpeterslusarski: minor

'''Eastern Europe''' is a region of [[Europe]] that consist of [[Russian Federation]] (its European part), and occasionally [[Belarus]], and [[Ukraine]]. These countries are about 50% of European landmass.

==History==

Eastern Europe is often confused or referred as a shortcut to in the media with the [[Eastern Bloc]] that consisted of the [[Soviet Union]] - especially Baltic states in Northern Europe(Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), and those that weren't a part of it - Balkan states in Southern Europe ([[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Moldova]], [[Romania]], [[Yugoslavia]]), and [[Central Europe]]an nations ([[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]]).

Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993, while Yugoslavia has splintered into several countries in early 1990s. [[East Germany]] has been reunited with [[West Germany]] to form [[Germany]]. The Soviet Union broke up in 1990s into Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia are members of the [[European Union]]. Croatia will be the first state to join it in 2013) <ref>http://europa.eu/abc/european_countries/index_en.htm</ref>.

==Contemporary use ad developments==

Borders of European regions have been shifted back to the pre-Cold War, hence European Russia is also equal to pre-Cold War terms.
Relating to Central European states as Eastern Europe is seen in Europe as ignorance or a provocation revoking the Cold War divide of Europe.

It is a common mistake to label all Slavic or the former Warsaw Pact (also called the Eastern Bloc) states in the region as located in Eastern Europe.

East and West Germany were countries, so better to call it eastern and western Germany. Reunification is all but a thing of the past and seen in a more or less positive light by most there and in all of Central Europe so try to avoid labeling Germans by their recent past.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Regions of the World]]

Western Europe

2013-05-29T17:51:04Z

Johnpeterslusarski: Minor

'''Western Europe''' is the region of [[Europe]] consisting of [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Ireland]],[[Luxembourg]], [[Monaco]], [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Occasionally it includes also [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]] and countries in [[Central Europe]] like Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic.

==History==
Western Europe is confused with [[Western Bloc]], a term referring to the part of [[Europe]] that mostly did not come under [[Communist]] rule at the end or after the [[Second World War]] (except for Portugal). Thanks to the financial help from the US (Marschall Plan), economic and political freedom, it became advanced, wealthy and stable that its counterpart, [[Eastern Bloc]]. In Western Europe, the [[European Union]] was created.

Western European (as well as [[Central Europe]]an) culture can be traced back to that of [[Ancient Rome]], and it is also the birthplace of both the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Protestantism]] - in addition to the [[Enlightenment]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Colonists from Western Europe have settled the entire length and breadth of [[North America]], [[South America]], and [[Australia]], taking their languages and culture with them.

==Contemporary developments==
Western Europe is also the home of ''two'' of the world's most important currencies, the [[euro]] and the British [[pound]]. Some of the world's greatest cities - [[Amsterdam]], [[Brussels]] (de facto European Union's capital), [[Paris]], [[London]] are situated in Western Europe, and it is the home of the [[English language]], the [[French language]], and the [[Spanish language]].

All [[Western Europe]]an countries are listed by the Human Development Index as very highly developed countries.

Currently, as Europe is no longer divided into Western and Eastern Bloc, the use of the term Western, or Eastern Europe is seen as a faux past. It relates to the Cold War, which ended a generation ago.

[[Category:Regions of the World]]
[[Category:Europe]]

Germany

2013-05-29T17:47:14Z

Johnpeterslusarski: link

{{Country
|name =''Bundesrepublik Deutschland''
|map =Germany rel 94.jpg
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|capital =Berlin
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic (Parliamentary)
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|language =German
|king =
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|president =Joachim Gauck
|president-raw =
|chancellor =Angela Merkel
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
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|area =137,858 sq mi
|pop =81,471,000
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$3.045 trillion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$36,975 (2006)
|currency =Euro (formerly the Deutsche Mark)
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}}
[[File:Germ-vote-2009.jpg|200px|thumb|Exit polls from Sept. 2009 election won by the conservative coalition CDU and FDP]]
'''Germany''' (official name: '''Federal Republic of Germany''') is a federally organized [[Democracy]] in [[Central Europe]] with a population of about 82.2 million. The capital city and seat of government is [[Berlin]].

The major ethnic groups are German 94%, Polish 1%, Yugoslavs 1% and others 4%. 34% of the population are Protestants, 34% are Roman Catholics and 4% are Muslim.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gm.html</ref>

As Europe's largest economy and the most populous nation wholly within Europe, Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. The central German bank, the [[Bundesbank]], has historically been the most influential force within the financial markets of the European Union.

The September 2009 elections were a major win for the conservative forces led by Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], breaking a stalemate and opening the way for more conservative economic policies. Previously since an indecisive election in 2005 the Christian Democrats ([[CDU]]) (on the center-right) formed a "grand coalition" with the Social Democrats (SPD) (on the center-left). Now Merkel and her CDU will form a coalition with the libertarian, pro-business Free Democrats (FDP). Left in the cold will be the SPD, the Greens, and the ex-Communists who remain strong in the former East Germany under the name "Left party". Merkel is now expected to move forward on tax cuts, reform of the tax code, reduction of bureaucracy and a possible extension of the time that nuclear power plants can continue to operate.<ref>Craig Whitlock, "Germany's Merkel Reelected Easily, Will Form New Coalition," [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/27/AR2009092700631.html?nav=emailpage ''Washington Post'' Sept. 28, 2009]</ref>

Merkel's program announced as she took office Oct. 28 includes $36 billion in income tax cuts, lower business taxes, and higher family benefits. The budget will be in deficit for the next four years, as the government believes the economy is too fragile for spending cuts and that more stimulus is needed to end the recession. By law the budget must be balanced by the year 2016. Nuclear power plants will be given an extension, and Merkel wants to move more of the welfare costs from corporations to households.

==People==
===Demography===
[[File:German-fans.jpg|thumb|250px|German fans.]]
In 2005 there were 388,451 marriages and 201,693 divorces. There were 685,795 births and 830,227 deaths. The number of births has dropped from 767,000 in 2000, while the deaths have risen from 179,600.

The average age at marrying (for the first time) for men was 32 and for women 29. Abortions are officially illegal, according to a 1995 law. However, prosecutions are not brought if they are performed in the first three months of pregnancy after consultation with a doctor. The annual abortion rate, at under ten per 1,000 women aged 15–44, is among the lowest in the world

In 2005 10.2% of all children lived in poverty (in households with income below 50% of the national median).

Germany had a Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) of 0.66 in 1999. A rate of NRR=1.0 equals a constant population. Therefore, in terms of births and deaths (and not counting immigration) the population is shrinking by 34% between generations.[3]

Life expectancy of females at birth in West Germany rose from 71 years in 1954 to 80 years in 2000; the expectancy for boys rose from 66 to 75. Expectancy in the eastern zone was about three years less.

Projected population in 2050 is 76 million, down from the present 82 million. There will be more deaths than births, and that is largely offset by a net inflow of immigrants from 2000 to 2050, predicted to be about 240,000 per year.

<blockquote>
Germany's recent debate about immigration misses an important reality: for Germany, and most all developed countries, attracting educated and skilled foreign workers is a matter of economic survival. <ref>[http://www.cfr.org/germany/germanys-immigration-dilemma/p24213 Germany's Immigration Dilemma.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===Ethnicity===
[[File:Germany - houses.jpg|left|340px]]
Most inhabitants of Germany are ethnic German. There are, however, more than 7 million foreign residents, many of whom are the families and descendants of so-called "guest workers" (foreign workers, mostly from Turkey, invited to Germany in the 1950s and 1960s to fill labor shortages) who remained in Germany. Germany has a sizable ethnic Turkish population. Germany is also a prime destination for political and economic refugees from many developing countries. An ethnic Danish minority lives in the north, and a small Slavic minority known as the Sorbs lives in eastern Germany. Due to restrictive German citizenship laws, most "foreigners" do not hold German citizenship even when born and raised in Germany. However, since the German government undertook citizenship and immigration law reforms in 2002, more foreign residents have had the ability to naturalize.

===Education===
Germany has one of the world's highest average levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of World War II, the number of youths entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools of the Federal Republic of Germany (F.R.G.) are reasonable good. German 15-year olds score about average in comparison with similar countries.

At the university level, however, there has been a dramatic decline in quality from the days before Hitler, when German universities were the best in the world. Since the student revolts of 1968, conditions at the once-famous universities have deteriorated badly. A strong egalitarianism prevents the re-emergence of world class faculties and no German university ranks among the top 40 in the world.<ref>Gebhard Schweigler, "Heidelberg is Not Harvard …and Germany is embarrassed." [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=83 ''The Atlantic Times'' Dec. 2004]</ref>

The conservative government has tried to reverse the decline by offering €1.9 billion (about $2.7 billion) in excellence grants to numerous schools spread over a period of five years--far less money than Harvard spends in one year. Little improvement has been reported from this small investment. The leading schools are Freiburg, Heidelberg and Konstanz (all in the southern state of Baden-Württemberg), Aachen, Göttingen, the Free University of Berlin, two schools in Munich and Karlsruhe’s Technical University.<ref> Lutz Lichtenberger, "Selective Upgrades The government’s 'Excellence Initiative' grants German universities small packs of ivy seeds," [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=1080 ''The Atlantic Times'' Nov. 2007]]</ref> Meanwhile top German scientists and engineers migrate to the United States, where their talents are appreciated.

===Standard of Living===
[[File:Living Germany.jpg|left|170px]]
With a per capita income level of more than $28,700, Germany is a broadly middle class society. A generous social welfare system provides for universal medical care, unemployment compensation, and other social needs. Millions of Germans travel abroad each year.

With unification on October 3, 1990, Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.) up to that of western Germany. This has been a lengthy and difficult process due to the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former G.D.R., difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from years of mismanagement under communist rule.
{{Clear}}

===Extremism===
Economic malaise in eastern Germany is one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from the political right. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame has found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. The vast majority of Germans condemn such violence.

Wolfgang Schaube, the Interior minister 2005-9, was shot by a deranged man in 1990 and is confined to a wheel chair. He calls on Germans to feel more patriotic, and for immigrants to assimilate faster. He has adopted tough policies on policing and anti-terrorism, such as giving the military authority to shoot down hijacked planes.

===Religion===
[[Image:St Stephens Cathedral interior.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Stephens Cathedral (''Stephansdom'') in Passau, Bavaria. ]]
In 2006 the Roman Catholic Church reported a membership of 25.7 million. The Evangelical Church, a confederation of the Lutheran, Uniate, and Reformed Protestant Churches, has 25.3 million members. Together, these two churches account for nearly two-thirds of the population.<ref> According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108448.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>
[[File:Church pipe organ St Stephen s Cathedral of Passau Germany..jpg|thumb|Church pipe organ, St. Stephen's Cathedral of Passau.]]
Protestant Christian denominations include: New Apostolic Church, 371,305; Ethnic German Baptists from the former Soviet Union (FSU), 85,000; and Baptist, 75,000. Muslims number 3.5 million, including Sunnis, 2.5 million; Alevis, 410,000; and Shi'a, 225,000. Until 2004 the annual number of conversions to Islam was 300, largely Christian women native citizens marrying Muslim men; however, since 2004 the annual numbers of conversions have jumped into the thousands. There are approximately 2,600 Islamic places of worship, including an estimated 150 traditional architecture mosques, with 100 more mosques being planned. One million Muslims are citizens. Orthodox Christians number 1.4 million, including Greek Orthodox/Constantinople Patriarchate, 450,000; Serbian Orthodox, 250,000; Romanian Orthodox, 300,000; and Russian Orthodox/Moscow Patriarchate, 150,000. Buddhists number 245,000, Jehovah's Witnesses 165,000, and Hindus 97,500. The Church of Scientology operates 18 churches and missions, and according to press reports, it has 30,000 members. However, according to the Offices for the Protection of the Constitution (OPC) in Brandenburg and Hamburg, the Church of Scientology has 5,000-6,000 members.

According to estimates, Jews number more than 200,000, of which 107,330 are registered members of the Jewish community. Of these registered community members, 100,967 are immigrants and 6,363 are originally from the country. From 1990 to 2006, approximately 202,000 Jews and non-Jewish dependents from the countries of the FSU arrived, joining 25,000 to 30,000 Jews already in the country. As a result of a more restrictive immigration policy regarding Jews from the FSU, the number of Jewish immigrants decreased to 1,296 in 2007 from 1,971 in 2006 and 3,124 in 2005. The new policy was designed in cooperation with Jewish organizations in order to better manage the integration of individuals into the Jewish community.

An estimated 21 million persons (one-quarter of the population) either have no religious affiliation or belong to unrecorded religious organizations.

On December 18, 2007, the Bertelsmann Foundation published a survey on religious convictions and practice in the country, which failed to confirm the commonly held belief that the country was becoming more secular. Fully 70% of adult respondents said they were religious, and of those, 18% said they were "deeply religious" and regularly attend worship services, up from 15% in earlier studies. In the 18-29 age group, 41% expressed a belief in eternal life and a divine being, more than in any other age bracket. Roman Catholics report that 15% of nominal Catholics regularly attend Sunday Mass. Seventeen years after reunification, the country's eastern part remains far more secular than the west. The Bertelsmann Foundation found former easterners self-identified as 36% religious and 8% deeply religious, in contrast with 78% and 21%, respectively, for those from the west. Only 5 to 10% of eastern citizens belong to a religious organization, but numbers are increasing among non-Lutheran Protestants in the east.
====Discrimination====
[[File:Muslims in Europe map.jpg|thumb|290px|Muslims in Europe by country.]]
There have been recent reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, and practice. Right-wing extremists committed politically motivated crimes against minorities including religious groups, as well as anti-Semitic and anti-Islamic acts. Cemeteries were desecrated, and Muslim communities sometimes suffered societal discrimination when building new mosques and finding allotments of land for cemeteries; however, many members of Government and civil society initiated discussions about Muslim integration and expressed their commitment to addressing the issue. The Roman Catholic and Evangelical churches continued to use "sect commissioners" to warn the public of dangers from some minority religious groups such as the Unification Church, Scientologists, Universal Life (Universelles Leben), and Transcendental Meditation practitioners. Scientologists continue to find "sect filters" used against them in employment as well as discrimination in political party membership.

<blockquote>
Muslim population is around 3 million (3.6%); the majority of the Muslim population is Turkish, with many retaining strong links to Turkey. Others arrived from Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan wars. Until recently Muslims were considered "guest workers", who would one day leave the country - a view that is changing. Racist violence is a sensitive issue, with the authorities trying a range of strategies to beat it. Steps are being taken to improve integration. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#germany Muslims in Europe.]</ref>
</blockquote>

====Religion in schools====
Most public schools offer Protestant and Catholic religious instruction in cooperation with those churches, as well as instruction in Judaism if enough students express interest. The number of Islamic religion classes in public schools continued to grow. In principle, participants of the federal government-sponsored Islam Conference agreed that Islamic education should be made widely available. Education is a state responsibility and, in part because no nationally recognized Islamic organization exists that could assist in developing a curriculum or providing services, the form and content of Islamic instruction vary from state to state. Organizations providing Islamic instruction do not have public law corporation status.

Depending on the state, a nonreligious ethics course or study hall may be available for students not wishing to participate in religious instruction.
[[File:MUSLIM GERMANY RELIGION SCHOOL.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Coauthors Evelin Lubig-Fohsel and Guel Solgun-Kaps hold the German-language textbook they wrote for state-sponsored religion classes in Germany’s schools.]]
Islamic classes in public schools continued to be a controversial topic but were increasingly common throughout the country, except in areas where the Muslim population was too small to support them. Although no Muslim group had "public law corporation" status that would entitle them to offer Islamic courses, state governments recognized the need and demand and worked with local Muslim organizations to establish such courses. On March 13, 2008, the Interior Minister was quoted in the press indicating that the Federal Government and Muslim community leaders had reached an agreement in principle that schools should offer classes in Islam taught in German alongside the other religions, but he noted that it would take time to implement the agreement.

There are an estimated 900,000 Muslim students in the public school system; Islamic education in schools is offered in some states. At the start of the 2006‑07 school year, authorities in Baden‑Wuerttemberg established a two‑course system: one for Sunni and Shi'a students and another for Alevis. State officials and Muslim groups in Baden‑Wuerttemberg agreed upon the system and the initial reactions were positive. Some states offered similar programs while others were working with Muslim leaders to establish a uniform curriculum. Later in the year, universities in Frankfurt, Ludwigsburg, Karlsruhe, and Weingarten began offering training courses in the teaching of Islam.

The legal obligation that children attend school, confirmed by the Constitutional Court and the European Court of Justice in 2006, continued to be a problem for some home-schooling advocates, such as Baptists from the FSU in Eastern Westphalia, due to concerns about sex education and the teaching of evolution. On August 2, 2007, the Stuttgart Administrative Court dismissed the case brought by several Russian‑German immigrant families belonging to the Baptist group Gemeinde Gottes who had petitioned in 2004 to send their children to a private religious school run by members of their community. The court ruled that the teaching staff was insufficiently qualified. Other home-schooling cases remain in the court system.

<blockquote>
Public schools in Germany must offer religion classes, and pilot courses in Islam are now being offered in addition to established programs in Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism. <ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0120/Why-German-public-schools-now-teach-Islam Why German public schools now teach Islam.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===State support for religion===
In order to help support [[Protestant]], [[Catholic]], and [[Jewish]] religious institutions, the German state collects [[taxes]] on members of those religions and passes the funding along to the relevant religious administrative body. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-19737983]</ref>

===Data===
*Population (2007 est.): 82 million.
*Ethnic groups: Primarily German; Danish minority in the north, Sorbian (Slavic) minority in the east; 7.3 million foreign residents.
*Religions: Protestants (26 million); Roman Catholics (26 million); approximately 3.2 million Muslims.
*Language: German.
*Education: Years compulsory--9-13 (depending on the Land); attendance--100%; literacy--99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--4.12/1,000; life expectancy (2006 est.)--women 81.96 years, men 77.81 years.
*Persons employed (2006 avg.): 39.08 million; unemployed (2006 avg.): 9.8% of labor force.

==Government==
===Executive Branch===
[[File:Merkel.jpg|thumb|Angela Merkel.]]
Germany has a president as [[head of state]]. The president's powers are essentially representative.
The current president is Joachim Gauck.

The actual political power and head of government is the chancellor ("Bundeskanzler"), who is elected by federal parliament ("Bundestag"). The chancellor is typically elected in the first session of a newly elected Bundestag for the entire legislative period of four years. The parliament can only force the chancellor to resign in a ''constructive motion of no-confidence'', if it elects at the same time a new Chancellor. The current chancellor is [[Angela Merkel|Dr. Angela Merkel]]. The current government is a center-right coalition between the Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and the Free Democrats (FDP).<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,569386,00.html</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Legislative Branch===
[[File:Bonn Bundestag Plenarsaal Germany.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Bundestag Plenarsaal at Bonn.]]
Germany has a bicameral system with a federal parliament ("Bundestag") and a representation of the states ("Bundesrat"). The members of Bundestag in elected every four years, using a personalized proportional system. The members of the Bundesrat are representatives of the state governments, and the delegations of each state are required to vote as a bloc on behalf of their governments. Each delegation has between 3 and 6 members, depending on the size of the represented state. The position of president of the Bundesrat rotates on an annual basis between the prime ministers of the states.
{{Clear}}

===Judicative Branch===
The German constitution provides for an independent jurisdiction. The highest appeals court in Germany is the Federal Court of Justice ("Bundesgerichtshof"), which is seated in the Southwestern city of [[Karlsruhe]]. Members of the Federal court are elected by a committee, with 16 delegates from the states, one from each state, appointed by the state governments, and 16 delegates appointed by the federal parliament. The Federal Constitutional Court ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") is the highest court to review decisions and acts by the executive and legislative branches of government. It can be called to determine whether public acts are unconstitutional and can render them ineffective if they are not. This court is also seated in city of Karlsruhe, and it members are elected by the Bundesrat and Bundestag, and need a 2/3 majority in each.

===Political Parties===
====Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU)====
:''Main article: [[Christian Democratic Union]] and [[Christian Social Union]]
An important aspect of postwar German politics was the emergence of a moderate, ecumenical Christian party--the Christian Democratic Union (CDU)--operating in alliance with a related Bavarian party, the Christian Social Union (CSU). Although each party maintains its own structure, the two form a common caucus in the Bundestag and do not run opposing campaigns. The CDU/CSU has adherents among Catholics, Protestants, rural interests, and members of all economic classes. It is generally conservative on economic and social policy and more identified with the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches.

The CDU has the greatest base of faithful voters, but is recently struggling to maintain majorities in big cities.

====Social Democratic Party (SPD)====
[[File:German party SPD.jpg|140px|left]]
The SPD is one of the oldest organized political parties in the world. It originally advocated Marxist principles, but in the 1959 Godesberg Program abandoned the concept of a "class party" while continuing to stress social welfare programs. Under the leadership of Gerhard Schroeder, the SPD-Greens government implemented in 2003 the centrist Agenda 2010 reforms, designed to modernize the country's social system and labor market. The SPD has a powerful base in the bigger cities and industrialized states.
{{Clear}}

====Free Democratic Party (FDP)====
The FDP has traditionally been composed mainly of middle and upper class Protestants who consider themselves heirs to the European libertarian tradition. It supports free trade and reducing the role of the state in economic policy. It is libertarian on social issues. The party has participated in all but three postwar federal governments but had not been in federal government from 1998 to 2009.

The FDP is part of the government together with CDU since 2009, but is on a decline since then.

====The Left====
The PDS (for 'Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus'; "Party of Democratic Socialism", the renamed communist party of the former East Germany, and follow-up of the [[SED]]) and the WASG (for 'Wahlalternative Arbeit und Soziale Gerechtigkeit'; "Voting alternative work and social justice") composed of west-German leftists) merged in June 2007 to form a party simply known as "The Left." The party's foreign policy is largely shaped by its rigid opposition to foreign military deployments, for example in [[Afghanistan]], and insists on an immediate pull-out. On domestic policy, the party opposes economic and social reforms, such as Hartz IV, which aim to increase free markets and reduce unemployment benefits. The Left proposes to weaken the free market system with a new orientation to democratic socialist principles. The Left also experienced a lot of criticism due to its communist wing, the 'communist platform' which makes up 4.4% of the national vote, an insufficient total to clear the 5 percent hurdle. <ref>[http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl_electoral_system.htm German Culture.com; Electoral System of Germany (next to last paragraph]</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Alliance 90/Greens====
In the late 1970s, environmentalists organized politically as the Greens. Opposition to nuclear power, military power, and certain aspects of highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. In the December 1990 all-German elections, the Greens merged with the Eastern German Alliance 90, a loose grouping of civil rights activists with diverse political views. The Greens joined a federal government for the first time in 1998, forming a coalition with the SPD.

In 2012 they took advantage of the Fukushima nuclear plant desaster in japan, allowing them to form the government of the state of Baden-Württemberg in a coalition with the SPD, which is the smaller partner this time.

====Other parties====
[[File:German communist logo.jpg|thumb|200px|A German communist logo.]]
Because of the instability caused by the need for multi-party coalitions in the Weimar Republic, Germany's Basic Law today requires parties reach 5% of the vote to win seats in the Bundestag. In addition to those parties that won representation in the Bundestag in 2005, a variety of minor parties won a cumulative 2.7% of the vote, down from 3.0% in 2002. Several other parties were on the ballot in one or more states but did not qualify for representation in the federal Bundestag. Recent Polls polls indicate a rising popularity of the German Pirate Party. With results as high as 10% it is possible for the Pirate Party to be a part of the next Bundestag.<ref>http://www.wahlrecht.de/umfragen/index.htm</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Joachim Gauck
*President of the Bundestag--Norbert Lammert (CDU)
*Chancellor--Angela Merkel (CDU)
*Vice Chancellor and Minister of Economics and Technology--Philipp Rösler (FDP)
*Minister of Defense--Thomas de Maizière (CDU)
*Minister of Finance--Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU)
*Minister of Interior--Hans-Peter Friedrich (CSU)
*Minister of Labor and Social Affairs--Ursula von der Leyen (CDU)
*Minister of Justice--Sabine Leutheuser-Schnarrenberger (FDP)
*Minister of Minister of Foreign Affairs--Guido Westerwelle (FDP)
*Minister of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection--Ilse Aigner (CSU)
*Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth--Kristina Schröder (CDU)
*Minister of Health--Daniel Bahr (FDP)
*Minister of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs--Peter Ramsauer (CSU)
*Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety--Norbert Röttgen (CDU)
*Minister of Education and Research--Johanna Wanka (CDU)
*Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development--Dirk Niebel (FDP)
*Head of the Federal Chancellery and Minister for Special Tasks--Ronald Pofalla (CDU)

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:German Foreign Minister Welcomes Ukrainian President Yanukovych.jpg|thumb|340px|German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle welcomes Ukrainian President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] in Berlin, 2010.]]
Germany continues to emphasize close ties with the United States, membership in NATO, and the "deepening" of integration among current members of the EU. The Federal Republic of Germany took part in all of the joint postwar efforts aimed at closer political, economic, and defense cooperation among the countries of western Europe. Germany has been a large net contributor to the EU budget. Germany also is a strong supporter of the United Nations and of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

During the postwar era, the Federal Republic of Germany also sought to improve its relationship with the countries of Central Europe freed from communism, first establishing trade agreements and, subsequently, diplomatic relations. With unification, German relations with the restored democracies in central and eastern Europe intensified. On November 14, 1990, Germany and Poland signed a treaty confirming the Oder-Neisse border. They also concluded a cooperation treaty on June 17, 1991. Germany concluded four treaties with the Soviet Union covering the overall bilateral relationship, economic relations, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the former G.D.R., and German support for those troops. Russia accepted obligations under these treaties as successor to the Soviet Union. Germany continues to be active economically in the states of central and eastern Europe and to actively support the development of democratic institutions, bilaterally and through the EU.

====Relations with the United States====
[[File:Nazi crowd salute.jpg|thumb|300px|Nazi crowd salute.]]
U.S.-German relations have been a focal point of American involvement in Europe since the end of World War II. Germany stands at the center of European affairs and is a key partner in U.S. relations with Europeans in NATO and the European Union.

German-American ties extend back to the colonial era. More than 7 million Germans have immigrated over the last three centuries, and today nearly a quarter of U.S. citizens claim German ancestry. In recognition of this heritage and the importance of modern-day U.S.-German ties, the U.S. President annually has proclaimed October 6, the date the first German immigrants arrived in 1623, to be "German-American Day."

U.S. policy toward Germany remains the preservation and consolidation of a close and vital relationship with Germany, not only as friends and trading partners, but also as allies sharing common institutions. During the 45 years in which Germany was divided, the U.S. role in Berlin and the large American military presence in West Germany served as symbols of the U.S. commitment to preserving peace and security in Europe. Since German unification, the U.S. commitment to these goals has not changed. The U.S. made significant reductions in its troop levels in Germany after the Cold War ended, and, on July 12, 1994, President Clinton "cased the colors" at the Berlin Brigade's deactivation ceremony. The U.S., however, continues to recognize that the security and prosperity of the United States and Germany significantly depend on each other.

As allies in NATO, the United States and Germany work side by side to maintain peace and freedom. This unity and resolve made possible the successful conclusion of the 1987 U.S.-U.S.S.R. Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), the Two-plus-Four process--which led to the Final Settlement Treaty--and the November 1990 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty.
[[File:President and First Lady Obama with Chancellor Merkel.jpg|thumb|left|320px|President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama are welcomed by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and her husband, professor Joachim Sauer, to Rathaus in Baden-Baden, Germany, 2009.]]
More recently, the two allies have cooperated closely in peacekeeping efforts in the Balkans and have worked together to encourage the evolution of open and democratic states throughout central and eastern Europe. Germany is also a strong contributor to our common effort to secure peace and stability in Afghanistan, contributing almost 3,000 troops to the NATO ISAF mission.

Following the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC, Germany has been a reliable U.S. ally in the campaign against terrorism. As two of the world's leading trading nations, the United States and Germany share a common, deep-seated commitment to an open and expanding world economy. Personal ties between the United States and Germany extend beyond immigration to include intensive foreign exchange programs, booming tourism in both directions, and the presence in Germany of large numbers of American military personnel and their dependents.

The United States and Germany have built a solid foundation of bilateral cooperation in a relationship that has changed significantly over nearly six decades. The historic unification of Germany and the role the United States played in that process have served to strengthen ties between the two countries.

German-American political, economic, and security relationships continue to be based on close consultation and coordination at the most senior levels. High-level visits take place frequently, and the United States and Germany cooperate actively in international forums.

====War on Terror====
Germany currently contributes troops to the NATO-led ISAF operation in [[Afghanistan]], but did not support the invasion of [[Iraq]]. German military participates in NATO Force Protection Program, protecting US military bases located in Germany.

====Libya====

[[Libyan uprising 2011]]

<blockquote>
Germany’s Defense Minister Thomas de Maziere has criticized NATO’s controversial military operation in Libya and lack of foresight when it comes to intervening in the North African country. [http://2012indyinfo.wordpress.com/2011/06/19/presstv-germany-slams-nato-mission-in-libya/]
</blockquote>

==Economy==
[[Image:The_castle3.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Neuschwanstein Castle, a popular tourist destination.]]
Germany is the world's third-largest economy and the largest in Europe.
From the 1948 currency reform until the early 1970s, West Germany experienced almost continuous economic expansion. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth slowed down, and even declined, from the mid-1970s through the recession of the early 1980s. The economy then experienced 8 consecutive years of growth that ended with a downturn beginning in late 1992. Since unification, Germany has seen annual average real growth of only about 1.5% and stubbornly high unemployment. In 2006, Germany had its best year since 2000 with 2.7% growth; for 2007, growth was at 2.5% despite a 3 percentage point VAT hike at the beginning of the year. The government forecasts 1.7% growth in GDP for 2008. Unemployment in 2007 dropped to an annualized average of 9.0% nationwide, but it is still significantly higher--15.1%--in the German states that make up the former East Germany.

Germans often describe their economic system as a "social market economy." The German Government provides an extensive array of social services. The state intervenes in the economy by providing subsidies to selected sectors and by owning some segments of the economy, while promoting competition and free enterprise. The government has restructured the railroad system on a corporate basis, privatized the national airline, and is privatizing telecommunications and postal services.

The German economy is heavily export-oriented, with exports accounting for more than one-third of national output. As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion, accounting for over half of the economic growth in recent years. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined within the European Union (EU). Germany uses the common European currency, the euro, and the European Central Bank sets monetary policy.
[[File:German transmission lines.jpg|thumb|left|340px|Transmission lines and generating stations.]]
In the early-mid 2000s, Germany adopted a complex set of labor/social welfare reforms to overcome structural weaknesses of the German welfare state and to create policies more conductive to employment. Defying a skeptical German public, the coalition government of Chancellor Angela Merkel initiated additional reform measures, such as the gradual increase in the mandatory retirement age from 65 to 67--a move that would add 2.5 million to the workforce by 2030. Subsequently, however, there has been active political debate and some rollback of these labor reforms; most notably the government decided to extend the payment period of unemployment benefits to older workers in early 2008.

Fifteen years after reunification (October 3, 1990), Germany had made great progress in raising the standard of living in eastern Germany, introducing a market economy and improving its infrastructure. At the same time, the process of convergence between east and west is taking longer than originally expected and, on some measures, has stagnated since the mid-1990s. Eastern economic growth rates have been lower than in the west in recent years, unemployment is twice as high, prompting many skilled easterners to seek work in the west, and productivity continues to lag. Eastern consumption levels are dependent on public net financial transfers from west to east totaling about $13 billion per year. In addition to social assistance payments, the government will extend funds to promote eastern economic development through 2019.

The United States is Germany's second-largest trading partner, and U.S.-German trade has continued to grow strongly. Two-way trade in goods totaled $184 billion in 2007. U.S. exports to Germany were $ 71 billion while U.S. imports from Germany were more than $113 billion. At nearly $45 billion, the U.S.'s fifth-largest trade deficit is with Germany. Major U.S. export categories include aircraft, electrical equipment, telecommunications equipment, data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. German export sales are concentrated in metalworks, motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals and heavy electrical equipment. Much bilateral trade is intra-industry or intra-firm.

Germany has a liberal foreign investment policy. For 2005, the most recent year for which statistics are available, German investment in the U.S. amounted to 233 billion euros (29 % of all German foreign direct investment, or FDI; the U.S. is the number-one destination for German FDI), while U.S. investment in Germany was 45 billion euros (11.5 % of all FDI invested in Germany; U.S. is third-largest source of FDI in Germany).

U.S. firms employ about 510,000 people in Germany; German firms likewise employ about 746,000 people in the United States.

Despite persistence of some structural rigidities in the labor market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive. Although production costs are very high, Germany is still an export powerhouse, and unit labor costs have decreased in the last 10 years. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, social security, and financial sector reforms.
*GDP (2007 est.): $3.1 trillion.
*Annual growth rate: (2006) 2.7%; (2007) 2.5%.
*Per capita income (PPP, 2006): $31,900.
*Inflation rate (consumer prices, 2007): 2.2%.
*Natural resources: Iron, hard coal, lignite, potash, natural gas.
*Agriculture (0.9% of GDP): Products--corn, wheat, potatoes, sugar, beets, barley, hops, viticulture, forestry, fisheries.
*Industry (29.1% of GDP): Types--car-making; mechanical, electrical, and precision engineering; chemicals; environmental technology; optics; medical technology; biotech and genetic engineering; nanotechnology; aerospace; logistics.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$1.03 trillion: chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, manufactured goods, electrical products. Major markets--France, U.S., and U.K. Imports--$844 billion: food, petroleum products, manufactured goods, electrical products, motor vehicles, apparel. Major suppliers--France, Netherlands, U.S.

The German economy showed substantial improvement in 2007 at 2.5% growth due to the effect of recent economic reforms and strong global economic growth. The export-led recovery is now filtering through to the domestic economy where private consumption has long been at a low level.
===Crisis of 2008===
The worldwide [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit Germany in the summer, revealing high risk policies pursued by numerous large banks looking for high rates of return outside Germany. In September the government unveiled a $635-billion bailout package for its floundering banks. Economic growth for 2009 is forecast to be an anemic 0.2%.

Automobile manufacturing is a major sector, but the financial crisis caused credit to be harder to obtain; many families postponed purchases. Auto exports fell 10% in October 2008 from October 2007; domestic sales dropped 8%. In contrast 2007 was a record year with production of 12.1 million vehicles and employment of 756,000 workers; an eighth of those jobs were created in the last five years alone.

The German economy has since recovered and the impact of the ongoing euro crisis isn't being noticed yet.

==History==
See [[German History]]

== Sports ==
[[File:Sunken Village by Timm Ulrichs Munich.JPG|thumb|Architectural sculpture "Sunken Village" by Timm Ulrichs, and in the back Allianz Arena, Munich.]]
[[Association Football]] is the most popular sport by far, followed by [[Team Handball]] (not to be confused with [[American handball]]). Basketball and (ice) hockey play a minor role, whereas baseball and american football are, despite being organized, hardly being noticed by the general public.

The most popular non-sport-games are [[chess]] and [[skat]], both being organized in [[bundesligas]].

==The states (Bundesländer) and their capitals==
[[File:Frankfurt skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|Frankfurt am Main, Hesse.]]
(In alphabetical order)
* [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]]: [[Stuttgart]]
* [[Bavaria]] (''Bayern''): [[München]]
* [[Berlin]]: [[Berlin]]
* [[Brandenburg]]: [[Potsdam]]
* [[Bremen]]: [[Bremen]]
* [[Hamburg]]: [[Hamburg]]
* [[Hesse]] (''Hessen''): [[Wiesbaden]]
* [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]: [[Schwerin]]
* [[Lower Saxony]] (''Niedersachsen''): [[Hannover]]
* [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] (''Nordrhein-Westfalen''): [[Düsseldorf]]
* [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] (''Rheinland-Pfalz''): [[Mainz]]
* [[Saarland]]: [[Saarbrücken]]
* [[Saxony]] (''Sachsen''): [[Dresden]]
* [[Saxony-Anhalt]] (''Sachsen-Anhalt''): [[Magdeburg]]
* [[Sleswick-Holsatia]] (''Schleswig-Holstein''): [[Kiel]]
* [[Thuringia]] (''Thüringen''): [[Erfurt]]

==Famous Germans==
{|
|-
|
*[[Konrad Adenauer]]
*[[Hannah Arendt]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Boris Becker]]
*[[Pope Benedict XVI]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Otto von Bismarck]]
*[[Heinrich Böll]]
*[[Willy Brandt]]
*[[Wernher von Braun]]
*[[Bertolt Brecht]]
*[[Dietrich Buxtehude]]
*[[Marlene Dietrich]]
*[[Albrecht Dürer]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Roland Emmerich]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Daniel Fahrenheit]]
*[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
|
*[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Günter Grass]]
*[[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]]
*[[Johannes Gutenberg]]
*[[Georg Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Otto Hahn]]
*[[Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Ernst August von Hannover]]
*[[Karl August von Hardenberg]]
*[[Friedrich Hegel]]
*[[Werner Heisenberg]]
*[[Heinrich Hesse]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Adolf Hitler]]
*[[Oliver Kahn]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]]
*[[Helmut Kohl]]
|
*[[Käthe Kollwitz]]
*[[Otto Kretschmer]]
*[[Karl Liebknecht]]
*[[Loriot]]
*[[Martin Luther]]
*[[Rosa Luxemburg]]
*[[Thomas Mann]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Angela Merkel]]
*[[Lise Meitner]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Dirk Nowitzki]]
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
*[[Erwin Rommel]]
*[[Friedrich Schiller]]
*[[Gerhard Schröder]]
*[[Heinrich Schliemann]]
*[[Michael Schumacher]]
*[[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
*[[Wim Wenders]]
|}

==Further reading==
* Schafers, Bernha, ''The State of Germany Atlas'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/State-Germany-Atlas-Bernha-Schafers/dp/0415188261/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Schulte-Peevers, Andrea, et al. ''Lonely Planet Germany'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Germany-Andrea-Schulte-Peevers/dp/1740599888/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

===Since 1990===
* Alba, Richard. Peter Schmidt, and Martina Wasmer. ''Germans or Foreigners?: Attitudes Toward Ethnic Minorities in Post-Reunification Germany'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Germans-Foreigners-Minorities-Post-Reunification-Transition/dp/1403963789/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324886&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]
* Berghahn, Volker Rolf. ''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) [http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.01673 ACLS E-book]
* Buse, Dieter K. ed. ''Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871-1990'' (2 vol 1998)
* Kahn, Charlotte. ''Ten Years of German Unification: One State, Two Peoples'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/23486249 online edition]
* Larres, Klaus. ''Germany Since Unification: The Development of the Berlin Republic'' (2nd ed. 2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Germany-Since-Unification-Second-Development/dp/0333919998/ref=sr_1_28?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-28 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and society===
* Siebert, Horst. ''The German Economy: Beyond the Social Market'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/German-Economy-Beyond-Social-Market/dp/0691096643/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328508&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zimmermann, Klaus F. et al. ''Immigration Policy and the Labor Market: The German Experience and Lessons for Europe'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Immigration-Policy-Labor-Market-Experience/dp/354068381X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328716&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]

====Politics====
* Green, Simon, and William E. Paterson. ''Governance in Contemporary Germany: The Semisovereign State Revisited'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Governance-Contemporary-Germany-Semisovereign-Revisited/dp/0521848814/ref=sr_1_25?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-25 excerpt and text search]
* Hancock, M. Donald, ''Politics in Europe: An Introduction to the Politics of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Politics-Europe-Introduction-Kingdom-Germany/dp/1933116455/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Schmidt, Manfred G. ''Political Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany'' (2003) ISBN 0198782594

==See also==
*[[Prussia]]
*[[Bavaria]]
*[[German Painting]]
*[[Gallery of German Masterpieces]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.justgermany.org/germany/germany-facts.asp Germany Basic Facts.]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

 
===Sources===
* source: [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3997.htm US State Department Country Study]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:German History]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:NATO members]]

Germany

2013-05-29T17:46:15Z

Johnpeterslusarski: Germans are CE nation. Atlantic coast is irrelevant, because Atlantic ocean consists of the Baltic sea as well. Central Europe is what is in between France and Russia

{{Country
|name =''Bundesrepublik Deutschland''
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|arms =Arms of Germany.png
|capital =Berlin
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic (Parliamentary)
|government-raw =
|language =German
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Joachim Gauck
|president-raw =
|chancellor =Angela Merkel
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =137,858 sq mi
|pop =81,471,000
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$3.045 trillion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$36,975 (2006)
|currency =Euro (formerly the Deutsche Mark)
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}}
[[File:Germ-vote-2009.jpg|200px|thumb|Exit polls from Sept. 2009 election won by the conservative coalition CDU and FDP]]
'''Germany''' (official name: '''Federal Republic of Germany''') is a federally organized [[Democracy]] in Central Europe with a population of about 82.2 million. The capital city and seat of government is [[Berlin]].

The major ethnic groups are German 94%, Polish 1%, Yugoslavs 1% and others 4%. 34% of the population are Protestants, 34% are Roman Catholics and 4% are Muslim.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gm.html</ref>

As Europe's largest economy and the most populous nation wholly within Europe, Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. The central German bank, the [[Bundesbank]], has historically been the most influential force within the financial markets of the European Union.

The September 2009 elections were a major win for the conservative forces led by Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], breaking a stalemate and opening the way for more conservative economic policies. Previously since an indecisive election in 2005 the Christian Democrats ([[CDU]]) (on the center-right) formed a "grand coalition" with the Social Democrats (SPD) (on the center-left). Now Merkel and her CDU will form a coalition with the libertarian, pro-business Free Democrats (FDP). Left in the cold will be the SPD, the Greens, and the ex-Communists who remain strong in the former East Germany under the name "Left party". Merkel is now expected to move forward on tax cuts, reform of the tax code, reduction of bureaucracy and a possible extension of the time that nuclear power plants can continue to operate.<ref>Craig Whitlock, "Germany's Merkel Reelected Easily, Will Form New Coalition," [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/27/AR2009092700631.html?nav=emailpage ''Washington Post'' Sept. 28, 2009]</ref>

Merkel's program announced as she took office Oct. 28 includes $36 billion in income tax cuts, lower business taxes, and higher family benefits. The budget will be in deficit for the next four years, as the government believes the economy is too fragile for spending cuts and that more stimulus is needed to end the recession. By law the budget must be balanced by the year 2016. Nuclear power plants will be given an extension, and Merkel wants to move more of the welfare costs from corporations to households.

==People==
===Demography===
[[File:German-fans.jpg|thumb|250px|German fans.]]
In 2005 there were 388,451 marriages and 201,693 divorces. There were 685,795 births and 830,227 deaths. The number of births has dropped from 767,000 in 2000, while the deaths have risen from 179,600.

The average age at marrying (for the first time) for men was 32 and for women 29. Abortions are officially illegal, according to a 1995 law. However, prosecutions are not brought if they are performed in the first three months of pregnancy after consultation with a doctor. The annual abortion rate, at under ten per 1,000 women aged 15–44, is among the lowest in the world

In 2005 10.2% of all children lived in poverty (in households with income below 50% of the national median).

Germany had a Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) of 0.66 in 1999. A rate of NRR=1.0 equals a constant population. Therefore, in terms of births and deaths (and not counting immigration) the population is shrinking by 34% between generations.[3]

Life expectancy of females at birth in West Germany rose from 71 years in 1954 to 80 years in 2000; the expectancy for boys rose from 66 to 75. Expectancy in the eastern zone was about three years less.

Projected population in 2050 is 76 million, down from the present 82 million. There will be more deaths than births, and that is largely offset by a net inflow of immigrants from 2000 to 2050, predicted to be about 240,000 per year.

<blockquote>
Germany's recent debate about immigration misses an important reality: for Germany, and most all developed countries, attracting educated and skilled foreign workers is a matter of economic survival. <ref>[http://www.cfr.org/germany/germanys-immigration-dilemma/p24213 Germany's Immigration Dilemma.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===Ethnicity===
[[File:Germany - houses.jpg|left|340px]]
Most inhabitants of Germany are ethnic German. There are, however, more than 7 million foreign residents, many of whom are the families and descendants of so-called "guest workers" (foreign workers, mostly from Turkey, invited to Germany in the 1950s and 1960s to fill labor shortages) who remained in Germany. Germany has a sizable ethnic Turkish population. Germany is also a prime destination for political and economic refugees from many developing countries. An ethnic Danish minority lives in the north, and a small Slavic minority known as the Sorbs lives in eastern Germany. Due to restrictive German citizenship laws, most "foreigners" do not hold German citizenship even when born and raised in Germany. However, since the German government undertook citizenship and immigration law reforms in 2002, more foreign residents have had the ability to naturalize.

===Education===
Germany has one of the world's highest average levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of World War II, the number of youths entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools of the Federal Republic of Germany (F.R.G.) are reasonable good. German 15-year olds score about average in comparison with similar countries.

At the university level, however, there has been a dramatic decline in quality from the days before Hitler, when German universities were the best in the world. Since the student revolts of 1968, conditions at the once-famous universities have deteriorated badly. A strong egalitarianism prevents the re-emergence of world class faculties and no German university ranks among the top 40 in the world.<ref>Gebhard Schweigler, "Heidelberg is Not Harvard …and Germany is embarrassed." [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=83 ''The Atlantic Times'' Dec. 2004]</ref>

The conservative government has tried to reverse the decline by offering €1.9 billion (about $2.7 billion) in excellence grants to numerous schools spread over a period of five years--far less money than Harvard spends in one year. Little improvement has been reported from this small investment. The leading schools are Freiburg, Heidelberg and Konstanz (all in the southern state of Baden-Württemberg), Aachen, Göttingen, the Free University of Berlin, two schools in Munich and Karlsruhe’s Technical University.<ref> Lutz Lichtenberger, "Selective Upgrades The government’s 'Excellence Initiative' grants German universities small packs of ivy seeds," [http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=1080 ''The Atlantic Times'' Nov. 2007]]</ref> Meanwhile top German scientists and engineers migrate to the United States, where their talents are appreciated.

===Standard of Living===
[[File:Living Germany.jpg|left|170px]]
With a per capita income level of more than $28,700, Germany is a broadly middle class society. A generous social welfare system provides for universal medical care, unemployment compensation, and other social needs. Millions of Germans travel abroad each year.

With unification on October 3, 1990, Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.) up to that of western Germany. This has been a lengthy and difficult process due to the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former G.D.R., difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from years of mismanagement under communist rule.
{{Clear}}

===Extremism===
Economic malaise in eastern Germany is one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from the political right. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame has found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. The vast majority of Germans condemn such violence.

Wolfgang Schaube, the Interior minister 2005-9, was shot by a deranged man in 1990 and is confined to a wheel chair. He calls on Germans to feel more patriotic, and for immigrants to assimilate faster. He has adopted tough policies on policing and anti-terrorism, such as giving the military authority to shoot down hijacked planes.

===Religion===
[[Image:St Stephens Cathedral interior.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Stephens Cathedral (''Stephansdom'') in Passau, Bavaria. ]]
In 2006 the Roman Catholic Church reported a membership of 25.7 million. The Evangelical Church, a confederation of the Lutheran, Uniate, and Reformed Protestant Churches, has 25.3 million members. Together, these two churches account for nearly two-thirds of the population.<ref> According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108448.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>
[[File:Church pipe organ St Stephen s Cathedral of Passau Germany..jpg|thumb|Church pipe organ, St. Stephen's Cathedral of Passau.]]
Protestant Christian denominations include: New Apostolic Church, 371,305; Ethnic German Baptists from the former Soviet Union (FSU), 85,000; and Baptist, 75,000. Muslims number 3.5 million, including Sunnis, 2.5 million; Alevis, 410,000; and Shi'a, 225,000. Until 2004 the annual number of conversions to Islam was 300, largely Christian women native citizens marrying Muslim men; however, since 2004 the annual numbers of conversions have jumped into the thousands. There are approximately 2,600 Islamic places of worship, including an estimated 150 traditional architecture mosques, with 100 more mosques being planned. One million Muslims are citizens. Orthodox Christians number 1.4 million, including Greek Orthodox/Constantinople Patriarchate, 450,000; Serbian Orthodox, 250,000; Romanian Orthodox, 300,000; and Russian Orthodox/Moscow Patriarchate, 150,000. Buddhists number 245,000, Jehovah's Witnesses 165,000, and Hindus 97,500. The Church of Scientology operates 18 churches and missions, and according to press reports, it has 30,000 members. However, according to the Offices for the Protection of the Constitution (OPC) in Brandenburg and Hamburg, the Church of Scientology has 5,000-6,000 members.

According to estimates, Jews number more than 200,000, of which 107,330 are registered members of the Jewish community. Of these registered community members, 100,967 are immigrants and 6,363 are originally from the country. From 1990 to 2006, approximately 202,000 Jews and non-Jewish dependents from the countries of the FSU arrived, joining 25,000 to 30,000 Jews already in the country. As a result of a more restrictive immigration policy regarding Jews from the FSU, the number of Jewish immigrants decreased to 1,296 in 2007 from 1,971 in 2006 and 3,124 in 2005. The new policy was designed in cooperation with Jewish organizations in order to better manage the integration of individuals into the Jewish community.

An estimated 21 million persons (one-quarter of the population) either have no religious affiliation or belong to unrecorded religious organizations.

On December 18, 2007, the Bertelsmann Foundation published a survey on religious convictions and practice in the country, which failed to confirm the commonly held belief that the country was becoming more secular. Fully 70% of adult respondents said they were religious, and of those, 18% said they were "deeply religious" and regularly attend worship services, up from 15% in earlier studies. In the 18-29 age group, 41% expressed a belief in eternal life and a divine being, more than in any other age bracket. Roman Catholics report that 15% of nominal Catholics regularly attend Sunday Mass. Seventeen years after reunification, the country's eastern part remains far more secular than the west. The Bertelsmann Foundation found former easterners self-identified as 36% religious and 8% deeply religious, in contrast with 78% and 21%, respectively, for those from the west. Only 5 to 10% of eastern citizens belong to a religious organization, but numbers are increasing among non-Lutheran Protestants in the east.
====Discrimination====
[[File:Muslims in Europe map.jpg|thumb|290px|Muslims in Europe by country.]]
There have been recent reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, and practice. Right-wing extremists committed politically motivated crimes against minorities including religious groups, as well as anti-Semitic and anti-Islamic acts. Cemeteries were desecrated, and Muslim communities sometimes suffered societal discrimination when building new mosques and finding allotments of land for cemeteries; however, many members of Government and civil society initiated discussions about Muslim integration and expressed their commitment to addressing the issue. The Roman Catholic and Evangelical churches continued to use "sect commissioners" to warn the public of dangers from some minority religious groups such as the Unification Church, Scientologists, Universal Life (Universelles Leben), and Transcendental Meditation practitioners. Scientologists continue to find "sect filters" used against them in employment as well as discrimination in political party membership.

<blockquote>
Muslim population is around 3 million (3.6%); the majority of the Muslim population is Turkish, with many retaining strong links to Turkey. Others arrived from Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan wars. Until recently Muslims were considered "guest workers", who would one day leave the country - a view that is changing. Racist violence is a sensitive issue, with the authorities trying a range of strategies to beat it. Steps are being taken to improve integration. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#germany Muslims in Europe.]</ref>
</blockquote>

====Religion in schools====
Most public schools offer Protestant and Catholic religious instruction in cooperation with those churches, as well as instruction in Judaism if enough students express interest. The number of Islamic religion classes in public schools continued to grow. In principle, participants of the federal government-sponsored Islam Conference agreed that Islamic education should be made widely available. Education is a state responsibility and, in part because no nationally recognized Islamic organization exists that could assist in developing a curriculum or providing services, the form and content of Islamic instruction vary from state to state. Organizations providing Islamic instruction do not have public law corporation status.

Depending on the state, a nonreligious ethics course or study hall may be available for students not wishing to participate in religious instruction.
[[File:MUSLIM GERMANY RELIGION SCHOOL.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Coauthors Evelin Lubig-Fohsel and Guel Solgun-Kaps hold the German-language textbook they wrote for state-sponsored religion classes in Germany’s schools.]]
Islamic classes in public schools continued to be a controversial topic but were increasingly common throughout the country, except in areas where the Muslim population was too small to support them. Although no Muslim group had "public law corporation" status that would entitle them to offer Islamic courses, state governments recognized the need and demand and worked with local Muslim organizations to establish such courses. On March 13, 2008, the Interior Minister was quoted in the press indicating that the Federal Government and Muslim community leaders had reached an agreement in principle that schools should offer classes in Islam taught in German alongside the other religions, but he noted that it would take time to implement the agreement.

There are an estimated 900,000 Muslim students in the public school system; Islamic education in schools is offered in some states. At the start of the 2006‑07 school year, authorities in Baden‑Wuerttemberg established a two‑course system: one for Sunni and Shi'a students and another for Alevis. State officials and Muslim groups in Baden‑Wuerttemberg agreed upon the system and the initial reactions were positive. Some states offered similar programs while others were working with Muslim leaders to establish a uniform curriculum. Later in the year, universities in Frankfurt, Ludwigsburg, Karlsruhe, and Weingarten began offering training courses in the teaching of Islam.

The legal obligation that children attend school, confirmed by the Constitutional Court and the European Court of Justice in 2006, continued to be a problem for some home-schooling advocates, such as Baptists from the FSU in Eastern Westphalia, due to concerns about sex education and the teaching of evolution. On August 2, 2007, the Stuttgart Administrative Court dismissed the case brought by several Russian‑German immigrant families belonging to the Baptist group Gemeinde Gottes who had petitioned in 2004 to send their children to a private religious school run by members of their community. The court ruled that the teaching staff was insufficiently qualified. Other home-schooling cases remain in the court system.

<blockquote>
Public schools in Germany must offer religion classes, and pilot courses in Islam are now being offered in addition to established programs in Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism. <ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0120/Why-German-public-schools-now-teach-Islam Why German public schools now teach Islam.]</ref>
</blockquote>

===State support for religion===
In order to help support [[Protestant]], [[Catholic]], and [[Jewish]] religious institutions, the German state collects [[taxes]] on members of those religions and passes the funding along to the relevant religious administrative body. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-19737983]</ref>

===Data===
*Population (2007 est.): 82 million.
*Ethnic groups: Primarily German; Danish minority in the north, Sorbian (Slavic) minority in the east; 7.3 million foreign residents.
*Religions: Protestants (26 million); Roman Catholics (26 million); approximately 3.2 million Muslims.
*Language: German.
*Education: Years compulsory--9-13 (depending on the Land); attendance--100%; literacy--99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--4.12/1,000; life expectancy (2006 est.)--women 81.96 years, men 77.81 years.
*Persons employed (2006 avg.): 39.08 million; unemployed (2006 avg.): 9.8% of labor force.

==Government==
===Executive Branch===
[[File:Merkel.jpg|thumb|Angela Merkel.]]
Germany has a president as [[head of state]]. The president's powers are essentially representative.
The current president is Joachim Gauck.

The actual political power and head of government is the chancellor ("Bundeskanzler"), who is elected by federal parliament ("Bundestag"). The chancellor is typically elected in the first session of a newly elected Bundestag for the entire legislative period of four years. The parliament can only force the chancellor to resign in a ''constructive motion of no-confidence'', if it elects at the same time a new Chancellor. The current chancellor is [[Angela Merkel|Dr. Angela Merkel]]. The current government is a center-right coalition between the Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and the Free Democrats (FDP).<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,569386,00.html</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Legislative Branch===
[[File:Bonn Bundestag Plenarsaal Germany.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Bundestag Plenarsaal at Bonn.]]
Germany has a bicameral system with a federal parliament ("Bundestag") and a representation of the states ("Bundesrat"). The members of Bundestag in elected every four years, using a personalized proportional system. The members of the Bundesrat are representatives of the state governments, and the delegations of each state are required to vote as a bloc on behalf of their governments. Each delegation has between 3 and 6 members, depending on the size of the represented state. The position of president of the Bundesrat rotates on an annual basis between the prime ministers of the states.
{{Clear}}

===Judicative Branch===
The German constitution provides for an independent jurisdiction. The highest appeals court in Germany is the Federal Court of Justice ("Bundesgerichtshof"), which is seated in the Southwestern city of [[Karlsruhe]]. Members of the Federal court are elected by a committee, with 16 delegates from the states, one from each state, appointed by the state governments, and 16 delegates appointed by the federal parliament. The Federal Constitutional Court ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") is the highest court to review decisions and acts by the executive and legislative branches of government. It can be called to determine whether public acts are unconstitutional and can render them ineffective if they are not. This court is also seated in city of Karlsruhe, and it members are elected by the Bundesrat and Bundestag, and need a 2/3 majority in each.

===Political Parties===
====Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU)====
:''Main article: [[Christian Democratic Union]] and [[Christian Social Union]]
An important aspect of postwar German politics was the emergence of a moderate, ecumenical Christian party--the Christian Democratic Union (CDU)--operating in alliance with a related Bavarian party, the Christian Social Union (CSU). Although each party maintains its own structure, the two form a common caucus in the Bundestag and do not run opposing campaigns. The CDU/CSU has adherents among Catholics, Protestants, rural interests, and members of all economic classes. It is generally conservative on economic and social policy and more identified with the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches.

The CDU has the greatest base of faithful voters, but is recently struggling to maintain majorities in big cities.

====Social Democratic Party (SPD)====
[[File:German party SPD.jpg|140px|left]]
The SPD is one of the oldest organized political parties in the world. It originally advocated Marxist principles, but in the 1959 Godesberg Program abandoned the concept of a "class party" while continuing to stress social welfare programs. Under the leadership of Gerhard Schroeder, the SPD-Greens government implemented in 2003 the centrist Agenda 2010 reforms, designed to modernize the country's social system and labor market. The SPD has a powerful base in the bigger cities and industrialized states.
{{Clear}}

====Free Democratic Party (FDP)====
The FDP has traditionally been composed mainly of middle and upper class Protestants who consider themselves heirs to the European libertarian tradition. It supports free trade and reducing the role of the state in economic policy. It is libertarian on social issues. The party has participated in all but three postwar federal governments but had not been in federal government from 1998 to 2009.

The FDP is part of the government together with CDU since 2009, but is on a decline since then.

====The Left====
The PDS (for 'Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus'; "Party of Democratic Socialism", the renamed communist party of the former East Germany, and follow-up of the [[SED]]) and the WASG (for 'Wahlalternative Arbeit und Soziale Gerechtigkeit'; "Voting alternative work and social justice") composed of west-German leftists) merged in June 2007 to form a party simply known as "The Left." The party's foreign policy is largely shaped by its rigid opposition to foreign military deployments, for example in [[Afghanistan]], and insists on an immediate pull-out. On domestic policy, the party opposes economic and social reforms, such as Hartz IV, which aim to increase free markets and reduce unemployment benefits. The Left proposes to weaken the free market system with a new orientation to democratic socialist principles. The Left also experienced a lot of criticism due to its communist wing, the 'communist platform' which makes up 4.4% of the national vote, an insufficient total to clear the 5 percent hurdle. <ref>[http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl_electoral_system.htm German Culture.com; Electoral System of Germany (next to last paragraph]</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Alliance 90/Greens====
In the late 1970s, environmentalists organized politically as the Greens. Opposition to nuclear power, military power, and certain aspects of highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. In the December 1990 all-German elections, the Greens merged with the Eastern German Alliance 90, a loose grouping of civil rights activists with diverse political views. The Greens joined a federal government for the first time in 1998, forming a coalition with the SPD.

In 2012 they took advantage of the Fukushima nuclear plant desaster in japan, allowing them to form the government of the state of Baden-Württemberg in a coalition with the SPD, which is the smaller partner this time.

====Other parties====
[[File:German communist logo.jpg|thumb|200px|A German communist logo.]]
Because of the instability caused by the need for multi-party coalitions in the Weimar Republic, Germany's Basic Law today requires parties reach 5% of the vote to win seats in the Bundestag. In addition to those parties that won representation in the Bundestag in 2005, a variety of minor parties won a cumulative 2.7% of the vote, down from 3.0% in 2002. Several other parties were on the ballot in one or more states but did not qualify for representation in the federal Bundestag. Recent Polls polls indicate a rising popularity of the German Pirate Party. With results as high as 10% it is possible for the Pirate Party to be a part of the next Bundestag.<ref>http://www.wahlrecht.de/umfragen/index.htm</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Joachim Gauck
*President of the Bundestag--Norbert Lammert (CDU)
*Chancellor--Angela Merkel (CDU)
*Vice Chancellor and Minister of Economics and Technology--Philipp Rösler (FDP)
*Minister of Defense--Thomas de Maizière (CDU)
*Minister of Finance--Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU)
*Minister of Interior--Hans-Peter Friedrich (CSU)
*Minister of Labor and Social Affairs--Ursula von der Leyen (CDU)
*Minister of Justice--Sabine Leutheuser-Schnarrenberger (FDP)
*Minister of Minister of Foreign Affairs--Guido Westerwelle (FDP)
*Minister of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection--Ilse Aigner (CSU)
*Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth--Kristina Schröder (CDU)
*Minister of Health--Daniel Bahr (FDP)
*Minister of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs--Peter Ramsauer (CSU)
*Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety--Norbert Röttgen (CDU)
*Minister of Education and Research--Johanna Wanka (CDU)
*Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development--Dirk Niebel (FDP)
*Head of the Federal Chancellery and Minister for Special Tasks--Ronald Pofalla (CDU)

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:German Foreign Minister Welcomes Ukrainian President Yanukovych.jpg|thumb|340px|German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle welcomes Ukrainian President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] in Berlin, 2010.]]
Germany continues to emphasize close ties with the United States, membership in NATO, and the "deepening" of integration among current members of the EU. The Federal Republic of Germany took part in all of the joint postwar efforts aimed at closer political, economic, and defense cooperation among the countries of western Europe. Germany has been a large net contributor to the EU budget. Germany also is a strong supporter of the United Nations and of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

During the postwar era, the Federal Republic of Germany also sought to improve its relationship with the countries of Central Europe freed from communism, first establishing trade agreements and, subsequently, diplomatic relations. With unification, German relations with the restored democracies in central and eastern Europe intensified. On November 14, 1990, Germany and Poland signed a treaty confirming the Oder-Neisse border. They also concluded a cooperation treaty on June 17, 1991. Germany concluded four treaties with the Soviet Union covering the overall bilateral relationship, economic relations, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the former G.D.R., and German support for those troops. Russia accepted obligations under these treaties as successor to the Soviet Union. Germany continues to be active economically in the states of central and eastern Europe and to actively support the development of democratic institutions, bilaterally and through the EU.

====Relations with the United States====
[[File:Nazi crowd salute.jpg|thumb|300px|Nazi crowd salute.]]
U.S.-German relations have been a focal point of American involvement in Europe since the end of World War II. Germany stands at the center of European affairs and is a key partner in U.S. relations with Europeans in NATO and the European Union.

German-American ties extend back to the colonial era. More than 7 million Germans have immigrated over the last three centuries, and today nearly a quarter of U.S. citizens claim German ancestry. In recognition of this heritage and the importance of modern-day U.S.-German ties, the U.S. President annually has proclaimed October 6, the date the first German immigrants arrived in 1623, to be "German-American Day."

U.S. policy toward Germany remains the preservation and consolidation of a close and vital relationship with Germany, not only as friends and trading partners, but also as allies sharing common institutions. During the 45 years in which Germany was divided, the U.S. role in Berlin and the large American military presence in West Germany served as symbols of the U.S. commitment to preserving peace and security in Europe. Since German unification, the U.S. commitment to these goals has not changed. The U.S. made significant reductions in its troop levels in Germany after the Cold War ended, and, on July 12, 1994, President Clinton "cased the colors" at the Berlin Brigade's deactivation ceremony. The U.S., however, continues to recognize that the security and prosperity of the United States and Germany significantly depend on each other.

As allies in NATO, the United States and Germany work side by side to maintain peace and freedom. This unity and resolve made possible the successful conclusion of the 1987 U.S.-U.S.S.R. Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), the Two-plus-Four process--which led to the Final Settlement Treaty--and the November 1990 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty.
[[File:President and First Lady Obama with Chancellor Merkel.jpg|thumb|left|320px|President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama are welcomed by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and her husband, professor Joachim Sauer, to Rathaus in Baden-Baden, Germany, 2009.]]
More recently, the two allies have cooperated closely in peacekeeping efforts in the Balkans and have worked together to encourage the evolution of open and democratic states throughout central and eastern Europe. Germany is also a strong contributor to our common effort to secure peace and stability in Afghanistan, contributing almost 3,000 troops to the NATO ISAF mission.

Following the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC, Germany has been a reliable U.S. ally in the campaign against terrorism. As two of the world's leading trading nations, the United States and Germany share a common, deep-seated commitment to an open and expanding world economy. Personal ties between the United States and Germany extend beyond immigration to include intensive foreign exchange programs, booming tourism in both directions, and the presence in Germany of large numbers of American military personnel and their dependents.

The United States and Germany have built a solid foundation of bilateral cooperation in a relationship that has changed significantly over nearly six decades. The historic unification of Germany and the role the United States played in that process have served to strengthen ties between the two countries.

German-American political, economic, and security relationships continue to be based on close consultation and coordination at the most senior levels. High-level visits take place frequently, and the United States and Germany cooperate actively in international forums.

====War on Terror====
Germany currently contributes troops to the NATO-led ISAF operation in [[Afghanistan]], but did not support the invasion of [[Iraq]]. German military participates in NATO Force Protection Program, protecting US military bases located in Germany.

====Libya====

[[Libyan uprising 2011]]

<blockquote>
Germany’s Defense Minister Thomas de Maziere has criticized NATO’s controversial military operation in Libya and lack of foresight when it comes to intervening in the North African country. [http://2012indyinfo.wordpress.com/2011/06/19/presstv-germany-slams-nato-mission-in-libya/]
</blockquote>

==Economy==
[[Image:The_castle3.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Neuschwanstein Castle, a popular tourist destination.]]
Germany is the world's third-largest economy and the largest in Europe.
From the 1948 currency reform until the early 1970s, West Germany experienced almost continuous economic expansion. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth slowed down, and even declined, from the mid-1970s through the recession of the early 1980s. The economy then experienced 8 consecutive years of growth that ended with a downturn beginning in late 1992. Since unification, Germany has seen annual average real growth of only about 1.5% and stubbornly high unemployment. In 2006, Germany had its best year since 2000 with 2.7% growth; for 2007, growth was at 2.5% despite a 3 percentage point VAT hike at the beginning of the year. The government forecasts 1.7% growth in GDP for 2008. Unemployment in 2007 dropped to an annualized average of 9.0% nationwide, but it is still significantly higher--15.1%--in the German states that make up the former East Germany.

Germans often describe their economic system as a "social market economy." The German Government provides an extensive array of social services. The state intervenes in the economy by providing subsidies to selected sectors and by owning some segments of the economy, while promoting competition and free enterprise. The government has restructured the railroad system on a corporate basis, privatized the national airline, and is privatizing telecommunications and postal services.

The German economy is heavily export-oriented, with exports accounting for more than one-third of national output. As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion, accounting for over half of the economic growth in recent years. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined within the European Union (EU). Germany uses the common European currency, the euro, and the European Central Bank sets monetary policy.
[[File:German transmission lines.jpg|thumb|left|340px|Transmission lines and generating stations.]]
In the early-mid 2000s, Germany adopted a complex set of labor/social welfare reforms to overcome structural weaknesses of the German welfare state and to create policies more conductive to employment. Defying a skeptical German public, the coalition government of Chancellor Angela Merkel initiated additional reform measures, such as the gradual increase in the mandatory retirement age from 65 to 67--a move that would add 2.5 million to the workforce by 2030. Subsequently, however, there has been active political debate and some rollback of these labor reforms; most notably the government decided to extend the payment period of unemployment benefits to older workers in early 2008.

Fifteen years after reunification (October 3, 1990), Germany had made great progress in raising the standard of living in eastern Germany, introducing a market economy and improving its infrastructure. At the same time, the process of convergence between east and west is taking longer than originally expected and, on some measures, has stagnated since the mid-1990s. Eastern economic growth rates have been lower than in the west in recent years, unemployment is twice as high, prompting many skilled easterners to seek work in the west, and productivity continues to lag. Eastern consumption levels are dependent on public net financial transfers from west to east totaling about $13 billion per year. In addition to social assistance payments, the government will extend funds to promote eastern economic development through 2019.

The United States is Germany's second-largest trading partner, and U.S.-German trade has continued to grow strongly. Two-way trade in goods totaled $184 billion in 2007. U.S. exports to Germany were $ 71 billion while U.S. imports from Germany were more than $113 billion. At nearly $45 billion, the U.S.'s fifth-largest trade deficit is with Germany. Major U.S. export categories include aircraft, electrical equipment, telecommunications equipment, data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. German export sales are concentrated in metalworks, motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals and heavy electrical equipment. Much bilateral trade is intra-industry or intra-firm.

Germany has a liberal foreign investment policy. For 2005, the most recent year for which statistics are available, German investment in the U.S. amounted to 233 billion euros (29 % of all German foreign direct investment, or FDI; the U.S. is the number-one destination for German FDI), while U.S. investment in Germany was 45 billion euros (11.5 % of all FDI invested in Germany; U.S. is third-largest source of FDI in Germany).

U.S. firms employ about 510,000 people in Germany; German firms likewise employ about 746,000 people in the United States.

Despite persistence of some structural rigidities in the labor market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive. Although production costs are very high, Germany is still an export powerhouse, and unit labor costs have decreased in the last 10 years. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, social security, and financial sector reforms.
*GDP (2007 est.): $3.1 trillion.
*Annual growth rate: (2006) 2.7%; (2007) 2.5%.
*Per capita income (PPP, 2006): $31,900.
*Inflation rate (consumer prices, 2007): 2.2%.
*Natural resources: Iron, hard coal, lignite, potash, natural gas.
*Agriculture (0.9% of GDP): Products--corn, wheat, potatoes, sugar, beets, barley, hops, viticulture, forestry, fisheries.
*Industry (29.1% of GDP): Types--car-making; mechanical, electrical, and precision engineering; chemicals; environmental technology; optics; medical technology; biotech and genetic engineering; nanotechnology; aerospace; logistics.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$1.03 trillion: chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, manufactured goods, electrical products. Major markets--France, U.S., and U.K. Imports--$844 billion: food, petroleum products, manufactured goods, electrical products, motor vehicles, apparel. Major suppliers--France, Netherlands, U.S.

The German economy showed substantial improvement in 2007 at 2.5% growth due to the effect of recent economic reforms and strong global economic growth. The export-led recovery is now filtering through to the domestic economy where private consumption has long been at a low level.
===Crisis of 2008===
The worldwide [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit Germany in the summer, revealing high risk policies pursued by numerous large banks looking for high rates of return outside Germany. In September the government unveiled a $635-billion bailout package for its floundering banks. Economic growth for 2009 is forecast to be an anemic 0.2%.

Automobile manufacturing is a major sector, but the financial crisis caused credit to be harder to obtain; many families postponed purchases. Auto exports fell 10% in October 2008 from October 2007; domestic sales dropped 8%. In contrast 2007 was a record year with production of 12.1 million vehicles and employment of 756,000 workers; an eighth of those jobs were created in the last five years alone.

The German economy has since recovered and the impact of the ongoing euro crisis isn't being noticed yet.

==History==
See [[German History]]

== Sports ==
[[File:Sunken Village by Timm Ulrichs Munich.JPG|thumb|Architectural sculpture "Sunken Village" by Timm Ulrichs, and in the back Allianz Arena, Munich.]]
[[Association Football]] is the most popular sport by far, followed by [[Team Handball]] (not to be confused with [[American handball]]). Basketball and (ice) hockey play a minor role, whereas baseball and american football are, despite being organized, hardly being noticed by the general public.

The most popular non-sport-games are [[chess]] and [[skat]], both being organized in [[bundesligas]].

==The states (Bundesländer) and their capitals==
[[File:Frankfurt skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|Frankfurt am Main, Hesse.]]
(In alphabetical order)
* [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]]: [[Stuttgart]]
* [[Bavaria]] (''Bayern''): [[München]]
* [[Berlin]]: [[Berlin]]
* [[Brandenburg]]: [[Potsdam]]
* [[Bremen]]: [[Bremen]]
* [[Hamburg]]: [[Hamburg]]
* [[Hesse]] (''Hessen''): [[Wiesbaden]]
* [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]: [[Schwerin]]
* [[Lower Saxony]] (''Niedersachsen''): [[Hannover]]
* [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] (''Nordrhein-Westfalen''): [[Düsseldorf]]
* [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] (''Rheinland-Pfalz''): [[Mainz]]
* [[Saarland]]: [[Saarbrücken]]
* [[Saxony]] (''Sachsen''): [[Dresden]]
* [[Saxony-Anhalt]] (''Sachsen-Anhalt''): [[Magdeburg]]
* [[Sleswick-Holsatia]] (''Schleswig-Holstein''): [[Kiel]]
* [[Thuringia]] (''Thüringen''): [[Erfurt]]

==Famous Germans==
{|
|-
|
*[[Konrad Adenauer]]
*[[Hannah Arendt]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Boris Becker]]
*[[Pope Benedict XVI]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Otto von Bismarck]]
*[[Heinrich Böll]]
*[[Willy Brandt]]
*[[Wernher von Braun]]
*[[Bertolt Brecht]]
*[[Dietrich Buxtehude]]
*[[Marlene Dietrich]]
*[[Albrecht Dürer]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Roland Emmerich]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Daniel Fahrenheit]]
*[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
|
*[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Günter Grass]]
*[[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]]
*[[Johannes Gutenberg]]
*[[Georg Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Otto Hahn]]
*[[Friedrich Händel]]
*[[Ernst August von Hannover]]
*[[Karl August von Hardenberg]]
*[[Friedrich Hegel]]
*[[Werner Heisenberg]]
*[[Heinrich Hesse]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Adolf Hitler]]
*[[Oliver Kahn]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]]
*[[Helmut Kohl]]
|
*[[Käthe Kollwitz]]
*[[Otto Kretschmer]]
*[[Karl Liebknecht]]
*[[Loriot]]
*[[Martin Luther]]
*[[Rosa Luxemburg]]
*[[Thomas Mann]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Angela Merkel]]
*[[Lise Meitner]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Dirk Nowitzki]]
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
*[[Erwin Rommel]]
*[[Friedrich Schiller]]
*[[Gerhard Schröder]]
*[[Heinrich Schliemann]]
*[[Michael Schumacher]]
*[[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
*[[Wim Wenders]]
|}

==Further reading==
* Schafers, Bernha, ''The State of Germany Atlas'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/State-Germany-Atlas-Bernha-Schafers/dp/0415188261/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Schulte-Peevers, Andrea, et al. ''Lonely Planet Germany'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Germany-Andrea-Schulte-Peevers/dp/1740599888/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

===Since 1990===
* Alba, Richard. Peter Schmidt, and Martina Wasmer. ''Germans or Foreigners?: Attitudes Toward Ethnic Minorities in Post-Reunification Germany'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Germans-Foreigners-Minorities-Post-Reunification-Transition/dp/1403963789/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324886&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]
* Berghahn, Volker Rolf. ''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) [http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.01673 ACLS E-book]
* Buse, Dieter K. ed. ''Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871-1990'' (2 vol 1998)
* Kahn, Charlotte. ''Ten Years of German Unification: One State, Two Peoples'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/23486249 online edition]
* Larres, Klaus. ''Germany Since Unification: The Development of the Berlin Republic'' (2nd ed. 2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Germany-Since-Unification-Second-Development/dp/0333919998/ref=sr_1_28?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-28 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and society===
* Siebert, Horst. ''The German Economy: Beyond the Social Market'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/German-Economy-Beyond-Social-Market/dp/0691096643/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328508&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zimmermann, Klaus F. et al. ''Immigration Policy and the Labor Market: The German Experience and Lessons for Europe'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Immigration-Policy-Labor-Market-Experience/dp/354068381X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201328716&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]

====Politics====
* Green, Simon, and William E. Paterson. ''Governance in Contemporary Germany: The Semisovereign State Revisited'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Governance-Contemporary-Germany-Semisovereign-Revisited/dp/0521848814/ref=sr_1_25?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324991&sr=1-25 excerpt and text search]
* Hancock, M. Donald, ''Politics in Europe: An Introduction to the Politics of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Politics-Europe-Introduction-Kingdom-Germany/dp/1933116455/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201324694&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Schmidt, Manfred G. ''Political Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany'' (2003) ISBN 0198782594

==See also==
*[[Prussia]]
*[[Bavaria]]
*[[German Painting]]
*[[Gallery of German Masterpieces]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.justgermany.org/germany/germany-facts.asp Germany Basic Facts.]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

 
===Sources===
* source: [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3997.htm US State Department Country Study]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:German History]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:NATO members]]

Poland

2013-01-11T05:52:49Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Rzeczpospolita Polska''
|map =Poland rel00.jpg
|map2 =Poland location.png
|flag =Flag of Poland.png
|arms =Arms of Poland.png
|capital =Warsaw
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Polish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Bronisław Komorowski
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Donald Tusk
|pm-raw =
|area =120,728 sq mi
|pop =38,441,588
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$413.3 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$10,858 (2006)
|currency =Złoty (PLN)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Poland''' is the most [[pro-life]] nation in [[Central Europe]] (Middle Europe) located on its western side. It has suffered many hardships before and after [[World War I]] and [[World War II|II]] disappearing as a nation in 1975 and re-appearing in 1918. Emerging as a nation again after World War I, Poland was partitioned between [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] at the start of World War II. Given nationhood again at the end of the war, it was under the shroud of being a Soviet satellite controlled by a [[communist]] regime. Poland finally became liberated from the communist rule in late 1980s. The exact date of the end of communism in Poland is hard to difine, but it is often accepted as July 4, 1989 (the date of the elections won by the ''Solidarność'', or ''Solidarity'' movement. [[Pope John Paul II]] was from Poland and played a major part in bringing down [[communist|communism]] in Poland. Among the nations under Soviet domination, Poland was unique in continuing to keep its strong [[Catholic]] roots even in the face of persecution. The [[capital]] of Poland is [[Warsaw]].

== People ==
[[File:Fickowa Pokusa Poland.JPG|thumb|left|Polish folk musician.]]
Poland today is ethnically almost homogeneous (98% Polish), in contrast with the period before and during World War II, when there were significant ethnic minorities--4.5 million [[Ukrainiane|Ukrainians]], 3 million [[Jew]]s, 1 million [[Belorusse|Belorussians]], and 800,000 [[German]]s. The majority of the Jews were murdered during the German occupation in World War II, and many others emigrated in the succeeding years.

Most Germans left Poland at the end of the war, while many Ukrainians and Belorussians lived in territories incorporated into the then-U.S.S.R. Small Ukrainian, Belorussian, [[Slovakia]]n, and [[Lithuania]]n minorities reside along the borders, and a German minority is concentrated near the southwest city of Opole.
*Population (July 2006): 38.5 million.
*Annual growth rate: Unchanging.
*Ethnic groups: Polish 98%, German, Ukrainian, Belorussian, Lithuanian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, Eastern Orthodox, Uniate, Protestant, Judaism.
*Language: Polish.
*Education: Literacy--98%.
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate--7.2/1,000. Life expectancy--males 71 yrs., females 79 yrs.
*Work force: 17.2 million. Industry and construction--29%; agriculture--16%; services--54%.
=== Religion ===
[[File:St John Cathedral Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|St. John Cathedral, Warsaw.]]
[[File:Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice Poland.jpg|thumb|Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice.]]
More than 94% of the population is Roman Catholic. According to the 2007 Annual Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the formal membership of the listed religious groups includes: 33,862,800 Roman Catholics; 506,800 Polish Orthodox Churchmembers; 53,000 Greek Catholics; 126,827 Jehovah's Witnesses; 77,500 Lutherans (Augsburg Confession); 23,670 Old Catholic Mariavits; 21,199 Pentecostals; 9,620 Seventh-day Adventists; 19,035 members of the Polish Catholic Church; 4,881 members of the New Apostolic Church; 4,726 Baptists; 4,445 Methodists; 3,516 Lutherans (Reformed); 2,500 Jews; 2,425 members of the Church of Christ; 2,195 Catholic Mariavits; 1,299 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons); 915 members of the Church of Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas); and 112 registered members of Muslim associations. These figures do not account for persons who adhere to a particular faith but do not maintain formal membership. Figures for Jews and Muslims in particular are significantly deflated as a result. Jewish and Muslim organizations estimate their actual numbers to be 30,000-40,000 and 25,000, respectively.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/ U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The majority of asylum seekers are Muslims from Chechnya. In the refugee centers around the country, they organize their own mosques where they practice their religion.

Currently, there is a movement in Poland to completely ban [[abortion]]<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,262104,00.html</ref>, however there is an opposite movement to allow abortion to greater extent than it is now. Most political forces in the parliament are in favor of keeping abortion law as it is (allowing abortion when the women's life or health is threatened, when pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, when the fetus is irreversibly damaged). The attempts to change constitution so that it would be stated that life would be protected from the moment of conception to natural death failed.

== Government and Political Conditions ==
The current government structure consists of a council of ministers led by a Prime Minister, typically chosen from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (Sejm). The president, elected every five years for no more than two terms, is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The judicial branch plays a minor role in decision-making.

The parliament consists of the 460-member Sejm and the 100-member Senat, or upper house. The new constitution and the reformed administrative division (as of 1999) required a revision of the election ordinance (passed in April 2001). The most important changes were liquidation of a national list (all deputies are elected by voters in electoral districts) and introduction of a new method of calculating seats (the modified St. Lague method replaced the d'Hondt method, thus eliminating the premium for the top parties). The law stipulated that with the exception of guaranteed seats for small ethnic parties, only parties receiving at least 5% of the total vote could enter parliament.

Parties represented in the newly elected (October 2011) Sejm are [[Civic Platform]] (PO), [[Law and Justice]] (PiS), Palikot's Movement (RP), Polish Peasant Party (PSL), Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), and the United Poland (SP) which was created after elections by former Law and Justice members. There is also one representative of the German Minority and some non-allied members of Parliament

=== Principal Government Officials ===
*President--Bronisław Komorowski
*Prime Minister--Donald Tusk (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration--Jerzy Miller (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy--Waldemar Pawlak (PSL)

[[File:Bronislaw Komorowsk Poland.jpg|left|300px]]

 
President of the Polish Commonwealth, Bronislaw Komorowski.
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign Relations ===
Poland became an associate member of the EU and its defensive arm, the Western European Union, in 1994. In a June 2003 national referendum, the Polish people approved EU accession by an overwhelming margin, and Poland gained full membership on May 1, 2004.

Changes since 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, and Poland has had to forge relationships with seven new neighbors. Poland has actively pursued good relations, signing friendship treaties replacing links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West.

== Defense ==
Poland became a full member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) in March 1999 as part of the first wave of enlargement outlined at the July 1997 NATO Summit in [[Madrid]]. Poland's top national security goal is to further integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic, and political institutions while modernizing and reorganizing its military. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defense posture as its Alliance partners.

Poland maintains a sizable armed force currently numbering about 140,572 troops divided among an army of 87,877, an air and defense force of 31,147, and a navy of 21,548. Poland relies on military conscription for the majority of its personnel strength. All males (with some exceptions) are subject to a 12-month term of military service. The Polish military continues to restructure and to modernize its equipment. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure. Although budget constraints remain a drag on modernization, Poland has been able to move forward with U.S. assistance on acquiring 48 [[F-16]] multi-role fighters, [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]] cargo planes, HMMWVs, and other items key to the military’s restructuring.

Poland continues to be a regional leader in support and participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace Program and has actively engaged most of its neighbors and other regional actors to build stable foundations for future European security arrangements. Poland continues its long record of strong support for UN peacekeeping operations by maintaining a unit in Southern Lebanon, a battalion in NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR), and by providing and actually deploying the KFOR strategic reserve to Kosovo. Polish military forces have served in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Poland assumed command of a multinational division of stabilization forces in Iraq (MDN-CS) on September 3, 2003. Poland and its MND-CS partners have worked effectively since then to stabilize south central Iraq while working to train Iraqi forces to take over MND-CS responsibilities and operate independently. <ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat_coalition.htm</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Pol-cia.jpg|thumb|320px]] Since its reunification with the rest of the West, the Polish economy grew rapidly in the mid-1990s, slowed considerably in 2001 and 2002, returned again to healthy growth rates in 2003, then faltered during the worldwide [[recession of 2008]]. Poland’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annualized rate of 5.2% in the first quarter of 2006. Faster growth has begun to reduce persistently high unemployment, from nearly 20% in the middle of 2004 to 16.5% in May 2006. Tight monetary policy and dramatic productivity growth have helped to hold down inflation, which was 2.1% in 2005. Likewise, Poland's current account deficit, which grew rapidly in the late 1990s, has since moderated to 1.4% of GDP in 2005. The 2005 budget deficit was 27.5 billion zloty, or 2.8% of GDP in 2005, and the current government pledged to restrain the 2006 and 2007 budgets at 30 billion zloty.

Throughout the 1990s, the United States and other Western countries supported the growth of a free enterprise economy by reducing Poland's foreign debt burden, providing economic aid, and lowering trade barriers. Poland graduated from U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance in 2000 and paid the balance of its U.S.-held Paris Club debt in 2005. Poland officially joined the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004.
*GDP (2006): $265.4 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 5.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $14,100.
*Rate of inflation (2006): 1.3%.
*Natural resources: [[Coal]], [[copper]], [[sulfur]], [[natural gas]], [[silver]], [[lead]], [[salt]].
*Agriculture: Products--grains, hogs, dairy, potatoes, horticulture, sugarbeets, oilseed.
*Industry: Types--machine building, iron and steel, mining, shipbuilding, automobiles, furniture, textiles and apparel, chemicals, food processing, glass, beverages.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$110.7 billion: furniture, cars, ships, coal, apparel. Imports--$113.2 billion: crude oil, passenger cars, pharmaceuticals, car parts, computers.

=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture employs 16.1% of the work force but contributes only 5% to the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting relatively low productivity. Unlike the industrial sector, Poland's agricultural sector remained largely in private hands during the decades of communist rule. Most of the former state farms are now leased to farmer tenants. Lack of credit is hampering efforts to sell former state farmland. Currently, Poland's 2 million private farms occupy 90% of all farmland and account for roughly the same percentage of total agricultural production. These farms are small--8 hectares (ha) on average--and often fragmented. Farms with an area exceeding 15 ha accounted for only 9% of the total number of farms but cover 45% of total agricultural area. Over half of all farming households in Poland produce only for their own needs with little, if any, commercial sales.

Poland is a net exporter of confectionery, processed fruit and vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Processors often rely on imports to supplement domestic supplies of wheat, feed grains, vegetable oil, and protein meals, which are generally insufficient to meet domestic demand. However, Poland is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye and is one of the world's largest producers of sugarbeets. Poland also is a significant producer of rapeseed, grains, hogs, and cattle. Attempts to increase domestic feed grain production are hampered by the short growing season, poor soil, and the small size of farms.

Pressure to restructure the agriculture sector intensified as Poland prepared to accede to the European Union, which is unwilling to subsidize the vast number of subsistence farms that do not produce for the market. The changes in agriculture are likely to strain Poland's social fabric, tearing at the heart of the traditional, family-based small farm as the younger generation drifts toward the cities. Nonetheless, dramatically increasing agricultural exports to the EU-15 (38% growth in 2005) and payments to farmers from Brussels following accession have enriched Polish commercial farmers and dramatically increase support for EU membership in Poland’s rural areas.

[[File:Panorama-Morskiego-Oka Poland.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panoramic view of Morskie Oko ("Marine Eye").]]

=== Industry ===
[[File:Locomotive train station Poland..jpg|thumb|Locomotive at a train station.]]
Before World War II, Poland's industrial base was concentrated in the coal, textile, chemical, machinery, iron, and steel sectors. Today it extends to fertilizers, petrochemicals, machine tools, electrical machinery, electronics, and shipbuilding.

Poland's industrial base suffered greatly during World War II, and many resources were directed toward reconstruction. The communist economic system imposed in the late 1940s created large and unwieldy economic structures operated under a tight central command. In part because of this systemic rigidity, the economy performed poorly even in comparison with other economies in central Europe.

In 1990, the Mazowiecki government began a comprehensive reform program to replace the centralized command economy with a market-oriented system. While the results overall have been impressive, many large state-owned industrial enterprises, particularly the railroad and the mining, steel, and defense sectors, have remained resistant to the change and downsizing required to survive in an open market economy.

=== Economic Reform Program and Direct Foreign Investment ===
The economic reforms introduced in 1990 removed price controls, eliminated most subsidies to industry, opened markets to international competition, and imposed strict budgetary and monetary discipline. Poland was the first former centrally planned economy in central Europe to end its recession and return to growth in the early 1990s. The private sector now accounts for over two-thirds of GDP.

In early 2002, the government announced a new set of economic reforms known as the Hausner Plan, designed in many ways to complete the process launched in 1990. The package acknowledged the need to improve Poland's investment climate, particularly the conditions for small and medium-sized enterprises, and better prepare the economy to compete as a European Union (EU) member. The government also aimed to improve Poland's public finances to prepare for eventual adoption of the euro. Though the government was able to enact only portions of the Hausner Plan, those successes coupled with successful monetary efforts to strengthen the zloty, have put Poland within reach of the National Bank’s goal of Euro accession in 2008-2009.

As a result of Poland's growth and investment-friendly climate, the country has received over $85 billion in direct foreign investment (DFI) since 1990, with roughly $7 billion in 2004 alone. According to a recently publish report by Ernst and Young, Poland is tied with Germany as the most attractive destination for foreign investment in Europe. The availability of cheap land and a large, relatively skilled labor force are among Polish strengths. However, the government continues to play a strong role in the economy, as seen in excessive red tape and the high level of politicization in many business decisions. Investors complain that state regulation is not transparent or predictable, and the economy suffers from a lack of competition in many sectors, notably telecommunications.

=== Foreign Trade ===
With the collapse of the ruble-based COMECON trading bloc in 1990, Poland scrambled to reorient its trade. As early as 1996, 70% of its trade was with EU-15 members, and neighboring Germany today is Poland's dominant trading partner. Most of Poland's imports are capital goods needed for industrial retooling and for manufacturing inputs, rather than imports for consumption. Therefore, a deficit is expected and should even be regarded as positive at this point. Poland, a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and European Union, applies the EU’s common external tariff to goods from other countries--including the U.S.

In the year after it joined the EU, Poland experienced an overall growth in exports of 30%. This growth was not confined to trade among EU partners: while exports to EU countries rose by 27%, exports to developing countries rose by 46%, and exports to Russia rose an unexpected 77%. Poland’s trade balance continued to improve, with export growth significantly outpacing import growth. Opportunities for trade and investment continue to exist across virtually all sectors. The American Chamber of Commerce in Poland, founded in 1991 with seven members, now has more than 300 members. Strong economic growth potential, a large domestic market, EU membership, and political stability are the top reasons U.S. and other foreign companies do business in Poland.

== History ==
{{main|History of Poland}}
[[File:Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.jpg|thumb|Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.]]
Poland's written history begins with the reign of [[Mieszko I]], who accepted [[Christianity]] for himself and his kingdom in AD 966. The Polish state reached its zenith under the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] in the years following the union with [[Lithuania]] in 1386 and the subsequent defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]] at Grunwald in 1410. The Union of Lublin united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on July 1, 1569, in Lublin, Poland which created a single state known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish Commonwealth was at one point the largest country in Europe, covering much of what is today Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland. The Polish experienced their Golden Age during the 16th century. The monarchy survived many upheavals but eventually went into a decline, which ended with the final partition of Poland by [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], and [[Austria]] in 1795.

Independence for Poland was one of the 14 points enunciated by [[President Woodrow Wilson]] during [[World War I]]. Many Polish Americans enlisted in the military services to further this aim, and the United States worked at the postwar conference to ensure its implementation.
[[Image:Communazi Peace Pact.jpg|left]]
However, the Poles were largely responsible for achieving their own independence in 1918 and keeping it shortly thereafter against [[Polish-Soviet War|Red aggression]] from [[Bolshevik]] Russia. Authoritarian rule predominated for most of the period before [[World War II]]. In the years preceding the outbreak of the World War 2, German leader, Adolf Hitler, repeatedly requested an alliance with Poland. On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov nonaggression pact]], which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939, Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and then occupied eastern Poland under the terms of this agreement. On October 6, all remaining Polish resistance inside Poland ceased and Poland fell to Soviet and German occupation.

The eastern half of Poland known as the Kresy, was annexed into the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. After Germany terminated the Hitler-Stalin pact and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.

The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a government in exile, first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Western powers (the USA, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union). During World War II, 400,000 Poles fought in the [[Polish Peoples Army]] under Soviet command, whereas 200,000 served in the [[Polish Home Army]] in underground resistance in Poland, North Africa, Italy, and the Western front and remained loyal to the Free Polish government in exile.

After the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyn]] in April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile. The Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports. In July 1944, the Soviet Red Army entered Poland and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" (PKWN) at Lublin.

Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including uprisings by Jews in the Warsaw ghetto and by the Polish underground, was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city while Red Army units waited just outside.<ref>Solzhenitsyn writes: "''in October, 1944, the Germans threw in Kaminsky's brigade—with its Moslem units—to suppress the Warsaw uprising. While one group of Russians sat traitorously dozing beyond the Vistula, watching the death of Warsaw through binoculars, other Russians crushed the uprising!"'' The Gulag Archipelago Three (1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation I-II, p. 257. [http://ia700304.us.archive.org/BookReader/BookReaderImages.php?zip=/29/items/Gulag_Archipelago_I/Gulag_Archipelago_jp2.zip&file=Gulag_Archipelago_jp2/Gulag_Archipelago_0267.jp2&scale=6&rotate=0]</ref>

During the war, about 6 million Poles were killed, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. More than 3 million Jews (all but about 100,000 of the Jewish population) were killed in death camps like those at Oswiecim ([[Auschwitz]]), Treblinka, and Majdanek.

Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945; the U.S. recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination.

==== Communist Party Domination ====
[[File:Socialist reliefs Warsaw.jpg|thumb|left|Socialist relief, Pałac Kultury i Nauki, Warsaw.]]

In 1945, Poland was forced to give up its eastern territories to the Soviet Union, in exchange for Germany's eastern territories of Pomerania and Silesia. Poland took over Germany's former eastern territories and its territories illegally seized by the Soviet Union, including the cities of Lvov and Vilnius were incorporated and annexed under an agreement by the Communist rulers of Poland and the Soviet Union. Poland ended up losing its eastern territories which comprised half of the country and a sizable portion of the population.

In October 1956, after the 20th ("de-Stalinization") Soviet Party Congress in Moscow and riots by workers in Poznan, there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka liberalized Polish internal life.

In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an "anti-Zionist" campaign initially directed against Gomulka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. Edward Gierek replaced Gomulka as First Secretary.

Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.

In October 1978, the Bishop of Krakow, Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, became [[Pope John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.

In July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coalmines in Silesia. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.

==== The Solidarity Movement ====
[[File:Lech Walesa.jpg|thumb|Lech Walesa.]]
On August 31, 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Walesa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at Szczecin and in Silesia. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers' right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement--"Solidarity"--swept Poland.

The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania as First Secretary.

Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September-October 1981, Lech Walesa was elected national chairman of the union.

On December 12-13, the regime declared martial law, under which the army and special riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.

In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.

In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and 2 years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored.

==== Roundtable Talks and Elections ====
[[File:Royal Castle of Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Royal Castle of Warsaw.]]
The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May, and August 1988. In an attempt to take control of the situation, the government gave de facto recognition to Solidarity, and Interior Minister Kiszczak began talks with Lech Walesa on August 31. These talks broke off in October, but a new series, the "roundtable" talks, began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly open National Assembly elections. The June election produced a Sejm (lower house), in which one-third of the seats went to communists and one-third went to the two parties which had hitherto been their coalition partners. The remaining one-third of the seats in the Sejm and all those in the Senat were freely contested; virtually all of these were won by candidates supported by Solidarity.

The failure of the communists at the polls produced a political crisis. The roundtable agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of some Solidarity deputies, elected General Jaruzelski to that office. Two attempts by the communists to form governments failed, however.

On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by non-communists.

In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland." The Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. Most of the property of the former Communist Party was turned over to the state.

The May 1990 local elections were entirely free. Candidates supported by Solidarity's Citizens' Committees won most of the races they contested, although voter turnout was only a little over 40%. The cabinet was reshuffled in July 1990; the national defense and interior affairs ministers--holdovers from the previous communist government--were among those replaced.

In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In December, Lech Walesa became the first popularly elected President of Poland.

==== The Republic of Poland ====
The [[Republic of Poland]] in the early 1990s made great progress toward achieving a fully democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Walesa was elected President for a 5-year term. Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, at Walesa's request, formed a government and served as its Prime Minister until October 1991, introducing world prices and greatly expanding the scope of private enterprise.
[[File:Downtown Warsaw skyline Poland 2006.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Downtown Warsaw skyline, 2006.]]
Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, representing a full spectrum of political views. No single party received more than 13% of the total vote.

Since 1991, Poland has conducted five general parliamentary elections and four presidential elections--all free and fair. Incumbent governments have transferred power smoothly and constitutionally in every instance to their successors. The post-Solidarity center-right and post-Communist center-left have each controlled the parliament and the presidency since 1991. Most recently, Poles elected Law and Justice (PiS) candidate and Mayor of Warsaw Lech Kaczynski to a 5-year term as President. Kaczynski narrowly defeated Civic Platform (PO) candidate Donald Tusk and was sworn in December 23, 2005.

PiS was also the top vote-getter in September 25, 2005, parliamentary elections. After coalition talks with runner-up PO collapsed, PiS alone formed a minority government under Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. Frustrated by its inability to achieve its legislative program alone, PiS formed a formal coalition government with Self-Defense (SO) and the League of Polish Families (LPR) in April 2006. In July 2006, Prime Minister Marcinkiewicz resigned and was replaced by PiS party leader Jaroslaw Kaczynski as Prime Minister.
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Lech Kaczyński]] - President
*[[Jarosław Kaczyński]] - PM
==Further reading==
* Library of Congress. ''A Country Study: Poland'' (1993), highly detailed factual report by U.S. government (it is in the public domain, with no copyright) [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pltoc.html online edition]
* ''Poland'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing) (2007)
* ''Lonely Planet Poland'' by Tom Parkinson, et al. (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Poland-Tom-Parkinson/dp/174059522X/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1188096687&sr=8-2 online excerpt and search from Amazon.com]
* Biskupski, M. B. ''The History of Poland.'' Greenwood, 2000. 264 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28002395 online edition]
* Davies, Norman. ''Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland.'' Oxford University Press, 1984. 511 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Heart-Europe-Past-Polands-Present/dp/0192801260/ref=pd_bbs_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192604734&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Podgórecki, Adam. ''Polish Society'' Praeger, 1994 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28518609 online edition]
* Turnock, David. ''The Human Geography of East Central Europe.'' Routledge. 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108154408 online edition]

== References ==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Armenia

2013-01-07T16:54:05Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Hanrapetowt’yown''
|map =Armenia rel 2002.jpg
|flag =Flag of Armenia.jpg
|arms =Arms of Armenia.png
|capital =Yerevan
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Armenian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Serzh Sargsyan
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Tigran Sargsyan
|pm-raw =
|area =11,506 sq mi
|pop =3,215,800 (2005)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$14.17 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$4,270 (2005)
|currency =Dram
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Armenia''' is a small rugged, mountainous landlocked nation in the Caucasus, the crossroads of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]] which gained its independence back with the breakup of the former [[Soviet Union]] in 1989. Although it is in Asia geographically (located on the Asian side of the Caucasus, the Border between Europe and Asia), it is always considered European, because of its strong and ancient links with [[Europe]]. Present-day Armenia comprises Eastern Armenia, only half the historic homeland. The Armenians in Western Armenia, with its iconic Mount Ararat, were driven out and mostly killed by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1915 in a genocide that to this day chills relations between Armenia and Turkey. In addition many Armenians live in other countries, in the "Armenian Diaspora." Armenia was the first country in the world to adapt Christianity as its state religion in AD 301.

==Cities==
[[Yerevan]] (pop. 1,100,000 in 2006), founded in the eighth century BC, is the capital and has always been the chief city. Gyumri, or Kumayri (called Leninakan from 1924 to 1992), with a population of 120,000 in 1989, was the second largest city until it was devastated by an earthquake in December 1988; it has now recovered with a population of 148,000. Vanadzor (formerly Kirovakan) is third with a population of 106,000.

==People==
Birth rates are low, at 11.7 births per 1000 population and a total fertility rate (births per childbearing woman) of only 1.33
===Diaspora===
The Armenian diaspora over many centuries has created Armenian settlements in many parts of Russia, Poland and the Balkans, as well as in the cities of the former [[Ottoman Empire]] and in the United States.
===Religion===
After decades of eclipse, religion has become an increasingly important part of life, and many religious groups have emerged.

Except perhaps for the Soviet era (1920-1989), religion was central to Armenian identity. Since the rise of Islam in 700 AD, Armenia has seen itself as the Christian outpost in the sea of Islam. The traditions of Eastern Christianity, as opposed to those of both Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christianity, have been preserved in virtual isolation and account for the survival of the Armenian people between their loss of independence in 1375 and the emergence of Armenian nationalism in the 19th century. Christianity has caused the Armenians to look toward Europe for cultural inspiration, especially--since the 18th century--to Italy, then France, then Russia (an indirect route for Western ideas), and finally to the United States.

In Armenia itself 98% of the population is ethnic Armenian. The link between Armenian ethnicity and the Armenian Orthodox Church is strong. An estimated 90% of citizens nominally belong to the Armenian Church, one of six ancient autocephalous Eastern churches with its spiritual center (Mother See) located at the Etchmiadzin cathedral and monastery near the capital of Yerevan.

There are small communities of other religious groups, which constitute less than 5% of the population and include Roman Catholics, Armenian Uniate (Mekhitarist) Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Armenian Evangelical Christians, Molokans, Pentecostals, Seventh-day Adventists, Baptists, various groups of charismatic Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Yezidis (non-Muslim Kurds who practice Yezidism), Jews, Sunni Muslim Kurds, Shi'ite Muslims, Baha'is, and others.

Yezidis are concentrated primarily in agricultural areas around Mount Aragats, northwest of Yerevan. Armenian Catholics live mainly in the north, while most Jews, Mormons, Baha'is, and Orthodox Christians reside in Yerevan, along with a small community of mostly Shi'ite Muslims, including Iranians, and temporary residents from the Middle East.

Although the law prohibits foreign funding of foreign-based denominations, the Government did not enforce the ban. Indeed, the Government generally does not enforce existing legal restrictions on religious freedom.

==History==

Armenia was traditionally a border state that was kept independent by the [[Roman Empire]] against frequent [[Parthian]] and later [[Persian]] invasions. It served as a buffer state between the empires. Armenia was the first nation to convert to Christianity, in 301 before Christianity was even legal in Rome. Armenia then flourished and its capital Ani was called the "city of a thousand and one churches."

Armenia was converted to Christianity by Saint Gregory the Illuminator, traditionally in 314 AD. Armenia thus became the first nation to embrace Christianity as its state religion. Always an autonomous church, the Armenian Apostolic Church was in communion with the rest of the Christian Church until 555 AD. After that it was communion only with the Monophysite churches, such as the Coptic Church of Egypt, the Ethiopic Church, and the Syrian Jacobite Church.

The Armenian Apostolic Church is headed by the catholicos of all Armenians, whose see has been at the monastery of Echmiadzin, near Yerevan, since 1441. Under his primacy the church is divided into four autonomous jurisdictions: the catholicosate of Echmiadzin; the catholicosate of Cilicia, at Sis (now Kozan, Turkey) from 1293 to 1930 and at Antelias, Lebanon, since 1930; the patriarchate of Jerusalem, created in 1311; and the patriarchate of Constantinople (Istanbul), created in the 16th century.

By 1200 AD some Armenians came to accept the authority of the Roman Catholic pope. In 1742 they formed the Armenian Catholic Church, with a patriarch residing at Beirut, Lebanon. Armenian Protestantism began with the arrival of American Congregationalist missionaries from Boston in 1830.

==Ottoman control of Western Armenia==
Following victory over [[Persia]] at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, the [[Ottoman Empire]] extended its rule over western Armenia. In 1555 Armenia was divided between the Shahs of Persia and the Sultans of Turkey.

In traditional Ottoman society the Armenians were defined, as were other Christians and the Jews, as a "dhimmi millet", a non-Muslim religious community of the empire. Their actual treatment by the state varied to some extent with the military fortunes of the empire, the religious passions of its elites, and the encroachment upon their land by Muslim refugees from the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as by Kurdish pastoralists. Normally dhimmis were free to practice their religion, but they were distinctively inferior to Muslims in status. In the nineteenth century the Armenians challenged the traditional hierarchy of Ottoman society as they became better educated, wealthier, and more urban. In response—despite attempts at reforms—the empire became more repressive toward Armenians, who more than any other Christian minority bore the brunt of persecution

===Conflict with Ottoman Empire===
Conflict between Turks and Armenians resulted from dissimilar cultural elements and social organization. By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman authorities justified their attacks on Armenians by accusing them of being "revolutionaries, terrorists, and troublemakers acting on behalf of Russia or other foreign powers." Even with the demise of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, the conflict between Turks and Armenians remained unresolved, resulting in contemporary Armenian terrorist attacks on Turkish targets.

The Armenians expected outside assistance in their efforts to break away from Ottoman rule and were led to carry out a number of rash terror actions, including bombing and assassinations. The Russians therefore discouraged the Armenian liberation movement from establishing an independent Armenia on the southern borders of Russia. But the Russian government also took active steps to prevent the massacres of Armenians by Sultan Abdul Hamid.

When Sultan Abdul Hamid II came to power in 1876, he steered a course of political and social repression and technological modernization. But the Empire was the "sick man of Europe" and nationalist revolts among Christian minorities led to the loss of Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Romania and large parts of Bulgaria, which comprised 40% of the territory. Some 400,000 Muslim refugees were expelled; the Empire became more Muslim and hatred of Christians intensified. The old program of using Christian minorities to speed the modernization process had failed. The Empire was bankrupt and the Christians wanted autonomy, not participation.

In August and September 1894, a series of massacres occurred in the vicinity of Sassun as a result of an uprising that was put down with ferocity by Kurdish irregular cavalry (Hamidieh regiments). The massacres soon spread, and in October and November 1895 there were pogroms at Trabzon, Erzurum, Bitlis, Kurun, Maras, and elsewhere. The essential cause of the massacres lay in the failure of the European powers to secure the reforms envisaged by the Treaty of Berlin for the Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In August 1896 after an attack on the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople a massacre of Armenians occurred in the Ottoman capital; 4,000 to 6,000 Armenians were killed. By the end of 1896 over 80,000 Armenians lad dead in the eastern provinces.
===Genocide===
see [[Armenian genocide]]

With the advent of [[World War I]] the situation became much worse. As Christians in an Empire of Muslims that was now at war with Christian nations, especially Russia, the Armenians were viewed by the Ottoman government as a threat and potential subversive allies of the Russians. The Ottomans first disarmed the Armenian population, and then sought to destroy them starting in 1915. A massive [[genocide]] occurred, consisting of the deaths of 600,000 or more Armenian men, women and children. Most died by starvation in the desert. Turkey has never admitted the deaths were a premeditated genocide, and the topic is generally not discussed in Turkey.
==Russian control of Eastern Armenia==
The Armenians, divided under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and Persia and ravaged by the fighting between them, turned for military assistance and political protection in the 18th and 19th centuries to [[History of Russia|Russia]]. The Russian advance along the Caspian and the expansion into Georgia encouraged requests for help. When a 70,000 strong Persian army entered Transcaucasia in 1804, the Russian general Tsitsianov began his advance on Erevan. Many Armenians joined the Russians captured in 1808. In 1810 the Turks and Persians invaded the area, but the Russian commander M. I. Kutuzov routed the Ottoman army on the Danube. Turkey recognized Russian rule in Transcaucasia in the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812. Resounding defeats imposed on the Persians forced the shah to agree in 1813 to the incorporation of a large part of Transcaucasia into the Russian Empire. Russian victories over renewed war with Persia led to the unification of Transcaucasia with Russia, 1829.

After 1828 many Armenians remained in Persia but 45,000 were allowed to migrate to Eastern Armenia on condition they leave behind their houses, property and wares. Following the 1828-29 Russo-Turkish War, about 100,000 Armenians migrated from Turkey to Transcaucasia.

Under Russia, the number of Armenians in the area now represented by present-day Armenia increased from 46,000 in 1827 to 511,000 in 1897. Thus by joining Russia, Eastern Armenia became the home of the national survival of the Armenian people. Despite tsarist restrictions and oppression, the Armenians developed a cultural renaissance and a national awareness which surpassed that of their co-nationals in the Ottoman and Persian empires. During the 19th century the Eastern Armenians (those in Russia) strove for regional autonomy and for the repartition of Transcaucasia into distinct ethnic provinces as well as for personal and collective security. They did not seek national independence but identified with oppositional Russia in an attempt to effect internal reforms.

Being part of Russia opened up new market opportunities and allowed the emergence of capitalism, which brought about socioeconomic changes in almost all the regions of Eastern Armenia, including Zangezur and Kazakh. By the end of the 19th century both Zangezur and Kazakh had become major grain producers, and while Zangezur was also engaged in sericulture, an important occupation in Kazakh was hog raising. The rising class of Armenian businessmen and bankers were centered not so much in Yerevan but in Baku and Tiflis (Tbilisi, Georgia), and sent younger sons to set up business connections in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, Russians occupied the six Armenian vilayets, and Armenian nationalism was stimulated. In 1880, a revolutionary organization known as the Defenders of the Fatherland was organized in Erzurum. A few years later, in 1885, the Armenakan society was organized, and in 1887 the Hunchagian Party appeared. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktzutun) was formed in 1890. The Dashnaks were socialists who sought to overthrow the Tsarist system and create an independent state. They also wanted to acquire the Armenian areas in the Ottoman Empire by force.
===Independence===
Amidst the chaos of Russia in 1918, period the Armenian National Council, with German help, declared the establishment of the Republic of Armenia (May 1918) on the territory of Russian Armenia. While most Armenians desired a democracy in their first chance at independence in 1918-20, for practical reasons they settled for a benevolent dictatorship instead. The government sought a mandate status with Armenia under the control of the United States, but the U.S. Senate rejected the idea, and Armenia was taken over by Soviet Russia in December 1920. Several hundred thousand Armenian refugees at the end of the war were scattered, and most emigrated to California.

[[File:Armenia2.jpg|thumb|550px|Ethnicity in Armenia and Caucasus]]
The most serious problem between the short-lived Transcaucasian republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan was over the control of a mountainous region called Nagorno-Karabakh, located inside Azerbaijan but with a 75% Armenian population. Britain, which occupied Transcaucasia after World War I, decided in favor of Azerbaijan in the summer of 1919. The settlement remained in force after the Red army took over both republics in 1920, but the Soviets were never able to resolve the dispute, which exploded into war as soon as both nations became independent. <ref> Artin H. Arslanian, "Britain and the Question of Mountainous Karabagh," ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 1980 16(1): 92-104. </ref>

Armenia regained its independence with the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1989. Communism was overthrown but there were tensions with neighboring [[Georgia]] and a war broke out with the Muslim nation of [[Azerbaijan]]. The '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh War]]''' was fought over the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. It is a small region inside Azerbaijan, but the population was three-fourths Armenian and they refused to be ruled by Azerbaijan. The war lasted from February 1988 to May 1994, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the spring of 1992. Some 17,000 people were killed in the conflict. The region, now 95% Armenian, is controlled by Armenia and has a population of 140,000.<ref> see [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict], and [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_280.shtml Air War over Nagorniy-Kharabakh, 1988-1994]</ref>

Relations with Turkey (a [[NATO]] member) remain tense, primarily because Armenia demands, and Turkey refuses, to admit that Turkey was guilty of genocide in 1915. (Turkey says it was not genocide and that the Ottoman Empire was in charge.) As a candidate, President Obama said he would acknowledge the gencide. However, he visited Turkey in 2009 without using the word, which would offend Turkey, an important American ally. The White House released a statement on Armenian Remembrance Day in April that paid tribute to those who died but did not explicitly use the word "genocide".

==Culture==
===Cultural trends in Western Armenia (Ottoman)===
Armenian names followed traditional formulas. During the 5th-15th centuries the clergy, being traditionalists, used names of two components: Christian and birthplace (George Garnetsi, meaning George of Garni). The nobility could have names of several components: individual's, father's, family's, birthplace, title, and profession. The humbler classes used three-component names: individual's, father's, and family's, like those in Armenia today. The usual surname ending -ian was replaced by -ov or -ev in Russia, by -oghlou or -chi in Western Armenia, and by -ovitch in Poland. Other suffixes denoting surname were -iants, -ents, -onts, and -ounts.

Lives of saints and martyrologies were prevalent Armenian literary genres. Initially martyrology had three components: conflict between the Christian and his heathen torturer; interrogation between judge and defendant; and martyrdom. As political conditions changed, historical truth replaced idealization, superhuman saints became humanized, and visions and miracles gave way to stories of hardships suffered by ordinary individuals as under the Turks.

Of the many 17th-century Armenian poets, the best known was Nerses Mokats'i (d. 1625), who studied at the Amrdolu monastery in Bitlis and the Mets Anapat in Siunik'; later he founded a monastic order on the island of Lim in Lake Van. Many works focused on the exile forced on many Armenians and the destruction wrought in Armenia by foreign forces, comparing this with the fate of Jerusalem. The destruction of the Armenian city of T'okhat' in 1602 by the Jalalis was lamented by Step'anos and Hakob T'okhat'ts'i. Simeon Lehats'i (1584-1637) criticized the educational level of the clergy in his historical poem Vipasanut'iun Nikolakan [Nikolian epic]. Many works eulogized cities and monasteries. Others were historical, such as the ''History of the Ottoman Kings'' and odes to John III Sobieski and [[Louis XIV]] by Eremia Ch'elepi K'eomiurchyan (1637-95).

The religious meditational poem Matyan Oghbergut'yan [Book of lamentations] by the medieval Armenian cleric Grigor Narekats'i (951-1003) was published widely in the 18th century and inspired contemporary poets such as Petros Nakhijevants'i (d. 1784) and Movses Jughayets'i.

The writer, poet, and critic from western Armenia Artashes Harut'iunyan (1874-1915) belonged to the "provincial" school, which took its inspiration directly from the people. In his view the Armenian writing of Constantinople was derivative, being inspired by French romanticism. He corresponded with French and Belgian writers, translated works by Maxim Gorky and Leo Tolstoy, and wrote articles for the French press. His novels portray Armenian village life, one of the best being ''Zghjume'' [The regret]. Together with other Armenian intellectuals, he was arrested in April 1915 and murdered.

===Cultural trends in Eastern Armenia (Russia)===
The making of a modern Armenian nation was an intellectual event that took place largely outside the Armenian heartland in the Armenian communities of Western Turkey, Russia, India, and Europe. It was here that the first generation of patriotic intellectuals emerged. By the 18th century the Armenian language had fragmented into numerous mutually incomprehensible dialects, while any knowledge of Armenian history had been effectively wiped out except among a small group of monks, who copied and recopied the ancient texts. The first modern generation of Armenian patriots undertook a revival of Armenian letters and spread the new nationalism to the next generation of patriotic intellectuals from Western Anatolia and the Armenian colonies of the Russian Empire.<ref> Ronald Grigor Suny, "The Formation of the Armenian Patriotic Intelligentsia in Russia: The First Generations." ''Armenian Review'' 1983 36(3): 18-34. </ref>

The new literature of the Eastern Armenians which emerged in the mid-19th century resulted in a shift from the antiquated church language, which had dominated the literature of both parts of the country, to the currently used vernacular. The eastern center of its development was finally Yerevan, whose dialect became the adopted literary language of the east. The literature ranged from a romantic to a realist approach.

Despite his short and difficult life, Armenian poet Petros Durian (1851-72) left a rich literary legacy: plays, poetry, and journalistic articles. His historical plays are the first examples of the romantic drama in Armenian literature, and express a deeply democratic mood of the writer; his journalistic writings show that Durian was concerned about contemporary social issues. But his poetry was his greatest contribution, rejecting classicism and descriptiveness, and full of deep feelings. Durian's lyrical hero, with few exceptions, is the poet himself, but his poems express mankind's thoughts and aspirations, and possess great social meaning.

Alexander Yeritsian (1841-1902) was a major Armenian public and literary figure who wrote on historical, archaeological, ethnic, and socioeconomic matters from a national-conservative viewpoint. Yeritsian was well read in European economics, and his views, as expressed in the economic weekly ''Vacharakan'', which started publication in Tiflis in 1866, cover commerce, speculative finance, silver and gold currency, paper money, rise and fall in the value of money, free trade, competition, supply and demand, industry and savings, and other aspects of the world economy of his day.

The Armenian journalist Grigor Artsruni (1845-92) published the first European-style Armenian magazine, ''Mshak'' in Tbilisi. As editor and proprietor from 1872 to 1892, he published views on a wide range of contemporary national and international issues: the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the rise of the Eastern Question, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878, especially as they affected the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The newspaper has played an important role in Armenian social and intellectual life, consistently promoting solidarity among Armenians, Russians, and the people of the Caucasus, and promoting economic and cultural ties. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, convinced that the liberation of the Armenian people was possible only with Russia's help, Mshak supported the western Armenians' liberation movement. Encouraging the development of Armenian literature, the newspaper championed critical realism. It broadened the world view of the Armenian press by covering all major events and cultural phenomena. Many Armenian intellectuals contributed to ''Mshak''; the most prominent was the novelist Raffi (pseud. for Hakob Melik` Hakobyan, 1835-88). .

A. Araskhanian (1857-1912), editor of the Armenian monthly ''Moorch'' published in Tiflis, 1889-1907, resolved to foster literary cultural progress through the press. Philologists, literary critics, and intellectuals wrote on the history and theory of literature for Moorch and encouraged young writers and initiators of the literature of village life. Moorch enhanced understanding between writers in Eastern Armenia (in Russia) and Western Armenia (in the Ottoman Empire), emphasized the interaction between life and literature, and consistently observed progressive principles in literary criticism.
====Painting====
Gevorg Bashinjaghian (1857-1925) was a leading Armenian landscape painter. Educated at the Petersburg Academy of Art, Bashinjaghian was acquainted with European, Russian, Oriental, and classical Greek and Roman art. His 1883 exhibition in Tiflis of 16 landscapes of Armenia and the Caucasus established Armenian realistic landscape painting as a distinct genre of art. In Italy in 1884, he admired Renaissance art, and in Paris, 1899-1901, he participated in exhibitions with contemporary European artists. He painted several views of Ararat, Lake Sevan, and other Armenian landscapes combining peacefulness, simplicity, and majesty.

Hakob Kochoyan (1883-1959), was a prominent Armenian painter, professor, and lecturer in the Yerevan Institute of Fine Arts, famed as an innovator in his style of drawing. Receiving his artistic education and living in Europe before settling in Yerevan in 1922, he expressed the artistic traditions of East and West. His work represents a rich variety of style, theme, genre, and technique in oil, watercolor, gouache, engravings, pencil drawings, and sketches on canvas, stamps, crystal, and china. His paintings and illustrations in books and periodicals deal with Armenian history, natural scenery, folklore, and contemporary life. They express the nation's vitality and durability. His paintings have been exhibited internationally.

====Music and song====
Valuable poetry and songs were written by Bishop Petros Berdoumian Nakhichevantsi, (d. 1784) erudite theologian and poet. He represents the revival and renovation of 18th-century national religious songs, which were meant to combat the weakening in traditional Armenian piety and morals due to the plans of the sultans to assimilate subject nations. Nakhichevantsi witnessed the siege of Nakhichevan in 1740 by the tyrant Tahmaz, and his Elegy expressed the nation's sufferings and the misery of the church. His message to the people is to struggle against tyranny and live a meaningful life.

Armenian folk songs emerged when minstrels transmitted mythological and epic songs orally from generation to generation. Later folk songs reflected every aspect of life: love, religion, humor, patriotism, aspiration for freedom, emigrants' nostalgia, wedding songs, lullabies, dances, and festivities. In 1891 Komitas (1869-1935) started collecting and setting them to music, a program that folklorists have continued. After World War I, floklorists traveled across Europe to systematically collect, set to music, and save thousands of folk songs from permanent loss.

Spiridon Melikian (1880-1933) a student of Komitas, composer, conductor and lecturer, devoted his life to Armenian music. While studying music in Berlin (1905-08) he had his copy of Komitas's collection of Armenian folk songs, which he published in 1931. His expeditions into Armenian villages yielded more than 1,000 folk songs which he set to music. In Tiflis (1909-21) and Erevan Conservatory (1923-33) he conducted choirs, taught theory, trained musicians, and prepared textbooks for music teachers. Apart from his compositions, he published ''Analysis of Komitas's Work,'' ''Scales of Armenian Folk-songs,'' and ''Outline of Armenian Music''. Two volumes of his folk songs were published posthumously (1949, 1952).

The classical musician Genari Korganov (1858-90) was known as a pianist, composer, and critic. He was the music critic for the Tiflis (Tbilisi) ''Kavkaz'' (''Caucasus'') newspaper, his principal interest being operatic and symphonic works, and gave a number of recitals from 1884 to his sudden death in 1890. The Russian composer Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935) dedicated his Armenian Rhapsody to him.

A leading musician of the 20th century was Armen Tigranian (1879-1950) of Yerevan. In 1912 he composed his opera "Anush", based on Hovhannes Toumanian's dramatic ballad reflecting Armenian village life. Reedited in its final form in 1939, Anush has been popular with Armenians everywhere. Tigranian's second opera, "Davit-Bek" (started during World War II and finished in 1949) was inspired by an 18th-century national freedom fighter. Tigranian's music is melodious, lyric, and closely linked with traditional Armenian secular and church songs, truly the music of the people, composed with inspiration, talent, and technical skill.

The most important Armenian composer was [[Aram Khachaturian]] (1903-78). Born in Tiflis, he moved to Moscow in 1924 and built his careeer there. he was an enthusiastic Communist until his music was condemned by the Party in 1948.<ref> Victor Yuzefovich, ''Aram Ilych Khachaturyan,'' (1985) 283 pp.</ref>

In the Armenian diaspora, important cultural leaders have included writers Michael Arlen (1895-1956) in Britain, Arthur Adamov (1911-70) and Henri Troyat in France, and William Saroyan (1908-1981) in California. The prolific composer [[Alan Hovhannes]] (1908-2000), based in Boston and New York, drew upon Armenian church music to produce major classical compositions.

===Historiography===
Stepan Malkhassiants (1857-1947) was a philologist, lexicographer, prolific author on Armenology, and founding member of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. His philological works and translations from ancient to modern Armenian made national classics accessible to the masses. His ''Armenian Explanatory Dictionary,'' explaining all words of ancient, middle, and modern Armenian in all dialects as well as loan words, is a model work of its kind.

Garo Sassouni (1889-1977), intellectual, author, journalist, educator, and public figure, was born in western Armenia. He received a law degree from the University of Constantinople. He became a member of the parliament of the Independent Republic of Armenia and a provincial governor. After the fall of the republic he went abroad and became a leader of the Armenian Revolutionary Committee. He wrote a large number of Armenian-language historical and cultural studies.

The historian Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887-1972) studied in Germany where he received his doctorate in 1913. In 1920 he was a member of the Soviet Russian delegation sent to negotiate with the government of Armenia. Subsequently he held a number of educational and political posts. Arrested in 1937, he resumed his historical studies in 1954 and was appointed director of the Historical Section of the Armenian Academy of Sciences in 1961. During this period he published several important works, the principal one being his ''Drvagner Hay Azatagrakan Mtk'i Patmut'yan'' [Episodes in the history of the concept of Armenian liberation].

Under the totalitarian Soviet regime, historiographical policy was laid down by the Party authorities and imposed through the Academy of Sciences. As a consequence, 19th-20th-century Armenian history could not be analyzed critically. The events of 1917-21 had to be discussed purely from a class point of view, suppressing national aspects. In medieval studies, Armenian history of the 12th and 13th centuries could not be based on primary evidence; the religious T'ondrakian movement had to be presented purely as a social phenomenon. Nevertheless, many good studies were published, especially on the ancient and medieval periods. There were also some positive aspects of Soviet policy, such as the establishment of the Academy of Sciences of Armenia in 1943.

==Further reading==
[[File:Armenia1.jpg|thumb|350px]]
===Guide books===
* ''Armenia with Nagorno Karabagh'' (2nd ed. 2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Armenia-Nagorno-Karabagh-2nd-Travel/dp/1841621633/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Armenia & Karabagh'' (The Stone Garden Guide) by Matthew Karanian and Robert Kurkjian (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Armenia-Karabagh-Stone-Garden-Guide/dp/096721209X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''Georgia Armenia & Azerbaijan'' by John Noble (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Georgia-Armenia-Azerbaijan-Multi-Country/dp/1741044774/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

===Surveys===
* Adalian, Rouben P. ''Historical Dictionary of Armenia'' (2002).
* Chahin, M. ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History‎'' (2001) 350pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=OR_PHoKZ6ycC&pg=PP1&dq=intitle:armenia+intitle:history&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2000&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Herzig, Edmund, and Marina Kurkchiyan. ''The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/110137949 online edition]
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ed. ''The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. Vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century.'' 1997. 493 pp.
* Oshagan, Vahe, ed. ''Armenia.'' (Review of National Literatures) (1984). 264 pp.
* Panossian, Razmik. ''The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars.'' 2006. 442 pp.
* Payaslian, Simon. ''The History of Armenia‎'' (2007) 304pp
* Somakian, Manoug Joseph. ''Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895-1920.'' 1995. 276 pp.
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. ''Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History.'' (1993). 289 pp.
* Thierry, Jean Michael and Donabédian, Patrick. ''Armenian Art'' (1989). 624 pp.
* Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: The Survival of a Nation.'' (1990). 476 pp.

===Specialty studies===
* Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian, Patrick; and Mutafian, Claude. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh.'' (1994). 198 pp.
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''Armenia on the road to independance 1918'' (1967)
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''The republic of Armenia. Vol. 1, The first year, 1918-1919'' (1971); ''Vol. 2, From Versailles to London, 1919-1920'' (1982); ''Vol. 3, From London to Sèvres, February-August 1920'' (1997); ''Vol. 4, Between crescent and sickle: partition and Sovietization'' (1997)
* Mitra, Saumya, et al. '' The Caucasian tiger: sustaining economic growth in Armenia‎'' (2007) 610pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWAwYSslb7UC full text online free from World Bank]
* Villa, Susie Hoogasian and Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. ''Armenian Village Life Before 1914.'' (1982). 197 pp.
===Genocide===
* Bloxham, Donald. ''The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians'' (2005), scholarly history of the wartime massacres; 344 pages [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&mkt=en-us&scope=books&FORM=LIVSOP#q=bryce%20toynbee&filter=all&start=1&t=H6WeD-pdFZ8QQ5kq6p5CJw&sq=bryce%20toynbee excerpt and text search]
* Bloxham, Donald. "Rethinking the Armenian Genocide." ''History Today'' 2005 55(6): 28-30. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78126590 online edition]
* Papazian, Bertha S. ''The Tragedy of Armenia: A Brief Study and Interpretation'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=TJgLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=intitle:armenia+date:1910-2007&num=100&as_brr=1#PPA160,M1 full text online]

==References==
<references/>
{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Genocide]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Turkey]]
[[Category:Armenia]]

Republic of Georgia

2013-01-07T16:48:31Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''საქართველო Sakartvelo''
|map =Georgia rel99.jpg
|flag =Flag of Republic of Georgia.png
|arms =Arms of Georgian republic.png
|capital =Tbilisi
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Georgian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Mikheil Saakashvili
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Nikoloz Gilauri
|pm-raw =
|area =26,916 sq mi
|pop =4,630,841
|pop-basis =2005
|gdp =$20.5 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$4,700
|currency =Lari
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Georgia''' is a country in the [[Caucasus]] just north of eastern [[Turkey]]. It was formerly in the [[Soviet Union]] until given independence in 1991. Georgia's capital is [[Tbilisi]]. The current President of Georgia is the pro-Western Mikhail Shikashvili. Tensions are very high with neighboring Russia over the status of two provinces. Georgia has sought [[NATO]] membership for protection, but has been turned down. The United States is generally favorable toward Georgia, but does not want the conflicts there to escalate or cause a serious reputure between Moscow and Washington. It was the second country in the world to adapt Christianity as its state religion in AD 319.

==People==
*Population (July 2008 est.): 4.63 million.
*Population growth rate (2007 est.): 0.33%.
*Ethnic groups (2002 census): Georgian 83.8%, Azeri 6.5%, Armenian 5.7%, Russian 1.5%, other 2.5%.
*Religion (2002 census): Orthodox Christian 83.9%, Muslim 9.9%, Armenian Apostolic 3.9%, Catholic 0.8%; other 0.8%; none 0.7%.
*Language: Georgian (official), Abkhaz also "official language" in Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia.
*Education: Years compulsory 11. Literacy (2004 est.) 100%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2007 est.) 17.36 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2007 est.) 76.3 yrs.
==Government==
Georgia has been a democratic republic since the presidential elections and constitutional referendum of October 1995. The President is elected for a term of 5 years, limited to 2 terms; his constitutional successor is the Speaker of Parliament.

Parliamentary elections on November 2, 2003 were marred by irregularities and fraud according to local and international observers. Popular demonstrations ensued in the streets of Tbilisi; protestors carried roses in their hands and these peaceful protests became known as the Rose Revolution. Former President Eduard Shevardnadze resigned on November 23, 2003, and the Speaker of Parliament Nino Burjanadze assumed the role of Interim President. President Mikheil Saakashvili was elected to a 5-year term in January 2004. Parliamentary elections were re-held in March 2004 and President Saakashvili's party, National Movement, combined with Speaker Burjanadze's party, the Burjanadze-Democrats, won the majority of seats.

On May 24, 2005, the Parliament passed legislation to decentralize power from the central government in Tbilisi to local government authorities in the regions. Elections were held on October 5, 2006 to elect 1,732 members of 69 local councils and seven city governments.

Presidential and parliamentary elections are scheduled for 2008.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President -- Mikheil Saakashvili
*Prime Minister -- Nikoloz Gilauri
*Speaker of Parliament -- Nino Burjanadze
*Foreign Minister -- Gela Bezhuashvilii
*Defense Minister -- David Kezerashvili
*Interior Minister -- Vano Merabishvili
*State Minister of Georgia for Conflict Resolution -- David Bakradze

===Political Conditions===
President Mikheil Saakashvili came to power following his near-unanimous election in early 2004 on the heels of the Rose Revolution in November 2003. The revolution swept out nearly all the old, discredited politicians in the previous government and replaced them with young, often western-educated officials. Saakashvili's National Movement party continues to enjoy wide popularity; opposition parties are weak and disunited, although they are free to organize and actively campaign for office.

Beginning in 2004, the government announced its goals of building democracy, increasing prosperity, and peacefully reincorporating Georgia's separatist regions. The political status of the Russian-supported separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia remains unresolved, however, and continues to challenge the government.

Since 2004, the Government of Georgia has turned a nearly failed state into a rapidly maturing market democracy. Parliamentary and municipal elections have been judged to be largely free and fair, although problems remain with voter lists. The new government took action against endemic corruption. It completely reorganized the traffic police, which was infamous for its corruption prior to the Rose Revolution. Corrupt judges were dismissed, and a fair examination system for entering the universities was implemented. A great deal of progress has also been made in reforming Georgia's military, bringing it closer to the standards required for NATO membership. Georgia is seeking membership in Euro-Atlantic institutions, particularly the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and eventually the European Union (EU). In September 2006, NATO granted Georgia Intensified Dialogue on requirements for membership in the organization.

Nearly four years after the Rose Revolution, the Georgian government has implemented an impressive program of governance reform, anti-corruption measures, and democratic institution building. The Saakashvili government has been criticized for concentrating too much power within the executive branch of government. However in 2006, Parliament passed sweeping local government reforms designed to decentralize power to the regions and give local governments increased authority. Successful local elections were held in October 2006 to elect officials to fill new positions throughout Georgia created by these reforms. Georgia has received high marks from the World Bank and others on the government's aggressive anti-corruption campaign. Democratic institutions were strengthened as public service reform gained momentum and judicial reform was acknowledged as a priority. Constitutional amendments signed into law in 2006 increased the independence of the judiciary; further reforms have aimed at increasing respect for and strengthening the rule of law. In July 2007, legislation banning ex parte communication was passed, prohibiting parties to a case from communicating with judges during the pre-trial investigation period as well as during the trial. Legislation requiring the Ministry of Justice to establish a legal aid office was also passed, making available assistance and representation in court proceedings to those who request it. The Georgian legislature has instituted political reforms supportive of higher human rights standards, including religious freedoms that are enshrined in the constitution. The government has launched an aggressive campaign to combat trafficking in persons.

The separatist conflict in [[Abkhazia]] continues to simmer, with frequent accusations from the Georgian Government that ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia face discrimination from the Abkhaz de facto authorities. The Abkhaz de facto authorities seek full independence from Georgia, and are currently refusing talks following the reassertion of Georgian Government control over the upper Kodori Valley area of Abkhazia in the summer of 2006. Since December 1993, the United Nations has chaired negotiations toward a settlement in Abkhazia. The UN mediator is the Special Representative of the Secretary General (SRSG), currently Ambassador Jean Arnault. The Group of Friends of the UN Secretary General on Georgia (consisting of the United States, France, Germany, the Russian Federation, and the United Kingdom) supports the UN-led peace process. UNOMIG and the Friends continue to encourage the adoption of confidence-building measures in the region. The Georgian legislature passed a resolution on the CIS peacekeepers in Abkhazia, declaring its belief that the peacekeepers have been ineffective in establishing conditions to allow the return of hundreds of thousands of ethnic Georgians displaced by the conflict. The Parliament has repeatedly expressed its desire for the peacekeepers to be replaced by an international police force; however, the Georgian Government has made no official demand for the peacekeepers in Abkhazia to leave (for more information on the separatist conflict in Georgia's Abkhazia region, see the Department of State's Fact Sheet on Abkhazia http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/53745.htm). The United States supports the strengthening of Georgia's territorial integrity through peaceful means. Unilaterally and as a member of the Group of Friends, the U.S. seeks to advance negotiations toward a comprehensive settlement of the conflict, including on Abkhazia's future status within Georgia and the safe and dignified return of refugees and internally-displaced persons.

The 1992 Sochi Agreement, which established a cease-fire between the Georgian and South Ossetian forces, and defined both a zone of conflict around the South Ossetian capital of Tskhinvali and a security corridor along the border of South Ossetian territories, remains in effect. The South Ossetia region is comprised of a patchwork of Georgian villages interspersed with ethnic Ossetian villages. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) monitors the ceasefire and facilitates negotiations between the Georgians and the South Ossetians toward a comprehensive settlement consistent with Georgian independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity. The Agreement also created the Joint Control Commission (JCC) and a peacekeeping body, the Joint Peacekeeping Forces (JPKF). The JPKF is under Russian command and is comprised of peacekeepers from Georgia, Russia, and Russia's North Ossetian autonomous republic. South Ossetian peacekeepers, however, serve in the North Ossetian contingent. Talks on South Ossetia are held under the auspices of the Joint Control Commission (JCC), with Georgian, Russian, North Ossetian, and South Ossetian delegations participating. The Georgian Government has frequently complained that the current format for talks puts Georgia at a disadvantage, and would like greater participation by the international community.
[[Image:Map of Georgia.jpg|right|200px|thumb|South Ossetia region, top-center.]]
In January of 2005, Georgian President Saakashvili put forth a proposal to give autonomous status to South Ossetia within Georgia. The United States welcomed President Saakashvili's initiative to resolve the conflict through peaceful means and continues to look for ways to encourage a lasting resolution of the conflict. An alternative leader in South Ossetia emerged in November 2006, when ethnic Georgian Dmitry Sanakoyev was elected in an unrecognized, de facto presidential election by the ethnic Georgian population. Sanakoyev has set up an alternative government in Kurta, South Ossetia.

The United States supports the territorial integrity of Georgia and supports only a peaceful resolution of the separatist conflict in South Ossetia that defines the status of South Ossetia within Georgia's internationally recognized borders, while affording South Ossetia significant autonomy within a unified Georgia. The United States views Georgia's autonomy proposal as an important step in a peace process that should be marked by direct and frequent negotiations between the two sides. International donors, including the United States, launched an economic rehabilitation project in 2006 to help establish a peaceful and prosperous future for South Ossetia within Georgia (for more information on the separatist conflict in Georgia's South Ossetia region, see the Department of State's Fact Sheet on South Ossetia http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/53721.htm).

===Foreign Relations===
Georgia's location between the Black Sea, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey gives it importance as a transport corridor far beyond its size. It is developing as the gateway from the Black Sea to the Caucasus and the Caspian basin. Following Russian bans on imports of Georgian wine, water, and agricultural products, and the severing of transportation links in 2006, Georgia has reached out to other neighbors and to the West to diversify its export markets. It signed a partnership and cooperation agreement with the European Union, and in 2006 signed an action plan under the European Union's European Neighborhood Policy for reforms aimed at building a closer relationship with the EU. Georgia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace program. In September 2006, Georgia was granted Intensified Dialogue with NATO to formalize discussions on Georgia's membership aspirations. In addition, Georgia has reached out to a number of countries that have expressed interest in investing in the country. China, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, and Ukraine, as well as a number of European Union countries (including Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) maintain embassies in Tbilisi. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the World Trade Organization, the Council of Europe, and the Organization for Democracy and Economic Development-GUAM.

==Economy==
The political turmoil after independence from USSR had a catastrophic effect on Georgia's economy. The cumulative decline in real GDP is estimated to have been more than 70% between 1990 and 1994, and by the end of 1996, Georgia's economy had shrunk to around one-third of its size in 1989. Today, the largest share of Georgia's GDP is produced by agriculture, followed by trade, manufacturing, and transport. Georgia's main exports are metals and ores, wine, nuts, and aircraft.

Although Georgia experienced some years of growth in the mid-1990s, it was hit hard by the Russian economic crisis of 1998-99. The later years of former President Shevardnadze's administration were marked by rampant cronyism, corruption, and mismanagement. Public disaffection with the situation resulted in the Rose Revolution of 2003. The new government, led by Mikheil Saakashvili, promised to reorient the government and the economy toward privatization, free markets, and reduced regulation, to combat corruption, to stabilize the economy, and to bring order to the budget.

The government reduced the number of taxes from 21 to 7 and introduced a flat income tax of 12%. It significantly reduced the number of licenses a business requires, and introduced a "one-window" system that allows an entrepreneur to open a business relatively quickly. Strict deadlines for agency action on permits were introduced, and consent is assumed if the agency fails to act within the time limit. The government intends to completely eliminate import duties by 2008, which should reduce costs and stimulate business.

The World Bank recognized Georgia as the world's fastest-reforming economy in its 2007 "Doing Business" report, ranking it as the world's 37th easiest place to do business, in the same league as countries such as France, Slovakia, and Spain. The World Bank's "Anti-Corruption in Transition 3" report places Georgia among the countries showing the most dramatic improvement in the struggle against corruption, due to implementation of key economic and institutional reforms, and reported reduction in the bribes paid by firms in the course of doing business.

Economic growth has remained strong, reaching 8% in 2006; inflation reached 10% in the same year but decreased to 7.3% in the first six months of 2007. . Efforts to improve the efficiency of government operations since the Rose Revolution have required the government to release workers, pushing official unemployment to 13.8% in 2005. A strongly negative balance of trade is offset by inflows of investment and assistance from international donors. The fiscal deficit was 2.9% of GDP in 2006according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Improved collection and administration of taxes have greatly increased revenues for the government. In two years, from 2003 to 2005, tax collections went up from 13.8% of GDP to 20.8%. The government has been able to pay off wage and pension arrears and increase spending on desperately needed infrastructure such as roads and electric energy supply systems. The government privatized nine times the value of state-owned assets in 2005 as it did in all of 2000-2003. It expects to have privatized all of the largest state-owned industries by the end of 2008, increasing revenues and removing a major temptation toward corruption from the control of state bureaucrats.

Before 2004, electricity blackouts were common throughout the country, but since late 2005, distribution has been much more reliable, approaching consistent 24-hour-a-day service. Improvements have resulted from increased metering, better billing and collection practices, reduced theft, and management reforms. Investments in infrastructure have been made as well. Hydroelectricity output increased by almost 27%, and thermal by 28%, from 2005 to 2006. Natural gas has traditionally been supplied to Georgia by Russia. Through conservation, new hydroelectricity sources, and the availability of new sources of natural gas in Azerbaijan, Georgia's dependence on Russia for energy supplies should decrease in the near future.

The banking sector is becoming more open to competition from foreign-owned banks. The sector is relatively stable, and is supplying more credit to domestic businesses. Credit from Georgian banks to the economy was 15% of GDP in 2005, compared to 10% in 2004--still low, compared to the average in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland for 2005, which was 36%.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the most important source of capital for Georgia and other post-Soviet states. Such investment not only supports new plants and equipment, but usually entails bringing in modern management methods as well. The Georgian Government is eager to welcome foreign investors. From 2002 to 2006, FDI averaged 9% of GDP, with much of it dedicated to the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and the South Caucasus gas pipeline. In 2006, which saw diminishing pipeline investment as a function of total FDI, more than half of FDI went to the banking, manufacturing, and tourism sectors.

Georgia faces many challenges in attracting foreign investment and growing its economy. In 2006, more than 50% of the population lived below the official poverty line. With only 4.7 million people, most of whom have little disposable income, it is a small market in itself. The major market to which Georgia has traditionally been linked is Russia. (For example, at one time nearly 100% of the Soviet Union's citrus fruits were grown in Georgia.) In 2006, trade relations were plagued by politically motivated interruptions when Russia imposed bans on all Georgian exports of wine, fruits and vegetables, and mineral water. In October 2006, Russia severed all direct transportation links, as well as postal service and visa issuance. In addition, Russia undertook a campaign of deportations of Georgian nationals residing in Russia and closed the only legal land border crossing between Georgia and Russia, diverting traffic into the separatist regions outside of Georgia's control. In light of these restrictions, Georgian businesses are actively seeking new markets for their products in the EU, Eastern Europe, North America, and elsewhere. Reports confirm that the sanctions have not had an adverse effect on the economy; in fact, exports have increased since the beginning of 2006 because Georgia was forced to find alternate markets for its goods.

The government faces a major challenge in controlling corruption, which is a persistent problem. Shortly after President Saakashvili took office, his administration dismissed nearly the entire police force and replaced it with better-paid and -trained officers. Several high officials have been prosecuted for corruption-related offenses. On the other hand, widespread lack of confidence in the Georgian courts and system of justice is a major obstacle to both foreign and domestic investment. The new government has promised to tackle this difficult task, which requires balancing the objective of judicial independence with honest, fair, and competent decision making.

The United States and other international donors have targeted foreign assistance to promote democratic reform, resolve regional conflicts, foster energy independence, assist economic development, and reduce poverty. The U.S. seeks to help Georgia consolidate democratic gains since the Rose Revolution. The USG lends significant diplomatic and funding support to Georgia's efforts to resolve the separatist conflicts of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. With USG assistance, Georgia is working to free itself from near total energy dependence on Russian sources of energy. Georgia is one of the first countries to receive a compact, in the amount of $295 million over five years, from the United States Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC). MCC offers grant assistance to countries that meet certain requirements for good governance and commitment to reform. In 2004, Georgia's debt to the Paris Club was restructured. Since 2004, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has monitored a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility that will terminate in 2007. The World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, EU, OSCE, and the UN are all active in Georgia. Their goals are complementary, and include assisting in conflict resolution in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, energy and transportation development, legal and administrative reform, health, and many other areas.
*GDP: $6.46 billion (2006).
*GDP per capita: $3,800, purchasing power parity (2006).
*GDP growth: 9.4% in 2006 and 11.4% in the 1st quarter of 2007.
*Inflation rate: 7.3% (end of June 2007).
*Natural resources: Forests, hydropower, nonferrous metals, manganese, iron ore, copper, citrus fruits, tea, wine.
*Industry: Types--steel, aircraft, machine tools, foundry equipment (automobiles, trucks, and tractors), tower cranes, electric welding equipment, fuel re-exports, machinery for food packing, electric motors, textiles, shoes, chemicals, wood products, bottled water, and wine.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports--$1.76 billion. Partners: United Kingdom, Turkey, United States, Spain, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan. Imports--$3.32 billion. Partner: Turkey, United States, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Germany, Italy.
*Work force (2.02 million in 2005): Agriculture: 40%, industry: 20%, services: 40%. Unemployment (2005 est.): 13.8%.

The Georgian Government stakes much of its future on the revival of the ancient [[Silk Road]] as a Eurasian transportation corridor, using Georgia's geography as a bridge for the transit of goods, including oil and gas, between Europe and Asia. Georgians are renowned for their hospitality and artistry in dance, theater, music, and design.

==History==
Georgia's recorded history dates back more than 2,500 years. Georgian, a South Caucasian (or "Kartvelian") language unrelated to any other outside the immediate region, is one of the oldest living languages in the world, and has its own distinctive alphabet. [[Tbilisi]], located in the picturesque Mtkvari River valley, is more than 1,500 years old. In the early 4th century Georgia adopted [[Christianity]], the second nation in the world to do so officially after [[Armenia]]. Georgia has historically found itself on the margins of great empires, and Georgians have lived together in a unified state for only a small fraction of their existence as a people. Much of Georgia's territory was fought over by [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], Arab invaders under [[Islam]], [[Mongol]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] armies from at least the 1st century B.C. through the 18th century. The zenith of Georgia's power as an independent kingdom came in the 11th and 12th centuries, during the reigns of King David the Builder and Queen Tamara, who still rank among the most celebrated of all Georgian rulers. In 1783 the king of Kartli (in eastern Georgia) signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with the [[Russia]]ns, by which Russia agreed to take the kingdom as its [[protectorate]]. In 1801, the Russian empire began the piecemeal process of unifying and annexing Georgian territory, and for most of the next two centuries (1801-1991) Georgia found itself ruled from [[St. Petersburg]] and [[Moscow]]. Exposed to modern European ideas of nationalism while under Russian rule, Georgians like the writer Ilya Chavchavadze began calling for greater Georgian independence. In the wake of the collapse of [[tsar]]ist rule in Russia due to the [[October Revolution]], the first Republic of Georgia was established on May 26, 1918, and the country enjoyed a brief period of independence under the Menshevik president, Noe Zhordania. However, in March 1921, the [[Communist]] Russian Red Army re-occupied the country, and Georgia became a republic of the [[Soviet Union]]. Several of the Soviet Union's most notorious leaders in the 1920s and 1930s were Georgian, such as [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Sergo Orjonikidze]], and [[Lavrenti Beria]]. In the postwar period, Georgia was perceived as one of the wealthiest and most privileged of Soviet republics, and many Russians treated the country's [[Black Sea]] coast as a kind of Soviet Riviera. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia declared independence from the U.S.S.R. as one of a string of former Soviet republics to do so after the fall of Communism in Russia.

Beset by ethnic and civil strife from independence in 1991, Georgia began to stabilize in 1995. The separatist conflicts in Georgia's regions of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] remain unresolved, although cease-fires were in effect for more than a decade. In Abkhazia, the Commonwealth of Independent States (in fact, only Russian forces) maintained a peacekeeping force, and the United Nations maintains an Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG), both of which monitor compliance with the 1994 cease-fire agreement. In South Ossetia, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) had the prime role in monitoring the 1992 cease-fire and facilitating negotiations.
===South Ossetia and conflict with Russia===
South Ossetia, on the Russian border, is about the size of Rhode Island, but has fewer than 70,000 inhabitants. During the Soviet era, it had autonomous status within the Georgian SSR. Therefore when Georgia became independent in 1991, South Ossetian leaders sought to achieve their regions own independence from Tbilisi.

In 1991 and early 1992, the Georgian military launched an offensive to destroy the South Ossetian secession. The ragtag Georgian army was defeated by a combination of local Ossetian fighters and irregulars from Russia. In 1993, Georgia went to war again, this time to prevent the Abkhazians in the northwest from following the Ossetian example. That conflict also ended in defeat for Georgia. Both provinces have remained functionally separate from Georgia ever since, with their own parliaments, economies, educational systems, and armies--as well as a powerful narrative of valiant struggle against Georgian tyranny. The provinces have turned to Russia for protection from Georgia.

[[File:S-ossetia1.jpg|thumb|310px]] In early August, 2008, Georgia sought to re-establish its control over the breakaway enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. This led to a five-day war, involving a Russian invasion not only of those areas, but of Georgia itself complete with a massive bombing campaign. Several hundred Georgians were killed and thousands of refugees on both sides were displaced.<ref> Charles King, "The Five-Day War: Managing Moscow after the Georgia Crisis," ''Foreign Affairs'' 2008 87(6): 2-11, online at [[EBSCO]] </ref>

Cease-fires were finally established and Russian forces eventually withdraw from Georgia itself, but not from Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which Russia has said will become independent nations. The whole Georgia situation has led to quickly souring relations between Russia and the West. Moscow argues that if Georgia can break away from the Soviet Union, then South Ossetia can likewise break away from Georgia. Georgia says the territory involved belonged to Georgia centuries ago.

A 9-month [[European Union]] (EU) investigation into the 2008 war in the Caucasus concluded in Sept. 2009 that Georgia triggered the war, but that Russia had prepared the ground, broke international law by invading Georgia as a whole and that Russia-backed South Ossetian militias conducted ethnic cleansing of Georgian civilians. The conclusions, compiled by diplomat Heidi Taglivini, found that while there was evidence that regular Russian troops as well as volunteers and mercenaries had entered South Ossetia in Georgia before the start of the conflict on Aug. 7, no evidence was found of the full-scale Russian invasion to which Georgia said it was responding.

George has sought membership in [[NATO]] so that the alliance can protect it from Russia. However NATO finds that Georgia falls short of its baseline measures for democratization and military modernization and that the recent war in Georgia raises additional complications regarding an escalation of tensions between Russia and NATO.<ref> Travis L. Bounds, and Ryan C. Hendrickson, "Georgian Membership in NATO: Policy Implications of the Bucharest Summit," ''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' 2009 22(1): 20-30</ref>

==References==
<References/>

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
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|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5253.htm]}}}.
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{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Austria

2013-01-07T06:05:08Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{country
|name=''Republik Österreich''
|map=Austria rel99.jpg
|map2=Austria location.png
|flag=Flag of Austria.jpg
|arms=Arms of Austria.png
|capital=Vienna
|government=Federal parliamentary republic
|government-raw=
|language=German
|president=Heinz Fischer
|chancellor=Werner Faymann
|area=32,377 sq. mi.
|pop=8,332,000
|pop-basis=2007
|gdp=$373.6 Billion
|gdp-year=2007 (estimate)
|gdp-pc=$44,890
|currency=Euro
}}
The '''Republic of Austria''' is a landlocked country in [[central Europe]]. The capital of Austria is [[Vienna]]. The primary language of Austria is [[German language|German]].

==People==
Austrians are a homogeneous people; 91% are native German speakers. However, there has been a significant amount of immigrants, particularly from former Yugoslavia and Turkey, over the last two decades. Only two numerically significant autochthonous minority groups exist--18,000 Slovenes in [[Carinthia]] (south central Austria) and about 19,400 Croats in Burgenland (on the Hungarian border). The Slovenes form a closely-knit community. Their rights as well as those of the Croats are protected by law and generally respected in practice. Some Austrians, particularly near Vienna, still have relatives in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. About 74% of all Austrians are Roman Catholic. The church abstains from political activity. Small Lutheran minorities are located mainly in Vienna, Carinthia, and Burgenland. Small Islamic (immigrant) communities have arisen in Vienna and Vorarlberg.
*Population (2007): 8,332,000.
*Annual growth rate (2007): 0.4%.
*Ethnic groups: Germans, Turks, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Bosnians; other recognized minorities include Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Roma.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 73.6%, Lutheran 4.7%, Muslim 4.2%, other 5.5%, no confession 12.0%.
*Language: German about 90%.
*Education: Years compulsory--9. Attendance--99%. Literacy--98%.
*Health (2007): Infant mortality rate--3.6 deaths/1,000. Life expectancy--men 77.4 years, women 82.9 years.
*Work force (2007, 4.2 million): Services--67%; agriculture and forestry--5%, industry--28%.

====Religion====
[[File:Austria Telfs-Moschee.jpg|thumb|left|A Mosque in Telfs, Austria.]]
Since 2000 Austria has experienced some immigration from countries such as Turkey and Bosnia-Herzegovina, which increased the number of Muslims. The Muslim community more than doubled between 1991 and 2001 to 339,000, or 4.2% of the population. Estimates for 2007 indicate that there are approximately 400,000 Muslims in the country. In recent reporting periods immigration has slowed down due to the gradual introduction of a quota system in the late 1990s.<ref> According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108434.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

According to the 2001 census, membership in major religious groups is as follows: Roman Catholic Church, 74%; Lutheran and Presbyterian Churches (Evangelical Church-Augsburger and Helvetic confessions), 4.7%; Muslim community, 4.2%; Jewish community, 0.1%; Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Greek, Serbian, Romanian, and Bulgarian), 2.2%; other Christian churches, 0.9%; and other non-Christian religious groups, 0.2%. Atheists account for 12%, and 2% do not indicate a religious affiliation.

According to a poll by the German market research institute FESSEL-GfK conducted in June and July 2007, 81% of respondents state that they belong to a church or religious group. Of that number, 2% attend services more than once a week, 10% attend weekly, 9% attend a minimum of once a month, 26% attend several times a year (on special occasions), and 53% nearly never attend.

The provinces of Carinthia (10.3%) and Burgenland (13.3%) have higher percentages of Protestants than the national average of 4.7%. The number of Muslims is higher than the national average of 4.2% in Vienna (7.8%) and the province of Vorarlberg (8.4%), where industry draws a disproportionately higher number of guest workers from Turkey and the former Yugoslavia.

The vast majority of groups termed "sects" by the Government are small organizations with fewer than one hundred members. Among the larger groups is the Church of Scientology, which claims between 5,000 and 6,000 members, and the Unification Church, with approximately 700 adherents. Other groups termed "sects" include Divine Light Mission, Eckankar, Hare Krishna, the Holosophic Community, the Osho Movement, Sahaja Yoga, Sai Baba, Sri Chinmoy, Transcendental Meditation, Center for Experimental Society Formation, Fiat Lux, Universal Life, and The Family.

==Government==
[[File:Heinz Fischer Vienna Oct 2006.jpg|thumb|Heinz Fischer, Vienna, 2006.]]
The Austrian president convenes and concludes parliamentary sessions and under certain conditions can dissolve Parliament. However, no Austrian president has dissolved Parliament in the Second Republic. The custom is for Parliament to call for new elections if needed. The president requests a party leader, usually the leader of the strongest party, to form a government. Upon the recommendation of the Federal Chancellor, the president also appoints cabinet ministers.

The Federal Assembly (Parliament) consists of two houses--the National Council (Nationalrat), or lower house, and the Federal Council (Bundesrat), or upper house. Legislative authority resides in the National Council. Its 183 members serve for a maximum term of four years in a three-tiered system, on the basis of proportional representation. The National Council may dissolve itself by a simple majority vote or the president may dissolve it on the recommendation of the Chancellor. The nine state legislatures elect the 62 members of the Federal Council for 5- to 6-year terms. The Federal Council only reviews legislation passed by the National Council and can delay but not veto its enactment.

The highest courts of Austria's independent judiciary are the Constitutional Court; the Administrative Court, which handles bureaucratic disputes; and the Supreme Court, for civil and criminal cases. While the Supreme Court is the court of highest instance for the judiciary, the Administrative Court acts as the supervisory body over government administrative acts of the executive branch, and the Constitutional Court presides over constitutional issues. The Federal President appoints the justices of the three courts for specific terms.

The legislatures of Austria's nine Bundesländer (states) elect the governors. Although most authority, including that of the police, rests with the federal government, the states have considerable responsibility for welfare matters and local administration. Strong state and local loyalties have roots in tradition and history.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Federal President--Heinz Fischer
*Federal Chancellor--Werner Faymann
*Vice Chancellor--Michael Spindelegger
*Foreign Minister--Michael Spindelegger
*Ambassador to the United States--Christian Prosl
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Thomas Mayr-Harting

===Political Conditions===
Since World War II, Austria has enjoyed political stability. A Socialist elder statesman, Dr. Karl Renner, organized an Austrian administration in the aftermath of the war, and the country held general elections in November 1945. All three major parties--the conservative People's Party (OVP), the Socialists (later Social Democratic Party or SPO), and Communists--governed until 1947, when the Communists left the government. The ÖVP then led a governing coalition with the SPÖ that governed until 1966.

Between 1970 and 1999, the SPO governed the country either alone or with junior coalition partners. In 1999, the OVP formed a coalition with the right wing, populist Freedom Party (FPÖ). The SPÖ, which was the strongest party in the 1999 elections, and the Greens formed the opposition. The FPÖ had gained support because of populist tactics, and many feared it would represent right wing extremism. As a result, the European Union (EU) imposed a series of sanctions on Austria. The U.S. and Israel, as well as various other countries, also reduced contacts with the Austrian Government. After a period of close observation, the EU lifted sanctions, and the U.S. revised its contacts policy. In the 2002 elections, the OVP became the largest party, and the FPÖ's strength declined by more than half. Nevertheless, the OVP renewed its coalition with the FPÖ in February 2003. In national elections in October 2006, the SPÖ became the largest party, edging the OVP. On January 11, 2007, an SPO-led Grand Coalition took office, with the ÖVP as junior partner.

The Social Democratic Party traditionally draws its constituency from blue- and white-collar workers. Accordingly, much of its strength lies in urban and industrialized areas. In the 2006 national elections, it garnered 35.3% of the vote. In the past, the SPO advocated state involvement in Austria's key industries, the extension of social security benefits, and a full-employment policy. Beginning in the mid-1980s, it shifted its focus to free market-oriented economic policies, balancing the federal budget, and European Union membership.

The People's Party advocates conservative financial policies and privatization of much of Austria's nationalized industry. It finds support from farmers, large and small business owners, and some lay Catholic groups, mostly in the rural regions of Austria. In 2006, it received 34.3% of the vote. The Greens won 11.1% of the vote in 2006, becoming the third-largest party in parliament. The rightist Freedom Party traditionally had a base in classic European liberalism. However, after losing much of its support in the 2002 elections and suffering a split, the FPO won slightly more of the vote in 2006--11%--than it did in 2002, due to a populist, anti-immigration theme. The Alliance-Future-Austria (BZÖ) split from the FPÖ in 2005. All the FPÖ's Federal Ministers and most of its parliamentarians joined the BZÖ, and that party formally became the junior partner in the governing coalition. The BZO was unable to draw significant popular support away from the FPÖ, but managed to enter parliament in 2006 with 4.1% of the vote.

===Foreign Relations===
The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the four-power occupation and recognized Austria as an independent and sovereign state. In October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional law in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality." The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory." The date on which this provision passed--October 26--became Austria's National Day. From then, Austria shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality.

In recent years, however, Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and, since 1995, contemplating participation in the EU's evolving security structure. Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace with NATO, and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia.

Austrian leaders emphasize the unique role the country plays both as a trans-European hub and as a moderator between industrialized and developing countries. Austria is active in the United Nations and experienced in UN peacekeeping efforts. It attaches great importance to participation in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and other international economic organizations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Austria has participated in the UN-mandated International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan since 2002. In August 2005, Austria deployed 93 soldiers to the northern Afghan city of Kunduz to help support the parliamentary and provincial elections. Austria has also participated in international reconstruction assistance efforts and has provided about 8.5 million euros since 2002 to combat drugs, to strengthen women's rights and for mine removal.

Vienna hosts the Secretariat of the OSCE and the headquarters of the International Atomic Energy Agency, the UN Industrial Development Organization, and the UN Drug Control Program. Other international organizations in Vienna include the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization, and the Wassenaar Arrangement (a technology-transfer control agency).

Austria traditionally has been active in "bridge-building to the east," increasing contacts at all levels with [[Central Europe]] and [[Russia]]. Austrians maintain a constant exchange of business representatives, political leaders, students, cultural groups, and tourists with the countries of [[Central Europe]] and [[Russia]]. . Austrian companies are active in investing and trading with those countries as well. In addition, the Austrian Government and various Austrian organizations provide assistance and training to support the changes underway in the region.

==Economy==
Austria has a well-developed social market economy with a high standard of living in which the government has played an important role. The government nationalized many of the country's largest firms in the early post-war period to protect them from Soviet takeover as war reparations. For many years, the government and its state-owned industries conglomerate played a very important role in the Austrian economy. However, starting in the early 1990s, the group broke apart, state-owned firms started to operate largely as private businesses, and the government wholly or partially privatized many of these firms. Although the government's privatization work in past years has been very successful, it still operates some firms, state monopolies, utilities, and services. The Schüssel government's privatization program further reduced government participation in the economy. The Gusenbauer government will not reverse privatizations, but does not plan to undertake any further privatizations. Austria enjoys well-developed industry, banking, transportation, services, and commercial facilities.

Some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people. However, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale.
*GDP (2007): $373.6 billion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2007): 3.4%.
*Per capita income (2007): $44,890.
*Natural resources: Iron ore, crude oil, natural gas, timber, tungsten, magnesite, lignite, cement.
*Agriculture (1.9% of 2007 GDP): Products--livestock, forest products, grains, sugarbeets, potatoes.
*Industry (31.2% of 2007 GDP): Types--iron and steel, chemicals, capital equipment, consumer goods.
*Services: 66.9% of 2007 GDP.
*Trade (2007): Exports--$156.4 billion: iron and steel products, timber, paper, textiles, electrotechnical machinery, chemical products, foodstuffs. Imports--$155.9 billion: machinery, vehicles, chemicals, iron and steel, metal goods, fuels, raw materials, foodstuffs. Principal trade partners--European Union, Switzerland, U.S., and China.

Austria has a strong labor movement. The Austrian Trade Union Federation (ÖGB) comprises constituent unions with a total membership of about 1.2 million--about 31% of the country's wage and salary earners. Since 1945, the ÖGB has pursued a moderate, consensus-oriented wage policy, cooperating with industry, agriculture, and the government on a broad range of social and economic issues in what is known as Austria's "social partnership." The ÖGB opposed the Schüssel government's program for budget consolidation, social reform, and fiscal measures that favor entrepreneurs. However, because of a scandal involving a bank the ÖGB owned, the ÖGB lost much of its political influence in the SPÖ.

Austrian farms, like those of other European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive. Since Austria became a member of the EU in 1995, the Austrian agricultural sector has been undergoing substantial reform under the EU's common agricultural policy (CAP). Although Austrian farmers provide about 80% of domestic food requirements, the agricultural contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) has declined since 1950 to about 2%.

Austria has achieved sustained economic growth. During the 1950s, the average annual growth rate was more than 5% in real terms and averaged about 4.5% through most of the 1960s. In the second half of the 1970s, the annual average growth rate was 3% in real terms, though it averaged only about 1.5% through the first half of the 1980s before rebounding to an average of 3.2% in the second half of the 1980s. At 2%, growth was weaker again in the first half of the 1990s, but averaged 2.5% again in the period 1997 to 2001. After real GDP growth of 0.9% in 2002, the economy grew again only 1.1% in 2003, with 2001-2003 being the longest low-growth period since World War II. In 2004, Austria's economy recovered and grew 2.4%, driven by booming exports in response to strong world economic growth, but it declined to 2.0% growth in 2005.

Primarily due to higher growth in Europe and continued export growth, Austrian GDP was a higher-than-expected 3.3% in 2006. Predictions are for the economy to grow 3.1-3.2% in 2007 and 2.5-2.8% in 2008.

Austria became a member of the EU on January 1, 1995. Membership brought economic benefits and challenges and has drawn an influx of foreign investors. Austria also has made progress in generally increasing its international competitiveness. As a member of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), Austria has integrated its economy with those of other EU member countries, especially with Germany's. On January 1, 1999, Austria introduced the new Euro currency for accounting purposes.

In January 2002, Austria introduced Euro notes and coins in place of the Austrian schilling. Economists agree that the economic effects in Austria of using a common currency with the rest of the members of the Euro-zone have been positive.

Trade with other EU-27 countries accounts for about 73% of Austrian imports and exports. Expanding trade and investment in the new EU members of [[Central Europe]] that joined the EU in May 2004 and January 2007 represent a major element of Austrian economic activity. Austrian firms have sizable investments in and continue to move labor-intensive, low-tech production to these countries. Although the big investment boom has waned, Austria still has the potential to attract EU firms seeking convenient access to developing markets in [[Central Europe]] and the Balkan countries.

Total trade with the United States in 2006 reached $12.0 billion. Imports from the United States amounted to $4.3 billion, constituting a U.S. market share in Austria of 3.3%. Austrian exports to the United States in 2006 were $7.6 billion, or 5.9% of total Austrian exports.

==History==
[[File:Austria Wien Schloss Belvedere.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Vienna, Belvedere Castle.]]
Austrian history dates back nearly 2,000 years, when Vindobona (Vienna) was an important Roman military garrison along the Danube. The city grew through the Middle Ages and in 788, the territory that is present-day Austria was conquered by Charlemagne, who encouraged the adoption of Christianity. In 976, Leopold von Babenberg became the first in his family to rule the territory; the Babenberg line of succession lasted until the death of Frederick II in 1246. There was a brief interregnum when the territory was ruled by Otakar II of Bohemia, but in 1276 Rudolf I defeated Otakar II at Dürnkrut and became the first Habsburg to ascend to the throne.

====The Habsburg Empire====
Although never unchallenged, the Habsburgs ruled Austria for nearly 750 years. Through political marriages, the Habsburgs were able to accumulate vast land wealth encompassing most of Central Europe and stretching even as far as the Iberian Peninsula. During the 16th Century, the Ottoman Empire gained strength and in 1529, the Ottoman army surrounded Vienna. The Habsburgs held their ground and the Ottomans retreated, to return again in 1683. This time, Vienna was successfully defended by Polish King [[John III Sobieski|Jan Sobieski III]]. To this day Austrians are still proud of defending their territory from the invading Ottomans.

Habsburg rule in Europe was particularly unsettled in the 18th and 19th Centuries, when various wars were fought over their landholdings. Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740) and his daughter Maria Theresa (1740-1780) ruled the Empire during these tumultuous times. Maria Theresa was only able to take the throne as a result of the Pragmatic Sanction, which allowed a female to ascend when there was no male heir. She became a great reformer within the Empire, advocating many changes, most notably in the educational system. Maria Theresa's son Josef II (1780-1790) continued many of her reforms and he himself has been described as an enlightened absolutist.

In 1848 Franz Josef I ascended to the throne and remained in power until his death in 1916. With a reign spanning from the Revolutions of 1848 to World War I, Franz Josef saw many milestones in Austrian history. The Compromise of 1867 allowed some minor sovereignty to the territory of Hungary and created what became known as the Dual Monarchy. Under the new system, Franz Josef remained the head of state (Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary), but the Hungarians were now permitted to have a parliament and legislate on their own.

The old Habsburg Empire slowly began to deteriorate in the beginning of the 20th Century. This deterioration culminated in the June 28, 1914, assassination of Archduke (and heir to the throne) Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. This incident sparked the beginning of World War I and assured the end to the Habsburg domination of Central Europe. In 1919, the Treaty of St. Germain officially ended Habsburg rule and established the Republic of Austria.

====Political Turmoil and the Anschluss====
In the years leading up to the Nazi period, Austria experienced sharpening political strife among the traditional parties, which since 1918 had created their own paramilitary organizations. By the late 1920s and early 1930s, these organizations were engaged in strikes and violent conflicts. Unemployment rose to an estimated 25%. In line with similar trends among other Central European countries, a corporatist and authoritarian government came into power in Austria under Engelbert Dollfuss, who abolished existing political parties and Austria's Constitutional Court. The Social Democrats, now excluded from the political process, took up arms, and a brief civil war ensued in February 1934. Austrian National Socialists (NS) launched an unsuccessful coup d'etat in July 1934 and murdered Dollfuss. The Nazi leaders were, however, arrested, tried, and received death sentences. Following this unsuccessful coup, the Austrian President asked an ultra-conservative Christian Social leader, Kurt Schuschnigg, to form a government. Like Dollfuss, Schuschnigg sought to appease his neighbors and, at the same time, obtain support from Britain and France against pressures from Hitler's Germany, but without success due to the authoritarian trends in Austria and Austria's poor reputation. In February 1938, under renewed threats of military intervention from Germany, Schuschnigg was forced to accept Austrian National Socialists (Nazis) in his government. On March 12, Germany sent its military forces into Austria, an action that received enthusiastic support among most Austrians, and Schuschnigg was forced to resign. He and many other political leaders were arrested and imprisoned until 1945.

====The Holocaust in Austria====
The dissolution of the Austrian Empire and consequent loss of territory following World War I, as well as the political strife of the 1930s, set the stage on March 13, 1938, for Germany's Anschluss ("Annexation") of Austria and the beginning of the Nazi period, the darkest chapter in Austria's history, during which most of the Jewish population of the country was murdered or forced into exile. Other minorities, including the Sinti and Roma, homosexuals, and many political opponents of the Nazis also received similar treatment. Prior to 1938, Austria's Jewish population constituted 200,000 persons, or about 3 to 4 percent of the total population. Most Jews lived in Vienna, where they comprised about 9 percent of the population. Following Anschluss, the Germans rapidly applied their anti-Jewish laws in Austria. Jews were forced out of many professions and lost access to their assets. In November 1938, the Nazis launched the Kristallnacht pogrom in Austria as well as in Germany. Jewish businesses were vandalized and ransacked. Thousands of Jews were arrested and deported to concentration camps. Jewish emigration increased dramatically. Between 1938 and 1940, over half of Austria's Jewish population fled the country. Some 35,000 Jews were deported to the Ghettos in [[Central Europe]]. Some 67,000 Austrian Jews (or one-third of the total 200,000 Jews residing in Austria) were sent to concentration camps. Those in such camps were murdered or forced into dangerous or severe hard labor that accelerated their death. Only 2,000 of those in the death camps survived until the end of the war.

====Post World War II====
At the Moscow conference in 1943, the Allies declared their intention to liberate and reconstitute Austria. In April 1945, both Eastern- and Western-front Allied forces liberated the country. Subsequently, the victorious allies divided Austria into zones of occupation similar to those in Germany with a four-power administration of Vienna. Under the 1945 Potsdam agreements, the Soviets took control of German assets in their zone of occupation. These included 7% of Austria's manufacturing plants, 95% of its oil resources, and about 80% of its refinery capacity. The properties returned to Austria under the Austrian State Treaty. This treaty, signed in Vienna on May 15, 1955, came into effect on July 27, and, under its provisions, all occupation forces departed by October 25, 1955. Austria became free and independent for the first time since 1938.

====Compensation Programs and Acknowledgement of its Nazi Role====
During the immediate postwar period, Austrian authorities introduced certain restitution and compensation measures for Nazi victims, but many of these initial measures were later seen as inadequate and containing flaws and injustices. There is no official estimate of the amount of compensation made under these programs. More disturbing for many was the continuation of the view that prevailed since 1943 that Austria was the "first free country to fall a victim" to Nazi aggression. This "first victim" view was in fact fostered by the Allied Powers themselves in the Moscow Declaration of 1943, in which the Allies declared as null and void the Anschluss and called for the restoration of the country's independence. The Allied Powers did not ignore Austria's responsibility for the war, but nothing was said explicitly about Austria's responsibility for Nazi crimes on its territory. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, greater attention was given in many countries to unresolved issues from World War II, including Austria. On November 15, 1994, Austrian President Thomas Klestil addressed the Israeli Knesset, noting that Austrian leaders "... spoke far too rarely of the fact that some of the worst henchmen of the NS dictatorship were in fact Austrians. .... In the name of the Republic of Austria, I bow my head before the victims of that time." Since 1994, Austria has committed to providing victims and heirs some one billion dollars in total compensation.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm]
====references====
<references/>

==External links==

*[http://www.aipnews.com/talk/forums/printer-friendly.asp?tid=12514&mid= Austria 1938 by Kitty Werthmann]. Eye witness account of Nazi takeover of Austria, and its ways and means.

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Union]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]

West Germany

2013-01-07T04:30:00Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''West Germany''' is the colloquial name given to the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] (''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'') prior to German reunification in 1990. It was formed from the British, French and American zones of occupied Germany in 1949, and the 'provisional' capital of the state was [[Bonn]]. West [[Berlin]] was not officially part of the Federal Republic until 1991; its status remained that of a city under allied military government. Heavy US American investments in the country lead it to the "German economic miracle".

[[Category:Former Countries]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:German History]]

Warsaw Pact

2013-01-07T04:28:37Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''Warsaw Pact''' (''Officially the'' '''Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance''', ''Russian'' '''Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи''') was a political and military organization made up of the [[communism|communist]] states of [[Central Europe]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. The Warsaw Pact was officially formed on May 14, 1955, in response to the integration of [[West Germany]] in to [[NATO]]. The Warsaw Pact effectively lasted until November 9, 1989, when the [[Berlin Wall]] fell<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1955warsawpact.html The Warsaw Pact], ''Fordham University''</ref> and officially ceased to exist on July 1st, 1991.<ref>Conservapedia Main Page</ref>

==Background==
Immediately after the [[World War II]], Soviet General Secretary of the Communist Party [[Josef Stalin]], sent [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]] to Warsaw and gave him the title of Marshal of Poland to add to his existing rank as Marshal of the Soviet Union. In Warsaw Rokossovsky held the posts of Minister of Defence, Deputy President of the Council of Ministers and Member of the Politburo of the Polish Communist Party. Thus a Marshal of the Soviet Union served as deputy to the head of the Polish government. Rokossovsky, nor any other General in the Polish army, spoke Polish, relying constantly on interpreters. The relationship between Generalissimo of the Soviet Union, J. V. Stalin and Rokossovsky was based upon the fact that Stalin gave the orders, and that Rokossovsky carried them out.

All decisions were taken in the [[Kremlin]] and monitored by the Kremlin. The Defence Ministers of the Central European countries were regarded as equal in status to the Commanders of Soviet Military Districts and they came under the direct command of the Soviet Minister of Defence. All appointments and postings were decided upon by the Kremlin. The Defence Ministers of the `sovereign' states of Central Europe were either appointed from the ranks of Soviet generals or were `assisted' by Soviet military advisers. In [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]], for instance, one such `adviser' was Marshal of the Soviet Union Tolbukhin. In East Germany there was Marshal Zhukov himself, in Hungary Marshal of the Soviet Union Konev. Each adviser had at his disposal at least one tank army, several all-arms armies and special [[SMERSH]], or Red Army Counterintelligence punitive detachments.

In [[Czechoslovakia]] there was Ludwig Svoboda, who neutralised the Czech army in 1948 and again in 1968. He carried out the orders of the USSR promptly so it was not necessary to keep a Soviet Marshal in [[Prague]] holding a ministerial post in the Czech government. During World War II all of the Central European countries had been enemies of the Soviet Union and it was therefore possible to execute any political figure, general, officer or private soldier, at any given time and replace them with someone more cooperative with the socialist system.

==Founding==

After the death of Stalin, the Soviet government, headed by Marshal of the Soviet Union Nikolai Bulganin, decided to conclude an official military agreement with the countries it was occupying. The signatory for the Soviet Union was Marshal of the Soviet Union [[Georgi Zhukov]], and for the Polish [[socialist]] regime Marshal of the Soviet Union Rokossovsky, assisted by Colonel-General S. G. Poplavsky—Rokossovsky's deputy. Marshal of the Soviet Union Bulganin, who was present at the ceremony, took the opportunity to award Colonel-General Poplavsky the rank of General of the Army. Poplavsky, who signed for Poland, was also a Soviet general and the subordinate of Marshals Bulganin, Zhukov and Rokossovsky. Within two years Poplavsky had returned to the [[USSR]] and become deputy to the Inspector General of the Soviet Army. Rokossovsky, Poplavsky, Fyodor Petrovich Polynin<ref>Polynin fought in China in 1938-39 under a Chinese name and was given Chinese nationality. Although a Chinese subject, he was made a 'Hero of the Soviet Union'. He returned to the Soviet Union and reverted to Soviet nationality. In 1944 he became a Polish general in the Polish Home Army. He never learned Polish. Polynin was also a Soviet General. As a member of the Lublin Committee he was made Commander of the Air Force of Communist Poland. In 1946, while still holding this position, he received the rank of Colonel-General of the Soviet Air Force. The announcement that this rank had been awarded to the officer commanding the Polish Air Force was signed by the President of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Generalissimo of the Soviet Union, J. V. Stalin. After a further period in Poland, Polynin resumed his Soviet rank and was given the post of Deputy to the Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Air Forces. During his years in command of the Polish Air Force, Polynin never learned a word of Polish. None of his subordinates in the Polish Air Force spoke Polish either. Their orders came from Moscow in Russian.</ref> and the others were compelled by Soviet legislation to carry out the orders which reached them from [[Moscow]]. The Warsaw Treaty did not fundementally change Poland's dependence upon the USSR.

==1955-1968 ==
During the Organisation's first thirteen years the Ministers of Defence of the sovereign states, whether they were pro-Soviet puppets or actual Soviet generals and Marshals, were subordinated to the Commander-in-Chief, who was appointed by the Soviet government and who was himself Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR. Thus, even in a legal sense, the Ministers of these theoretically sovereign states were directly subordinated to a Soviet Minister's deputy.

After the Prague Spring in 1968, the Consultative Committee was set up. In this committee, Ministers of Defence and Heads of State from the Central European occuped countries gathered to talk as equals and allies, but in reality all decisions were still made in the Kremlin. During [[Czech_Republic#The_1968_Soviet_Invasion|'Operation Danube']], the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslavkia, the `allied' divisions of the Warsaw Treaty Organisation were integrated in the Soviet Armies. None of the Central European countries had the right to set up its own Corps, Armies or Fronts. They had only divisions commanded by Soviet generals. In the event of war with [[Nato]], they would be fully integrated into the United (or Soviet) Armed Forces.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Military Alliances]]
[[Category:Communism]]

Poland

2013-01-07T04:26:24Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Rzeczpospolita Polska''
|map =Poland rel00.jpg
|map2 =Poland location.png
|flag =Flag of Poland.png
|arms =Arms of Poland.png
|capital =Warsaw
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Polish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Bronisław Komorowski
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Donald Tusk
|pm-raw =
|area =120,728 sq mi
|pop =38,441,588
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$413.3 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$10,858 (2006)
|currency =Złoty (PLN)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Poland''' is the most [[pro-life]] nation in [[Central Europe]] (Middle Europe) located on its western side. It has suffered many hardships before and after [[World War I]] and [[World War II|II]] disappearing as a nation in 1975 and re-appearing in 1918. Emerging as a nation again after World War I, Poland was partitioned between [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] at the start of World War II. Given nationhood again at the end of the war, it was under the shroud of being a Soviet satellite controlled by a [[communist]] regime. Poland finally became liberated from the communist rule in late 1980s. The exact date of the end of communism in Poland is hard to difine, but it is often accepted as July 4, 1989 (the date of the elections won by the ''Solidarność'', or ''Solidarity'' movement. [[Pope John Paul II]] was from Poland and played a major part in bringing down [[communist|communism]] in Poland. Among the nations under Soviet domination, Poland was unique in continuing to keep its strong [[Catholic]] roots even in the face of persecution. The [[capital]] of Poland is [[Warsaw]].

== People ==
[[File:Fickowa Pokusa Poland.JPG|thumb|left|Polish musician.]]
Poland today is ethnically almost homogeneous (98% Polish), in contrast with the period before and during World War II, when there were significant ethnic minorities--4.5 million [[Ukrainiane|Ukrainians]], 3 million [[Jew]]s, 1 million [[Belorusse|Belorussians]], and 800,000 [[German]]s. The majority of the Jews were murdered during the German occupation in World War II, and many others emigrated in the succeeding years.

Most Germans left Poland at the end of the war, while many Ukrainians and Belorussians lived in territories incorporated into the then-U.S.S.R. Small Ukrainian, Belorussian, [[Slovakia]]n, and [[Lithuania]]n minorities reside along the borders, and a German minority is concentrated near the southwest city of Opole.
*Population (July 2006): 38.5 million.
*Annual growth rate: Unchanging.
*Ethnic groups: Polish 98%, German, Ukrainian, Belorussian, Lithuanian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, Eastern Orthodox, Uniate, Protestant, Judaism.
*Language: Polish.
*Education: Literacy--98%.
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate--7.2/1,000. Life expectancy--males 71 yrs., females 79 yrs.
*Work force: 17.2 million. Industry and construction--29%; agriculture--16%; services--54%.
=== Religion ===
[[File:St John Cathedral Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|St. John Cathedral, Warsaw.]]
[[File:Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice Poland.jpg|thumb|Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice.]]
More than 94% of the population is Roman Catholic. According to the 2007 Annual Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the formal membership of the listed religious groups includes: 33,862,800 Roman Catholics; 506,800 Polish Orthodox Churchmembers; 53,000 Greek Catholics; 126,827 Jehovah's Witnesses; 77,500 Lutherans (Augsburg Confession); 23,670 Old Catholic Mariavits; 21,199 Pentecostals; 9,620 Seventh-day Adventists; 19,035 members of the Polish Catholic Church; 4,881 members of the New Apostolic Church; 4,726 Baptists; 4,445 Methodists; 3,516 Lutherans (Reformed); 2,500 Jews; 2,425 members of the Church of Christ; 2,195 Catholic Mariavits; 1,299 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons); 915 members of the Church of Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas); and 112 registered members of Muslim associations. These figures do not account for persons who adhere to a particular faith but do not maintain formal membership. Figures for Jews and Muslims in particular are significantly deflated as a result. Jewish and Muslim organizations estimate their actual numbers to be 30,000-40,000 and 25,000, respectively.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/ U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The majority of asylum seekers are Muslims from Chechnya. In the refugee centers around the country, they organize their own mosques where they practice their religion.

Currently, there is a movement in Poland to completely ban [[abortion]]<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,262104,00.html</ref>, however there is an opposite movement to allow abortion to greater extent than it is now. Most political forces in the parliament are in favor of keeping abortion law as it is (allowing abortion when the women's life or health is threatened, when pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, when the fetus is irreversibly damaged). The attempts to change constitution so that it would be stated that life would be protected from the moment of conception to natural death failed.

== Government and Political Conditions ==
The current government structure consists of a council of ministers led by a Prime Minister, typically chosen from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (Sejm). The president, elected every five years for no more than two terms, is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The judicial branch plays a minor role in decision-making.

The parliament consists of the 460-member Sejm and the 100-member Senat, or upper house. The new constitution and the reformed administrative division (as of 1999) required a revision of the election ordinance (passed in April 2001). The most important changes were liquidation of a national list (all deputies are elected by voters in electoral districts) and introduction of a new method of calculating seats (the modified St. Lague method replaced the d'Hondt method, thus eliminating the premium for the top parties). The law stipulated that with the exception of guaranteed seats for small ethnic parties, only parties receiving at least 5% of the total vote could enter parliament.

Parties represented in the newly elected (October 2011) Sejm are [[Civic Platform]] (PO), [[Law and Justice]] (PiS), Palikot's Movement (RP), Polish Peasant Party (PSL), Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), and the United Poland (SP) which was created after elections by former Law and Justice members. There is also one representative of the German Minority and some non-allied members of Parliament

=== Principal Government Officials ===
*President--Bronisław Komorowski
*Prime Minister--Donald Tusk (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration--Jerzy Miller (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy--Waldemar Pawlak (PSL)

[[File:Bronislaw Komorowsk Poland.jpg|left|300px]]

 
President Bronislaw Komorowski.
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign Relations ===
Poland became an associate member of the EU and its defensive arm, the Western European Union, in 1994. In a June 2003 national referendum, the Polish people approved EU accession by an overwhelming margin, and Poland gained full membership on May 1, 2004.

Changes since 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, and Poland has had to forge relationships with seven new neighbors. Poland has actively pursued good relations, signing friendship treaties replacing links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West.

== Defense ==
Poland became a full member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) in March 1999 as part of the first wave of enlargement outlined at the July 1997 NATO Summit in [[Madrid]]. Poland's top national security goal is to further integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic, and political institutions while modernizing and reorganizing its military. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defense posture as its Alliance partners.

Poland maintains a sizable armed force currently numbering about 140,572 troops divided among an army of 87,877, an air and defense force of 31,147, and a navy of 21,548. Poland relies on military conscription for the majority of its personnel strength. All males (with some exceptions) are subject to a 12-month term of military service. The Polish military continues to restructure and to modernize its equipment. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure. Although budget constraints remain a drag on modernization, Poland has been able to move forward with U.S. assistance on acquiring 48 [[F-16]] multi-role fighters, [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]] cargo planes, HMMWVs, and other items key to the military’s restructuring.

Poland continues to be a regional leader in support and participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace Program and has actively engaged most of its neighbors and other regional actors to build stable foundations for future European security arrangements. Poland continues its long record of strong support for UN peacekeeping operations by maintaining a unit in Southern Lebanon, a battalion in NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR), and by providing and actually deploying the KFOR strategic reserve to Kosovo. Polish military forces have served in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Poland assumed command of a multinational division of stabilization forces in Iraq (MDN-CS) on September 3, 2003. Poland and its MND-CS partners have worked effectively since then to stabilize south central Iraq while working to train Iraqi forces to take over MND-CS responsibilities and operate independently. <ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat_coalition.htm</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Pol-cia.jpg|thumb|320px]] The Polish economy grew rapidly in the mid-1990s, slowed considerably in 2001 and 2002, returned again to healthy growth rates in 2003, then faltered during the worldwide [[recession of 2008]]. Poland’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annualized rate of 5.2% in the first quarter of 2006. Faster growth has begun to reduce persistently high unemployment, from nearly 20% in the middle of 2004 to 16.5% in May 2006. Tight monetary policy and dramatic productivity growth have helped to hold down inflation, which was 2.1% in 2005. Likewise, Poland's current account deficit, which grew rapidly in the late 1990s, has since moderated to 1.4% of GDP in 2005. The 2005 budget deficit was 27.5 billion zloty, or 2.8% of GDP in 2005, and the current government pledged to restrain the 2006 and 2007 budgets at 30 billion zloty.

Throughout the 1990s, the United States and other Western countries supported the growth of a free enterprise economy by reducing Poland's foreign debt burden, providing economic aid, and lowering trade barriers. Poland graduated from U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance in 2000 and paid the balance of its U.S.-held Paris Club debt in 2005. Poland officially joined the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004.
*GDP (2006): $265.4 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 5.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $14,100.
*Rate of inflation (2006): 1.3%.
*Natural resources: [[Coal]], [[copper]], [[sulfur]], [[natural gas]], [[silver]], [[lead]], [[salt]].
*Agriculture: Products--grains, hogs, dairy, potatoes, horticulture, sugarbeets, oilseed.
*Industry: Types--machine building, iron and steel, mining, shipbuilding, automobiles, furniture, textiles and apparel, chemicals, food processing, glass, beverages.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$110.7 billion: furniture, cars, ships, coal, apparel. Imports--$113.2 billion: crude oil, passenger cars, pharmaceuticals, car parts, computers.

=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture employs 16.1% of the work force but contributes only 5% to the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting relatively low productivity. Unlike the industrial sector, Poland's agricultural sector remained largely in private hands during the decades of communist rule. Most of the former state farms are now leased to farmer tenants. Lack of credit is hampering efforts to sell former state farmland. Currently, Poland's 2 million private farms occupy 90% of all farmland and account for roughly the same percentage of total agricultural production. These farms are small--8 hectares (ha) on average--and often fragmented. Farms with an area exceeding 15 ha accounted for only 9% of the total number of farms but cover 45% of total agricultural area. Over half of all farming households in Poland produce only for their own needs with little, if any, commercial sales.

Poland is a net exporter of confectionery, processed fruit and vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Processors often rely on imports to supplement domestic supplies of wheat, feed grains, vegetable oil, and protein meals, which are generally insufficient to meet domestic demand. However, Poland is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye and is one of the world's largest producers of sugarbeets. Poland also is a significant producer of rapeseed, grains, hogs, and cattle. Attempts to increase domestic feed grain production are hampered by the short growing season, poor soil, and the small size of farms.

Pressure to restructure the agriculture sector intensified as Poland prepared to accede to the European Union, which is unwilling to subsidize the vast number of subsistence farms that do not produce for the market. The changes in agriculture are likely to strain Poland's social fabric, tearing at the heart of the traditional, family-based small farm as the younger generation drifts toward the cities. Nonetheless, dramatically increasing agricultural exports to the EU-15 (38% growth in 2005) and payments to farmers from Brussels following accession have enriched Polish commercial farmers and dramatically increase support for EU membership in Poland’s rural areas.

[[File:Panorama-Morskiego-Oka Poland.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panoramic view of Morskie Oko ("Marine Eye").]]

=== Industry ===
[[File:Locomotive train station Poland..jpg|thumb|Locomotive at a train station.]]
Before World War II, Poland's industrial base was concentrated in the coal, textile, chemical, machinery, iron, and steel sectors. Today it extends to fertilizers, petrochemicals, machine tools, electrical machinery, electronics, and shipbuilding.

Poland's industrial base suffered greatly during World War II, and many resources were directed toward reconstruction. The communist economic system imposed in the late 1940s created large and unwieldy economic structures operated under a tight central command. In part because of this systemic rigidity, the economy performed poorly even in comparison with other economies in central Europe.

In 1990, the Mazowiecki government began a comprehensive reform program to replace the centralized command economy with a market-oriented system. While the results overall have been impressive, many large state-owned industrial enterprises, particularly the railroad and the mining, steel, and defense sectors, have remained resistant to the change and downsizing required to survive in an open market economy.

=== Economic Reform Program and Direct Foreign Investment ===
The economic reforms introduced in 1990 removed price controls, eliminated most subsidies to industry, opened markets to international competition, and imposed strict budgetary and monetary discipline. Poland was the first former centrally planned economy in central Europe to end its recession and return to growth in the early 1990s. The private sector now accounts for over two-thirds of GDP.

In early 2002, the government announced a new set of economic reforms known as the Hausner Plan, designed in many ways to complete the process launched in 1990. The package acknowledged the need to improve Poland's investment climate, particularly the conditions for small and medium-sized enterprises, and better prepare the economy to compete as a European Union (EU) member. The government also aimed to improve Poland's public finances to prepare for eventual adoption of the euro. Though the government was able to enact only portions of the Hausner Plan, those successes coupled with successful monetary efforts to strengthen the zloty, have put Poland within reach of the National Bank’s goal of Euro accession in 2008-2009.

As a result of Poland's growth and investment-friendly climate, the country has received over $85 billion in direct foreign investment (DFI) since 1990, with roughly $7 billion in 2004 alone. According to a recently publish report by Ernst and Young, Poland is tied with Germany as the most attractive destination for foreign investment in Europe. The availability of cheap land and a large, relatively skilled labor force are among Polish strengths. However, the government continues to play a strong role in the economy, as seen in excessive red tape and the high level of politicization in many business decisions. Investors complain that state regulation is not transparent or predictable, and the economy suffers from a lack of competition in many sectors, notably telecommunications.

=== Foreign Trade ===
With the collapse of the ruble-based COMECON trading bloc in 1990, Poland scrambled to reorient its trade. As early as 1996, 70% of its trade was with EU-15 members, and neighboring Germany today is Poland's dominant trading partner. Most of Poland's imports are capital goods needed for industrial retooling and for manufacturing inputs, rather than imports for consumption. Therefore, a deficit is expected and should even be regarded as positive at this point. Poland, a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and European Union, applies the EU’s common external tariff to goods from other countries--including the U.S.

In the year after it joined the EU, Poland experienced an overall growth in exports of 30%. This growth was not confined to trade among EU partners: while exports to EU countries rose by 27%, exports to developing countries rose by 46%, and exports to Russia rose an unexpected 77%. Poland’s trade balance continued to improve, with export growth significantly outpacing import growth. Opportunities for trade and investment continue to exist across virtually all sectors. The American Chamber of Commerce in Poland, founded in 1991 with seven members, now has more than 300 members. Strong economic growth potential, a large domestic market, EU membership, and political stability are the top reasons U.S. and other foreign companies do business in Poland.

== History ==
{{main|History of Poland}}
[[File:Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.jpg|thumb|Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.]]
Poland's written history begins with the reign of [[Mieszko I]], who accepted [[Christianity]] for himself and his kingdom in AD 966. The Polish state reached its zenith under the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] in the years following the union with [[Lithuania]] in 1386 and the subsequent defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]] at Grunwald in 1410. The Union of Lublin united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on July 1, 1569, in Lublin, Poland which created a single state known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish Commonwealth was at one point the largest country in Europe, covering much of what is today Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland. The Polish experienced their Golden Age during the 16th century. The monarchy survived many upheavals but eventually went into a decline, which ended with the final partition of Poland by [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], and [[Austria]] in 1795.

Independence for Poland was one of the 14 points enunciated by [[President Woodrow Wilson]] during [[World War I]]. Many Polish Americans enlisted in the military services to further this aim, and the United States worked at the postwar conference to ensure its implementation.

However, the Poles were largely responsible for achieving their own independence in 1918 and keeping it shortly thereafter against [[Polish-Soviet War|Red aggression]] from [[Bolshevik]] Russia. Authoritarian rule predominated for most of the period before [[World War II]]. In the years preceding the outbreak of the World War 2, German leader, Adolf Hitler, repeatedly requested an alliance with Poland. On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov nonaggression pact]], which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939, Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and then occupied eastern Poland under the terms of this agreement. On October 6, all remaining Polish resistance inside Poland ceased and Poland fell to Soviet and German occupation. The eastern half of Poland known as the Kresy, was annexed into the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.

The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a government in exile, first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Soviet Union. During World War II, 400,000 Poles fought under Soviet command, and 200,000 went into combat on Western fronts in units loyal to the Polish government in exile.

In April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile after the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyn]], in the U.S.S.R. (The Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports.) In July 1944, the Soviet Red Army entered Poland and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" (PKWN) at Lublin.

Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including uprisings by Jews in the Warsaw ghetto and by the Polish underground, was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city.

During the war, about 6 million Poles were killed, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. More than 3 million Jews (all but about 100,000 of the Jewish population) were killed in death camps like those at Oswiecim ([[Auschwitz]]), Treblinka, and Majdanek.

Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945; the U.S. recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination.

==== Communist Party Domination ====
[[File:Socialist reliefs Warsaw.jpg|thumb|left|Socialist relief, Pałac Kultury i Nauki, Warsaw.]]

In 1945, Poland was forced to give up its eastern territories to the Soviet Union, in exchange for Germany's eastern territories of Pomerania and Silesia. Poland took over Germany's former eastern territories and its territories illegally seized by the Soviet Union, including the cities of Lvov and Vilnius were incorporated and annexed under an agreement by the Communist rulers of Poland and the Soviet Union. Poland ended up losing its eastern territories which comprised half of the country and a sizable portion of the population.

In October 1956, after the 20th ("de-Stalinization") Soviet Party Congress in Moscow and riots by workers in Poznan, there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka liberalized Polish internal life.

In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an "anti-Zionist" campaign initially directed against Gomulka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. Edward Gierek replaced Gomulka as First Secretary.

Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.

In October 1978, the Bishop of Krakow, Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, became [[Pope John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.

In July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coalmines in Silesia. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.

==== The Solidarity Movement ====
[[File:Lech Walesa.jpg|thumb|Lech Walesa.]]
On August 31, 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Walesa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at Szczecin and in Silesia. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers' right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement--"Solidarity"--swept Poland.

The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania as First Secretary.

Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September-October 1981, Lech Walesa was elected national chairman of the union.

On December 12-13, the regime declared martial law, under which the army and special riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.

In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.

In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and 2 years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored.

==== Roundtable Talks and Elections ====
[[File:Royal Castle of Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Royal Castle of Warsaw.]]
The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May, and August 1988. In an attempt to take control of the situation, the government gave de facto recognition to Solidarity, and Interior Minister Kiszczak began talks with Lech Walesa on August 31. These talks broke off in October, but a new series, the "roundtable" talks, began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly open National Assembly elections. The June election produced a Sejm (lower house), in which one-third of the seats went to communists and one-third went to the two parties which had hitherto been their coalition partners. The remaining one-third of the seats in the Sejm and all those in the Senat were freely contested; virtually all of these were won by candidates supported by Solidarity.

The failure of the communists at the polls produced a political crisis. The roundtable agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of some Solidarity deputies, elected General Jaruzelski to that office. Two attempts by the communists to form governments failed, however.

On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by non-communists.

In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland." The Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. Most of the property of the former Communist Party was turned over to the state.

The May 1990 local elections were entirely free. Candidates supported by Solidarity's Citizens' Committees won most of the races they contested, although voter turnout was only a little over 40%. The cabinet was reshuffled in July 1990; the national defense and interior affairs ministers--holdovers from the previous communist government--were among those replaced.

In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In December, Lech Walesa became the first popularly elected President of Poland.

==== The Republic of Poland ====
The [[Republic of Poland]] in the early 1990s made great progress toward achieving a fully democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Walesa was elected President for a 5-year term. Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, at Walesa's request, formed a government and served as its Prime Minister until October 1991, introducing world prices and greatly expanding the scope of private enterprise.
[[File:Downtown Warsaw skyline Poland 2006.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Downtown Warsaw skyline, 2006.]]
Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, representing a full spectrum of political views. No single party received more than 13% of the total vote.

Since 1991, Poland has conducted five general parliamentary elections and four presidential elections--all free and fair. Incumbent governments have transferred power smoothly and constitutionally in every instance to their successors. The post-Solidarity center-right and post-Communist center-left have each controlled the parliament and the presidency since 1991. Most recently, Poles elected Law and Justice (PiS) candidate and Mayor of Warsaw Lech Kaczynski to a 5-year term as President. Kaczynski narrowly defeated Civic Platform (PO) candidate Donald Tusk and was sworn in December 23, 2005.

PiS was also the top vote-getter in September 25, 2005, parliamentary elections. After coalition talks with runner-up PO collapsed, PiS alone formed a minority government under Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. Frustrated by its inability to achieve its legislative program alone, PiS formed a formal coalition government with Self-Defense (SO) and the League of Polish Families (LPR) in April 2006. In July 2006, Prime Minister Marcinkiewicz resigned and was replaced by PiS party leader Jaroslaw Kaczynski as Prime Minister.
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Lech Kaczyński]] - President
*[[Jarosław Kaczyński]] - PM
==Further reading==
* Library of Congress. ''A Country Study: Poland'' (1993), highly detailed factual report by U.S. government (it is in the public domain, with no copyright) [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pltoc.html online edition]
* ''Poland'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing) (2007)
* ''Lonely Planet Poland'' by Tom Parkinson, et al. (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Poland-Tom-Parkinson/dp/174059522X/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1188096687&sr=8-2 online excerpt and search from Amazon.com]
* Biskupski, M. B. ''The History of Poland.'' Greenwood, 2000. 264 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28002395 online edition]
* Davies, Norman. ''Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland.'' Oxford University Press, 1984. 511 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Heart-Europe-Past-Polands-Present/dp/0192801260/ref=pd_bbs_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192604734&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Podgórecki, Adam. ''Polish Society'' Praeger, 1994 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28518609 online edition]
* Turnock, David. ''The Human Geography of East Central Europe.'' Routledge. 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108154408 online edition]

== References ==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

2013-01-07T04:24:11Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:NATO1.gif‎|thumb|300px| NATO committee.]]
The '''North Atlantic Treaty Organization''' (NATO) is a military alliance of 28 nations, founded in 1949 to combat the spread of [[communism]] from [[Central Europe]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Its current secretary is [[Jaap de Hoop Scheffer]] of the [[Netherlands]].

Since the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1991, NATO has departed immensely from its original purpose.

==History==

=== Beginning ===
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established shortly after [[World War II]] in 1949. The original members consisted of ten European countries, the [[United States]], and [[Canada]]. These countries formed the alliance to further the goal of security in the North Atlantic region, and they did this by ingraining the principal that an attack against one member would be considered an attack against all. Therefore, all would respond with support to the attacked nation. In 1952 NATO began its first round of enlargement of the early alliances history, letting in [[Turkey]].

=== Cold War ===
NATO acceptance of [[Europe]]an countries in 1955 led Soviet Russia to set up a counter organization, The [[Warsaw Treaty Organization]] (or Warsaw Pact). Common defense, the ongoing MAD strategy, and economic crisis led the [[Soviet Union]] and the Warsaw Pact to its demise. NATO’s transatlantic relations and prevention were key to the end of the [[Cold War]], and the beginning of a interlinking of United States and European policies, which still remains to this day.

=== Kosovo ===
[[File:Apartment building burns in Belgrade 1999 after NATO air raids on power grid in Serbia..jpg|thumb|left|250px|Apartment building burns in Belgrade in 1999. The building caught fire as residents were cooking with firewood during a power blackout after NATO air raids on power grid in Serbia.]]
After the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], NATO appeared to lose it purpose as it no longer had the threat of USSR. NATO began to shift its focus to from its original defense alliance to a more offensive mode. In 1999, the [[United States]] led its NATO allies on a bombing campaign to stop [[Yugoslav]] President Slobodan Milošević's ethic cleansing of the Albanians inside of [[Kosovo]]. The mission in [[Kosovo]] did not go as well as planned. After the air strikes, havoc reigned over [[Kosovo]], abuses continued and human rights organizations listed abuses committed by the Alliance members during the campaign. In an attempt to solve the violence, NATO countries and the [[United Nations]] took on a mission to stabilize and reconstruct the country, a mission which is currently ongoing. The OTAN intervention was illegal, destructive, and based on fraudulent claims. <ref> [http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=1666 The U.S.-NATO Military Intervention in Kosovo.] </ref>

<blockquote>
James Bissett, a former Canadian ambassador to Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania, wrote: "the Central Intelligence Agency assisted by the British Special Air Service were training KLA members in Albania and in the summer of 1998 sending them back into Kosovo to assassinate Serbian mayors, ambush Serbian policemen and intimidate hesitant Kosovo Albanians. The aim was to destabilize Kosovo and overthrow [[Serbia]]n strongman Slobodan Milosevic... The hope was that with Kosovo in flames NATO could intervene ..." <ref> [http://www.catholicapologetics.info/modernproblems/currenterrors/unation.htm The United Nations:Chief Instrument of Russia's Errors by Cornelia R. Ferreira.] CATHOLIC APOLOGETICS. </ref>
</blockquote>

==== NATO War Crimes ====

According to Professor Robert Hayden from the University of Pittsburgh:

<blockquote>
NATO's attacks have been aimed against civilian targets since literally the first night of the bombing, when a tractor factory in the Belgrade suburb of Rakovica was destroyed by cruise missiles. Since then NATO targets have included roads, railroad tracks and bridges hundreds of miles from Kosovo, power plants, factories of many kinds, food processing and sugar processing plants, water pumping stations, cigarette factories, central heating plants for civilian apartment blocks, television studios, post offices, non-military government administrative buildings, ski resorts, government official residences, oil refineries, civilian airports, gas stations, and chemical plants. NATO's strategy is not to attack Yugoslavia's army directly, but rather to destroy Yugoslavia itself, in order to weaken the army. With this strategy it is military losses that are "collateral damage," because most of the attacks are aimed at civilian targets.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The level of damage done to clearly non-military infrastructural targets in Serbia would seem to render NATO military commanders and at least some NATO political leaders liable to the same charge that was made against Ratko Mladi and Radovan Karadi by the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), "extensive destruction of property:" that they
individually and in concert with others planned, instigated, ordered or otherwise aided and abetted in the planning, preparation or execution of the extensive, wanton and unlawful destruction of ... property, not justified by military necessity or knew or had reason to know that subordinates were about to destroy or permit others to destroy ... property or had done so and failed to take necessary and reasonable measures to prevent this destruction or to punish the perpetrators thereof."
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The war supposedly in defense of human rights has produced war crimes by NATO, and a civilian casualty rate that is at least three time higher than the casualty rate of the "intolerable" violations of human rights that NATO was supposedly acting to correct. <ref> [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/hayden.htm Humanitarian Hypocrisy.] University of Pittsburgh. </ref>
</blockquote>

=== Modern History ===
[[Image:FormerSoDDRNATO.JPG‎ |thumb|320px|Former [[United States]] [[Secretary of Defense]], [[Donald Rumsfeld]] addressing NATO]]
After Kosovo, NATO’s ability to be an offensive organization was called into question. Some called for the abolishment of the organization, stating that it had lost it original purpose.
NATO began to look for its new goal in the 21 century. After the attacks on the [[World Trade Centers]] and [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] on September 11, 2001, NATO countries quickly responded by aiding the [[United States]], as they had promised in Article Five of their founding treaty. AWACS airplanes were sent on surveillance, and NATO began its first and only article five mission to this day, [[Operation Active Endeavor]], which was a Maritime mission to protect the Mediterranean from terrorist operations and drug and WMD trafficking.

After the end of the [[Cold War]], European defense spending had weakened and its military lacked technology and modernization. In 2002, NATO met for its annual summit, which was held in [[Prague]]. The 19 country alliance made a list of improvements that its members needed to make in order to effectively fight the war on terror, these improvements called for, among other thing, a NATO Military Concept for Defense against Terrorism. NATO members also took steps to modernize there forces, all 19 countries agreed to spend at least 2% of their GDP on defense. NATO also agreed on its new focus, terrorism. As Spain’s former prime minster [[José María Aznar]], said, “[[Jihad]]ism has replaced Communism, as Communism replaced [[Nazi]]sm, as an existential threat to the liberal democracies.”

=== Further Expansion and Russian Relations ===
In 2004, NATO further expanded to [[Central Europe]]an countries, these included [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]], resulting in an organization of 26 nations. This spark of expansion was seen as an offensive move by [[Russia]] and caused a rift in the NATO, Russia relations. The Russian lower house released to the press a statement, "At present we are debating the draft statement of the State Duma which we are planning to adopt in connection with NATO's expansion in Europe. Our opinion is equivocal that this act is erroneous. I think that this is a big historical mistake on the part of western states."

=== Afghanistan ===
NATO took command and co-ordination of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) in August 2003. When NATO and some non-member states joined (such as [[Australia]] and [[Japa]]n), the initial mission was limited to [[Kabul]], but soon expanded. In 2006, when NATO took over full command over the Afghanistan operation, the [[Taliban]] began a major campaign. Commanders complained that their forces were being restricted by national restrictions, and that they needed more troops. In November 2006, at another NATO summit in [[Riga]], NATO countries removed 15% of restrictions placed on troops. NATO called on member governments to provide more troops to their mission in Afghanistan, but several countries had their resources stretched thin in [[Kosovo]], as well as their mission in [[Iraq]] of training the new Iraqi government’s security force.

=== [[Libyan uprising 2011]] ===
[[File:Libya helicopter tigre NATO.jpg|right|280px]]
UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1973 of March 17, 2011 followed on the heels of Gaddafi’s public threat on March 2, 2011 to throw western oil companies out of Libya, and his invitation on March 14 to Chinese, Russian, and Indian firms to produce Libyan oil in their place.<ref>''[http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/7661/Business/Economy/Gaddafi-offers-Libyan-oil-production-to-India,-Rus.aspx Gaddafi offers Libyan oil production to India, Russia, China,] Agence France-Presse, March 14, 2011.</ref> China, Russia, India and Brazil all abstained on UNSC Resolution 1973.

Resolution 1973 authorized strict limitations, according to international law, on NATO as the organization with responsibility for the implementation of the resolution. Particularly, it provides only for a naval blockade enforcing the arms embargo, and enforcement of a no-fly zone. On March 29, 2011, Russian envoy Dmitry Rogozin commented after a meeting with NATO officials in [[Brussels, Belgium]], that Russia expressed deep concern over the interpretation of the Security Council’s resolution, as some countries have effectively turned it into an approval for ground operations.
{{Cquote|[[Moscow]] has many questions about how the UN Security Council’s resolution is being carried out...First of all, there are reports that civilians have been killed in the air strikes. This is odd if you consider the message of the resolution, which says that the foreign forces’ actions should protect civilians. So it’s hard to comprehend how you can protect civilians by killing them....we demanded that the UN Security Council be fully informed about the actions of the alliance in Libya at all times... We have reports of air strikes against convoys far from the front line. This is a far cry from the UN Security Council resolution.<ref>http://rt.com/news/coalition-libya-nato-russian-envoy/</ref>}}

Despite France taking the lead role in the intervention, the Congressional Research Service reports, "Only the United States and NATO possess the command and control capabilities necessary for coalition operations enforcing the no-fly zone over Libya." France only recently rejoined the NATO alliance, in 2008, after a 40 year absence. The Congressional Research Service, which analyzes information and prepares reports for members of Congress, also states,
{{Cquote|In spite of statements underscoring NATO unity on steps announced to date, the initial planning and operational phases were also marked by significant levels of discord within Europe and [[NATO]] on the aims and future direction of the mission. A key point of contention was reportedly the amount of flexibility that NATO forces would be granted to protect civilians and civilian areas, as called for in paragraph 4 of UNSCR 1973. Reports indicate that French officials insisted on maintaining the ability to strike ground forces that threatened civilian areas, while their [[Turkish]] counterparts vocally opposed any targeting of ground forces. Adding to the strain within NATO, NATO ally [[Germany]] abstained from UNSCR 1973 and, opposed to any potential [[combat]] operation, on March 23, withdrew its naval assets in the [[Mediterranean]] from NATO command. Throughout the first week of operations, other European allies contributing to the mission, including Italy and Norway, expressed increasing frustration with the lack of agreement within NATO, with Norway refusing to deploy its fighter jets unless under they were under NATO command and control.<ref>Operation Odyssey Dawn (Libya):
Background and Issues for Congress, ''Congressional Research Service,'' March 30, 2011, p. 20 pdf.</ref>}}
[[File:NATO air strike on Tripoli Libya.jpg|left|300px|NATO air strike on Tripoli, Libya.]]
Of Nato's 28 members, 14 are said to be "actively participating," but only 6 have provided military support. Of the 22-country [[Arab League]], whose appeal prompted the United Nations to vote on intervention, only [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] are involved. Of the 192 members of the [[UN General Assembly]], who all have a legal "responsibility to protect" civilians attacked by their own governments, only [[Sweden]] has responded.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/apr/19/libya-mission-military-advisory-team</ref>

NATO planes and ships have been striking cities and military installations in Libya since mid-March, 2011. Allied military officials have spoken in recent weeks of the need for escalation to help protect Libyan civilians and have called for Gaddafi to step down. Libyan officials have said that NATO is picking sides in a civil war and complained that strikes on Gaddafi’s Tripoli compound are attempts to assassinate the leader of a sovereign country. NATO launched its largest airstrike against Moammar Gaddafi’s regime on May, 24, 2011, with at least 15 massive explosions rocking the Libyan capital. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/french-officials-france-and-britain-to-use-attack-helicopters-in-libya/2011/05/23/AFTF909G_story.html?hpid=z2]

==NATO Members==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! NATO Member
! NATO Summit
! Expansion Year
|-
| [[Belgium]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Canada]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Denmark]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[France]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Iceland]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
|-
| [[Italy]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Luxembourg]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
|-
| [[Netherlands]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Norway]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Portugal]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[United Kingdom]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
|-
| [[United States]]
| Founder
| Original Member, 1949
|-
| [[Greece]]
|
| First Round, 1952
|-
|-
| [[Turkey]]
|
| First Round, 1952
|-
| [[Germany]]
|
| First Round, 1952
|-
|-
| [[Spain]]
|
| Third Round, 1982
|-Bonn,Germany
| [[Czech Republic]]
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
| Fourth Round, 1999
|-
| [[Hungary]]
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
|Fourth Round, 1999
|-
|-
| [[Poland]]
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
| Fourth Round, 1999
|-
| [[Bulgaria]]
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
|-
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
|Fifth Round, 2004
|-
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
|-
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
| [[Romania]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
| [[Slovakia]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
| [[Slovenia]]
| [[Istanbul, Turkey]]
| Fifth Round, 2004
|-
|-
| [[Albania]]
| [[Bucharest, Romania]]
| Sixth Round, 2008
|-
| [[Croatia]]
| [[Bucharest, Romania]]
| Sixth Round, 2008
|-

|}

==External Links==

*[http://www.nato.int/ NATO's Official Website]
*[http://nobsblog.blogspot.com/1999/01/clinton-wag-dog-no-kosovo-genocide.html Clinton Wag the Dog -- No Kosovo Genocide], German Foreign Office Report, January 6, 1999.
*[http://www.fair.org/extra/9907/kosovo-crimes.html Legitimate Targets?] How U.S. Media Supported War Crimes in Yugoslavia.
*[http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=1666 The U.S.-NATO Military Intervention in Kosovo.] Triggering ethnic conflict as a pretext for intervention.
*NATO and Rebel Atrocities in Libya: [http://sjlendman.blogspot.com/ by Stephen Lendman.] July 14, 2011. [[Stephen Lendman]]

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Military Alliances]]
[[Category:NATO]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Afghanistan War]]

United States of America

2013-01-07T04:21:03Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''United States of America''
|map =US map.PNG
|map2 =Loc of United States.png
|established=1776
|flag =50 star flag.png
|arms =United States arms.png
|capital =Washington, D.C.
|government =Constitutional Republic
|language =English
|official =n
|president =Barack Hussein Obama
|area =3,718,695 sq mi
|pop =313,232,000 (2011)
|gdp-year = $15 trillion (2011)
|gdp-pc =$48,029 (2011)
|currency =United States Dollar (USD)
}}
The '''United States of America'''<ref>(''conventional short form'': '''United States'''; ''abbreviation'': '''US''' or '''USA'''; sometimes also referred to as '''the States''' or simply as '''America''')</ref> is the most [[conservative]] and prosperous nation in the world, based on one of the longest-running [[Constitution]]s in history. Located in [[North America]], this nation consists of a federal union of fifty individual states, along with territories and a capital district. Founded originally as 13 colonies in the [[British Empire]], Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country on July 4, 1776 with the [[Declaration of Independence]].<ref>IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. [http://www.ushistory.org/Declaration/document/index.htm The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America], ushistory.org, (Accessed August 2010).</ref> The new nation became recognized as the United States of America following the [[American Revolutionary War|War of Independence]] in 1783. Shortly thereafter, in 1787, the [[United States Constitution]] was written; grounded on [[Republican form of government|republican]] political principles and [[Judeo-Christian]] values, the Constitution remains in effect today, albeit with several amendments since then. The Americans created political parties and, since abolishing [[slavery]] in a bloody [[American Civil War|civil war]] (1861-65), instituted a form of government guided by the rule of law rather than the desires of a majority of voters. According to the U.S. Constitution written by America's [[Founding Fathers]], the United States is a [[Constitutional Republic]]. It is not a true [[Democracy|democracy]], but is a form of one.

America's capitalist economy grew rapidly, becoming the largest in the world by the 1870s. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. After defeating Communism in the [[Cold War]], the U.S. emerged as the world's only [[superpower]], boasting the largest economy and most powerful military. It exerts enormous cultural and intellectual influence worldwide, and in return is the target of the enemies of democracy and [[capitalism]].

The capital of the United States of America is [[Washington, DC]].

== People ==
[[File:Php3sfokfPM.jpg|220px|left|At Washington, DC.]]
Population: 310,232,863 (July 2010 est.) Population growth rate: 0.97% (2010 est.) Labor force: 153.9 million (2010 est.).

Ethnic groups: white 79.96%, black 12.85%, Asian 4.43%, Amerindian and Alaska native 0.97%, native Hawaiian and other Pacific islander 0.18%, two or more races 1.61% (July 2007 estimate) note: a separate listing for Hispanic is not included because the US Census Bureau considers Hispanic to mean persons of Spanish/Hispanic/Latino origin including those of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Dominican Republic, Spanish, and Central or South American origin living in the US who may be of any race or ethnic group (white, black, Asian, etc.); about 15.1% of the total US population is Hispanic <ref> [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html CIA - The World Factbook.] </ref>

In 2010, around 400,000 [[illegal immigrants]] were deported. The Pew Hispanic Center, a nonpartisan research organization in Washington, estimates 11.5 million to 12 million "unauthorized migrants" live in the US today. <ref> [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0516/p01s02-ussc.html Illegal immigrants in the US: How many are there?] </ref>

Although the diverse group of immigrants that has come to the U.S. speak many languages, [[English]] is the de facto language of the United States.
==Geography==

[[File:Colorado.jpg|thumb|[[Colorado]].]]
North America, bordering both the North [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific Ocean]], is between [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]]. In addition to the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, the United States is otherwise bounded by the [[Bering Sea]], the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Two of the fifty states, Alaska and Hawaii (an archipelago), are not contiguous with any of the other states. Puerto Rico, which is largely self governing, is part of the U.S., as are several smaller territories in the Pacific Ocean, such as Guam. Each of the 50 states has a large degree of sovereignty, but the boundaries are debated and shift slightly every year.

At over 3.7 million square miles (over 9.6 million km²), the U.S. (including its non-contiguous and overseas states and territories) is the third largest country by total area (after Russia and Canada). It is the world's third most populous nation, with over 350 million people (after China and India).

Mt. McKinley, Alaska, is the highest point in North America and Death Valley, California, is the lowest point on the continent. <ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html CIA World Factbook], ''North America :: United States'', Updated on February 23, 2011, (Accessed on February 23, 2011).</ref>

==History==

===American Revolution===
{{main|American Revolution}}
[[File:Washington-deleware.jpg|thumb|left|Washington, Chief of the Continental Army, is shown crossing the Delaware River.]]
The American Revolution exploded from fears the British Empire was trying to restrict the historic rights and liberties of Americans. The British victory in the French and Indian War ended the threat that foreign powers might attack the colonies; Britain's protection was no longer needed. At the same time Britain decided to assert its powers by imposing [[taxes]]. The taxes (as on stamps, sugar, and tea) were not large but the principle was simple: Americans insisted their own [[Legislature|legislatures]] could impose taxes but not [[Parliament]], because Americans were not represented there. "No taxation without representation!" and "[[Don't tread on me]]" became common phrases in America by the American people, but the British refused over and over again to accept it. London sent in troops when Boston protested vehemently, and Americans organized shadow governments in every colony.

The Americans were adopting a new political philosophy, called [[republicanism]], which stressed civic virtue, fear of corruption, and disdain for [[aristocracy]] (there were no aristocrats in America apart from occasional British visitors). Republicanism alerted Americans to their constitutional rights as Englishmen – one right was that the people, through their elected officials, set the taxes and upheld law. Constitutionally, to Americans their "elected officials" were not represented in the British Parliament, it meant having their own colonial legislatures. The British replied haughtily toward this desire from the Americans, going so far as to suggest America was "virtually represented" by the British Parliament in some way or form.

====Boston Tea Party====
{{main|Boston Tea Party}}

The British Parliaments idea of representation in America fueled their desire to increase taxes on the Americans. The tax on stamps in 1765 incited near rebellion, as the 13 separate colonies began meeting together and sharing their grievances. The stamp tax was repealed but others followed, especially the tax on tea. In response, Americans boycotted tea and merchants refused to order it, except in Boston. There, a well-organized group of patriots dumped the tea in the harbor, historically known as the [[Boston Tea Party]]. These events infuriated London, so they sent troops to North America and stripped [[Massachusetts]] of its self government and suspended the historic rights the colonists were so proud of.

====Thirteen Colonies====
{{main|Thirteen Colonies}} [[Image:Pop1750.jpg|right|thumb|400px]]

The thirteen original colonies began organizing shadow governments, called "Committees of Correspondence," which prepared the Americans for the day "patriots" (or "Whigs," as they called themselves) could assume all functions of local government. That day came when the British sent troops from Boston to seize gunpowder in attempt to dismantle a potential revolt, and the American patriots gathered there to defend their liberty. These patriots were known as the American "Minute men," a well trained militia, and had planned for this day at Lexington and Concord. When the militia clashed with the elite British troops they soundly defeated them, prompting an historic backlash from Britain. The American Revolution had begun.

The thirteen colonies, organized as the "[[First Continental Congress]]," became a national government as the shadow governments in each colony took control and ousted all royal officials. Congress set up a [[Continental Army]] and gave command to an American hero and Virginia's leader, [[George Washington]]. George Washington took charge in Boston, and he forced the British to leave in the spring of 1776. All 13 colonies were at this point in control of the American Patriots, and they listened as [[Tom Paine]] explained ''Common Sense'' principles, proudly boasting of America's strength and its power as a new nation. America, in its own right as an individual nation no longer needed nor wanted a foreign [[King]]. Congress called on the colonies to become States and to write new State constitutions. On July 4, 1776, Congress unanimously declared the independence of a new nation, the United States of America.

====France in the American Revolutionary War====
[[File:Marquis de Lafayette.jpg|thumb|[[Marquis de Lafayette]].]]
King [[George III]] could not abide the insolent Americans and he sent his small army and large navy to America in attempt to reconquer his lost colonies. They were able to recapture [[New York City]], but the King's failure to spread elsewhere greatly outweighed this small victory. The powerful Royal navy gave the British command of the seas and the ability to land troops anywhere and capture any specific place, but the shortage of British soldiers, and the very long 3000 mile supply line, meant that the British could only hold a few points at any one time. Hiring German soldiers (Hessians) was necessary, but they were not enough, for the Patriots always had more available soldiers. The British expectations that Loyalist would rise up and overthrow the Patriots was a [[chimera]]; the Loyalists did provide some help to British invasion forces, but were never strong enough to operate on their own or control any territory.

[[France]], humiliated by Britain in the 1760s, was stronger in the late 1770's than it was a decade earlier and wanted revenge against the British for their past woes. Thus, the French secretly armed and financed the Americans. Lafayette, a French general in the American Revolutionary War, served in the Continental Army under George Washington. He convinced France to send their first naval and land forces to the Americas and participated in defending Richmond, Virginia from Benedict Arnold and in the battle of Yorktown, Virginia; Lafayette contributed in no slight degree toward the grand result.

In 1777, the British sent a large army to invade [[New York]] and cut off the revolutionary states of [[New England]]. The plan was a disaster as the American militia captured the entire British invasion force at Saratoga. Encouraged by diplomat [[Benjamin Franklin]], the French recognized the United States as an independent nation, signed a treaty of alliance, and entered the war against Britain. Later, the treaty extended to [[Spain]] and the [[Netherlands]] as allies to America; Britain's diplomacy was disjointed that it had no allies at all, and was militarily matched or surpassed by America and its new allies. The British invasion of the South in 1780-81 was designed to bring out Loyalist support, but it failed and the second major British army was captured at the [[Battle of Yorktown]]. The British Parliament revolted at their reckless king and his incompetent government and sued for peace, which was achieved on terms favorable to the U.S. in 1783. About 20% of the Loyalists moved to [[Canada]], but many stayed in America, and the new peaceful nation resumed its rapid growth.

===New Nation===
[[File:Bierstadt Looking Down Yosemite-Valley 1865.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Bierstadt]], ''Looking Down Yosemite-Valley'', 1865.]]
In 1783, when the Treaty of Paris concluded the war of independence, the American population totalled some three million citizens and slaves living on about one million square miles of land. Tens of thousands of [[Native Americans]] also lived in the [[Northwest Territory]] and the Southwest.

The Thirteen original states are [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] (including [[maine]]), [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[North Carolina]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Virginia]]. In 1790, an agreement between supporters of Jefferson and those of [[Alexander Hamilton]] resulted in the creation of the [[District of Columbia]] from part of [[Maryland]]; it has served as the national capital since 1800. The remainder of the 1783 territory was eventually organized as the states of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].

===Expansion===
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions PD WC.jpg|thumb|left|Territorial acquisitions such as the Thirteen Colonies, the Louisiana Purchase, and British and Spanish Cession.]]
In 1803, [[French]] emperor [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] took advantage of a lull in his war with Great Britain to sell the [[Louisiana Territory]] to the United States, more than doubling the nation's land area. This territory would later be organized as the states of [[Minnesota]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[Nebraska]], [[Iowa]], [[Missouri]], [[Arkansas]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Louisiana]] proper. President Jefferson commissioned [[Lewis and Clark]] to explore the new territory from 1802 to 1804.

The U.S. seized, then purchased [[Florida]] from Spain in 1819. [[Texas]] joined the United States in 1845 after winning its revolution against Mexico.
[[File:Map Leading Group by County US.jpg|thumb|Map Leading Group by County, 2000.]]
After victory the [[Mexican American War]] of 1846-48, the U.S. purchased via the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] territory that became the states of [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]]. In 1846 the U.S. and Britain agreed that the 49th Parallel (degree of latitude) would serve as the boundary between the U. S. and [[British Columbia]] (now part of Canada). The American portion became the states of [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[Idaho]].

In 1867, the U.S. purchased [[Alaska]] from [[Russia]]. It became a state in 1959.

Hawaii became an independent republic in 1894 and voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898, becoming a state in 1960.

As a result of the [[Spanish-American War]], the United States took control of the [[Philippines]] and annexed [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]]. The Philippines became independent in 1946, after the U.S. reconquered the islands from Japan in World War II. [[Puerto Rico]] has occasionally held referendum that ratified its continuing unique "Commonwealth" status as part of the United States. The residents of Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens. Guam continues as a U.S. owned territory with full citizenship for its inhabitants. The people of Puerto Rico and Guam have a vote in presidential primaries and a voice, but not a vote, in Congress.

==The Constitution and Politics in the United States==

[[Image:76485685i79.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The drafting committee presenting the [[Declaration of Independence]] to the [[Continental Congress]], painted by John Trumbull 1817–1819.]]

Between 1776 and 1788, the United States was governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]]. The Founding Fathers formally established the current structure of the United States by ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] in 1788. Since 1789, that constitution has been the basic governing document. America's Founding Fathers understood that a democracy is always in flux and given to “mob rule,”<ref>[[Michelle Malkin]]. [http://michellemalkin.com/2009/03/27/the-coming-g20-riots-the-spread-of-mob-rule/comment-page-1/ The coming G20 riots & the spread of mob rule], ''Michelle Malkin'', March 27, 2009.</ref> while a republic is fixed and stable, resting on “the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God.” Because of the uncertainty of democracy, [[Benjamin Rush]] — a signer of the Declaration of Independence — wrote: “A simple democracy is one of the greatest of evils.”<ref>AWR Hawkins. [http://pajamasmedia.com/blog/america-a-republic-not-a-democracy/ America: A Republic, Not a Democracy], ''Pajamas Media'', September 03, 2009.</ref>

Sovereignty in America comes from the citizenry, and the basic political values are called "[[republicanism]]," (not to be confused with the [[Republican Party]],) especially the commitment to civic virtue and civic duty, and opposition to corruption and aristocracy. Popular political parties emerged in the United States in the 1790s; currently the two major political parties are the [[Democratic Party]], and the [[Republican Party]]. Minor parties are of little importance overall but can be useful in pushing certain topics to the public eye.

=== The Role of Religion in Government ===
{{main|Religion and U.S. Government}}

==Government==
{{main|United States Federal Government}}

[[Image:56eugyjnm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[White House]], the official home and workplace of the [[President of the United States]] of America.]]

===Executive Branch===

*Chief of state: The [[President of the United States]] is both the chief of state and head of government
*Head of government: President of the United States; [[Vice President of the United States]]
*Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with Senate approval
*Elections: The president and vice president serve four-year terms (eligible for a second term)

===Legislative Branch===

The United States legislative branch of government is a [[bicameral]] Congress, which consists of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] (100 seats, 2 members are elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms; one-third are elected every two years) and the [[House of Representatives]] (435 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms).

===Judicial Branch===
{{main|Supreme Court of the United States}}

The United States [[Supreme Court]] consists of nine justices, nominated by the president and confirmed with the advice and consent of the Senate. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed to serve for life; the judicial branch extends to the United States Courts of Appeal, the United States District Courts, and State and County Courts. The primary role of the nine justices of the Supreme Court is to assure the United States government does not attempt to surrender, sell or transfer the people's unalienable rights given by [[God]]. The Supreme Court has the power to consider the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress.

== Economy ==

The US has the largest and most technologically powerful economy in the world, with a per capita GDP of $47,400. In this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and the federal and state governments buy needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. US business firms enjoy greater flexibility than their counterparts in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] in decisions to expand capital plant, to lay off surplus workers, and to develop new products. At the same time, they face higher barriers to enter their rivals' home markets than foreign firms face entering US markets. US firms are at or near the forefront in technological advances, especially in computers and in medical, aerospace, and military equipment; their advantage has narrowed since the end of World War II.

The onrush of technology largely explains the gradual development of a "two-tier labor market" in which those at the bottom lack the education and the professional/technical skills of those at the top and, more and more, fail to get comparable pay raises, health insurance coverage, and other benefits. Unfortunately, china remains both the banker and salesman to the united state's role as buyer, and debtor. This will not end well for the United States, republican president or not. Since 1975, practically all the gains in household income have gone to the top 20% of households. The war in March-April 2003 between a US-led coalition and Iraq, and the subsequent occupation of Iraq, required major shifts in national resources to the military. Soaring oil prices between 2005 and the first half of 2008 threatened inflation and unemployment, as higher gasoline prices ate into consumers' budgets. Imported oil accounts for about 60% of US consumption. Long-term problems include inadequate investment in economic infrastructure, rapidly rising medical and pension costs of an aging population, sizable trade and budget deficits, and stagnation of family income in the lower economic groups.

The merchandise trade deficit reached a record $840 billion in 2008 before shrinking to $506 billion in 2009, and ramping back up to $630 billion in 2010. The global economic downturn, the sub-prime mortgage crisis, investment bank failures, falling home prices, and tight credit pushed the United States into a recession by mid-2008. GDP contracted until the third quarter of 2009, making this the deepest and longest downturn since the Great Depression. To help stabilize financial markets, the US Congress established a $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) in October 2008. The government used some of these funds to purchase equity in US banks and other industrial corporations, much of which had been returned to the government by early 2011.

In January 2009 the US Congress passed and President Barack Obama signed a bill providing an additional $787 billion fiscal stimulus to be used over 10 years - two-thirds on additional spending and one-third on tax cuts - to create jobs and to help the economy recover. Approximately two-thirds of these funds were injected into the economy by the end of 2010. In March 2010, President Obama signed a health insurance reform bill into law that will extend coverage to an additional 32 million American citizens by 2016, through private health insurance for the general population and Medicaid for the impoverished. In July 2010, the president signed the DODD-FRANK Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, a bill designed to promote financial stability by protecting consumers from financial abuses, ending taxpayer bailouts of financial firms, dealing with troubled banks that are "too big to fail," and improving accountability and transparency in the financial system - in particular, by requiring certain financial derivatives to be traded in markets that are subject to government regulation and oversight.

In November 2010, in an attempt to keep interest rates from rising and snuffing out the nascent recovery, the US Federal Reserve Bank (The Fed) announced that it would purchase $600 billion worth of US Government bonds by June 2011.

The United States is the leading industrial power in the world, highly diversified and technologically advanced; [[petroleum]], [[steel]], motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, [[electronics]], food processing, consumer goods, lumber, mining.
<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html CIA - The world Factbook]</ref>

Some people believe that the ongoing economic crisis in the US is a testament to the silliness of American society.

==Flag Description==
[[Image:50 star flag.png|left|thumb|150px|The [[Flag of the United States of America]]]]
{{main|Flag of the United States of America}}

Thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; known as Old Glory; the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including [[Chile]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Puerto Rico]].

{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also==
[[File:Lawrence The Migration of the Negro.jpg|thumb|The Migration of the Negro by [[Jacob Lawrence]], 1940-1941.]]
*[[Pledge of Allegiance]]
*[[Famous American artists]]
*[[List of 50 states]]
*[[Americas]]
*[[America (continent)]]
*[[Columbia]]
*[[Gallery of American Masterpieces]]

==External links==
*[[CIA]] - [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html The World FactBook]
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/616563/United-States United States.]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/america.htm America]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/flags_of_us_states.htm Flags of the U.S. States]
*[http://www.pibmug.com/files/map_test.swf Interactive map test of the 50 U.S. states]
*[http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h445.html U.S. History]
*[http://www.theroot.com/buzz/who-owns-united-states Who Owns the United States?]
*[http://sociology.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html Wealth, Income, and Power.] by G. William Domhoff, University of California Santa Cruz.
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/ Real Life and Death: the Bible, Israel, and America interplay]

{{USstates}}

[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:United States of America]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Slavic languages

2013-01-07T04:18:32Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Slavic languages''' are a group of [[languages]] spoken by Slavic [[people]]. They include [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Polish]], [[Czech]], [[Serbo-Croatian]], [[Ukrainian]] and similar languages. They are spoken in [[Slavs|Slavic]] countries in [[Eastern Europe]].

Some are written using the [[Latin alphabet]] used by [[English language|English]] and other Indo-European languages, but some use other alphabets such as the [[Cyrillic alphabet]].

They tend to have complex [[grammar]]s compared to the [[English language]], which is why they usually five hundred hours of tuition are needed to master them.

== See Also ==
* Latin[[Alphabet]]:
** [[Czech Republic|Czech language]]
** [[Polish]]

* [[Cyrillic alphabet]]
** [[Russian language]]

[[Category:Slavic languages| ]]

User talk:Johnpeterslusarski

2013-01-07T04:15:22Z

Johnpeterslusarski: /* Southern Europe */

{{welcome}}
My that's quite an impressive edit rate already. Make yourself at home here. [[User:Brenden|brenden]] 21:49, 6 January 2013 (EST)

== Southern Europe ==

How would you class countries such as those in the Balkans ? I'm assuming you would class them as being in southern europe. [[User:Dvergne|Dvergne]] 23:07, 6 January 2013 (EST)
Well, they are certainly in southern Europe. Using the term we avoid both Western Europe and Eastern Europe terms that are a source of a major controversy in Europe both because they refer to the Cold War and secondly because they are completely incorrect geographically. If it is necessary to be specific, then the Balkans is preferred because it reflects better the identity of the people living there.
The map of the Balkans is fluid with Central Europe. Countries like Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia can be considered as Central European, when a generalisation is required, while we should try to associate Romania more with Central Europe. Thanks for your help!
--[[User:Johnpeterslusarski|Johnpeterslusarski]] 23:15, 6 January 2013 (EST)

Polish language

2013-01-07T04:03:19Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Polish''' (''Polska'') is a [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] language spoken by over 70 million people, mainly in [[Poland]] and by communities of Poles worldwide (mostly in the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[Israel]] and [[Canada]]). It is a West Slavic language, most cloely related to [[Czech_language|Czech]] and [[Slovak_language|Slovak]]. It is an official language of the [[European Union]]].

Polish has several letters and diacritics not present in [[English]]. The tables below give an introductory guide to pronunciation and transcription:<ref>http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~atpc/learn/tools/pl-alphabet.html</ref>

==Alphabet==

* Aa = English 'ah'
* Ąą = English 'on'
* Bb = English 'b'
* Cc = English 't'+'s'
* Ćć = English 'ch' soft
* Dd = English 'd'
* Ee = English 'e'
* Ęę = English 'en'
* Ff = English 'f'
* Gg = English 'g' hard
* Hh = English 'h'
* Ii = English 'i'
* Jj = English 'y'
* Kk = English 'k'
* Ll = English 'l'
* Łł = English 'w'
* Mm = English 'm'
* Nn = English 'n'
* Ńń = English 'n'
* Oo = English 'oh'
* Óó = English 'ou'
* Pp = English 'p'
* Rr = English 'r' rolled
* Ss = English 's'
* Śś = English 'sh' soft
* Tt = English 't'
* Uu = English 'oo'
* Ww = English 'v'
* Yy = English 'eh'
* Zz = English 'z'
* Źź = English 'zh' soft
* Żż = English 'zh' harder

==Consonant Sounds==

* l~ - same as w in woman
* Z~ - same as s in street
* ch - same as h in happy
* cz - same as ch in church
* dz - same as d followed by z
* dz~ - same as d followed by z~
* rz - same as s in treasure
* sz - same as sh in share

==Polish Diacritics==

How Polish diacritics (accented) letters are typical represented in type:

Use of the tilde " ~ " is the accepted practice for typing Polish diacritic letters when a suitable keyboard is not present.

Type | Accent | located | Pronounced "sound"
* A~ a~ | below | nasal,| pronounced "on" (or as "om" when following a B or P, Da~browski = Dombrowski)
* C~ c~ above| |pronounced roughly "ch"
* E~ e~ below| nasal,| generally pronounced "en" (or "em" when following a B or P, [De~bin~ski = Dembin~ski])
* L~ l~ angled | slash | pronounced much like English W
* N~ n~ above | |kind of like "ni" in "onion"
* O~ o~ above | |sounding much like "oo" in "book".
* S~ s~ above | |kind of like "sh" in "sheep"
* Z~ z~ above | |a soft, hissing "zh" sound
* Z* z* dot |above|a chunkier "zh" sound

==References==

{{reflist}}

[[Category: Poland]]
[[Category: Slavic languages]]
[[Category: Lithuania]]

User:Johnpeterslusarski

2013-01-07T03:55:44Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

Hello, my name is John Peter Slusarski and I am a first generation Polish American. My interests include geography and history of Europe, particularly Poland and other countries of [[Central Europe]].

Regions of the World

2013-01-07T03:07:32Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

This article is about regions of the World as defined by the United Nations<ref>http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm</ref>.

==[[Africa]]==
*[[Eastern Africa]] (including [[Horn of Africa]])
*[[Middle Africa]] (also known as [[Central Africa]])
*[[Northern Africa]] (including [[Maghreb]])
*[[Southern Africa]]
*[[Western Africa]]

==[[Americas]]==
*[[South America|Latin America and the Caribbean]]
**[[Caribbeans]]
**[[Central America]]
**[[South America (region)|South America]]
*[[North America|Northern America]]

==[[Eurasia]]==

===[[Asia]]===
*[[Central Asia]]
*[[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] (also known as [[Far East]])
*[[South Asia|Southern Asia]] (also known as [[Indian subcontinent]])
*[[South-Eastern Asia]]
*[[Western Asia]] (including [[Caucasus]] and [[Middle East]])

===[[Europe]]===
*[[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]
*[[Northern Europe]] (including [[Scandinavia]] and [[Baltic States]])
*[[Southern Europe]]
*[[Western Europe]]

==[[Oceania]]==
*[[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]
*[[Melanesia]]
*[[Micronesia]]
*[[Polynesia]]

==Others==
*[[Arctic]]
*[[Antarctica]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Regions of the World]]

Teutonic Knights

2013-01-07T03:06:25Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The Knights of the Virgin Mary – or '''Teutonic Knights''' of the Hospital of St. Mary, the Virgin – was a religious-military Order that that was founded at the siege of Acre in 1190 during the [[Crusades|Third Crusade]]. [[German]] in origin, its original purpose was to care for and protect German pilgrims to the [[Holy Land]]. Its knights took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. They wore a white mantle with a black cross. The Order gained the approval of the German Emperor 1191 and its conversion to a military order was approved by the [[pope]] in 1199.

About 1225 a Mazovian duke of Poland employed them to assist in his invasion of the then heathen [[Prussia]]ns. By the 1280’s, helped by their absorption of a purely military order, the Brethren of the Sword, they had conquered most of the area of what is now northern [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic]] states in a sort of perpetual on-growing crusade-cum-invasion that, in the end, was to bring about their downfall as the political implications of their power began to out-weigh the religious. By the 1380s they were, effectively, the most powerful Catholic state in Northern and [[Central Europe]], ruling from a series of great castles.

Their control of already converted states caused alienation and they were soundly defeated in battle by Christian Polish-[[Lithuania]]n forces in 1410. They went into decline, were secularised in Prussia in 1525, and were finally abolished as any sort of force by [[Napoleon]] in 1809.

The Order was revived in 1834, and transformed to a purely mendicant one in 1929.

[[Category: Crusades]]
[[Category: German History]]
[[Category: Polish History]]
[[Category: Medieval History]]

American History Homework Thirteen Answers - Student Eleven

2013-01-07T03:03:41Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

Christina F.

1. What is your favorite period of time in American history, and why?

I like the 20's and the Great Depression. Our country did a great deal of cultural and economical change during this time that caused it to grow as a nation.

:Interesting that you included the Great Depression in that. Many students said the 20s, but not many think well of the Great Depression. But it is well worth learning about and I'm glad you find it particularly interesting!

2. Contrast President Ronald Reagan with President Bill Clinton.

Contrast seems to be the only thing you CAN do with these polar opposites. Reagen possessed some semblance of moral characters and had decent politics, while Clinton let everything go wrong. Many of his choice are responsible for the recession we are in now.

:Superb, concise answer. (Note: "Reagan" with two "a"s).

3. What would you say is the most important trend or trends guiding American history?

Money has been controlling this country since the beginning--what currency to use? Inflation, many other problems concerning money have contributed to the economic history of the US.

:Superb answer. May use as a model!

4. What is the most important threat to the future of America? Cite history to support your view.

The biggest threat to the US is itself. As we've seen from the Great Depression, love of money can bring a whole country down--we are seeing mistakes from them being repeated even today.

:Good answer, with good examples.

5. Do you see a connection between culture and success for a nation? Give an example from history (e.g., period of time) to support your view.

Culture does affect the success for a nation, in a way. During the 20's, there was a cultural boom; it seemed that the country was heading for good, and it was for a while, but then the Great Depression struck and culture didn't matter so much anymore.

:Terrific answer.

6. Describe two of the greatest achievements of Ronald Reagan.

One of Reagan's accomplishments were the Star Wars--ways of shooting down missiles before they hit their target; and also, he is credited with ending communism in [[Central Europe]] (note: do not confuse with [[Eastern Europe]]) and the Soviet Union (Eastern Europe and Northern Asia).

:Excellent.

7. Explain during which century you think this map was drawn, and comment how America's achievements may have met or exceeded the expectations of the cartographer or other people of his time.

This map seems to have been written in the early 1300's or so. The cartographer view America as small and insignificant compared to the other countries around it. If only he could've seen what it really looked like!

:Couple hundred years too early with that estimate. America was not known to be a separate continent before the European explorers in the early 1500s. The rest of your answer is good! (Minus 1).

H1. Using American history as your guide, predict what will happen in the first two years of the Obama Administration.

It doesn't seem quite right to predict what will happen during the Obama Administration only based on him, but at the rate the economic situation is moving, the recession will get worse before it gets any better.

:Good point about the economy, and you're right not to place too much emphasis on one person's views when predicting the course of a new Administration.

H2. Write about any issue, debate, or mystery related to the lecture or its time period.

Debate: Do you think Congress should pass treaties as ordinary laws when unable to obtain the 2/3rd vote required under the Constitution to ratify a treaty?

No. If the ordinary 2/3rd vote is not met, the law should not be passed.

:Right. Well put.

H3. "Free trade": good or bad? Your view please, while mentioning NAFTA and WTO.

Free trade as promoted by NAFTA is not a very good idea. Things which are legal in other countries but illegal in the US will be able to freely pass into our country.

:Excellent point, could include as a model!

:Superb answers. 69/70. Great finish to terrific homework throughout the course!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 18:42, 20 December 2008 (EST)

[[Category:American History lectures]]

Balkan peninsula

2013-01-07T03:01:37Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''Balkan Peninsula''' is the area of southern [[Europe]] bounded by the [[Adriatic Sea]] and [[Ionian Sea]] to the west, and the [[Black Sea]] and [[Aegean Sea]] to the east. It comprises [[Greece]], the European portion of [[Turkey]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Albania]], [[Macedonia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]], [[Croatia]], [[Serbia]], and [[Slovenia]]. It is named after the Balkan Mountains in Bulgaria. In the early 19th century the Balkan peninsula - or 'the [[Balkans]]' for short - was largely part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The subsequent decline of that empire led to the breaking away of smaller independent states, giving rise to the term 'Balkanization'.

==Further reading==
* Jelavich, Barbara. '' History of the Balkans. Vol. 1, Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries'' (1983) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Balkans-Vol-Eighteenth-Publication/dp/0521274583/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243457844&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Jelavich, Barbara. ''History of the Balkans: vol 2: Twentieth century'' (1983) 476 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC&dq=intitle:history+intitle:balkans+inauthor:jelavich&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Ramet, Sabrina Petra. ''Balkan Babel: Politics, Culture, and Religion in Yugoslavia.'' (1992). 230 pp.
* Singleton, Fred. ''A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples.'' (1985). 309 pp.

==see also==
* [[Yugoslavia]]

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Balkans]]

European Diplomacy

2013-01-07T03:00:37Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

This article covers '''European diplomacy''' since 1815.
==1815 to 1918==
===1815-1900===
===1900 to 1914===
===1914-1919===
==Post 1920==
At Versailles the victorious Allies promoted democracy and [[self-determination]] for [[Central Europe]]. However the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s caused most of the countries to abandon democracy and become one-party states or dictatorships.

===Central Europe between the wars===
Starting in 1919, it was the policy of France to construct a ''cordon sanitaire'' (quarantine line) in [[Eastern Europe]] that was designed to contain both the Germans and Soviets and their ideologies, which were metaphorically compared to diseases. The crushing of [[Béla Kun]]'s [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] in 1919 by the combined forces of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and France was an early example of an enforcement of the ''cordon sanitaire''. In 1921, France signed a defensive alliance with Poland committing both states to come to each other's aid in the event of one of the powers being attacked by another European power. In 1924, the French signed a similar defensive alliance with Czechoslovakia, in 1926 with [[Romania]] and in 1927 with [[Yugoslavia]].

In 1925, the French signed new treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which tightened the levels of military co-operation between the signatory states. In addition, the French tried to turn the [[Little Entente]] of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia which had been set up as an anti-Hungarian alliance in 1921 into an anti-German alliance. In 1921, Poland and Romania signed a [[Polish-Romanian Alliance|defensive alliance]]. This was as close as Poland came to joining the Little Entente. The French would have preferred to also see Poland a member, but antagonism between Czechoslovakia and Poland doomed the idea.

Beyond the Covenant of the [[League of Nations]], Britain had no defense commitments in Eastern Europe in the 1920s and made clear that they wanted to keep it that way.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or the Soviet Union).<ref> In 1933, there were false rumors that a "preventive war" option against Germany was being considered by the French, Belgian and Polish governments. </ref>

In 1932 and again in 1934, Poland signed a 10 year non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Also in 1932, the Soviets signed 10-year non-aggression pacts with [[Finland]], [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]. In January 1934, Germany and Poland signed a 10-year non-aggression pact. In 1935, the Soviets signed treaties of alliance with France and Czechoslovakia. The Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty committed the Soviets to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia if attacked by a neighbor provided France did first.

==World War II==

==Czechoslovakia==
''See also: [[History of Czechoslovakia# Before WWII (1938 – 1939)]] and later sections''

The term "Western betrayal" was coined after the [[Munich Conference]] (1938) when [[Czechoslovakia]] was forced to cede part of its area ([[Sudetenland]]) to Nazi [[Germany]]. Czech politicians joined the newspapers in regularly using the term and it, along with the associated feelings, became a stereotype among [[Czechs]]. The Czech terms ''Mnichov'' ([[Munich]]), ''Mnichovská zrada'' (''Munich betrayal'') and ''zrada spojenců'' (''betrayal of the allies'') were coined at the same time and have the same meaning.

During the post-war 1946 parliamentary campaign, the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] argued (with much success) that the historical unreliability of Western allies must be countered by closer relations with the Soviet Union. After the Communist Party seized all power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, the 1938 betrayal was frequently referenced in Communist propaganda. This interpretation of history was official and the only one allowed.

After the Communist Party lost its power in the 1989 [[Velvet Revolution]], official use of the term stopped and historians began to discuss the events.
==Poland==
=== First World War aftermath ===
After the First World War, Poland regained independence after 123 years of partitions. While the victorious Western allies proclaimed their support for an independent Poland, they also wanted to weaken Germany and the Soviet Union.

===Silesia===
Germany controlled [[Silesia]], an industrial area with a largely Polish populace. Many French and British politicians desired the industrial region of Silesia to remain part of Germany, so that Germany would have an easier time paying the Great War reparations to France and its allies. Britain provided no aid to Poland during the 1921 [[Silesian Uprisings]]. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], a [[plebiscite]] was to be held to determine which areas of ethnically mixed Silesia were to be ceded to Poland and which were to remain with Germany. In some districts of Upper Silesia, the majority of the people were Polish and opted for Poland; the majority in the rest of Upper Silesia opted for Germany. After the plebiscite, the Germans balked at handing over any part of Upper Silesia, claiming that the Versailles treaty did not call for partitioning Silesia by districts. The German interpretation was that the majority of people in Silesia had chosen Germany and so all of Silesia should remain with Germany. The German view was supported by Britain. In fact, the Versailles Treaty did clearly state that Upper Silesia was to be partitioned by districts after the plebiscite.

In the years immediately after World War One, it was French policy to weaken Germany as much as possible, and though the French did not champion the border that the Poles wanted in Silesia, the French attitude to the Polish cause in regard to the Silesian dispute was markedly pro-Polish and anti-German. Indeed, it was a ultimatum from Paris that compelled the Germans to withdraw their forces from Silesia in June 1921.

Ostensibly, the British view that all of Silesia ought to remain with Germany was based on the belief that it would allow Germany to more easily pay reparations to France; by 1921, London had largely abandoned any claims against Germany and was strongly pressuring both France and Belgium to lower their reparations claims against the Germans as much as possible. The British argument about reparations was mostly a bid to influence French public opinion; the real reason for London's pro-German stance was the belief that if Germany were to lose too much territory, this could undermine the fragile [[Weimar Republic]] and lead to extremists taking power in Germany. Thus, British policy towards Silesia in 1921 was largely motivated by the desire to consolidate German democracy. Though the British were prepared to support an interpretation of Versailles that violated both its letter and its spirit, and though the Poles were understandably angry with London’s pro-German view in this matter, it is very hard to refer to British refusal to support the Polish rebels in Silesia as a “betrayal” as Britain had never made any commitments to do so.

During the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1918-1921), there was a debate among western politicians which side they should support: the [[White Russians]] (representing the former [[Imperial Russia]] loyalists), the new [[Bolshevik]] revolutionaries, or newly independent countries trying to expand their territory at the expense of the powers that lost the First World War. Eventually, France and Britain decided to support the White Russians and Poland; however, their support to Poland was limited to the few hundred soldiers of the [[French Military Mission to Poland|French military mission]]. Further, when it seemed likely in early 1920 that Poland would lose the war (which did not happen), Western diplomats encouraged Poland to surrender and settle for large territorial losses (the [[Curzon line]]).

In July 1920, Britain announced it would send huge quantities of World War One surplus military supplies to Poland, but a threatened general strike by the [[Trades Union Congress]] who objected to British support of "White Poland" ensured that none of the weapons that were supposed to go to Poland went any further than British ports. The British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] had never been enthusiastic about supporting the Poles, and had been pressured by his more right-wing Cabinet members such as [[Lord Curzon]] and Winston Churchill into offering the supplies. The threatened general strike was for Lloyd George a convenient excuse for backing out of his commitments. The French were hampered in their efforts to supply Poland by the refusal of [[Gdańsk]] (now in Poland) dockworkers to unload supplies for Poland. Likewise, French efforts to supply Poland via land were hindered by the refusal of Czechoslovakia and Germany (both which had border disputes with Poland) to allow arms for Poland to cross their frontiers.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or Soviet Russia). With the rise of [[Nazism]] in Germany, this system of alliances was strengthened by the signing of a series of "mutual assistance" alliances between France, Britain, and Poland. This agreement stated that in the event of war the other allies were to fully mobilize and carry out a "ground intervention within two weeks" in support of the ally being attacked.

===Up to 1939===
====Diplomacy====
In the years following the end of World War I and the [[Polish-Soviet War]], Poland had signed alliances with many European powers. The most important were the military alliance with France signed on February 19, 1921 and the defensive alliance with [[Romania]] of March 3, 1921. The alliance with France was a major factor in Polish inter-war foreign relations, and was seen as the main warrant of peace in [[Central Europe]]; Poland's military doctrine was heavily influenced by this alliance as well.

As World War II was nearing, both governments started to look for a renewal of the bilateral promises. This was accomplished in May 1939, when General Tadeusz Kasprzycki signed a secret protocol (later ratified by both governments) to the Franco-Polish Military Alliance with General Maurice Gamelin. It was agreed that France would grant her eastern ally a military credit ''as soon as possible''. In case of war with Germany, France promised to start minor land and air military operations at once, and to start a major offensive ''(with the majority of its forces)'' not later than 15 days after the declaration of war.

On March 30, 1939, the British government pledged to defend Poland, in the event of a German attack. The British “guarantee” of Poland was only of Polish independence, and pointly excluded Polish territorial integrity. Britain hoped to prevent Hitler from expanding easterwards, and obtaining control of the resources of [[Central Europe]], which would enable him to turn upon the Western countries with overwhelming force. The basic goal of British foreign policy between 1919-1939 was to prevent another world war by a mixture of “carrot and stick”. The “stick” in this case was the “guarantee” of March 1939, which was intended to prevent Germany from attacking either Poland or Romania. At the same time, the Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and his Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax hoped to offer a “carrot” to [[Adolf Hitler]] in the form of another Munich-type deal that would see the Free City of [[Gdańsk]] (now Poland) and the Polish Corridor returned to Germany in exchange for a promise by Hitler to leave the rest of Poland alone.

This declaration was further amended in April, when Poland and Britain signed a mutual assistance treaty. Like the “guarantee” of March 30, the Anglo-Polish alliance committed Britain only to the defense of Polish independence. It was clearly aimed against German aggression. In case of war, Britain was to start hostilities as soon as possible; initially helping Poland with air raids against the German war industry, and joining the struggle on land as soon as the British army arrived in France. In addition, a military credit was granted and armament was to reach Polish or Romanian ports in ''early autumn.''

At the same time secret German-Soviet talks were held in Moscow which resulted in signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] on August 22, 1939--a decisive event that signaled the war would start soon.

====The Phony War====
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany after ultimatums to withdraw expired on September 3. Britain and France enforced a naval [[blockade]] on Germany and seized German ships starting with the declaration of war.

A French offensive in the Rhine river valley area (the "Saar Offensive") was immediately launched against Germany. Eleven French divisions advanced along a 32 km line with negligible German opposition. Britain conducted a number of air raids against the German navy on September 4 1939.

The Allied attitude towards Poland in 1939 has been a subject of an ongoing dispute among historians ever since. Some historians argue that if only France had pursued the offensive against Germany, it would have been able to break through the unfinished Siegfried Line and force Germany to fight a costly two-front war. Others argue that France and Britain had promised more than they would deliver — especially when confronted with the option to declare war on the [[Soviet Union]] for violating Poland's territory on September 17, 1939 the way they had on Germany on September 3, 1939 — and that the French army was superior to the [[Wehrmacht]] in numbers only. It lacked the offensive doctrines, mobilization schemes, and offensive spirit necessary to attack Germany.

The problem with Polish expectations was that the French and British commitments greatly exaggerated their capabilities. Although France promptly declared war, the French mobilization was not complete until early October, by which time Poland had fallen. In Britain where mobilization was more rapid, only 1 in 40 men were mobilized (compared to 1 in 10 in France, and 1 in 20 in Poland), thus providing only a token force against Germany's forces of several million. After the war, General Alfred Jodl commented that the Germans survived 1939 "only because approximately 110 French and English divisions in the West, which during the campaign on Poland were facing 25 German divisions, remained completely inactive."

In the end, many Poles believe that although Poland held out for five weeks, three weeks longer than was planned, it received no military aid from its allies, Britain and France. Additionally Poland never surrendered to either the Germans or Russians. The agreed upon "two week ground response" never materialized, and Poland fell to the Nazis and the Soviets as a result.
===1940s===
Soon after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Polish government in exile signed a pact with [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin refused to consider any suggestion that he surrender the Polish territory he seized in 1939. Britain nonetheless pressured the Poles to withdraw this demand, since, in Churchill's words, "We could not force our new and sorely threatened [Soviet] ally to abandon, even on paper, regions on her frontier which she regarded for generations as vital to her security." The London Poles conceded but only after Britain agreed to state in writing that all agreements that adjusted Poland's pre-war borders were null and void. The Soviet-Polish agreement was signed on July 30, 1941, and [[Anthony Eden]] formally notified the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] of the arrangements that same day. In response to a parliamentary question about Britain's commitment, however, Eden stated that "The exchange of notes which I have just read to the House does not involve any guarantee of frontiers by His Majesty's Government."

The Poles were more successful in obtaining Soviet agreement to the creation of the [[Polish Army in the East]], and obtaining the release of Polish citizens from the [[GULag|Soviet labor camps]]. Despite the difficulties the Soviet government made, many were freed from confinement and permitted to join the Polish Army formed formally on August 12, 1941. However, after the troops were withdrawn to the [[Middle East]] in March 1942, Stalin revoked the amnesty and in June and July arrested all Polish diplomats in the USSR.

Meanwhile, on September 24, 1941, Poland and the Soviet Union signed the [[Atlantic Charter]]. It underlined that no territorial changes should be made that would ''not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.'' It was viewed by the Polish government as a warrant of Poland's borders, although it became apparent that some concessions would have to be made.

In December 1941, a Conference was held in [[Moscow]] between the USSR and Great Britain. Stalin proposed to base post-war Polish western borders on the [[Oder-Neisse Line]] and demanded that the United Kingdom accept the pre-war western borders of the Soviet Union. [[Anthony Eden]] accepted the demand as he assumed that the border in question was the 1939 line.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, Stalin apparently meant the 1941 border with Germany. It was soon discovered, but the British government decided not to change the document. On March 11, 1942, [[Winston Churchill]] notified Prime Minister [[Władysław Sikorski]] that the borders of the [[Baltic States]] and [[Romania]] were guaranteed, and that no decision was made regarding the borders of Poland.

====Katyn and the Soviet pressure====
From the very beginning of Polish-Soviet talks in 1941, the government of Poland was searching for approximately 20,000 Polish officers missing in Russia. Stalin always replied that they either ''must have fled to Mongolia'' or ''are somewhere in Russia, which is a big country and it's easy to get lost here''{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In April 1943 German news agencies reported finding mass graves of Polish soldiers in [[Katyn]]. The Polish government requested the Soviet Union examine the case and at the same time asked the [[Red Cross|International Red Cross]] for help in verifying the German reports.

On April 24, 1943, Sikorski met with Eden and demanded Allied help in releasing Polish prisoners in the [[gulag]]s and Soviet prisons. Sikorski also declined the Soviet demand that Poland withdraw their plea to have the Red Cross investigate Katyn. [[Anthony Eden]] refused to help and the Soviet Union broke diplomatic relations with Poland on the following day, arguing that the Polish government was collaborating with [[Nazi Germany]]. Despite Polish pleas for help, the [[United States]] and the United Kingdom decided not to put pressure on the USSR.

After the Soviets stopped the German advance on the Eastern Front, Poland lost its significance as the main Eastern ally. This was made obvious by the German [[Battle of Stalingrad|defeat at Stalingrad]].

====Tehran====

:''See also: '''[[Teheran conference]]'''''
In November 1943, the [[Big Three]] (USSR, USA, and UK) met at the [[Tehran Conference]]. Both Roosevelt and Churchill officially agreed that the eastern borders of Poland would roughly follow the Curzon Line. That meant that Western Ukraine would become part of the Ukraine (and thus part of the Soviet Union). Few Poles lived therebut they did not want to gove it up. and Roosevelt did not wish to upset Polish voters in the United States during the upcoming [[Presidential elections of 1944]].<ref> Roosevelt told Stalin, “Next year in the United States elections are in prospect. …In America there are millions of citizens of Polish origin, and therefore, being a practical person, I would not want to lose their concerns. I am agreeable with Marshal Stalin to the fact that we must restore the Polish state, and personally I do not have objections to the borders of Poland being moved from the east to the West - up to Oder, but for political reasons I cannot participate at present in the resolution of this question. I consider Marshal Stalin's ideas, I hope that he will understand, why I cannot publicly participate in resolution of this question." [http://nobsopus.blogspot.com/2007/08/63-memorandum-of-conversation-i-v.html № 63 Memorandum of conversation Josef Stalin with Franklin Roosevelt], [[Teheran conference]], 1 December, 1943 [http://vlastitel.com.ru/stalin/vov/tegeran.html Russian text].</ref>

====1944 Warsaw Uprising====
Since the establishment of the Polish government in exile, the military commanders of the Polish army were focusing most of their efforts on preparation of a future all-national uprising against Germany. Finally, the plans for "Operation Tempest" were prepared and on August 1, 1944 the [[Warsaw Uprising]] started. The Uprising was an armed struggle by the Polish Home Army to liberate [[Warsaw]] from German occupation and Nazi rule. At this point the Russian army was closing in, but it unexpectedly stopped, allowing the Germans to use their full military power to crush the pooly armed revolt. The uprising lasted for over 60 days, from August 1 to early October 1944. The Polish underground army, known as the AK, took on numerically superior and much better-armed Wehrmacht and SS units. The outcome was catastrophic. After the AK surrendered, the Germans evacuated all the inhabitants of Warsaw amid scenes of random murder. In the course of the whole ordeal at least 160,000 Poles, and perhaps many more, were killed. With flamethrowers and dynamite, the Germans then destroyed the deserted city with all its historic landmarks, its cathedral and palaces.

Polish and RAF planes flew missions over Warsaw dropping supplies from 4 August on, the United States did not join the operation. Stalin refused the use of Soviet airfields, and refused any aid to the Warsaw freedom fighters. Any aid would have been symbolic, for the uprising was hopeless without the full commitment of Societ forces.<ref> Norman Davies, ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw'' (2004)</ref>

====Yalta====
: ''See also: [[Yalta conference]]''.

In 1945, Poland's borders were redrawn following the decision made at the [[Tehran Conference]] of 1943 at the insistence of the Soviet Union. The Polish government was not invited to the talks and was to be notified of their outcome. Polish representatives did present arguments concerning borders at the Potsdam conference, however, and Polish demands for German territory were agreed to. The eastern territories which the Soviet Union had occupied in 1939 (with the exception of the [[Białystok]] area) were permanently annexed, and most of their Polish inhabitants expelled: today these territories are part of [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Lithuania]]. The factual basis of this decision was the result of a forged referendum from November 1939 in which the "huge majority" of voters accepted the incorporation of these lands into Western Belarus and Western Ukraine. In compensation, Poland was given former German territory (the so-called [[Regained Territories]]): the southern half of [[East Prussia]] and all of [[Pomerania]] and [[Silesia]], up to the [[Oder-Neisse Line]]. The German population of these territories [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|were deported]] and these territories were subsequently repopulated with [[Expulsion of Poles after World War II|Poles deported from the eastern regions]]. This combined with other similar migrations in [[Central Europe]] to form [[Human migration#Post-World War II Migrations|one of the largest human migrations in modern times]]. Stalin ordered Polish resistance fighters to be either incarcerated or deported to [[gulag]]s in Siberia. Many Poles believe that Western leaders tried to force Polish leaders to accept the conditions of Stalin. Some view it as a 'betrayal' of Poland by its Western allies (which can be seen as part of a larger 'betrayal' to 'allow' it to fall entirely into the Soviet sphere of influence).<ref>‘’The Yalta Betrayal’’, Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/pearl/www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/yaltabet.html pgs. 12 - 13]. “Fact is that Roosevelt, eager to succeed where Woodrow Wilson had failed, dreamed of creating a better and more peaceful world through legal instruments, and in pursuit of his illusions obtruded himself upon Joe Stalin with every imaginable gift, including eleven billion dollars' worth of [[lend-lease]], the security of eighty million eastern Europeans and hundreds of millions of Chinese, and the lives of several millions of the best friends free society possessed.”</ref> Moreover, it was used by ruling communists to underline anti-Western sentiments.<ref name="Sharp"> {{cite book | author =[[Samuel Leonard Sharp]] | title =Poland, white eagle on a red field | year =1953 | editor = | pages =163 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Harvard University Press]] | location =Harvard | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xtceAAAAMAAJ&vid=OCLC01457011&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=betrayal&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Davies"> {{cite book | author =[[Norman Davies]] | title =[[God's Playground]] | volume = 2 | year =2005 [1982] | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Columbia University Press]] | location = | id =ISBN 0-231-12819-3| url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref> It was easy to argue that Poland was not very important to the West, since Allied leaders sacrificed Polish borders, the legal government, and free elections.<ref name="Jones"> {{cite book | author =[[Howard Jones]] | coauthors = | title =Crucible of Power: a history of U.S. foreign relations since 1897 | year =2001 | editor = | pages =205-207 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =Rowman & Littlefield | location = | id =ISBN 0842029184 | url =http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0842029184&id=n6Al88smOAUC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&ots=ifNDYJ7z_Y&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&sig=6fllW8jCLI-QEifsfDX0XFTZ2Vk#PPA207,M1 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="PAC"> {{cite journal | author =various authors | year =1948 | month = | title =A compilation of selected resolutions, declarations, memorials, memorandums,... | journal =Selected Documents | volume = | issue =1244-1248 | pages =112 | publisher = [[Polish American Congress]] | location = Chicago, IL | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=x5brwE5vmlwC&vid=OCLC05523398&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=AS+A+PARTY+TO+THE+YALTA+AGREEMENT+THAT+CRUSHED&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Sharp_2">Sharp, op.cit., p.12</ref>

With this background, even Stalin looked more reliable since he did have strong interests in Poland. The Federal Republic of Germany, formed in 1949, was portrayed by Communist propaganda as the breeder of Hitler's posthumous offspring who desired retaliation and wanted to take back from Poland the "[[Recovered Territories]]".<ref>"Poland under Stalinism", _Poznan in June 1956: A Rebellious City_, The Wielkopolska Museum of the Fight for Independence in Poznan, 2006, p. 5</ref> Giving this picture a grain of creditability was contained in the fact that Federal Republic of Germany until 1970 refused to recognize the Oder-Neisse Line and that many West German officials were alleged to have a tainted Nazi past. Thus, for a segment of Polish public opinion, Communist rule was seen as the lesser of the two evils.
[[Image:Sovietambitions.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The darkened areas represent territorries of Soviet ambitions and designs, 1921 - 1949.]]
Defenders of the actions taken by the Western allies maintain that [[Realpolitik]] made it impossible to do anything else, and that they were in no shape to start an utterly un-winnable war with the Soviet Union over the subjugation of Poland and other [[Central Europe]]an countries immediately after the end of World War II. Some argue that the actions of the Secretary of State were a result of ignorance rather than Realpolitik.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} is not aware of the fact." Molotov paused for a reply. No denial was forthcoming.85 The truth was out at last. Later Churchill told Mikolajczyk he "was not going to wreck the peace of Europe because of a quarrel between Poles."<ref>Jan Ciechanowski, ''Defeat in Victory'', Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1947, pgs. 330-331, quoted in John T. Flynn, ''The Roosevelt Myth'', Fox and Wilkes, 1948, Book 3, Chapter 9, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Nine___The_Great_Confere.htm ''The Great Conferences''].</ref> It is contended that the presence of a double standard with respect to Nazi and Soviet aggression existed in 1939 and 1940, when the Soviets invaded eastern Poland and the Baltic States, respectively, and the Western Allies failed to declare war. The U.S. State Department never issued a single diplomatic protest against the Soviet Union despite her absorption of [[Sinkiang]] and [[Outer Mongolia]], while at the same time, Japan was censured for stationing troops in [[Manchukuo|Manchuria]].<ref>Communism at Pearl Harbor, How the Communists Helped to Bring on Pearl Harbor and Open up Asia to Communinization, Dr. Anthony Kubek, Dallas Texas, Teaching Publishing Company, 1959, [http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/comatph.html pg. 22]. Dr. Anthony Kubek was the Editor of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]], Report on the ''Morgenthau Diaries''. In 1965, the SISS issued a two volume committee print entitled Morgenthau Diary (China), Edited by Dr. Anthony Kubek, containing entries from the records at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library selected to illustrate the implementation of Roosevelt administration policy in China. According to Dr. Kubek, the subcommittee wanted to produce a documentary history on the subject and "also indicate the serious problem of unauthorized, uncontrolled and often dangerous power exercised by non-elected officials," specifically [[Harry Dexter White]]. White was a major figure in Senator William Jenner's investigation of interlocking subversion in Government departments in 1953. [http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-13-judiciary-1947-1968.html#103] </ref>

What the Western allies sacrificed is also disputed. Some argue that Poland's borders had been re-drawn many times in history, the country had not had free elections since 1926 and throughout the 1930s it had endured increasing political repression under an [[authoritarian]] [[Sanacja]] government. On the other hand, the Polish government in exile was composed entirely of the pre-war democratic opposition and all political parties of the [[Polish Secret State]] underlined the need to follow the democratic traditions of March 1921 constitution, rather than [[autocratic]] [[Polish constitution of 1935|April constitution of Poland]] of 1935.

In May 2005 US President [[George W. Bush]] admitted that the Soviet domination of [[Central Europe]] and the [[Balkans]] after World War II was "one of the greatest wrongs of history" and acknowledged that the United States played a significant role in the division of the continent and that the Yalta conference "followed in the unjust tradition of Munich and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. (...) Once again, when powerful governments negotiated, the freedom of small nations was somehow expendable." In fact, chief American negotiator at Yalta, [[Alger Hiss]], was later found to be secretly working for the Soviets.<ref>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html Venona 1822 Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945].</ref>

====Aftermath====
[[Władysław Sikorski]], Prime Minister of Polish Government in Exile, was killed in an air crash over [[Gibraltar]] in July 1943. As he was the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles, his death was a severe setback to the Polish cause, and was certainly highly convenient for Stalin. It was in some ways also convenient for the western Allies, who were finding the Polish issue a stumbling-block in their efforts to preserve good relations with Stalin.

This has given rise to persistent suggestions that Sikorski's death was not accidental. Many historians speculate that his death might have been effect of Soviet, British or even a Polish conspiracy. This has never been proven, and the fact that the principal exponents of this theory in the west have been the [[revisionism|revisionist]] historians David Irving and Rolf Hochhuth has not encouraged many western historians to take it seriously.

On the other hand by 2000 only a small part of the British Intelligence documents related to Sikorski's death had been unclassified and made available to Polish historians. The majority of the files will be classified for another "50 to 100 years." This is a common procedure in the release of most types of official secret documents in the UK.

In November 1944, despite his mistrust of the Soviets, Sikorski's successor, Prime Minister [[Stanisław Mikołajczyk]] resigned to return to Poland and take office in the [[People's Republic of Poland|new government]] established under the auspices of the Soviet occupation authorities. Many of the Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a facade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland, a view that was later proved correct; after losing an election which was later shown to have been fraudulent, Mikołajczyk left Poland again in 1947.

Meanwhile the government in exile had maintained its existence, but the United States and the United Kingdom withdrew their recognition on July 6, 1945. The Polish armed forces in exile were disbanded in 1945 and most of the exiles, unable to return to Communist Poland, settled in other countries. The London Poles had to leave the embassy on Portland Place and were left only with the president's private residence at 43 Eaton Place. The government in exile then became largely symbolic, serving mainly to symbolize the continued resistance to foreign occupation of Poland, and retaining control of some important archives from pre-war Poland. [[Ireland]] and [[Spain]] were the last countries to recognize the government in exile.

No representatives of Polish military, veterans of [[Battle of Britain]] and [[Monte Cassino]], were invited to the [[London Victory Parade]] of 1946 - Poles were supposed to attend the Moscow Victory Parade instead. This was because the Victory Parade was solely for the nations of the British Empire and Commonwealth and no other foreign troops were invited.

At the war's end many of these feelings of resentment were capitalized on by the occupying Soviets, who used them to reinforce anti-Western sentiments within Poland. Propaganda was produced by Communists to show Russia as the Great Liberator, and the West as the Great Traitor.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Capitalism was shown as being inherently bad, because capitalists only cared for "their own skin," while communism was portrayed as the great "uniter and protector."

==Russia==
In the final days of the war, masses of refugees from Nazi-abandoned Russia and [[#Croatia|Croatia]] were fleeing from the Red Army and [[Josip Broz|Tito]]'s partisans.
In [[Operation Keelhaul]], British troops gathered these thousands of refugees in Austria including [[Cossacks]], [[Ustase]], [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatian]] and [[White Russia]]n troops, and civilians.
The Soviet and Russian citizens were turned to [[East Germany|Soviet-occupied Germany]], where in many cases they were summarily shot.

==Baltic States==
For the Baltic States, however, who also had their fate sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, which (after some revision) assigned the Baltics to Soviet control. The U.S. never recognized this annexation and helped the Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania become fully independent in 1991.

==Notes and references==

<div class="references-small">
::'''In-line:'''
<references/>

==See also==
*[[history of Poland#World War II in Poland (1939-1945)|History of Poland]]
*[[history of Czechoslovakia#Before WWII (1938 – 1939)|History of Czechoslovakia]]
**[[Munich Agreement]]
**[[Occupation of Czechoslovakia]]
*[[History of Finland]]
**[[Winter War]]
*[[history of Ukraine#The 20th Century|History of Ukraine]]
*[[History of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Operation Keelhaul]]
*[[Polish contribution to World War II]]
*[[Revolutions of 1989]]
==Bibliography==
===19th century===
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===World War I===
* Bakeless, John Edwin. ''The Economic Causes of Modern War: A Study of the Period: 1878-1918'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wgAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=LZcIMpEGmzqwkIldzuhfH5Muveg#PPR3,M1 online edition]
* Cramer, Kevin. "A World of Enemies: New Perspectives on German Military Culture and the Origins of the First World War," ''Central European History'' (2006), 39#2 pp 270-298 online at [[CJO]]
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* Fay, Sidney. ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930); classic scholarly study; argues every nation shared guilt for starting the war [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html online edition]
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* Macmillan, Margaret Olwen. ''Paris 1919: six months that changed the world'' (2001). Very well written scholarly study of making of the Treaty of Versailles

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* Finney, Patrick. ''The Origins of the Second World War'' (1998), 480pp
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* Tooze, Adam. ''The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy'' (2007) influential emphasis that Hitler began to rearm in 1933
* Watt, Donald Cameron ''How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939'', (1989), a major survey
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===Historiography===
* Boxer, Andrew. "French Appeasement: Andrew Boxer Considers Explanations for France's Disastrous Foreign Policy between the Wars." ''History Review'' v. 59 (2007) pp. 45+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5024380016 online edition]
* Boyce, Robert, and Joseph A. Maiolo. ''The Origins of World War Two: The Debate Continues'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-World-War-Two-Continues/dp/0333945395/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195791097&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Peter. "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War," ''History Compass'' Vol. 4, August 2006 [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00344.x?cookieSet=1 online edition]
* Martel, Gordon, ed. ''The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered: A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians,'' (2nd ed. 1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-Second-World-Reconsidered-J-P/dp/0415163250/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206957954&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Neville, Peter. "The Origins of the Second World War Revisited." ''European History Quarterly'' 2005 35(4): 569-582. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Young, Robert J. ''French Foreign Policy, 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials.'' (1991)

====references====
<references/>
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:World War II]]

Causes of World War I

2013-01-07T02:58:20Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

For the war itself see [[World War I]]

The '''causes of World War I''' vary from the immediate (the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne by Serbian nationalists, to the complex (such as ethnic nationalism across Europe, the arms race, and the competing alliance systems) to the remote (the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870-1871).

Political scientists generally say the war was not inevitable--that it was caused more by accident, misunderstanding and too-hurried decision-making. Historians say the deep forces would inevitably have caused a war.
== Four "MAIN" causes==
Four of the causes of [[World War I]] are often referred to by the acronym "MAIN", which stands for Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.
==Multiple causes==
What caused the Great War? Historians still debate the questions involved. How did the conflict start? Was it a case of small mistakes escalating into a conflict that no one really wanted, or was the war an unavoidable consequence of deep conflicts? Why did it become stalemated? Why could it not be terminated? Most ominous of all, could it happen again? The war began in 1914 between two coalitions. The "Central Powers" comprised the German and Austro- Hungarian Empires, later joined by the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire. The "Allies" included the British, Russian and French Empires, Japan, and Serbia.<ref>Italy was originally a Central Power, but remained neutral in 1914 and joined the Allies in 1915.</ref> The powers had vast overseas empires in Asia, Africa and the Western Hemisphere (including Canada) that were active participants.

In examining this war the "who" and "when" questions are less interesting than the "how" and "why" problems. Since 1870 there had been no large war in Europe, largely because the major countries joined one of the two great alliances. Fear of a small conflict escalating into a large war provided deterrence--until 1914 when the system broke down. Historians and political scientists have debated endlessly why the system of alliances and deterrence collapsed, and how the Great War could have been avoided.

===Ethnic nationalism===
Nationalism and ethnic tensions between Germans and Slavs were the basic reasons that the war was fought. Religious affiliations (Roman Catholic, Protestant, Eastern Orthodox, Muslim) overlapped language to produce closed ethnic communities which were highly motivated to fight their traditional enemies. Typically, each ethnic group dominated a central homeland, which had minorities, and also claimed a larger territory. Some claims were centuries old, others were new; they all overlapped. The incantation "it's ours because we were here first" cast a spell on otherwise peaceful peoples and guaranteed perpetual hostility.

For 800 years the Germans had been moving towards the Slavic parts of Central Europe in Europe, attempting to push out the Slavs. Wealth was based on agriculture, so possession of land was decisive. Germany had been unified from Prussia and numerous smaller countries in 1870, and rapidly built a powerful industrial economy with a strong agricultural base. Active imperialism led to the acquisition of numerous colonies in Africa and the Pacific, such as New Guinea. None of the colonies were profitable, but now Germany had a world empire. German’s main rival was Britain, with a smaller home population and a much larger empire, well protected by the world's strongest navy. By 1914 under the leadership of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, Germany had a good fleet, but the Royal Navy remained well ahead in sea power. The naval race heightened rivalries between the two powers, but did not itself cause the war.

After 1900 the Slavs--led by huge Russia and little Serbia-- were fighting back. Militant Pan-Slavic ideology demanded that oppressive German, Hungarian and Ottoman rule be overthrown, so that the Slavs could have their own nation states. Trouble flared in the Balkans, where two recent wars had revealed a propensity to use violence as a first remedy. <ref> The term "Slavic" refers to languages, and by extension to the corresponding ethnic groups. The main Slavic languages were Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Czech, Slovak, and Bulgarian. Note that the Albanians, Estonians, Finns, Germans, Greeks, Hungarians, Italians, Jews, Latvians, Lithuanians, Romanians and Turks who also lived in Central Europe did not consider themselves Slavic, because their languages were distinctively different.</ref> Belgrade (the capital of Serbia) promoted unrest among Serbs in nearby Bosnia-Herzegovina, a multi-ethnic region that the Austro-Hungarian Empire had recently taken from Turkey and now planned to incorporate. The imperial capital, Vienna, was increasingly nervous that unrest among the various minority groups would lead to the breakup of its empire. The only way to keep control was to aggressively suppress nationalist uprisings and stop outsiders from inciting rebellion. On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne, visited Bosnia to legitimize his Empire's claim to that province and upgrade its status. In Sarajevo a team of Bosnian Serbs assassinated him and his wife.<ref> The assassination was planned in Serbia with the assistance of Serbian mid-level military and government officials, but not the government itself. Bosnia receded into the background in 1914, only to reappear center stage 79 years later. In 1993 the powers issued an ultimatum to Belgrade ordering it to stop helping the Bosnian Serbs, who were engaged in "ethnic cleansing" against Bosnian Muslims</ref>

===Alliances and Escalation===
The Austrian Empire’s response escalated the conflict. The escalation was facilitated by the alliance network the major countries had built. Austria was closely allied to Germany and Italy through the "Triple Alliance" of 1882. Turkey was close to Germany and hostile to Russia. Russia and France were allied since 1894. Russia, acting without French approval, played the role of protector of the smaller Slavic nations, especially Serbia.

Britain remained aloof from the alliance system. Germany, influenced by the naval theories of the American [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], embarked on a campaign of naval building, which [[William II (Germany)|the Kaiser] and his naval minister, [[Alfred von Tirpitz]], hoped would help Germany achieve her "place in the sun" among the world powers, and perhaps force the British into an alliance through fear of German naval power. The British responded with an even bigger naval program. The German naval building campaign could not meet its goals, and the British became increasingly alienated from the Germans, whom they increasingly saw as rivals and potential European hegemons. The "Entente Cordiale" of 1904, which dealt with outstanding colonial questions between France and Britain in North Africa, was not a military alliance but it did symbolized Franco-British rapprochement. The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 settled outstanding conflicts of interest between Russia and Britain. As a result there was a general alignment of France, Britain, and Russia known as the "Triple Entente."

Britain thus was officially neutral but was unwilling to accept the possibility that Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire would control the European continent militarily and economically. The United States refused to become involved in any way and insisted on complete neutrality.

==The July 1914 Crisis and Declarations of War==
On June 28th, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated while visiting the city of Sarajevo by a team of trained assassins sent by The Black Hand, a pan-Slavic group financed by Serbia. Following the assassination and Germany's giving of a"blank check" of support to the Austro-Hungarians, a series of demands were issued to Serbia by Austria-Hungary with a strict 48-hour deadline. While the Serbian government offered to meet many of the demands, Prime Minister Nikola Pasic refused to turn over three men identified by Austrian authorities as being behind the attacks, declaring that to do so "would be a violation of Serbia's Constitution and criminal in law." Three days later, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia.

===Preparation for War===
Convinced that now was the time for a showdown, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Germany supported Austria. Russia announced support for Serbia, and France supported its ally Russia. Each nation in Europe (except Britain) had long trained most or all its young men in the army for two or three years, then retained them for long periods in reserves. That meant each country had a small professional army, and a very large reserve army that could be mobilized in a few days. Russia mobilized on July 28, followed in a matter of days or even hours by its rivals and allies. The Central powers had about 7.5 million regulars and reservists; Germany had 4.5 million, Austria 3.0 million; (in addition they were joined by Turkey with 2.9 million and Bulgaria with 1.2 million.) The Allies had larger numbers, Russia 6.0 million; France 4.0 million; Britain and Empire, 1.0 million; and Serbia 200 thousand, for a total of 11.0 million at the start. Later the Allies were joined by Italy (5.6 million), and the United States (4.4 million), as well as smaller countries.<ref> R.Ernest Dupuy and Trevor Dupuy, ''The Encyclopedia of Military History'' (1985) 990.</ref> In the course of the war 1914-1917 the Central powers used 23 million different soldiers and the Allies 43 million. In 1914 the long-term numbers did not matter--it only mattered how many combat soldiers could be sent in a few days to defend the border, or better, to invade the neighbor. The Germans, with better organization and better railroads, made the most effective use of their manpower, while the dinosauer-like Russian Empire ran far behind schedule.

Few leaders seem to have feared war in 1914--indeed, the prevailing mood was that the world had become too cultured, too dull and boring. Warfare was the challenge needed to restore "manliness" to its "natural" state of warlike being, after so many years of softening in factories and offices. War seemed better than peace--and peace itself appeared dangerous because everyone feared their enemies were growing stronger year by year. Throughout Europe the public therefore enthusiastically supported going to war--even the supposedly antiwar Socialists went along. All the nations wanted to win, and their generals told them the way to win was take the offensive. The logic comprised two parts: First, armies were more mobile because of elaborate railroad networks, telegraph systems and highly detailed mobilization plans. Second, firepower was much greater because of the vastly bigger armies and because the new industrial technology had created better offensive weapons, especially artillery, against which no one had developed defenses. Therefore the offense could whip the defense, and the first to attack would win. The last great war, between France and Germany in 1870-71 had been decided in a matter of weeks. No one looked back to the drawn-out American Civil War, as a warning.

==Further reading==
* Bakeless, John Edwin. ''The Economic Causes of Modern War: A Study of the Period: 1878-1918'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wgAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=LZcIMpEGmzqwkIldzuhfH5Muveg#PPR3,M1 online edition]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5006516101 online edition]; [http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-567650/Woodrow-Wilson-and-World-War.html excerpt online]
* Cramer, Kevin. "A World of Enemies: New Perspectives on German Military Culture and the Origins of the First World War," ''Central European History'' (2006), 39#2 pp 270-298 online at [[CJO]]
* Evans, R. J. W., and Hartmut Pogge Von Strandman, eds. ''The Coming of the First World War'' (1990), essays by scholars from both sides [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22768266 online edition]
* Fay, Sidney. ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930); classic scholarly study; argues every nation shared guilt for starting the war [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html online edition]
* Fromkin, David. ''Europe's Last Summer: Who Started the Great War in 1914?'', (2004), ISBN 0375411569.
* Gilpin, Robert. ''War and Change in World Politics'' (1981) [http://www.amazon.com/Change-World-Politics-Robert-Gilpin/dp/0521273765/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447559&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. ''The Origins of World War I,'' (2003) 553pp; 15 long essays by leading scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-World-War-I/dp/0521817358/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447179&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
** Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. ''Decisions for War, 1914-1917'' (2004) ' a condensed version in 282pp
* Henig, Ruth ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2002) 76pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103326769 online edition]
* Hewitson, Mark. ''Germany and the Causes of the First World War'' (2004)
* Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War''. (3rd ed 2006).
* Kennedy, Paul M. (ed.). ''The War Plans of the Great Powers, 1880-1914.'' (1979)
* Kennedy, Paul M. ''The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914'' (1981)
* Lee, Dwight E. ed. ''The Outbreak of the First World War: Who Was Responsible?'' (1958), readings from multiple points of view
* Lieber, Keir A. "The New History of World War I and What It Means for International Relations Theory." ''International Security'' (2007) 32:2, 155-191
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) standard political history of the era
* Maier, Charles S. "Wargames: 1914-1919" in Rabb T. and Rotberg R. (eds.), ''The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars'', (1989), 249-279
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959[http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.00283 online at ACLS e-books]
* Miller, Steven E. (ed.) ''Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War: an International Security Reader'', (1985)
* Page, Thomas Nelson. ''Italy and the World War'' (1920) [http://books.google.com/books?id=9RUitonph38C&dq=intitle:world+intitle:war+date:1919-2007&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Ponting, Clive. ''Thirteen Days: Diplomacy and Disaster - The Countdown to the Great War'' (2002)
* Snyder, Jack L. ''The Ideology of the Offensive. Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914''. (1984), 267 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Ideology-Offensive-Military-Decision-Disasters/dp/0801482445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447730&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Stevenson, David. ''The First World War and International Politics'' (2005)
* Van Evera, Stephen. ''Causes of War. Power and the Roots of Conflict''. (1998), chap.7, 193-239.
* Williamson, Samuel R. Jr. "The Origins of World War I" in Rabb T. and Rotberg R. (eds.), ''The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars'', (1989), 225-248.
* Williamson, Samuel R. ''The politics of grand strategy: Britain and France prepare for war, 1904-1914'' (1990) [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Williamson Jr. Samuel R. and Ernest R. May. "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," ''Journal of Modern History''(2007) Volume 79, Number 2, 335-87, historiography

==Externam links==
* [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html Sidney Fay, ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930) classic scholarly study; argues many nations shared guilt for starting the war]

====notes====
<references/>
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]

Bahamas

2013-01-07T02:55:39Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of the Bahamas''
|map =Bahamas.JPG
|map2 =Location of Bahamas.jpg
|flag =Flag of the Bahamas.png
|arms =Arms of the Bahamas.png
|capital =Nassau
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy (Constitutional monarchy)
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Perry Christie
|pm-raw =
|area =5,358 sq mi
|pop =323,0001 (2003)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$6.524 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$17,843 (2005)
|currency =dollar
|idd =
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}}
The '''Commonwealth of the Bahamas''' is a nation of some 700 islands and 2,000 cays located in the western Atlantic Ocean; its closest neighbors are [[Florida]] ([[United States]]) to the west, and [[Cuba]] to the south.

==People==
Eighty-five percent of the Bahamian population is of African heritage. About two-thirds of the population resides on New Providence Island (the location of Nassau). Many ancestors arrived in The Bahamas when the islands served as a staging area for the slave trade in the early 1800s. Others accompanied thousands of British loyalists who fled the American colonies during the Revolutionary War.

Haitians form the largest immigrant community in The Bahamas. 30,000-50,000 are estimated to be resident legally or illegally, concentrated on New Providence, Abaco and Eleuthera islands.

School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. The government fully operates 158 of the 210 primary and secondary schools in The Bahamas. The other 52 schools are privately operated. Enrollment for state primary and secondary schools is 50,332, with more than 16,000 students attending private schools. The College of The Bahamas, established in Nassau in 1974, provides programs leading to bachelors and associates degrees. Several non-Bahamian colleges also offer higher education programs in The Bahamas.

==Government and Political Conditions==
The Bahamas is an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy with regular elections. As a Commonwealth country, its political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. Queen Elizabeth II is the formal head of state, while an appointed Governor General serves as the Queen's representative in The Bahamas. A bicameral legislature enacts laws under the 1973 constitution.

The House of Assembly consists of 41 members, elected from individual constituencies for 5-year terms. As under the Westminster system, the government may dissolve the Parliament and call elections at any time. The House of Assembly performs all major legislative functions. The leader of the majority party serves as prime minister and head of government. The Cabinet consists of at least nine members, including the prime minister and ministers of executive departments. They answer politically to the House of Assembly.

The Senate consists of 16 members appointed by the Governor General, including nine on the advice of the prime minister, four on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, and three on the advice of the prime minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition.

The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the prime minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judicial commission. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court.

Local government districts elect councils for town planning, business licenses, traffic issues and maintaining government buildings. In some large districts, lower level town councils also have minor responsibilities.

For decades, the white-dominated United Bahamian Party (UBP) ruled The Bahamas, then a dependency of the United Kingdom, while a group of influential white merchants, known as the "Bay Street Boys," dominated the local economy. In 1953, Bahamians dissatisfied with UBP rule formed the opposition Progressive Liberal Party (PLP). Under the leadership of Lynden Pindling, the PLP won control of the government in 1967 and led The Bahamas to full independence in 1973.

A coalition of PLP dissidents and former UBP members formed the Free National Movement (FNM) in 1971. Former PLP cabinet minister and member of Parliament Hubert Ingraham became leader of the FNM in 1990, upon the death of Sir Cecil Wallace-Whitfield. Under the leadership of Ingraham, the FNM won control of the government from the PLP in the August 1992 general elections. The PLP regained power in 2002 under the leadership of Perry Christie, but the FNM, again led by Ingraham, returned to government by capturing 23 of the 41 seats in the House of Assembly during the May 2007 election. The next election must be held no later than May 2012.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Governor General--Arthur Foulkes
*Prime Minister--Perry Christie
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs--Brent Symonette
*Ambassador to the United States and to the OAS--vacant (Charge d'Affaires, a.i.--Rhoda Mae Jackson)
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Dr. Paulette Bethel

===Foreign Relations===
The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom, represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London. The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). The Bahamas has an ambassador to Haiti and works closely with the United States and CARICOM on political and migration issues related to Haiti. The Bahamas has diplomatic relations with Cuba, including embassies in each other's capitals. A repatriation agreement was signed with Cuba in 1996, and there are commercial and cultural contacts between the two countries. The Bahamas also enjoys a strengthening relationship with China. The Commonwealth of The Bahamas became a member of the United Nations in 1973 and the Organization of American States in 1982.

The Bahamas holds membership in a number of international organizations: the UN and some specialized and related agencies, including Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and the International Labor Organization (ILO); International Monetary Fund (IMF); International Telecommunication Union (ITU); World Bank; World Meteorological Organization (WMO); World Health Organization (WHO); OAS and related agencies, including Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), and Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO); the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), excluding its Common Market; the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL); Universal Postal Union (UPU); International Maritime Organization (IMO); World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO); and obtained observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001.

The U.S. and the Bahamian Government have worked together on reducing crime and addressing migration issues. With the closest island only 45 miles from the coast of Florida, The Bahamas often is used as a gateway for drugs and illegal aliens bound for the United States. The United States and The Bahamas cooperate closely to handle these threats. U.S. assistance and resources have been essential to Bahamian efforts to mitigate the persistent flow of illegal narcotics and migrants through the archipelago. The United States and The Bahamas also actively cooperate on law enforcement, civil aviation, marine research, meteorology, and agricultural issues.

==Economy==
[[File:Hopetown Bahamas.jpg|thumb|Hopetown, Bahamas.]]
The Bahamas is driven by tourism and financial services. Tourism provides an estimated 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP), with an additional 10% of GDP resulting from tourist-driven construction. Tourism employs about half the Bahamian work force. In 2005, more than 5 million tourists visited The Bahamas, 87% from the United States. There are about 110 U.S.-affiliated businesses operating in The Bahamas, and most are associated with tourism and banking. With few domestic resources and little industry, The Bahamas imports nearly all its food and manufactured goods from the United States. American goods and services tend to be favored by Bahamians due to cultural similarities and heavy exposure to American advertising. The Bahamian economy, due to its heavy dependence on U.S. tourism and trade, is deeply affected by U.S. economic performance.

Following economic struggles in 2001-2002 fueled by a drop in tourism after September 11, 2001, The Bahamas has enjoyed a period of economic recovery and an upturn in large-scale private sector investments in tourism, which will boost construction and provide long-term employment. Future goals include continued development of tourism properties, including increased Bahamian ownership, redevelopment of the Grand Bahama economy following major hurricane losses in 2004, and the expansion of the robust Bahamian financial sector.

Economic challenges facing The Bahamas include meeting continued employment demands, jumpstarting a lagging privatization process, and monitoring increasing levels of government debt. Another major challenge for Bahamians will be to prepare for hemispheric free trade. Currently, Bahamians do not pay income or sales taxes. Most government revenue is derived from high tariffs and import fees. Reduction of trade barriers will probably require some form of taxation to replace revenues when the country becomes a part of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). As evident by domestic opposition to the Caribbean Single Market Economy (CSME), the advantages of free trade may be hard for the government to sell.

Two major hotel projects promise to increase economic growth and create short- and long-term employment. The Atlantis Resort and Casino on Paradise Island is in the third phase of a billion-dollar expansion expected to create 3,000 new jobs. A second hotel resort development project costing nearly $2 billion is planned for the Cable Beach area of Nassau. The Baha Mar Company has negotiated purchase of three major hotels and a development site, including the last assets of the state-owned Hotel Corporation. As a condition of these large-scale investments, the government promises to expand Nassau International Airport and has turned over management to private operators. The Bahamian Government also has adopted a proactive approach to courting foreign investors and has conducted major investment missions to the Far East, Latin America, Europe, India and Canada. The government continues to pay particular attention to China to encourage tourism and investment. For their part, the Chinese are funding the construction of a new $30 million sports stadium in New Providence. While the new FNM government has expressed a desire to increase Bahamian ownership interests in developments, The Bahamas' dependence on foreign investment is unlikely to change.

Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for up to 15% of GDP, due to the country's status as a tax haven and offshore banking center. As of 2005, the government had licensed 262 banks and trust companies in The Bahamas. The Bahamas promulgated the International Business Companies (IBC) Act in January 1990 to enhance the country's status as a leading financial center. The act served to simplify and reduce the cost of incorporating offshore companies in The Bahamas. Within 9 years, more than 84,000 IBC-type companies had been established. In February 1991, the government also legalized the establishment of Asset Protection Trusts in The Bahamas. In 2000, in response to multilateral organizations' concerns, the government passed a legislative package of stronger measures to better regulate the financial sector and prevent money laundering in the country's banking sector, including creation of a Financial Intelligence Unit and enforcement of "know-your-customer" rules. Some of these measures have been challenged in Bahamian courts, and the number of offshore banks registered in The Bahamas has declined substantially since 2002. As many as half of the IBCs have also closed shop. As a result, the government is considering additional legislation to keep the industry competitive while complying with international standards, including possible reform of the regulatory structure.

Agriculture and fisheries together account for 3% of GDP. The Bahamas exports lobster and some fish but does not raise these items commercially. There is no large-scale agriculture, and most agricultural products are consumed domestically. Following an outbreak of citrus canker on Abaco in 2005, The Bahamas lost a main agricultural export, and the Ministry of Agriculture banned the export of plant materials from Abaco. The Bahamas imports more than $250 million in foodstuffs per year, representing about 80% of its food consumption.

The Bahamian Government maintains the value of the Bahamian dollar on a par with the U.S. dollar. The Bahamas is a beneficiary of the U.S.-Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA), Canada's CARIBCAN program, and the European Union's Lome IV Agreement. Although The Bahamas participates in the political aspects of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), it has not entered into joint economic initiatives, like the CSME, with other Caribbean states.

The Bahamas has a few notable industrial firms: the Freeport pharmaceutical firm, PFC Bahamas (formerly Syntex); the BORCO oil facility, also in Freeport, which transships oil in the region; the Commonwealth Brewery in Nassau, which produces Heineken, Guinness, and Kalik beers; and Bacardi Corp., which distills rum in Nassau for shipment to U.S. and European markets. Other industries include sun-dried sea salt in Great Inagua, a wet dock facility in Freeport for repair of cruise ships, and mining of aragonite--a type of limestone with several industrial uses--from the sea floor at Ocean Cay.

The Hawksbill Creek Agreement established a duty-free zone in Freeport, The Bahamas' second-largest city, with a nearby industrial park to encourage foreign industrial investment. The Hong Kong-based firm Hutchison Whampoa operates the container port in Freeport. The Bahamian Parliament approved legislation in 1993 that extended most Freeport tax and duty exemptions through 2054.

===Business Environment===
The Bahamas offers attractive features to the potential investor: a stable democratic environment, relief from personal and corporate income taxes, timely repatriation of corporate profits, proximity to the United States with extensive air and telecommunications links, and a good pool of skilled professional workers. The Government of The Bahamas welcomes foreign investment in tourism and banking and has declared an interest in agricultural and industrial investments to generate local employment, particularly in white-collar or skilled jobs. Despite its interest in foreign investment to diversify the economy, the Bahamian Government responds to local concerns about foreign competition and tends to protect Bahamian business and labor interests. As a result of domestic resistance to foreign investment and high labor costs, growth can stagnate in sectors which the government wishes to diversify.

The country's infrastructure is best developed in the principal cities of Nassau and Freeport, where there are relatively good paved roads and international airports. Electricity is generally reliable, although many businesses have their own backup generators. In Nassau, there are three daily newspapers, several weeklies, and international newspapers available for sale. There also are six radio stations. Both Nassau and Freeport have a television station. Cable TV and satellite also are available locally and provide most American programs with some Canadian and European channels.

===Areas of Opportunity===
The best U.S. export opportunities remain in the traditional areas of foodstuffs and manufactured goods: vehicles and automobile parts; hotel, restaurant, and medical supplies; and computers and electronics. Bahamian tastes in consumer products roughly parallel those in the United States. Merchants in southern Florida have found it profitable to advertise in Bahamian publications. Most imports are subject to high but nondiscriminatory tariffs.

==History==
In 1492, Christopher Columbus made his first landfall in the Western Hemisphere in The Bahamas. Spanish slave traders later captured native Lucayan Indians to work in gold mines in Hispaniola, and within 25 years, all Lucayans perished. In 1647, a group of English and Bermudan religious refugees, the Eleutheran Adventurers, founded the first permanent European settlement in The Bahamas and gave Eleuthera Island its name. Similar groups of settlers formed governments in The Bahamas until the islands became a British Crown Colony in 1717.

The late 1600s to the early 1700s were the golden age for pirates and privateers. Many famous pirates--including Sir Francis Drake and Blackbeard--used the islands of The Bahamas as a base. The numerous islands and islets with their complex shoals and channels provided excellent hiding places for the plundering ships near well-traveled shipping lanes. The first Royal Governor, a former pirate named Woodes Rogers, brought law and order to The Bahamas in 1718 when he expelled the buccaneers.

During the American Revolution, American colonists loyal to the British flag settled in The Bahamas. These Loyalists and new settlers from Britain brought Colonial building skills and agricultural expertise. Until 1834, when Britain abolished slavery, they also brought slaves, importing the ancestors of many modern Bahamians from Western Africa.

Proximity to the U.S. continued to provide opportunity for illegal shipping activity. In the course of the American Civil War, The Bahamas prospered as a center of Confederate blockade-running. During Prohibition, the islands served as a base for American rumrunners. Today, The Bahamas is a major transshipment point for narcotics on the way to the U.S.

Bahamians achieved self-government through a series of constitutional and political steps, attaining internal self-government in 1964 and full independence within the Commonwealth on July 10, 1973. Since independence, The Bahamas has continued to develop into a major tourist and financial services center.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1857.htm]

[[Category:Caribbean Countries]]

Berlin Wall

2013-01-07T02:55:02Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''Berlin Wall''' was a heavily guarded police wall in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] that separated [[Communist]] East Berlin from [[democracy|democratic]] West Berlin. It was one of the most visible symbols of the [[Iron Curtain]]. The wall was built in 1961 by the government of the [[German Democratic Republic]] (East Germany) in order to stop the tide of emigration to West Berlin. President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1987 demanded it be torn down, to the astonishment of the world. To even greater disbelief, it was torn down in November, 1989, thus ending the [[Cold War]] and bringing freedom to East Germany and (within days) to the rest of the satellites in [[Central Europe]] which now threw off Communism.

Because of dissatisfaction with the economic and political conditions (forced collectivization of agriculture, repression of private trade, supply gaps), an increasing number of people left the GDR. From January to the beginning of August 1961, about 160,000 refugees were counted. <ref>http://userpage.chemie.fu-berlin.de/BIW/wall.html</ref>

Armed guards patrolled the eastern side of the wall. In 1962, Peter Fechter was shot while attempting to cross into West Berlin, and slowly bled to death in front of a large crowd, <ref>http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/09/1st.draft</ref> which started a riot and led to Fechter becoming a symbol of resistance against the wall. Onlookers did not attempt to aid Fichte, as they feared the communist guards might fire upon them as well.

The symbolism of the wall as a representative of the divide between capitalism and communism was not lost on [[United States|American]] President [[Ronald Reagan]], who, in a famous 1987 speech, urged [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to "tear down this wall!" These words proved prophetic, on November 9, 1989 the German Democratic Republic announced that the border would be re-opened. The wall was promptly destroyed. In the following year the parliament of the German Democratic Republic voted for reunification and became new states (Bundesländer) of the Federal Republic of [[Germany]].

==Construction==
The Wall was erected overnight on 13-14 August 1961. This was a Saturday night and most Berliners slept while the East German government began to close the border and install barbed wire fences through Berlin. The first concrete sections were installed on 15 August 1961, and over the following few months the concrete block sections were extended. In June 1962 the wall was further consolidated, and in 1965 the "third generation" of Wall replaced this earlier construction. Consisting of concrete slabs between steel girder and concrete posts with a concrete sewage pipe along the top, this was itself replaced in many areas after 1975 with newer concrete segments which were more resistant to breakthroughs.<ref>''Berlin Wall History: Facts'' [http://dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts.htm Berlin Wall Online]. Accessed 30 January 2008</ref>
[[Image:Berlin Wall layout.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Diagrammatic layout of the elements of the Berlin Wall]]

Key to image:
# East Berlin
# Border area
# Backland Wall
# Signal fence
# Different kind of barriers
# Watch towers
# Lighting system
# Column track
# Control track
# Anti-vehicle trenches
# Last Wall, known as the "Wall"
# Border
# West Berlin

==Escapees==
[[Image:BerlinWall.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fechter lies dying, a symbol of the price many East Germans paid for their hopes for freedom]]
East Germany jailed more than 75,000 people who tried to flee to the West across the Wall, and 809 died in escape attempts. Of those who died, 250 were killed at the Berlin Wall itself; 370 died on the border between East and West Germany; and 189 had been trying to get out via the [[Baltic Sea]]. An average of seven people were jailed every day for trying to get out between 1961 and 1989. Many thousands of East German border guards ('''''Grenztruppen''''', known colloquially as "Grenzers") also tried to escape, and around 2,500 succesfully made it to the West. However, 5,500 were captured in the attempt and received an average jail sentence of five years, compared to civilians who were imprisoned for an average of one or two years.<ref>''Scale of East German exodus revealed'' [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1477570.stm BBC News] 7 August 2001. Accessed 30 January 2008</ref>

Historians researching the files of the [[Stasi]] found that in 1961 the secret police devoted virtually all of their resources and their 50,000 staff solely to stopping people leaving the country. Anyone thought likely to flee was forcibly moved away from border areas. Other people were encouraged to spy on their friends, neighbours and colleagues and inform on them if they were considering an escape.<ref> ''Scale of East German exodus revealed'' op cit</ref>
==Further reading==
* Buckley, William F. Jr. ''The Fall of the Berlin Wall'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Fall-Berlin-Turning-Points-History/dp/0470496681/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259584855&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search] by famous conservative writer
* Ratnesar, Romesh. ''Tear Down This Wall: A City, a President, and the Speech that Ended the Cold War'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Tear-Down-This-Wall-President/dp/1416556907/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259584663&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search], emphasizes Reagan's role
* Taylor, Frederick. ''The Berlin Wall: A World Divided, 1961-1989'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Berlin-Wall-World-Divided-1961-1989/dp/0060786140/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259584855&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:German History]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]

War on Terror

2013-01-07T02:54:18Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:Waronterror.jpg|thumb|300px|U.S. Marines aboard the amphibious assault ship USS Peleliu]]
The '''War on Terror''' (or War on Terrorism) is a campaign that was launched by the [[United States of America]] with support from [[NATO]] and other allies with the stated goal of ending international terrorism, which is typically understood to refer particularly to radical Islamist terrorism. The campaign was launched after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, for which [[Al-Qaeda]] claimed responsibility. The "War on Terror" has taken many forms, such as diplomacy, going after "terrorist financing," domestic provisions aiming to prevent future attacks, and joint training and peacekeeping operations with a wide variety of nations.<ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/hottopics/War_on_Terrorism.shtml War on Terrorism]. Newsmax.</ref>

==Congressional debate==
In March 2007, a memo sent to Democratic staffers on the [[House Armed Services Committee]] instructed Congressional aides not to use the specific phrases, "'''global war on terrorism'''" and "'''long war'''" in Defense authorization requests for the fiscal 2008 budget. The memo reads,

:"When referencing military operations throughout the world, please be as specific as possible. Please avoid using colloquialisms such as, "'''the war on terrorism'''", or the "Long War" Please do not use the term "global war on terrorism" <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/HASC_Memo.pdf Style Guide for Defense Authorization Report]. House Committee on Armed Services. U.S. House of Representatives. 110th Congress. 27 March 2007.</ref>

CNN's Baghdad bureau chief Michael Ware reported in April 2007,
:"If U.S. troops leave now, you’re giving Iraq to [[Iran]] ... and [[al-Qaeda]]. If U.S. troops leave now, that’s who will own it. ... Coming back I'm struck by the nature of the debate on Capital Hill, how delusional it is." <ref>CNN, [http://newsbusters.org/media/2007-04-26-CNNAMPhillipsWare.rm Pullout would hand Iraq to Iran and al-Qaeda], 04/26/07. </ref>

==Obama Administration Directive==
Obama administration has discontinued use of the phrase 'war on terror', and its multiple variants. He claims that he will "go after" extremists and "win this fight."<ref>[http://www.dcexaminer.com/politics/War-on-terror-catchphrase-not-Obamas-style38796857.html Obama administration drops 'war on terror' phrase] AP, February 2, 2009</ref> The administration has also introduced the term "Overseas Contingency Operation", in order to downplay the importance of the conflict.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/elections/2009/03/25/report-obama-administration-backing-away-global-war-terror/ Fox News; Obama Administration backing away from "War on Terror"]</ref>

==Campaigns==

===Afghanistan===

In immediate response to the 9/11 attacks, the United States invaded [[Afghanistan]] to overthrow the [[Taliban]] and deny [[al-Qaeda]] a base of operations.

===Iraq War===
The [[Iraq War]], also known as the Second Persian Gulf War, began in March 2003 when the United States and a coalition of forces willing to enforce [[United Nations]] Resolutions removed [[Baathist]] dictator [[Saddam Hussein]]'s from power. Gen. [[David Petraeus]], commander of the multinational forces has characterized the Iraqi war as a decentralized fight against clan or family-based terror networks supplied by Iran and Syria, against which more and more Iraqis are willing to fight. Research using robust surveying techniques has estimated that over 650,000 Iraqis have died <ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7113/full/443728a.html Iraqi death toll withstands scrutiny], ''[[Nature]]''</ref> since the fall of the Ba'athist regime.

[[Iran]] is actively assisting the major Shiite Muslim political factions in Iraq, most of which have long-standing ideological, political, and religious sectarian ties to Tehran. A key U.S. concern is that Iran is purportedly arming the militias fielded by those factions - militias that are committing sectarian violence and, to some extent, attacking U.S. forces. Since December 2006, the Administration has tried to reverse Iranian influence in Iraq while also engaging Iran diplomatically on Iraq.

Of greater concern to U.S. officials than the Iranian political support to Iraq’s Shiite factions is Iranian material support to militias fielded by the major Shiite groupings. The militias are widely accused of the sectarian violence against Sunnis that is gripping Iraq and which has been repeatedly identified by U.S. officials as a leading security problem, although Iraqi Shiites say they are retaliating for Sunni violence against them.

Senior U.S. and allied military officials and policymakers have provided specific information on Iranian aid to Shiite militias.
*In March 2006, senior U.S. defense officials, including then-Commander of U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) Gen. John Abizaid asserted that Iran’s Revolutionary Guard — particularly its "Qods (Jerusalem) Forces" that conduct activities outside Iran in support of Shiite movements — is assisting armed factions in Iraq with explosives and weapons. The Qods Force is an arm of the Iranian government, but some experts believe it might sometimes undertake actions not fully vetted with senior leaders.
*On August 23, 2006, Brig. Gen. Michael Barbero, deputy chief of operations of the Joint Staff, said the Iranian government is training, funding, and equipping Shiite militiamen in Iraq. On September 28 2006, Maj. Gen. Richard Zahner, deputy chief of staff for intelligence of the Multinational Force-Iraq (MNF-I), said that the labels on C-4 explosives found with Shiite militiamen in Iraq prove that the explosives came from Iran. He added that only the Iranian military apparatus controls access to such military-grade explosives.<ref>''Iranian Government Behind Shipping Weapons to Iraq.'' American Forces Press Service, September 28, 2006.</ref>
*On September 19, 2006, Gen. Abizaid said that U.S. forces had found weaponry in Iraq that likely came from Iran, including a dual-warhead rocket-propelled-grenade RPG-29, as well as Chinese-made rockets. He added that Lebanese Hezbollah members were conducting training in Iran and that they could also be training Iraqi Shiite militiamen but that "[these linkages are] very, very hard to pin down with precision". <ref>''New Weapons From Iran Turning Up on Mideast Battlefields: Abizaid.'' Agence France-Presse, September 19, 2006.</ref>
*On January 31, 2007, the commander of Multinational Corps-Iraq, Lt. Gen. Ray Odierno, said that the United States had traced back to Iran serial numbers of weapons captured in Iraq. The armaments included rocket-propelled grenades, roadside bombs, and Katyusha rockets.
*In a February 11, 2007, U.S. military briefers in Baghdad provided what they said was specific evidence that Iran had supplied armor-piercing "explosively forced projectiles" (EFPs) to Shiite militias. EFPs have been responsible for 170 U.S. combat deaths from 2003 until April 2007.
*On April 11, 2007, when U.S. military officials said they had found evidence that Iran might also be supplying Sunni insurgent factions, although without asserting Iranian government approval for the shipments. Some experts believe such shipments would not comport with Iranian government objectives because Sunni insurgents are fighting Iran’s protégés and allies in Iraq.
*On July 2, 2007, Brig. Gen. Kevin Begner, in a briefing for journalists, said that the Qods Force is using Lebanese Hezbollah to train and channel weapons to Iraqi Shiite militia fighters, and that Iran is giving up to $3 million per month to its protégé forces in Iraq. Bergner based his information on the March 2007 capture – in connection with a January 2007 attack on U.S. forces in Karbala – of former Sadr spokesman Qais Khazali and Lebanese Hezbollah operative Ali Musa Daqduq.
*On July 23, 2007, it was reported the US military found missiles manufactured in [[China]] which have been smuggled into Iraq from Iran.<ref>[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=2&article_id=84006 US Army claims Iran is smuggling Chinese weapons into Iraq], ''Daily Star'', July 23, 2007.</ref>

One press report said there are 150 Iranian Qods Forces and intelligence personnel in Iraq.<ref>Linzer, Dafna. ''Troops Authorized To Kill Iranian Operatives in Iraq,'' Washington Post,
January 26, 2007.</ref> In December 2006, U.S. forces arrested two Qods Forces senior officers in the compound of SICI leader Hakim, where they were allegedly meeting with Badr Brigade leader (and member of parliament) Hadi al-Amiri; the two were later released under Iraqi government pressure. In January 2007, another five Iranian agents were arrested in a liaison office in the Kurdish city of Irbil, reportedly against the urging of Iraq’s Kurdish leaders. They remain under arrest until at least October 2007 when their case will be reviewed. Iranian diplomats were allowed access to the five on July 7, 2007, and the Iranians reportedly were told that there are two other Iranian government employees held by U.S. forces.

===South America===
[[MSNBC]] reports that [[Hezbollah]], the [[Iran]]ian created and supported terror organization that until the [[September 11 attacks]] had killed more Americans than any other terrorist organization, has set up operations within the rural regions known as South America’s Tri-Border Area. <ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17874369/ Hezbollah builds a Western base], From inside South America’s Tri-border area, Iran-linked militia targets U.S. By Pablo Gato and Robert Windrem, ''NBC News'', May 9, 2007. Retrieved from MSNBC.com June 4 2007.</ref>
This area is located between [[Paraguay]], [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]], and borders Venezuela and Bolivia. All of these countries face the common enterprise of narco-terrorism. These funds are, in turn, are used to wage war against US and Coalition Forces in the Middle East and for clandestine training of future terrorist operatives in their [[jihad]] against the West. Hezbollah, [[Hamas]] and [[al Qaeda]] are all coordinating to affect jihad in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia and South America. Further, many Western intelligence agencies report that al Qaeda nuclear whiz-kid Adnan el Shukrijumah has been spotted throughout South America, the United States and Canada.

Other known terrorist organizations in the region, the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC) and the [[National Liberation Army]] (ELN), facilitate the trafficking of narcotics and the laundering of money derived from that enterprise. <ref> Venezuela: In the Spirit of The Monroe Doctrine], Frank Salvato, ''New Media Journal'', June 1, 2007.</ref>

===Second Lebanon War===
The [[Second Lebanon War]] was fought between [[Israel]] and [[Hezbollah]], primarily in northern Israel and southern Lebanon, in the summer of 2006.

===Waziristan War===
The [[Waziristan War]] (2004-2006) was fought between [[Pakistan]] and [[al-Qaeda]], the [[Taliban]], and sympathetic tribal militias in the [[Waziristan]] province of Pakistan, bordering [[Afghanistan]]. A second offensive was carried out by the during early May to early December 2009, driving the Taliban from the region. <ref>
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8065062.stm</ref><ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8409486.stm</ref>

===Arabian Peninsula War===
After Saudi Arabian missiles were located by Egyptian insurgents, a militant group of Egyptian insurgents launched a reconnaissance mission in late 2008. [[Al queda]] forces were located in several strongholds; the Egyptians fought and captured the missiles, preventing a nuclear holocaust. Due to cover up by the [[lamestream media]], very few people know this story.{{fact}}

==Other theaters==
The U.S. has also used armed drones, CIA operatives, Special Forces, and local allies to fight Islamists and Al Qaeda in many other countries. Missile strikes on Taliban and Al Qaeda targets in Pakistan are now routine, having been escalated under the Obama administration. Special Forces incursions, especially the Bin Laden raid, are now increasingly common. Drone strikes by the military and CIA have also increased in Yemen, recently killing Anwar al-Awlaki and several others. CIA operatives are also present in other countries, including Somalia, where they assist the Transitional Federal Government.

==International Perception==
Some disapprove of the War on Terror, claiming that deliberate deception was used to justify the [[Iraq war]]. Many people internationally disagree with their countries joining the "Coalition of the willing", Germany and the United Kingdom for example<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2747175.stm</ref><ref>http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601100&sid=aSS1cBdEHQ.I&refer=germany</ref>. They also feel that the use of extrajudicial internment and trials which are perceived to be unfair in [[Guntanemo Bay]] are a disgrace to the United States.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:War]]
[[Category:United States Political Terms]]

Bollywood

2013-01-07T02:53:00Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:AishwaryaRai.jpg|right|thumb|130px|Aishwarya Rai is one of the biggest stars in Bollywood.]]
'''Bollywood''' is the name for the growing movie industry centered in [[Bombay]], [[India]].

It is the world's biggest movie producer, producing about three new movies every day - more than [[Hollywood]].

Bollywood films are shown in theaters throughout [[India]], all [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], and worldwide. The DVD and video market is even larger.

The word is a combination of the "B" from Bombay and "Hollywood".

Increasingly Bollywood stars are gaining a global following, and they tour the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] from time to time.

[[Category:Cinema]]
[[Category:India]]

Israel

2013-01-07T02:50:19Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =מדינת ישראל ''Medīnat Yisrā'el''
|map =Israel shaded.jpg
|flag =Flag of Israel.png
|arms =Arms of Israel.png
|capital =Jerusalem
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Democracy
|government-raw =
|language =Hebrew
|language2 =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=
|governor general-raw=
|president =Shimon Peres
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Benjamin Netanyahu
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =8,019 / 8,522 sq mi
|pop =7,184,000
|pop-basis =2007
|gdp =$170.3 billion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$31,767
|currency =Shekel
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Israel''' ([[Hebrew]]: '''מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל''', ''Medinat Yisra'el'' from ''' יִשְׂרָאֵל''' ''Yisra'el'', "Struggled with God") is a nation located in the [[Middle East]]. It is the world's only Jewish state, having emerged from [[Zionism]] in Europe and the U.S. in the 1880s-1940s. It grants citizenship to anybody considered to be [[Jewish]]. It also contains Arab Muslim and Arab Christian minorities who are remnants of the pre-1948 Arab majority, along with a small [[Druze]] community. It is the location of most Biblical events.

==Geography==
[[File:Haifa Israel.JPG|thumb|420px|center|Haifa.]]
Israel occupies an area along the eastern Mediterranean Sea, with [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]] to the east; [[Lebanon]] on the north; and [[Egypt]] to the south. The territories of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] are currently controlled by Israel, but disputed.

The terrain varies from a temperate, coastal climate to desert conditions. Israel shares with Jordan the shoreline of the [[Dead Sea]], at 1,378 feet below sea level the lowest point on earth.

==People==
Of the approximately 6.43 million Israelis in 2007, about 76% were counted as Jewish, though some of those are not considered Jewish under [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] law. Since 1989, nearly a million immigrants from the former Soviet Union have arrived in Israel, making this the largest wave of immigration since independence. In addition, an estimated 105,000 members of the [[Ethiopian]] Jewish community have immigrated to Israel, 14,000 of them during the dramatic May 1991 Operation Solomon airlift. 32.9% of Israelis were born outside of Israel.

The three broad Jewish groupings are the Ashkenazim, or Jews who trace their ancestry to [[Central Europe]]; the Sephardim, who trace their origin to [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], southern Europe, and North Africa; and Eastern or Oriental Jews, who descend from ancient communities in Islamic lands. Of the non-Jewish population, about 68% are Muslims, about 9% are Christian, and about 7% are Druze.
[[File:People at a Bar Mitzvah in the Western Wall tunnel.jpg|thumb|280px|left|At a Bar Mitzvah in the Western Wall tunnel.]]
Education is compulsory from age 6 to 16 and is free up to age 18. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, 3-year junior secondary schools, and 3-year senior secondary schools, after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. There are seven university-level institutions in Israel, a number of regional colleges, and an Open University program.

The majority of families in Israel - Jewish and Arab - send their children to segregated schools. This [[segregation]] poses a distinct problem, tending to promote rival viewpoints and attitudes that become ripe for exploitation by proponents of violence. Within Israel, the schools of the minority Arab population become incubators for resentment and hostility, while the schools of the majority Jewish population tend to reinforce a sense of insulation from the concerns of others. <ref>http://handinhandk12.org/</ref>

With a population drawn from more than 100 countries on 5 continents, Israeli society is rich in cultural diversity and artistic creativity. The arts are actively encouraged and supported by the government. ''The first Jewish artist on record was named Bezalel. He was an architect, sculptor and designer of holy garments. Mostly he was known for making the Tabernacle that contained the Ark of the Covenant.'' <ref> [http://www.jewish-art.org/ancient-jewish-art.html Ancient Jewish art]</ref> The Israeli Philharmonic Orchestra performs throughout the country and frequently tours abroad. The Jerusalem Symphony and the New Israel Opera also tour frequently, as do other musical ensembles. Almost every municipality has a chamber orchestra or ensemble, many boasting the talents of gifted performers from the countries of the former Soviet Union.

Israel has several professional ballet and modern dance companies, and folk dancing, which draws upon the cultural heritage of many immigrant groups, continues to be very popular. There is great public interest in the theater; the repertoire covers the entire range of classical and contemporary drama in translation as well as plays by Israeli authors. Of the three major repertory companies, the most famous, Habimah, was founded in 1917.

Active artist colonies thrive in Safed, Jaffa, and Ein Hod, and Israeli painters and sculptors exhibit works worldwide. Israel boasts more than 120 museums, including the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, which houses the Dead Sea Scrolls along with an extensive collection of regional archaeological artifacts, art, and Jewish religious and folk exhibits. Israelis are avid newspaper readers, with more than 90% of Israeli adults reading a newspaper at least once a week. Major daily papers are in Hebrew; others are in Arabic, English, French, Polish, Yiddish, Russian, Hungarian, and German.

==Government==
[[Image:Tst4436.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[David Ben Gurion]], the First Prime Minister of Israel, publicly pronouncing the Declaration of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948, [[Tel Aviv]], Israel, beneath a large [[portraits|portrait]] of Theodore Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism, in the old Tel Aviv Museum of Art building on Rotshild St.]]
Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a governmental system based on several basic laws enacted by its unicameral parliament, the Knesset. The president (chief of state) is elected by the Knesset for a 5-year term.

The prime minister (head of government) exercises executive power and has in the past been selected by the president as the party leader most able to form a government. Between May 1996 and March 2001, Israelis voted for the prime minister directly. (The legislation, which required the direct election of the prime minister, was rescinded by the Knesset in March 2001.) The members of the cabinet must be collectively approved by the Knesset.

The Knesset's 120 members are elected by secret ballot to 4-year terms, although the prime minister may decide to call for new elections before the end of the 4-year term. Voting is for party lists rather than for individual candidates, and the total number of seats assigned each party reflects that party's percentage of the vote. Successful Knesset candidates are drawn from the lists in order of party-assigned rank. Under the present electoral system, all members of the Knesset are elected at large.

The independent judicial system includes secular and religious courts. The courts' right of judicial review of the Knesset's legislation is limited. Judicial interpretation is restricted to problems of execution of laws and validity of subsidiary legislation. The highest court in Israel is the Supreme Court, whose judges are approved by the President.

Israel is divided into six districts, administration of which is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Defense is responsible for the administration of the occupied territories.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Shimon Peres (Szymon Persky)
*Prime Minister--Benjamin Netanyahu
*Foreign Minister--Avigdor Lieberman (Our Home Israel)
*Ambassador to the United States--Sallai Meridor
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Dan Gillerman

===Political Conditions===
[[File:Knesset Israel.jpg|right|300px|The Knesset, The House of Representatives.]]
From the founding of the modern state of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977 Israel was ruled by successive coalition governments led by the Labor alignment or its constituent parties. From 1967-70 the coalition government included all of Israel's parties except the communist party. After the 1977 election the Likud bloc, then composed of Herut, the Liberals, and the smaller La'am Party, came to power forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, and others. As head of Likud, Menachem Begin became Prime Minister. The Likud retained power in the succeeding election in June 1981, and Begin remained Prime Minister. In the summer of 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by his Foreign Minister, Yitzhak Shamir.

After Prime Minister Shamir lost a Knesset vote of confidence early in 1984, new elections in July provided no clear winner, with both Labor and Likud considerably short of a Knesset majority and unable to form even narrow coalitions. After several weeks of difficult negotiations, they agreed on a government of national unity, including the rotation of the office of Prime Minister and the combined office of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister midway through the government's 50-month term.

During the first 25 months of unity government rule, Labor's Shimon Peres served as Prime Minister, while Likud's Shamir held the posts of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, until they switched positions in October 1986. In November 1988 elections, Likud edged Labor out by one seat but was unable to form a coalition, producing another national unity government in January 1989. Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister, and [[Shimon Peres]] became Vice Prime Minister and Finance Minister. This government fell in March 1990, however, in a vote of no confidence precipitated by disagreement over the government's response to U.S. Secretary of State Baker's initiative in the peace process. Labor Party leader Peres was unable to attract sufficient support among the religious parties to form a government. Yitzhak Shamir then formed a Likud-led coalition government, including members from religious and right-wing parties.

Shamir's government took office in June 1990, and held power for 2 years. In the June 1992 national elections, the Labor Party reversed its electoral fortunes, taking 44 seats. Labor Party leader [[Yitzhak Rabin]] formed a coalition with [[Meretz]] (a leftist party) and Shas (an ultra-Orthodox religious party). The coalition included the support of two Arab-majority parties. Rabin became Prime Minister in July 1992, presiding over the signing of the Oslo accords with the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]]. However, Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4, 1995. Peres, then Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, once again became Prime Minister and immediately proceeded to carry forward the peace policies of the Rabin government and to implement Israel's Oslo commitments, including military redeployment in the West Bank and the holding of historic Palestinian elections on January 20, 1996.

Enjoying broad public support and anxious to secure his own mandate, Peres called for early elections after just 3 months in office. (They would have otherwise been held by the end of October 1996.) In late February and early March, a series of suicide bombing attacks by Palestinian terrorists took some 60 Israeli lives, seriously eroding public support for Peres and raising concerns about the peace process. Increased fighting in southern Lebanon, which also brought Katyusha rocket attacks against northern Israel, also raised tensions and weakened the government politically a month before the May 29 elections.
[[File:Ariel-sharon.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Ariel Sharon.]]
In those elections--the first direct election of a Prime Minister in Israeli history--Likud leader Binyamin Netanyahu won by a narrow margin, having sharply criticized the government's peace policies for failing to protect Israeli security. Netanyahu subsequently formed a right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the peace process, but with an emphasis on security and reciprocity. In 1999, with a shrunken coalition and facing increasing difficulty passing legislation and defeating no-confidence motions, Netanyahu dissolved parliament and called for new elections. This time, the Labor candidate--Ehud Barak--was victorious. Barak formed a mixed coalition government of secular and religious parties, with Likud in the opposition. In May 2000, Barak fulfilled one of his major campaign promises by withdrawing Israeli forces from Southern Lebanon. However, by mid-autumn, with the breakdown of the Camp David talks and the worsening security situation caused by the new intifada, Barak's coalition was in jeopardy. In December, he resigned as Prime Minister, precipitating a new prime ministerial election.

In a special election on February 6, 2001, after a campaign stressing security and the maintenance of Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem, Likud leader [[Ariel Sharon]] defeated Barak by over 20 percentage points. As he had promised in his campaign, Sharon formed a broad unity government that included the Labor and Likud parties, the far-right parties, some smaller secular parties, and several religious parties. The unity government collapsed in late 2002, and new elections were held in January 2003. Sharon again won, and formed a new government consisting of his own Likud party, the right-wing National Religious Party and National Union party, and centrist Shinui.

The summer of 2004 saw renewed instability in the government, as disagreement over the Gaza disengagement plan resulted in Sharon's firing two ministers of the National Union Party and accepting the resignation of a third from the National Religious Party in order to secure cabinet approval of the plan (it was endorsed on June 6, 2004). Continuing divisions within the Likud on next steps then prompted Ariel Sharon to leave the party in November 2005 to form the Kadima ("Forward") party and call new elections for March 2006. However, Sharon was unexpectedly incapacitated in January 2006 due to a severe stroke and leadership of Kadima shifted to Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, who on March 28 led the party to 29 seats in the Knesset. Labor came in second with 19 seats, and Shas and Likud tied with 12. After intensive coalition negotiations, a new, Kadima-led government, with Labor as "senior partner", was sworn in on May 4, 2006.

===Foreign Relations===
In addition to seeking an end to hostilities with Arab forces, against which it has fought five wars since 1948, Israel has given high priority to gaining wide acceptance as a sovereign state with an important international role.
[[File:Leaders Orient Arab Israel.jpg|left|300px|November, 2010.]]
Before 1967, Israel had established diplomatic relations with a majority of the world's nations, except for the Arab states and most other Muslim countries. UN Security Council resolutions provided the basis for cease-fire and disengagement agreements concerning the Sinai and the Golan Heights between Israel, Egypt, and Syria and for promoting the Camp David accords and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. The Soviet Union and the communist states of Central Europe (except Romania) broke diplomatic relations with Israel during the 1967 war, but those relations were restored by 1991.

The landmark October 1991 Madrid conference recognized the importance of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 in resolving regional disputes, and brought together for the first time Israel, the Palestinians, and the neighboring Arab countries, launching a series of direct bilateral and multilateral negotiations. These talks were designed to finally resolve outstanding security, border, and other issues between the parties while providing a basis for mutual cooperation on issues of general concern, including the status of refugees, arms control and regional security, water and environmental concerns, and economic development.

Today, Israel has diplomatic relations with 161 states. Following the signing of the Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, Israel established or renewed diplomatic relations with 36 countries. Israel has full diplomatic relations with Egypt, Jordan, and Mauritania. In addition, on October 1, 1994, the Gulf States publicly announced their support for a review of the Arab boycott, in effect abolishing the secondary and tertiary boycotts against Israel.

Israel has diplomatic relations with nine non-Arab Muslim states and with 32 of the 43 Sub-Saharan states that are not members of the Arab League. Israel established relations with China and India in 1992 and with the Holy See in 1993.

===Relations with the United States===
[[File:Barack Obama, Benjamin Netanyahu 2008.jpg|thumb|left|Benjamin Netanyahu and Barack Obama in 2008.]]
[[Image:Mosque.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem]]
Commitment to Israel's security and well being has been a cornerstone of U.S. policy in the Middle East since Israel's founding in 1948, in which the United States played a key supporting role. Israel and the United States are bound closely by historic and cultural ties as well as by mutual interests. Continuing U.S. economic and security assistance to Israel acknowledges these ties and signals U.S. commitment. The broad issues of Arab-Israeli peace have been a major focus in the U.S.-Israeli relationship. U.S. efforts to reach a Middle East peace settlement are based on many critical security interests. The United State's strong national security interests in promoting regional security in the Middle East and curtailing acts of terrorism both in Israel and abroad are supported in part by UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. As one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world, the United States also has a strong interest in promoting Israel's economic success.

On a bilateral level, relations between the United States and Israel are continually strengthening in every field. In addition to the Joint Political-Military Group described above, there are: bilateral science and technology efforts (including the Binational Science Foundation and the Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation); the U.S.-Israeli Education Foundation, which sponsors educational and cultural programs; the Joint Economic Development Group, which maintains a high-level dialogue on economic issues; the Joint Counterterrorism Group, designed to enhance cooperation in fighting terrorism; and a high-level Strategic Dialogue that meets biannually.

==Defense==
Israel's ground, air, and naval forces, known as the Israel Defense Force (IDF), fall under the command of a single general staff. Conscription is universal for Israeli men and women over the age of 18, although exemptions may be made on religious grounds. Druze, members of a small Islamic offshoot living in Israel's mountains, also serve in the IDF. [[Israeli Arabs]], with the exception of some [[Bedouins]], do not serve. During 1950-66, Israel spent an average of 9% of GDP on defense. Real defense expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. Military spending in 2005 totaled $9.45 billion, which is equivalent to 7.7% of GDP, and represents 16.3% of government expenditures. The United States provides approximately $2.4 billion per year in security assistance.

In 1983, the United States and Israel established the Joint Political Military Group, which meets twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises, and have collaborated on military research and weapons development.

==Economy==
[[File:Israeli Tel Aviv.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Tel Aviv.]]
Israel has a diversified, technologically advanced economy with substantial but decreasing government ownership and a strong high-tech sector. The major industrial sectors include high-technology electronic and biomedical equipment, metal products, processed foods, chemicals, and transport equipment. Israel possesses a substantial service sector and is one of the world's centers for diamond cutting and polishing. It also is a world leader in software development and, prior to the violence that began in September 2000, was a major tourist destination.

Israel's strong commitment to economic development and its talented work force led to economic growth rates during the nation's first two decades that frequently exceeded 10% annually. The years after the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] were a lost decade economically, as growth stalled and [[inflation]] reached triple-digit levels. The successful economic stabilization plan implemented in 1985 and the subsequent introduction of market-oriented structural reforms reinvigorated the economy and paved the way for rapid growth in the 1990s.

A wave of Jewish immigration beginning in 1989, predominantly from the countries of the former U.S.S.R., brought nearly a million new citizens to Israel. These new immigrants, many of them highly educated, now constitute some 13% of Israel's 6.7 million inhabitants. Their successful absorption into Israeli society and its labor force forms a remarkable chapter in Israeli history. The skills brought by the new immigrants and their added demand as consumers gave the Israeli economy a strong upward push and in the 1990s, they played a key role in the ongoing development of Israel's high-tech sector.
*GDP (2006 est.): $170.3 billion.
*Annual growth rate (2006): 4.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $26,800.
*Currency: Shekel (4.13 shekels = 1 U.S. dollar; 2007 est.).
*Natural resources: [[Copper]], [[phosphate]], [[bromide]], [[potash]], [[clay]], [[sand]], [[sulfur]], [[bitumen]], [[manganese]].
*Agriculture: Products--citrus and other fruits, vegetables, beef, dairy, and poultry products.
*Industry: Types--high-technology projects (including aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufactures, medical electronics, fiber optics), wood and paper products, potash and phosphates, food, beverages, tobacco, caustic soda, cement, construction, plastics, chemical products, diamond cutting and polishing, metal products, textiles, and footwear.
*Trade: Exports (2006 est.)--$42.86 billion. Exports include polished diamonds, electronic communication, medical and scientific equipment, chemicals and chemical products, electronic components and computers, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, rubber, plastics, and textiles. Imports (excluding defense imports, 2006 est.)--$47.8 billion: raw materials, diamonds, energy ships and airplanes, machinery, equipment, land transportation equipment for investment, and consumer goods. Major partners--U.S., U.K., Germany; exports--U.S., Belgium, Hong Kong; imports--U.S., Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, U.K.

During the 1990s, progress in the Middle East peace process, beginning with the Madrid Conference of 1991, helped to reduce Israel's economic isolation from its neighbors and opened up new markets to Israeli exporters farther afield. The peace process stimulated an unprecedented inflow of foreign investment in Israel, and provided a substantial boost to economic growth in the region over the last decade. The onset of the intifada beginning at the end of September of 2000, the downturn in the high-tech sector and Nasdaq crisis, and the slowdown of the global economy have all significantly affected the Israeli economy. However, despite the recent conflicts in Gaza and Lebanon, the Israeli economy grew during 2006.
[[File:Shopping Tel Aviv Israel.jpg|right]]
Israeli companies, particularly in the high-tech area, have in the past enjoyed considerable success raising money on Wall Street and other world financial markets; Israel ranks second to Canada among foreign countries in the number of its companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges. Israel's tech market is very developed, and in spite of the pause in the industry's growth, the high-tech sector is likely to be the major driver of the Israeli economy. Almost half of Israel's exports are high tech. Most leading players, including Intel, IBM, and Cisco have a presence in Israel.

Growth was an exceptional 6.2% in 2000, due in part to a number of one-time high tech acquisitions and investments. This exceptional year was followed by two years of negative growth of -0.9% and -1%, respectively, in 2001 and 2002. As a result of the security situation and the associated downturn in the economy, there was a significant rise in unemployment and wage erosion. This led to a decline in private consumption in 2002, the first time that there had been negative private consumption since the early 1980s. However, following growth rates of 1.7% in 2003 and 4.4% in 2004, the Israeli economy entered into a period of stabilization and recovery after the deep recession of 2001 and 2002. Since then, the Israeli economy seems to have returned to a trend of consistent growth. The Israeli economy grew by 5.2% in 2005 and GDP per capita (U.S. $17,800) increased by 3.3%. The Israeli economy grew by an estimated 4.8% in 2006.

Exports of goods and services in Israel grew by 7% in 2005. Service and agricultural exports each increased by more than 10% in 2005, whereas exports increased by 5.6% and imports rose to 4.4%. [[Israel Tourism]] revenues increased by 22.7% as a result of the dramatic increase following the intifada's subsidence.

Israel's private consumption increased by 4% in 2005. The largest growth in private consumption was in the purchase of clothing, footwear, and personal effects, which increased by 10.2%, following an increase of 5.4% in 2004. Consumption of consumer durables grew much more slowly than in 2004, with an increase of only 3.4%, compared with 14.3% the previous year.

In the Israeli business sector, business GDP grew by 6.6% in 2005. According to CBS statistics, the transportation, storage, and communications industries grew by 9.2%, following growth of 6.6% in 2004. The GDP of the wholesale, retail, restaurant, and hotel sector increased by 8.1%, up from 6.1% in 2004. The GDP of the finance and business services sector in 2005 increased by 6.4%, up from the previous year's 6.1% growth rate.

The general consensus among economists is that Israel's economy is very strong and that its growth potential is in the 4% to 5% range.
[[File:Bar Rafaeli Israel.jpg|thumb|left|Bar Refaeli, model and actress.]]
The United States is Israel's largest trading partner. In 2005, two-way trade totaled some $26.6 billion, up 12% from 2004. The U.S. trade deficit with Israel was $7.1 billion in 2005, up 33% from 2004, due largely to rising Israeli exports to the U.S. U.S. exports to Israel rose 6.1% in 2005 to $9.7 billion, making Israel our 19th largest export market for goods. The principal goods exported from the U.S. include civilian aircraft parts, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, civilian aircraft, electrical apparatus, and computer accessories. Israel's chief exports to the U.S. include diamonds, pharmaceutical preparations, telecommunications equipment, medicinal equipment, electrical apparatus, and cotton apparel. The two countries signed a free trade agreement (FTA) in 1985 that progressively eliminated tariffs on most goods traded between the two countries over the following 10 years. An agricultural trade accord signed in November 1996 addressed the remaining goods not covered in the FTA but has not entirely erased barriers to trade in the agricultural sector. Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the European Union, Canada, Mexico, and other countries.

Best prospect industry sectors in Israel for U.S. exporters are electricity and gas equipment, defense equipment, medical instruments and disposable products, industrial chemicals, telecommunication equipment, electronic components, building materials/construction industries (DIY and infrastructure), safety and security equipment and services, non-prescription drugs, travel and tourism services, and computer software.

==History==
[[File:Twelve Tribes of Israel.JPG|thumb|left|Twelve Tribes of Israel.]]
[[File:Map of the Holy Land.jpg|thumb|Map of the Holy Land Divided into the XII Tribes of Israel, by Emanuel Bowen, PUBLISHED 1752.]]
The name Israel refers to [[Jacob]] from the [[Bible]], the father of the [[Jews]] who would eventually create the kingdom of Israel. (See the [[Genesis|Book of Genesis]] in the Bible.) Jacob's descendants were numerous, but were put under bondage in [[Egypt]]. The first attempt at forming a nation dates back to the migration or [[Exodus of Israel]] out of Egypt after being freed from their [[slavery]]. (See the [[Exodus|Book of Exodus]] in the Bible). While the exact date is not known, the most likely scenario is in the 1400's B.C. After 40 years of wandering, the Hebrews attempted to settle in the land of Canaan, after first having to fight battles with the inhabitants. (See the [[Joshua (Biblical book)|Book of Joshua]] in the Bible). The Jewish people lived for hundreds of years under Judges (See the [[Judges|Book of Judges]] in the Bible) before forming a monarchy under their first King, [[Saul]] in 1050 B.C. Israel expanded under [[King David|David]] from 1010 to 970 B.C. and then reached its height under [[Solomon]] from 970 to 930 B.C. With the death of Solomon the united kingdom of Israel split in two with the tribes of Judah and Benjamin forming their own nation, [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. (See [[I Samuel]], [[II Samuel]], [[I Kings]], [[I Chronicles]] in the Bible)

The first King of Israel was [[Jeroboam I]], who made his capital at [[Shechem]] until it was replaced by [[Samaria]] under [[Omri]]. Almost immediately the Israeli kings "did evil in the sight of the Lord" and turned away from the Lord God. Although they were larger and more powerful than Judah, they fell more quickly due to their apostacy. Israel continued being ruled by kings until its conquest by [[Assyria]] in 722 B.C. Judah had a number of kings who did what was right in God's sight, but eventually they too were turning away. They continued as an independent nation until 586 B.C. when they fell to the [[Babylonians]]. Both of these conquests led to many Jews being deported from the land of Israel. While under [[Persian empire|Persian]] rule after the Babylonians had fallen to the Persians, the Jews were allowed to return and rebuild their temple (520 - 516 B.C.)<ref>An Encyclopedia of World History, Kingsport Press, 1948</ref> In the 400's B.C. they began to return to God as well, showing a reverence for Him that was often lacking during the time they had their own kingdom. Still under Persian rule and with their blessing, [[Nehemiah]] came to rebuild the walls of [[Jerusalem]], a position that was bitterly opposed by the other peoples living on the land. The Jews had to stand guard as they built.
[[File:Jews in Cochin PD.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cochin Jews are the oldest group of Jews in [[India]].]]
When [[Alexander the Great]] swept through Israel in 332 B.C., Persian rule had ended to be replaced by [[Macedone|Greek]]. Upon Alexander's death in 323 B.C. there was a fight for power among his generals and subordinates, which led to Israel coming under control of the Ptolemies, the Greek leaders of Egypt. The Jews were treated leniently until the [[Seleucids]], the Greek leaders of Syria, pushed back the Ptolemies and took over Israel in 198 B.C. The Seleucids were not as lenient and under [[Antiochus IV]] (175 to 164 B.C.) conditions worsened considerably. In 168 B.C. Judaism was declared to be illegal and a pig was sacrified on the altar of the Jewish temple; the Jews revolted under the [[Maccabees]] and fought a prolonged [[guerrilla war]] until their eventual religious independence in 164 B.C. Complete acknowledgement of independence from the Seleucids didn't come until 142 B.C. when Roman pressure helped them to make the decision to let Israel go. This independence would last until 63 B.C., when infighting caused the Jews to ask for [[Roman]] intervention. Rome stopped the fighting, but Israel came under Roman rule as the province of [[Palestine]]. The Jewish people would not have their independence again for over 2000 years. It was under this state of Roman control that [[Jesus]] was born around 4 B.C. Three revolts against Roman rule by the Jews, the first in 66 A.D., the next in 115 A.D., and the last in 132 A.D. took place, and failed. After the failure of the third, the Romans forced the Jews to leave Israel thus beginning the [[diaspora]], the dispersal of the Jews from the land of Palestine.

By the fifth century the inhabitants of the region were Christianized, under the [[Byzantine Empire]], a situation which continued until the [[Arab]] invasions of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs brought with them the [[Islam]]ic faith which, due to its many similarities with [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] and the social advantages it brought, was gradually adopted by the population. However, Jewish and Christian citizens continued to live in the region, in relative peace, until the Crusades.

The [[Crusades]] saw part of the Holy Lands reconquered from Islam in the name of Christianity. The Crusader states were temporary before being conquered by Islam again with the fall of the last Crusader state in 1290. First the [[Mamelukes]] controlled the area, then starting in the early 1500's, the [[Ottoman Turks]] conquered the region. [[World War I]] saw a British victory over the Ottoman's and the region came under British mandate of Palestine in 1920.

The British and late Ottoman authorities permitted the resettlement of Jews from Europe, many of them looking to establish a Jewish state in the region, part of a movement called [[Zionism]]. In the last years of British mandate the number and strength of the Jews in [[Palestine]] increased, with many adopting extremely radical tactics to achieve their goal of an independent Jewish state. Terrorist organizations such as Irgun and Lehi attacked British and Arab targets, killing civilians in the process. Britain's occupation became too expensive and they handed control to the [[United Nations]] to sort out a solution.

==Modern Nation==
[[Image:Zion.jpg|right|300px|Jaffa (Yafo) gate, Jerusalem.]]
The recreation of the State of Israel in 1948 was preceded by more than 50 years of efforts to re-establish a sovereign state as a homeland for the Jewish nation. These efforts were initiated by Theodore Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, and were given added impetus by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which asserted the British Government's support for the recreation of a Jewish homeland in roughly its [[Promised Land|original position]], which was then known as Palestine.

In the years following [[World War I]], Palestine became a British Mandate and the number of Jews returning to their homeland steadily increased, as did violence between Palestine's Jewish and Arab communities. Mounting British efforts to restrict this immigration were countered by international support for Jewish national aspirations following the near-extermination of European Jewry by the [[Nazis]] during [[World War II]]. This support led to the 1947 UN partition plan, which would have divided Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under UN administration.

[[Image:Israel48.jpg|thumb|400px|left]] On May 14, 1948, immediately after the British quit Palestine, the State of Israel was proclaimed and was immediately invaded by armies from neighboring Arab states, which rejected the UN partition plan. This conflict, Israel's War of Independence, was concluded by armistice agreements between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria in 1949 and resulted in a 50% increase in Israeli territory. The U.S. immediately recognized Israel and gave large amounts of financial aid through private sources, but did not at this time send military aid.

In 1956, French, British, and Israeli forces engaged Egypt in response to its nationalization of the Suez Canal and blockade of the Straits of Tiran. Israeli forces withdrew in March 1957, after the United Nations established the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Gaza Strip and Sinai. This war resulted in no territorial shifts and was followed by several years of terrorist incidents and retaliatory acts across Israel's borders.
===Six Day War (1967)===
In June 1967, Israeli forces in the [[Six-Day War]] struck targets in Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in response to Egyptian President Nasser's ordered withdrawal of UN peace keepers from the Sinai Peninsula and the buildup of Arab armies along Israel's borders. After 6 days, all parties agreed to a cease-fire, under which Israel retained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River, and East Jerusalem. On November 22, 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The Six Day War had a momentous effect on [[American Jews]], mobilizing new support for Israel.

The following years were marked by continuing violence across the Suez Canal, punctuated by the 1969-70 [[War of Attrition]] between Israel and Egypt. On October 6, 1973--Yom Kippur (the Jewish Day of Atonement), the armies of Syria and Egypt [[Yom Kippur War|launched an attack against Israel]]. Although the Egyptians and Syrians initially made significant advances, Israel was able to push the invading armies back beyond the 1967 cease-fire lines by the time the United States and the Soviet Union helped bring an end to the fighting. In the UN Security Council, the United States supported Resolution 338, which reaffirmed Resolution 242 as the framework for peace and called for peace negotiations between the parties.

In the years that followed, sporadic clashes continued along the cease-fire lines but guided by the U.S., Egypt, and Israel continued negotiations. In November 1977, Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]] made a historic visit to Jerusalem, which opened the door for the 1978 Israeli-Egyptian peace summit convened at Camp David by [[Jimmy Carter|President Carter]]. These negotiations led to a 1979 peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, pursuant to which Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, signed by President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menahem Begin of Israel.

In the years following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet relative to its borders with other neighbors. After the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from Jordan in 1970 and their influx into southern Lebanon, however, hostilities along Israel's northern border increased and Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon. After passage of Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon peacekeeping force (UNIFIL), Israel withdrew its troops.
[[File:Karakal Israel.jpg|left]]
In June 1982, following a series of cross-border terrorist attacks and the attempted assassination of the Israeli Ambassador to the U.K., Israel invaded Lebanon to fight the forces of Yasser Arafat's [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO). The PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon in August 1982. Israel, having failed to finalize an agreement with Lebanon, withdrew most of its troops in June 1985 save for a residual force which remained in southern Lebanon to act as a buffer against attacks on northern Israel. These remaining forces were completely withdrawn in May 2000 behind a UN-brokered delineation of the Israel-Lebanon border (the Blue Line). Hezbollah forces in Southern Lebanon continued to attack Israeli positions south of the Blue Line in the Sheba Farms/Har Dov area of the Golan Heights.

The victory of the U.S.-led coalition in the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] of 1991 opened new possibilities for regional peace. In October 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union convened the Madrid Conference, in which Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders laid the foundations for ongoing negotiations designed to bring peace and economic development to the region. Within this framework, Israel and the PLO signed a Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, which established an ambitious set of objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority. Israel and the PLO subsequently signed the Gaza-Jericho Agreement on May 4, 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities on August 29, 1994, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.

On October 26, 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a historic peace treaty, witnessed by President Clinton. This was followed by Israeli Prime Minister Rabin and PLO Chairman Arafat's signing of the historic Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on September 28, 1995. This accord, which incorporated and superseded previous agreements, broadened Palestinian self-government and provided for cooperation between Israel and the Palestinians in several areas.

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by a right-wing Jewish radical, bringing the increasingly bitter national debate over the peace process to a climax. Subsequent Israeli governments continued to negotiate with the PLO resulting in additional agreements, including the Wye River and the Sharm el-Sheikh memoranda. However, a summit hosted by President Clinton at Camp David in July 2000 to address permanent status issues--including the status of Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, final security arrangements, borders, and relations and cooperation with neighboring states--failed to produce an agreement.

Following the failed talks, widespread violence broke out in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza in September 2000. In April 2001 the Sharm el-Sheikh Fact Finding Committee, commissioned by the October 2000 Middle East Peace Summit and chaired by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, submitted its report, which recommended an immediate end to the violence followed by confidence-building measures and a resumption of security cooperation and peace negotiations. Building on the Mitchell report, In April 2003, the Quartet (the U.S., UN, European Union (EU), and the Russian Federation) announced the "roadmap," a performance-based plan to bring about two states, Israel and a democratic, viable Palestine, living side by side in peace and security.

Despite the promising developments of spring 2003, violence continued and in September 2003 the first Palestinian Prime Minister, Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen), resigned after failing to win true authority to restore law and order, fight terror, and reform Palestinian institutions. In response to the deadlock, in the winter of 2003-2004 Prime Minister Sharon put forward his Gaza disengagement initiative, proposing the withdrawal of Israeli settlements from Gaza as well as parts of the northern West Bank. President Bush endorsed this initiative in an exchange of letters with Prime Minister Sharon on April 14, 2004, viewing Gaza disengagement as an opportunity to move towards implementation of the two-state vision and begin the development of Palestinian institutions. In a meeting in May 2004 the Quartet endorsed the initiative, which was approved by the Knesset in October 2004.

The run-up to disengagement saw a flurry of diplomatic activity, including the February 2005 announcement of Lieutenant General William Ward as U.S. Security Coordinator; the March 2005 Sharon-Abbas summit in Sharm el-Sheikh; the return of Egyptian and Jordanian ambassadors to Israel; and the May 2005 appointment of former World Bank president James D. Wolfensohn as Special Envoy for Gaza Disengagement to work for a revitalization of the Palestinian economy after disengagement. Wolfensohn's direct involvement spurred Israeli-Palestinian agreement on the Gaza ‘crossings" at Karni and Erez, on the demolition of settler homes, water, electricity, and communications infrastructure issues, as well as other issues related to the Palestinian economy.

[[File:Israeli Defense Forces.jpg|center]]

On August 15, 2005, Israel began implementing its disengagement from the Gaza Strip, and the Israeli Defense Forces completed their withdrawal, including the dismantling of 17 settlements, on September 12. After broad recognition for Prime Minister Sharon's accomplishment at that fall's UN General Assembly, international attention quickly turned to efforts to strengthen Palestinian governance and the economy in Gaza. The United States brokered a landmark Agreement on Movement and Access between the parties in November 2005 to facilitate further progress on Palestinian economic issues. However, the terrorist organization Hamas--building on popular support for its "resistance" to Israeli occupation and a commitment to clean up the notorious corruption of the Palestinian Authority (PA)--took a majority in the January 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, with Hamas leader Ismail Haniya as Prime Minister. The Israeli leadership pledged not to work with a Palestinian government in which Hamas had a role.

Shortly following Hamas' PLC victory, the Quartet--comprised of the United States, European Union, United Nations. and Russia--outlined three basic principles the Hamas-led PA must meet in order for the U.S. and the international community to reengage with the PA: renounce violence and terror, recognize Israel, and respect previous agreements, including the roadmap. The Hamas-led PA government rejected these principles, resulting in a Quartet statement of "grave concern" on March 30, 2006 and the suspension of U.S. assistance to the PA, complete prohibition on U.S. Government contacts with the PA, and prohibition of unlicensed transactions with the PA government. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) under the leadership of PLO Chairman and PA President Mahmud Abbas (Abu Mazen), by contrast, remained consistently committed to the Quartet principles.
[[File:Israeli tanks Gaza strip borders 2007.jpg|left|thumb|340px|Israeli tanks, Gaza strip borders, 2007.]]
Despite several negotiated cease-fires between Hamas and Fatah, violent clashes in the Gaza Strip--and to a lesser extent in the West Bank--were commonplace between December 2006 and February 2007 and resulted in dozens of deaths and injuries. In an attempt to end the intra-Palestinian violence, the King of Saudi Arabia invited Palestinian rivals to Mecca, and on February 9, 2007, Abbas and Hamas leader Haniya agreed to the formation of a Palestinian national unity government and a cessation of violence. Hamas' rejectionist policies and violent behavior continued despite the formation of the national unity government.

In June 2007, Hamas effectively orchestrated a violent coup in Gaza. Hamas also launched scores of Qassam rockets into southern Israel in an attempt to involve Israel in the Hamas-Fatah conflict. On June 14, Palestinian Authority President Mahoud Abbas exercised his lawful authority by declaring a state of emergency, dissolving the national unity government, and replacing it with a new government with Salam Fayyad as Prime Minister.

The new Palestinian Authority government under President Abbas and Prime Minister Fayyad has no elements controlled by Hamas. The new government claims they are dedicated to peace and the Quartet principles and has been embraced politically and financially by the international community, including Israel, mainly because of the far worse alternative that Hamas represent.

==See also==
*[[Israel Tourism]]
*[[Jewish philosophy]]
*[[Israelophobia]]
*[[Gaza Strip]]
*[[Gallery of Jewish Painting]]
*[[Suicide bomber]]
*[[Suicide bomber: a personal account]]
*[[Jews in history]]
*[[In the midst of a Maelstrom: the Holy Spirit and silence: an essay]] an encounter between Israeli Jew and Egyptian Muslim in Alexandria
*[[Christmas in the Holy Land: an essay]]
*[[Adiabene]]
*[[What is Torah, what is Talmud]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook]
*[http://israelemb.org/kids/ Welcome to Israel (for Kids)]
*[http://www.usy.org/yourusy/israel/support/ Ways to Support Israel]
*[http://www.jewart.com/2007/11/07/jewish-art-in-history/ Jewish art in history]
*[http://www.jewishmuseum.org.uk/collections/photoarchive.asp Photographic Archive] The Jewish Museum.
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7v1C0VUhyA A Hamas made video of one of their suicide bomber operations]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOVhTFOPKxc&feature=related Failed suicide bombing attempt by anguishing 21 year old woman]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zegXBwGBPZs Touring in Jerusalem, Tagalog and English]
*[http://www.conservativenewsandviews.com/2011/05/07/clergy/journey-to-israel-day-1/ Journey to Israel, Day One]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/potoc.html American Attitudes Toward Israel.]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/jewstoc.html Jews in America.]
*[http://bertschlossberg.blogspot.com/2012/11/under-pillar-of-cloud.html Under a "Pillar of a Cloud"]

==Further reading==
[[File:Zionism1.jpg|thumb|270px|in front: David Ben Gurian, Golda Meir, Theodor Herzl]]
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Israel: A History'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Israel-History-Martin-Gilbert/dp/0688123635/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261917385&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Oren, Michael B. ''Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East'' (2003), 480pp; standard history of the war [http://www.amazon.com/Six-Days-War-Making-Modern/dp/0345461924/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255773712&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Sachar, Howard M. ''A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Israel-Rise-Zionism-Time/dp/0375711325/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261732421&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Shindler, Colin. ''A History of Modern Israel'' (2008), very good on politics; thin otherwise. [http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Israel-Colin-Shindler/dp/0521615380/ref=pd_sim_b_2 excerpt and text search]
* Stein, Leslie. ''The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Hope-Fulfilled-Praeger-Israeli-Studies/dp/027597815X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1261915375&sr=1-1#noop excerpt and text search]
* Tucker, Spencer C., ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict A Political, Social, and Military History'' (4 vol. 2008); vol 4 includes 150 primary sources
* Wigoder, Geoffrey, ed. ''New Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel'' (2nd ed. 2 vol. 1994); 1521pp
===Primary sources===
* Laqueur, Walter, and Rubin, Barry, eds. ''The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict'' (7th ed. 2008) 626p.
* Rabinovich, Itamar, and Reinharz, Jehuda, eds. ''Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, pre-1948 to the Present.'' (2008) 626pp

==References==

<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source: [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3581.htm]

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Biblical Places]]
[[Category:Israel]]
[[Category:Zionism]]
[[Category:Israeli Wars]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

Europe

2013-01-07T02:48:07Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Continent
|name =Europe
|map =Europe pol 2004.jpg
|map2 =
|language =
|area =4,066,281 square miles
|coastline =50,000 square miles
|highestpoint =Mt. Elbrus, 18,481 feet
|lowestpoint =Shoreline of Caspian Sea, 92 feet below sea level
|river =Volga, 2,330 miles
|lake =
|pop =
|pop-basis =
|countries =50
}}
'''Europe''' is the western part of the [[continent]]al landmass of Eurasia, consisting of the general area between the [[Ural Mountains]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. With an area of 3,998,000 square miles it ranks as the second-smallest of the continents, but in terms of population (727,000,000 in 2007) it is the third-largest. Europe is made up of approximately 50 countries.

Long a center of culture, art, philosophy, warfare, invention and government, Europe was the birthplace of [[classical liberalism]]; the [[Renaissance]]; the springboard of the great age of exploration; and the beginnings of the industrial age. Several major empires inhabited the continent: [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Roman Empire|Rome]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], the Austrian, the French, the German, and the [[British Empire|British]] each producing great achievements, as well as fighting huge wars which have shaped the world.

Politically, most countries in the region are part of the [[European Union]], with Switzerland and Norway being notable exceptions, and most are part of the [[NATO]] military alliance. The EU is slowly becoming a power in its own right, especially in economic affairs. NATO has been the world's dominant military force, in large part because it is basically controlled by the United States.

In recent years conservative parties have dominated in Europe, as typified by President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] of France, chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] of Germany and [[Vladimir Putin]] of [[Russia]]. Europe’s center-right parties have embraced many ideas associated with the left in the United States: generous welfare benefits, nationalized health care, sharp restrictions on carbon emissions, the ceding of some sovereignty to the European Union. But they have won elections by promising more efficiently than the left-wing parties, while working to lower taxes, improve financial regulation, and grapple with ageing populations. They have supported the United States in Afghanistan, participating heavily in the International Security Assistance Force. In general, labour unions are tied to the left in Europe and have the image of inefficiency and selfishness. "Green" parties, emphasizing environmentalism, have drained off much of the younger leftist.<ref>Steven Erlanger, "In Bad Times for Capitalism, Socialists in Europe Suffer," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/29/world/europe/29socialism.html?ref=world ''New York Times'' Sept. 29, 2009]</ref> Europe is generally a highly secularized continent containing many of the most atheistic countries in the world.

==Land==
[[File:Europe map CIA 2005.jpg|thumb|280px|Shaded relief map of Central and Western Europe]]
There is no overall consensus over the eastern boundary of Europe, given that it is not a continent in the same sense as the others, given that it is not a distinct tectonic plate. However, one of the most commonly suggested eastern borders is that of the Ural Mountains, a chain running north-south in present-day Russia. The Caucasus, another mountain chain between the Black and Caspian Seas, forms the southern land boundary. Its remaining boundaries are coastlines; the Arctic Ocean, the North and Norwegian Seas, the Atlantic Ocean, and Mediterranean Sea. The northernmost point on the mainland is Cape Nordkinn, Norway; the southernmost in Spain at Punta de Tarifa.

===Climate===
Cool winters and mild summers are typical of the climate in northern Europe, the result of the warm currents brought by the warm North Atlantic Drift as well as prevailing westerly winds. The climate of southern Europe is Mediterranean, usually hot in summer, with most rainfall taking place in winter. A colder climate begins in central Poland eastward, typified by drier conditions and, especially in Russia, severely-cold winters.

===Drainage===
The major rivers in western Europe originate in the mountain ranges of central Europe. The Rhine, Rhone, Elbe, Seine and Vistula flow from the Alps and the Balkans northward, emptying into the English Channel, North and Baltic seas; the Po and Rubicon rivers flow into the Mediterranean Sea, while the [[Danube]] flows into the Black Sea. Long a navigable river, the [[Danube]] is further connected via locks and canals to the Rhine, ensuring a centuries-long free flow of commerce from both sides of Europe into the interior. In eastern Europe the major rivers flow towards the south, emptying in the Black and Caspian seas; among them are the Dnepr, Donets, and Volga. With the exception of the Mediterranean rivers, all European rivers have an even rate of flow as a result of an even spread of yearly precipitation; the faster-flowing rivers, particularly in the mountain highlands and Scandinavia, also aid in the production of hydroelectric power for home and industry.

===Flora===
Forests covered a large part of Europe as late as the 19th century, but human activities have cleared many areas for farming. Still, a large amount of forested land remains, as well as those acres that have been re-planted or re-grown after human abandonment.

A mixed coniferous-deciduous belt dominates a vegetation zone across the central portion of the continent from east to west, characterized by oak, elm and maple mingled with fir and pine. Spruce and pine dominate inland northern Europe as a result of cool, but mild temperatures. Tundra is characteristic of the Arctic land regions, consisting of shrubs, wild flowers, lichens and mosses. To the east is the European Plain, an expanse of prairie grass which gives way to the Ukrainian steppe and its short grasses of a drier climate.

===Fauna===
[[Image:Three-happy-bears.jpg|thumb|280px|Russian bears]]
The lakes and rivers support an abundance of fish, including trout and salmon, while the coastal areas and inland seas support tuna, sardines, sturgeon, cod, haddock, halibut, and many others. Birds are widespread as well, including eagles, storks, ravens, and seabirds.

Although there are many mammal species on the continent (deer, lemmings, beaver, etc), they have been hard hit as a result of man's long occupation in Europe. The once common brown bear (''Ursus arctos'') is now restricted to isolated pockets of the Pyrenees and the far north of Scandinavia. The wisent (''Bison bonasus''), the largest mammal on the continent, has been over-hunted so extensively that only a few managed herds survive in central Poland, while a relative, the larger aurochs (''Bos primigenius'') was killed off by 1627.

===Mineral [[resources]]===

Coal is found extensively in Britain, Spain, France, the Ruhr of Germany, Belgium, Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and the Ukraine. Oil and natural gas deposits lie throughout Europe, with the two most important regions within Russia and the North Sea. Nickel, tin, bauxite, copper, lead, gypsum, manganese, lead, and iron ore have been mined extensively and traded. Marble, such as that from Carrera, Italy, is used in monumental architecture and statuary.

===Arable land===
Countries in Europe with the largest percentage of arable land include the United Kingdom, France, Denmark, and the Netherlands, all of which have large areas of plains despite also having a large amount of highlands (in addition, the Netherlands has much land re-claimed from the sea). In addition, nearly half of western Europe has arable land. Norway, Sweden, Finland, and northern Russia have limited amounts of arable land by comparison, due to a restricted growing season at high latitudes as well as extreme cold.

==People==
It is conjectured that the first humans migrated into Europe in several waves, either from Asia Minor across the Bosporus and into the Balkan region, or from Asia by way of the steppes. River barriers, mountains, and forested lands help to divide early Europeans into distinct groups, and by about 4000 B.C. humans were well-established.

===Ethnic groups===
A large number of diverse ethnic groups live on the continent. Several of the European nations are composed of one predominant ethnic group, i.e. Greeks in Greece, Spanish in Spain. Several of these countries have a distinctive minority, such as the Laplanders of northern Norway and Finland.

===Languages===
[[File:Languages in Europe map.jpg|left|240px]]
The vast majority of the languages spoken on the European continent come from the [[Indo-European]] language family. Within this category, the three largest European branches are the [[Romance language|Romance]] (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian); [[Germanic]] (German, English, Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic); and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] (Russian, Bulgarian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian). Other Indo-European languages include Celtic (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Breton), Baltic (Latvian, Lithuanian), Greek and Albanian. Non-Indo-European languages spoken in Europe include languages within the [[Finno-Ugric]] group ([[Hungarian]], [[Finnish]], Estonian). [[Turkish]] is spoken in the European portion of Turkey.

Several of the European languages were spread world-wide over the past five hundred years as a result of trade, colonization, or political/military power; as a result, French, English, Spanish, and German are second languages for many people.

 

===Religion===
[[Image:Caravaggio Ecce Homo.JPG|thumb|Cece Homo by [[Caravaggio]].]]
The dominant religion in Europe is Christianity, with the Roman Catholic Church the largest single denomination, forming a major part of the lives of people in France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Ireland, and Poland. The Protestants are several churches which originally broke away from the Catholic Church at the beginning of the 16th century, the first being the Lutheran Church. Members of Protestant denominations form the majority in Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom. The third major Christian group is Eastern Orthodoxy, mainly in eastern Europe, of which the Greek and Russian denominations are well known.

Europe is a very secularized and socialized continent.<ref>[http://www.intellectualconservative.com/2008/05/02/europe-the-dark-continent/ Europe: The Dark Continent]</ref>
====Muslims====
About 15 million Muslims now live in Europe, 3% of the population. They are highly diverse in terms of ethnicity and language; about half practice religion. About half are citizens of the countries in which they live. Economic poverty and limited opportunity is striking for the Muslims of France; where riots have occurred periodically. Islam is the dominant religion in the Balkan countries of Albania and Kosovo as well as the slice of Turkey in Europe.

===Culture and Education===
[[File:Liszt-1870.jpg|thumb|[[Franz Liszt]] in 1870.]]
Europe has long and rich cultural history, which produced many outstanding works in painting, sculpture, architecture, dance, music, and literature; among the great masters are [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michaelangelo]], [[Raphael]], [[Vincent Van Gogh]], Mozart, Brahms, Alexander Dumas, [[Charles Dickens]], and many others. [[Paris]], Vienna, [[London]], Rome, Madrid, [[Florence]], and other European capitals became havens where art flourished and expanded. Institutions of learning also grew, with several, such as Oxford and Cambridge, becoming well-known world-wide.

===Demography===
Migration and differential birth and death rates have resulted in a shifting in population distribution over periods of time. By 400 A.D. the bulk of the population was along the Mediterranean coastline; today the interior and north-central Europe has the majority of population density. The average life expectancy for Europeans is 75 years, despite a population decrease attributed to a low birth rate of 10.2 births per 1,000 people (2005).

==Economy and Commerce==
===Industry===
The Industrial Revolution began in Europe during the late 18th century, and since then Europe has become a leading exporter of manufactured goods. Textiles and clothing, ships, motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads, are among the items produced, and since World War II high-technology and electronic items were added. Manufacturing is particularly concentrated in central Europe, and in European Russia and Ukraine.

===Agriculture===
European farmers produce a mixed variety of crops yearly, with wheat producing the largest yield, especially within the Ukraine. Other crops include barley, oats, rye, corn, potatoes, beets, beans, peas, and sugar beets. Southern Europe is noted for the production of grapes for the wine industry, olives, pistachio nuts, and citrus fruits; the first two (grapes and olives) have become important to the identity as well as the economy of the countries which produce them. Animal production includes beef (especially in Spain), pigs, goats, and poultry.

===Forestry===
The main sources of wood for construction and other products come from the northern European forests of Scandinavia, Finland, and Russia; southern Europe, with less forested acreage, is known primarily as a producer of cork.

===Fishing===
Fishing is very important to northern European countries; access to the cold waters of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans enable a large harvest of cod, char, herring and flatfish yearly. All coastal countries engage in commercial fishing to some degree, and two, Italy and Greece, have fishing traditions which date to ancient times.

===Transportation===
[[File:Tour Eiffel.jpg|thumb|220px|Tour Eiffel from underneath.]]
The Vikings have traded extensively via the waterways and river systems of northern Europe, while in the south the Danube and Mediterranean were used. Today, large fleets of ships are maintained by several countries which import and export a great deal of goods, and have transformed many coastal cities into major sea ports.

Highways and roads are well-established and maintained; Germany's famous Autobahns providing the example, and in addition to trade via trucks a large number of Europeans own automobiles. Railways carrying passengers and freight criss-cross the continent; France's TGV is among the fastest trains in the world, and the "Orient Express", made famous by an Agatha Christie novel, still makes its fabled run from Paris to [[Istanbul]].

All European countries have a national airline (KLM, Lufthansa, British Airways, etc) that maintain routes world-wide. The Airbus Corporation competes with Boeing in the manufacture of large-bodied passenger aircraft.

===Trade===
International and intercontinental trade on a large scale is conducted by nearly all European countries, with the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom among the largest trading nations in the world.

==History==
[[File:St Marks Cathedral.jpg|thumb|290px|St. Marks Cathedral, [[Venice]].]]
====Early humans====

It was during the late Paleolithic that humans arrived on the continent, and although of a hunter-gatherer stock they left behind examples of their art, most notably the cave paintings in Spain and France with their highly-decorated murals of extinct animals. As these hunters settled down by the Neolithic period, they had learned to farm, and by roughly 6000 B.C. farming had spread across most of the continent. With farming came a more settled life, and towns were created, with the Starčevo and Danubian cultures in the Balkans, and Sesklo and Dimini in Thessaly. Trade in metals (copper, tin) resulted in the creation of bronze by about 4000 B.C.; amber marked its appearence as a precious stone in trade from the Baltic. Elaborate burials were becoming common, especially of aristocrats or royalty; during this time as well humans were organized into societies that resulted in the construction of the megaliths, of which [[Stonehenge]] is the best known example.

No clear definition exists for the origin of the Indo-European languages. Some scholars theorize that it came across the plains north of the Black Sea with a kurgan culture around 2500 B.C. According to the theory, the first such kurgan invasion was successful in the Balkans, where it spread to central Europe.

====First Civilizations====
[[File:Greek culture.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Parthenon]]]]
The island of Crete in the Aegean was the first to have a major civilization in Europe. Named after King Minos of Greek mythology, the Minoan Civilization had its capital at Knossos; the ruins excavated in the early 20th century by British archaeologist Arthur Evans indicate a well-developed society, capable of extensive trade by sea, which effectively controlled the Aegean by 1600 B.C. By then the first tellings of the Mycenaean Civilization appeared on mainland Greece. These ancient Greeks may have been Indo-Europeans from the Balkans, and have been in conflict with the Minoans, who simply vanish from the historical record by 1400 B.C. (this may be due to the eruption of Thera, a volcano to the north of Crete, about 1450 B.C., which may have caused a tsunami to strike Crete; physical evidence on Crete indicates a massive, catastrophic explosion). By 1200 B.C. the Mycenaeans themselves were almost destroyed, by warfare and earthquakes. In the years following, the Greeks began to fashion new tools and weapons from iron.

== See also ==
*[[Europa]]
*[[Architecture]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/europe.htm Europe]
==Further reading==
===Reference===
* DeWald, Jonathan, ed. ''Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World'' (6 vol. 2003), 3200pp; 1100 articles by experts.
* Merriman, John, and Jay Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol 2006).
* Merriman, John, and Jay Winter, eds. ''Europe - Since 1914 - Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction'' (5 vol 2005), 3100 pp. 920 articles by experts
===Guides===
* ''Europe'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Dan Colwell (2003)[http://www.amazon.com/Europe-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Colwell/dp/0789497301/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226617&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Europe on a Budget'' (2008)[http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Europe-Budget-Travel-Guides/dp/1843539942/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226617&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Eastern Europe'' by Dr. Ryan James et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Eastern-Europe-Complete/dp/0470399082/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226617&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* ''MTV Europe'' by Lauren Berger et al. (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/MTV-Europe-Guides-Lauren-Berger/dp/0764584995/ref=sr_1_19?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226824&sr=1-19 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Europe'' by Lisa Dunford et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Central-Europe-Multi-Country-Guide/dp/1741049997/ref=sr_1_20?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226824&sr=1-20 excerpt and text search]
* ''Western Europe'' by Ryan ver Berkmoes (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Western-Europe-Multi-Country-Guide/dp/1741049172/ref=sr_1_23?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226824&sr=1-23 excerpt and text search]
* ''Rick Steves' Best of Europe 2010'' by Rick Steves (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rick-Steves-Best-Europe-2010/dp/1598802828/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226975&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]

===Surveys and textbooks===
* Beazley, Mitchell. ''From the Dark Ages to the Renaissance: 700 - 1599 AD'' (2003)
* Bispham, Edward. ''Roman Europe: 1000 BC - AD 400'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Roman-Europe-Short-Oxford-History/dp/0199266018/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254220635&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Buchanan, Tom. ''Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 - 2000'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Europes-Troubled-Peace-Blackwell-History/dp/0631221638/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226547&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Davies, Norman. ''Europe - A History'' (1998). [http://www.amazon.com/Europe-History-Norman-Davies/dp/0060974680/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254227637&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Eichengreen, Barry. ''The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/European-Economy-since-1945-Coordinated/dp/0691138486/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226547&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search], advanced economics
* Hollister, C. Warren, and Judith Bennett. ''Medieval Europe: A Short History'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Medieval-Europe-History-C-Warren-Hollister/dp/0071244239/ref=sr_1_23?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254220835&sr=1-23 excerpt and text search]
* Judt, Tony. '' Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945‎'' (2006) - 933 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=10oPnprPjcgC&dq=intitle:history+intitle:of+intitle:europe&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2002&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=3 excerpt and text search]
* Kerr, Gordon. ''A Short History of Europe: From Charlemagne to the Treaty of Lisbon'' (2009), 160pp
* Kishlansky, Mark, et al. ''A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy'' (2 vol. 2006) , widely used textbook; numerous editions
* McEvedy, Colin, and David Woodroffe. ''The New Penguin Atlas of Recent History: Europe Since 1815'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/New-Penguin-Atlas-Recent-History/dp/0140515046/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254220635&sr=1-7 excertp and text search]
* McKay, John P. et al. ''Western Society: A Brief History: (2 vol 2009), widely used textbook; numerous editions
* Mazower, Mark. ''Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Dark-Continent-Europes-Twentieth-Century/dp/067975704X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254226466&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Merriman, John. ''A History of Modern Europe, From the Renaissance to the Present'' (2nd ed. 2004) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Europe-Second-One/dp/0393979105/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254220931&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Milward, Alan S., and S. B. Saul. ''Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850-1914'' (1977)
* Sherman, Dennis. ''Western Civilization: Sources, Images, and Interpretations, from the Renaissance to the Present'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Western-Civilization-Sources-Interpretations-Renaissance/dp/0073513245/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254221546&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Spielvogel, Jackson J. ''Western Civilization'' (2008); widely used textbook; numerous editions
* Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. ''Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789'' (2006), stress on [[social history]] [http://www.amazon.com/Modern-Europe-1450-1789-Cambridge-History/dp/0521005213/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254220635&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Wasserstein, Bernard. ''Barbarism and civilization: a history of Europe in our time‎'' (2007) 901 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=_utII6-EarIC&dq=intitle:history+intitle:of+intitle:europe&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1990&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=3 excerpt and text search]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:European History]]

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

2013-01-07T02:43:16Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Союз Советских Социалистических Республик Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik''
|map =Soviet union rel 1986.jpg
|flag =600px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png
|arms =Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg.png
|capital =Moscow
|government =Communist
|language =Russian (de facto)
|area =8,649,538 sq. mi. (1991)
|pop =293,047,571 (1991)
|pop-basis =
}}
The '''Soviet Union''' (Russian: Советский Союз, ''Sovyetskiy Soyuz''), formally the '''Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''' (or '''USSR''') (Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик, ''Soyuz Sovietskykh Sotsialisticheskykh Respublik'', abbreviated ''СССР'') existed 1917-1991, then broke into 15 separate countries, most notably [[Russia]]. It was the most powerful established [[socialist]] states in history, coming to power under [[Lenin]] in 1918 and killing millions of its citizens to establish a ruthless Communist dictatorship under [[Joseph Stalin]] in the 1930s. After cooperating with the USSR (1939-41), the Nazi Germans under [[Adolf Hitler]] invaded in a war to the death. The USSR defeated the Nazis in [[World War II]] (1941-45), and took control of most of [[Central Europe]], turning formerly independent countries into Communist satellite states. It was the primary antagonist of the United States during the [[Cold War]] (1947-1989); it then collapsed because of American pressure and its own internal economic and social failures. At its height the USSR covered one-sixth of the earth's land area, stretching from [[Central Europe]] across [[Eastern Europe]] and northern Asia to the Pacific Ocean. Although Russia and most of Soviet republics are [[Western world]] countries, during the Soviet period, a war was declared on Christianity, the country wanted to cut its Western roots and create a brand new civilisation, a communist utopia.

==Geography==
[[File:Siberian cat.jpg|thumbnail|300px|The [[Siberia]]n [[cat]] is the national cat of [[Russia]].
 
 
(photo obtained from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bugsy_outside4.jpg Wikimedia commons], photographer: Jan Warner, see: [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en license agreement])]]
Located in the middle and northern latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the Soviet Union's 22.4 million square kilometers included one-sixth of the earth's usable land area. Its western portion (European part of Russia), more than half of all European landmass, made up 25% of Russia's total area. European part of Russia (European Russia), however, was where 72% of the people lived and where most industrial and agricultural activities were concentrated. The largest region was the lightly populated [[Siberia]], a land between the Urals and the Pacific that for centuries was infamous as a place of exile, a land of endless expanses of snow and frigid temperatures.

Extending for over 60,000 kilometers, the Soviet border was the world's longest national frontier, sharing a common border with twelve countries, six on each continent. In Asia, its neighbors were the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (North Korea), [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]], and [[Turkey]]; in [[Europe]], it bordered [[Romania]], [[Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]] (now [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]), [[Poland]], [[Norway]], and [[Finland]].

Approximately two-thirds of the frontier was bounded by water, forming the longest and, owing to its proximity to the North Pole, probably the most useless coastline of any country. Apart from Murmansk, which receives the warm currents of the Gulf Stream, the northern coast is locked in ice much of the year. The search for a warm water port was a central theme throughout Russian history.

A dozen seas, part of the water systems of three oceans--the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific--washed over Soviet shores.
*Size: Approximately 22,402,200 square kilometers (land area 22, 272,000 square kilometers); slightly less than 2.5 times size of United States.
*Location: Occupies eastern portion of European continent and northern portion of Asian continent. Most of country north of 50° north latitude.
*Topography: Vast steppe with low hills west of Ural Mountains; extensive coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; deserts in Central Asia; mountains along southern boundaries.
*Climate: Generally temperate to Arctic continental. Winters vary from short and cold along Black Sea to long and frigid in Siberia. Summers vary from hot in southern deserts to cool along Arctic coast. Weather usually harsh and unpredictable. Generally dry with more than half of country receiving fewer than forty centimeters of rainfall per year, most of Soviet Central Asia northeastern Siberia receiving only half that amount.
*Land Boundaries: 19,933 kilometers total: Afghanistan 2,384 kilometers' China 7,520 kilometers; Czechoslovakia 98 kilometers; Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) 17 kilometers; Finland 1,313 kilometers, Hungary 135 kilometers; Iran 1,690 kilometers; Mongolia 3,441 kilometers; Norway 196 kilometers; Poland 1,215 kilometers; Romania 1,307 kilometers; and Turkey 617 kilometers.
*Water Boundaries: 42,777 kilometers washed by oceanic systems of Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific.
*Land Use: 11 percent of land arable; 16 percent meadows and pasture; 41 percent forest and woodland; and 32 percent other, including tundra.
*Natural Resources: Oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, timber, gold, manganese, lead, zinc, nickel, mercury, potash, phosphates, and most strategic minerals.

===Administrative-Political-Territorial Divisions===
The USSR was divided into fifteen union republics - the largest administrative and political units - officially known as Soviet republics or union republics. Theoretically they were independent countries; in practice they were controlled by the Kremlin. Nationality, size of the population, and location were the determinants for republic status. By far the largest and most important was the Russian Republic, containing about 51% of the population. In 1989 Russians made up over 51% of the Soviet population and were politically, economically and culturally the dominant nationality, there are more than 100 other nationality groups that make up Soviet society. Fourteen other major nationalities also have their own republics: in the European part are the [[Lithuania]]n, [[Latvia]]n, [[Estonia]]n, [[Belarus|Belarusian]], [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], and [[Moldavia]]n republics; the [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n, [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Armenian]] republics occupy the Caucasus; and Soviet Central Asia is home to the [[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]], [[Uzbekistan|Uzbek]], [[Turkmenistan|Turkmen]], [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz]], and [[Tajikistan|Tajik]] republics.

The Soviet republics were subdivided into administrative subdivisions called autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts, autonomous okruga, kraia, or most often oblasts. These subdivisions made the country easier to manage and some served to recognize additional nationalities.

==People==
[[Image:Solzhenitsyn.jpg‎|thumb|150px|right|The [[Nobel Prize]] winning [[Russia|Russian]] author [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] was exiled from the Soviet Union due to his criticism of the Soviet government.]]
The official Soviet census of 1989 listed over 100 nationalities in the Soviet Union. Each had its own history, culture, and language. Each possessed its own sense of national identity and national consciousness. The position of each nationality in the Soviet Union depended to a large degree on its size, the percentage of the people using the national language as their first language, the degree of its integration into the Soviet society, and its territorial-administrative status. This position was also dependent on each nationality's share of membership in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), the number of students in higher institutions, the number of scientific workers, and the urbanization of each nationality.

The various nationalities differed greatly in size. On the one hand, the [[Russia]]ns, who constituted about 50.8 percent of the population, numbered about 145 million in 1989. On the other hand, half of the nationalities listed in the census together accounted for only 0.5 percent of the total population, most of them having fewer than 100,000 people. Twenty-two nationalities had more than 1 million people each. Fifteen of the major nationalities had their own union republics, which together comprised the federation known as the Soviet Union.

The nationalities having union republic status commanded more political and economic power than other nationalities and found it easier to maintain their own language and culture. In 1989 some nationalities formed an overwhelming majority within their own republics; one nationality (the Kazakhs), however, lacked even a majority. In addition to the fifteen union republics, individual nationalities had their own territorial units, such as autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts, and autonomous okruga. The remaining nationalities did not have territorial units of their own and in most cases only constituted minorities in the Russian Republic.

The nationalities that have had a significant political and economic impact on the Soviet Union include the fifteen nationalities that have their own union republics and the non-union republic nationalities that numbered at least 1 million people in 1989. They are the Slavic nationalities, the Baltic nationalities, the nationalities of the Caucasus, the Central Asian nationalities, and a few other nationalities.
*Population: 293,047,571 (1991 estimate). Average annual growth rate 0.9 percent. Density twelve persons per square kilometer; 75 percent of people lived west of Ural Mountains.
*Nationalities: 51 percent of population Russian, 15 percent Ukrainian, 6 percent Uzbek, nearly 4 percent Belorussian, and 24 percent about 100 other nationalities.
[[File:Bezhnoznik u stanka 15-1929.jpg|thumb|260px|A Soviet propaganda poster disseminated in the ''Bezbozhnik'' (''Atheist'') magazine depicting [[Jesus]] being dumped from a wheelbarrow by an industrial worker as well as a smashed church [[bell]]; the text advocates Industrialisation Day as an alternative replacement to the [[Christian]] Transfiguration Day. see: [[Militant atheism]] ]]
*Religions: Religious worship was authorized by Constitution, but Marxism-Leninism, the official ideology, was militantly [[Atheism|atheistic]] (see: [[Militant atheism]]). Reliable statistics are unavailable, but about 18 percent was Russian Orthodox; 17 percent Muslim; and nearly 7 percent Roman Catholic, Protestant, Armenian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, and Jewish combined. Officially, most of remainder was atheist.
*Languages: Russian was the official language. Over 200 other languages and dialects were spoken, often as the primary tongue; 18 languages were spoken by groups of more than 1 million each. About 75 percent of people spoke Slavic languages.
*Education: Highly centralized school system with standardized curriculum. Attendance was compulsory through eleventh grade. Strong emphasis on training for vocations selected by central authorities. Indoctrination in Marxist-Leninist ideology at all levels. Science and technology emphasized at secondary level and above. As of 1979 census, official literacy rate 99.8 percent for persons between nine and forty-nine years old. Over 5.3 million studied at universities and institutes, nearly 50 percent part time. All education free, and in many cases students received stipends.
*Health and Welfare: Medical care by government health institutions; free, but of poor quality for general public despite having the highest number of physicians and hospital beds per capita in world. Welfare and pension programs provided, albeit marginally, for substantial segments of population.

===Population===
Seven official censuses have been taken in the Soviet Union (1920, 1926, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989). Both the quality and the quantity of the data have varied: in 1972 seven volumes totaling 3,238 pages were published on the 1970 census. In contrast, the results of the 1979 census were published more than five years later in a single volume of 366 pages.

According to the census of 1989, on the day of the census, January 12, the population of the Soviet Union was estimated to be 286,717,000. This figure maintained the country's long-standing position as the world's third most populous country after China and India. In the intercensal period (1979-88), the population of the Soviet Union grew from 262.4 million to 286.7 million, a 9 percent increase.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced declining birth rates, increasing divorce rates, a trend toward smaller nuclear families, and increasing mobility and urbanization. Major problems associated with such factors as migration, tension among nationality groups, uneven fertility rates, and high infant and adult mortality became increasingly acute, and various social programs and incentives were introduced to deal with them.

===Religion===
Over one-third of the people in the Soviet Union, an officially [[Atheism|atheistic]] state, professed religious belief. [[Christianity]] and Islam had the most believers. Christians belonged to various churches: Orthodox, which had the largest number of followers; Catholic; and Baptist and various other Protestant sects. The majority of the Islamic faithful were Sunni. Judaism also had many followers. Other religions, which were practiced by a relatively small number of believers, included Buddhism, Lamaism, and shamanism, a religion based on primitive spiritualism.

The role of religion in the daily lives of Soviet citizens varied greatly. Because Islamic religious tenets and social values of Muslims are closely interrelated, religion appeared to have a greater influence on Muslims than on either Christians or other believers. Two-thirds of the Soviet population, however, had no religious beliefs. About half the people, including members of the CPSU and high-level government officials, professed atheism. For the majority of Soviet citizens, therefore, religion seemed irrelevant.

==Government==
[[File:200px-Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg.png|thumbnail|200px|Coat of arms of the Soviet Union]]
:''Main article: [[Soviet Union government]]''
The Soviet Union administered the country's economy and society through decisions made by the extremely authoritarian leading political institution in the country, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU).

In the late 1980s, the government appeared to have many characteristics in common with other Western, democratic political systems. For instance, a constitution established all organs of government and granted to citizens a series of political and civic rights. A legislative body, the Congress of People's Deputies, and its standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, represented the principle of popular sovereignty. The Supreme Soviet, which had an elected chairman who functioned as head of state, oversaw the Council of Ministers, which acted as the executive branch of the government. The chairman of the Council of Ministers, whose selection was approved by the legislative branch, functioned as head of government. A constitutionally based judicial branch of government included a court system, headed by the Supreme Court, which was responsible for overseeing the observance of Soviet law by government bodies. According to the Constitution of 1977, the government had a federal structure, permitting the republics some authority over policy implementation and offering the national minorities the appearance of participation in the management of their own affairs.

In practice, however, the government differed markedly from other Western systems. In the late 1980s, the CPSU performed many functions that governments of other countries usually perform. For example, the party decided on the policy alternatives that the government ultimately implemented. The government merely ratified the party's decisions to lend them an aura of legitimacy. The CPSU used a variety of mechanisms to ensure that the government adhered to its policies. The party, using its nomenklatura authority, placed its loyalists in leadership positions throughout the government, where they were subject to the norms of [[democratic centralism]]. Party bodies closely monitored the actions of government ministries, agencies, and legislative organs.

The content of the Soviet Constitution differed in many ways from typical Western constitutions. It generally described existing political relationships, as determined by the CPSU, rather than prescribing an ideal set of political relationships. The Constitution was long and detailed, giving technical specifications for individual organs of government. The Constitution included political statements, such as foreign policy goals, and provided a theoretical definition of the state within the ideological framework of Marxism-Leninism. The CPSU could radically change the constitution or remake it completely, as it has done several times in the past.

The Council of Ministers acted as the executive body of the government. Its most important duties lay in the administration of the economy. The council was thoroughly under the control of the CPSU, and its chairman - the prime minister - was always a member of the Politburo. The council, which in 1989 included more than 100 members, is too large and unwieldy to act as a unified executive body. The council's Presidium, made up of the leading economic administrators and led by the chairman, exercised dominant power within the Council of Ministers.

According to the Constitution, as amended in 1988, the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union was the Congress of People's Deputies, which convened for the first time in May 1989. The main tasks of the congress were the election of the standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, and the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, who acted as head of state. Theoretically, the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet wielded enormous legislative power. In practice, however, the Congress of People's Deputies met only a few days in 1989 to approve decisions made by the party, the Council of Ministers, and its own Supreme Soviet. The Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and the Council of Ministers had substantial authority to enact laws, decrees, resolutions, and orders binding on the population. The Congress of People's Deputies had the authority to ratify these decisions.

The government lacked an independent judiciary. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts and applied the law, as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union lacked an [[Adversary proceeding|adversary court procedure]]. Under Soviet law, which derived from Roman law, a procurator worked together with a judge and a defense attorney to ensure that civil and criminal trials uncovered the truth of the case, rather than protecting individual rights.

The Soviet Union was a federal state made up of fifteen republics joined together in a theoretically voluntary union. In turn, a series of territorial units made up the republics. The republics also contained jurisdictions intended to protect the interests of national minorities. The republics had their own constitutions, which, along with the all-union Constitution, provide the theoretical division of power in the Soviet Union. In 1989, however, the CPSU and the central government retained all significant authority, setting policies that were executed by republic, provincial (''oblast'', ''krai'', and autonomous subdivisions), and district (''raion'') governments.

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the Soviet Union]]''
===Lenin===
The Soviet Union was established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) on territory generally corresponding to that of the old Russian Empire. A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd overthrew the imperial government in March 1917, leading to the formation of the Provisional Government, which intended to establish democracy in Russia. At the same time, to ensure the rights of the working class, workers' councils (''soviets'') sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir I. Lenin, agitated for socialist revolution in the soviets and on the streets, and they seized power from the Provisional Government in November 1917. Only after the ensuing Civil War (1918-21) and foreign intervention was the new communist government secure.

From its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves beginning March 1918. After unsuccessfully attempting to centralize the economy during the Civil War, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist with nationalized industry in the 1920s. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for Soviet leaders to contend for power in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. By gradually consolidating influence and isolating his rivals within the party, [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph V. Stalin]] became the sole leader of the Soviet Union by the end of the 1920s.

===Stalin===
[[Image:Stalin-140508 27880t.jpg|right|225px|thumb|[[Joseph Stalin]], the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953, founded the League of Militant Atheists, whose chief aim was to propagate [[militant atheism]] and eradicate [[religion]].<ref name=Hesemann-Strieber>{{cite book|author=Michael Hesemann, Whitley Strieber|title=The Fatima Secret|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tx-BEpkJBq8C&pg=PT107&dq=Joseph+Stalin+militant+atheism&hl=en&ei=-DeRTpLrJoPi0QHo88wi&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=Joseph%20Stalin%20militant%20atheism&f=false|quote=Lenin's death in 1924 was followed by the rise of Joseph Stalin, "the man of steel," who founded the "Union of Militant Atheists," whose chief aim was to spread [[atheism]] and eradicate religion. In the following years it devastated hundreds of churches, destroyed old icons and relics, and persecuted the clergy with unimaginable brutality.|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|date=2000|accessdate=09 October 2011}}</ref> See also: [[Atheism]] ]]
In 1928 [[Joseph Stalin]] introduced the First Five-Year Plan for building a socialist economy. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization; in agriculture, the state appropriated the peasants' property to establish collective farms. These sweeping economic innovations produced widespread misery, and millions of peasants perished during forced collectivization. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s when Stalin began a purge of the party; out of this purge grew a campaign of terror that led to the execution or imprisonment of untold millions of people from all walks of life. Yet despite this turmoil, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before World War II.

===World War II===
Stalin tried to divide up [[Central Europe]] with Germany by concluding the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact with Adolf Hitler in 1939. The USSR took over the Baltics (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) and the eastern borderlands (Polish: 'Kresy') of Poland, while going to war with [Finland]]. Communists across the world ended their diatribes against fascism, while Stalin provided the German war machine with supplies of oil and grain. Europe was not big enough for two dictators, so in June 1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union. The U.S. and Britain formed an alliance with Stalin to fight the Nazis, and poured in [[Lend Lease]] aid. After many humiliating defeats and the loss of three mission soldiers, the Red Army finally stopped the Nazi offensive at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942-43 and then all of [[Central Europe]] before Germany surrendered in 1945. Although severely ravaged in the war, the Soviet Union emerged from the conflict as one of the world's great powers.
===Cold War===
During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded its economy, using resourcs stripped from defeated Germany. The Red Army imposed Communist political control over postwar [[Central Europe]] and the Balkans, except for Yugoslavia and Albania. The active Soviet foreign policy helped bring about the [[Cold War]], starting about 1947, which turned its wartime allies, Britain and the United States, into foes. Within the Soviet Union, repressive measures continued in force; Stalin apparently was about to launch a new purge when he died in 1953.
===Khrushchev===
[[File:Nikita Krushchev.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Nikita Khrushchev]] liked to threaten and bully, often using "brinkmanship" (the threat of nuclear weapons); ''Time'' Sept. 8, 1961]]

see: [[Nikita Khrushchev]]

After three years of a join leadership, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] seized power, denounced Stalin's use of terror and effectively reduced repressive controls over party and society. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive, and foreign policy toward China and the United States suffered reverses. Khrushchev's colleagues in the leadership removed him from power in 1964.

===Brezhnev ===
Following the ouster of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued, which lasted until [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid I. Brezhnev]] established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent figure in Soviet political life. Brezhnev presided over a period of détente with the rest of the West while at the same time building up Soviet military strength; the arms buildup contributed to the demise of [[détente]] in the late 1970s. Also contributing to the end of détente was the [[Soviet-Afghan War|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in December 1979.

After some experimentation with economic reforms in the mid-1960s, the Soviet leadership reverted to established means of economic management. Industry showed slow but steady gains during the 1970s, while agricultural development continued to lag. In contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of cautious conservatism and aversion to change. Brezhnev was succeeded by former KGB head Yuri Andropov.

===Reagan challenge===
Friction with other Western countries continued in the 1980's, especially with the United States and its new president, [[Ronald Reagan]], who saw the Soviet Union for what it was and branded it an "evil empire," partially in response to the Afghanistan occupation. Reagan negotiated with West Germany to provide sites for the basing of Pershing II medium-range ballistic missiles, which was bitterly opposed by Moscow. A short period of confrontation existed between the two superpowers during the period of late-1983 through 1984, beginning with the tragic Soviet attack on a commercial airliner, [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], over international waters near Sakhalin Island on September 1, 1983, and killing 269 civilians, including a sitting U.S. Congressman, [[Larry McDonald]]; this was followed by events within a military exercise known as Able Archer, in which a falling satellite was mistaken for an incoming ICBM and almost triggered a major war. Reagan's [[Strategic Defense Initiative]], a space-based missile defense system critics derisively dubbed "Star Wars" as well as his expansion of the United States military, also prompted a new, expensive arms race.

Andropov and his successor, Konstantin Chernenko, kept the communist system under Brezhnev intact, but upon Chernenko's death [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became party chairman.

===Gorbachev and the end of Communism===
see [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]

A reformer, he introduced a series of economic and political reforms known as ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openess") and ''[[perestroika]]'' ("restructuring"), which began to creak open the doors of the Soviet's closed system. A failed attempt to reign in the three [[Baltic States]] in 1989 led to a domino-effect of [[Warsaw Pact]] countries abandoning communism; a coup attempt against Gorbachev in 1991 by hard-liners trying to keep their tattering empire ended within days. The USSR was formally dissolved on Christmas day 1991 by [[Boris Yeltsin]], freeing many from its tyranny. The main successor state to the Soviet Union is [[Russia]]; the effort to form a "Commonwealth of Independent States" went nowhere, and the 15 republics of the USSR are now independent states.

==See Also==
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Soviet Union government]]
*[[Nazi Germany]]
*[[Korean Airlines Flight 007]]
*[[KAL 007: the Russian Federation support for a water landing]] The Soviet Staff and military communications evidence
*[[Soviet Officers of KAL 007 Shootdown]]
*[[KAL 007: Soviet stalk, shoot down, and rescue mission orders transcripts]]
*[[KAL 007: Timeline of Interception and Shootdown]]
*[[Anatoly Kornukov]]
*[[The Soviet/ U.S naval confrontation]]
*[[KAL 007 and the Soviet Top Secret Memos]]

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1990)
* Ingram, Philip. ''Russia and the USSR, 1905-1991'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Russia-1905-1991-Cambridge-History-Programme/dp/0521568676/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232394134&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Keep, John L. H. ''Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945-1991'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/25055927?title=Last%20of%20the%20Empires%3a%20A%20History%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union%2c%201945-1991 online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union: 1917-1991'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54365219 online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Who's Who in Russia since 1900,'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/103052094?title=Who's%20Who%20in%20Russia%20since%201900 online edition]
* Malia, Martin. ''Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Tragedy-History-Socialism-Russia/dp/0684823136/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232396454&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Nove, Alec. ''An Economic History of the USSR 1917-1991'' (3rd ed. 1993)
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003), by a leading conservative
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. ''The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States.'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24265044# online edition]
===Lenin and Stalin===
* Bullock, Alan. ''Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives'' (1992), a double biography covering each man in separate but parallel chapters
* Lee, Stephen J. ''Stalin and the Soviet Union'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/108215209?title=Stalin%20and%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Stalin and Stalinism'' (3rd ed 2003), 172pp
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: A Biography'' (2004), along with Tucker the standard biography
* Service, Robert. ''Lenin: A Biography'' (2002)
* Tucker, Robert C. ''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879-1929'' (1973); ''Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929-1941.'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103246514 online edition] with Service, a standard biography; [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Ulam, A. B. ''Stalin'' (1973), good older biography; replaced by Tucker and Service
* Wood, Alan. ''Stalin and Stalinism'', (2004), 105pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108863368 online edition]
===Peoples, society, culture===
* Cole, J. P. ''Geography of the Soviet Union'' (1984) [http://www.questia.com/read/7724372?title=Geography%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Davis, Nathaniel. ''A Long Walk to Church: A Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/30537968?title=A%20Long%20Walk%20to%20Church%3a%20A%20Contemporary%20History%20of%20Russian%20Orthodoxy online edition]
* Denber, Rachel. ''The Soviet Nationality Reader: The Disintegration in Context'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/97474829?title=The%20Soviet%20Nationality%20Reader%3a%20The%20Disintegration%20in%20Context online edition]
* Lane, David. ''Soviet Society under Perestroika'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/103443652?title=Soviet%20Society%20under%20Perestroika online edition]
* Lapidus, Gail Warshofsky. ''Women, Work, and Family in the Soviet Union'' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/read/106056669?title=Women%2c%20Work%2c%20and%20Family%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Lutz, Wolfgang Lutz, Sergei Scherbov, Andrei Volkov. ''Demographic Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union before 1991'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/103849492?title=Demographic%20Trends%20and%20Patterns%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20before%201991 online edition]
* Wixman, Ronald. ''The Peoples of the USSR: An Ethnographic Handbook'' (1984) [http://www.questia.com/read/582240?title=The%20Peoples%20of%20the%20USSR%3a%20An%20Ethnographic%20Handbook online edition]

===1918-1939===
* Daniels, R. V., ed. ''The Stalin Revolution'' (1965)
* Davies, Sarah, and James Harris, eds. ''Stalin: A New History,'' (2006), 310pp, 14 specialized essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Stalin-New-History-Sarah-Davies/dp/0521616530/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494353&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* De Jonge, Alex. ''Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union'' (1986)
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila, ed. ''Stalinism: New Directions,'' (1999), 396pp excerpts from many scholars on the impact of Stalinism on the people (little on Stalin himself) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109468478 online edition]
* Hoffmann, David L. ed. ''Stalinism: The Essential Readings,'' (2002) essays by 12 scholars
* Pipes, Richard. ''A Concise History of the Russian Revolution'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Russian-Revolution/dp/0679745440/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393501&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search], by a leading conservative
* Tucker, Robert. ''Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalinism-Historical-Interpretation-Robert-Tucker/dp/0765804832/ref=sr_1_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193876953&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]

===[[Gulag]] and Terror===
* Applebaum, Anne. ''Gulag: A History.'' 2003. 736 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Gulag-History-ANNE-APPLEBAUM/dp/B0007NMYPY/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494284&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/79044140?title=The%20Great%20Terror%3a%20A%20Reassessment online edition]
* Pohl, J. Otto. ''Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/9465022?title=Ethnic%20Cleansing%20in%20the%20USSR%2c%201937-1949 online edition]
* Rosefielde, Steven. "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s" ''Europe-Asia Studies,'' Vol. 48, No. 6 (Sep., 1996), pp. 959-987 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0966-8136(199609)48%3A6%3C959%3ASIPPNE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]

===World War II===
* Brandon, Ray, and Wendy Lower, eds. ''The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization.'' (2008). 378 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=24078 online review], on the Holocaust
* Broekmeyer, Marius. ''Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941-1945.'' 2004. 315 pp.
* Overy, Richard. ''The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia.'' 2004. 448 pp. focus on 1930-45 [http://www.amazon.com/Dictators-Hitlers-Germany-Stalins-Russia/dp/B000FTCH5W/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494219&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Priestland, David. ''Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalinism-Politics-Mobilization-David-Priestland/dp/0199245134/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201494105&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Roberts, Geoffrey. ''Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953'' (2006).

===Cold War===
* see [[Cold War]]
* Craig, Campbell, and Yuri Smirnov. ''Truman, Stalin, and the Bomb'' (2008)
* Gaddis, John. ''A New History of the Cold War'' (2006)
* Holloway, David. ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Stalin-Bomb-Soviet-Atomic-1939-1956/dp/0300066643/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193876689&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Mastny, Vojtech. ''The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98422373 online edition] [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History/dp/0807859583/ref=pd_bbs_sr_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
===Khruschev, Gorbachev===
* Brown, Archie. ''The Gorbachev Factor'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/109878423?title=The%20Gorbachev%20Factor online edition]
* Dallin, Alexander, and Gail W. Lapidus. ''The Soviet System: From Crisis to Collapse'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/100838053?title=The%20Soviet%20System%3a%20From%20Crisis%20to%20Collapse online edition]
* Matlock, Jack. ''Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended'' (2005), by leading conservative [http://www.amazon.com/Reagan-Gorbachev-How-Cold-Ended/dp/0812974891/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Taubman, William. ''Khrushchev: The Man and His Era'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Khrushchev-Man-His-William-Taubman/dp/0393324842/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393626&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History/dp/0807859583/ref=pd_bbs_sr_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232393695&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html Library of Congress detailed country study on the Soviet Union]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/intro2.html The Soviet Union and the United States]
*State Defense Committee Decree No. 5859ss [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/l2tartar.html "On the Crimean Tatars"], The Kremlin, May 11, 1944.

[[category:Russian History]]
[[Category:Former Countries]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Communist States]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]

Solidarity

2013-01-07T02:28:16Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Solidarity''' was an independent [[trade union]] in [[Communist]]-dominated [[Poland]]. Its courageous struggle for freedom ultimately helped bring about the collapse of Communism in Poland and then [[Central Europe]], spreading later to the [[Balkans]] and [[Eastern Europe]] (the [[Soviet Union]]).

Solidarity was founded in September 1980 during a strike at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], on Poland's [[Baltic Sea]] coast. Its first leader was a shipyard electrician, [[Lech Walesa]]. In 1981 the Polish government imposed [[martial law]] to suppress industrial and political unrest, and Walesa was interned; the union was forced underground for several years, but the Communist Party eventually had to negotiate. Elections held in 1989 led to a coalition government of which Solidarity formed part, and Walesa became Polish president. During the 1981-1989 period when the Solidarity party was outlawed, the communist government tended to see its local [[Roman Catholic]] church as a far more conservative and reasonable social force than the Solidarity party.
==See also==
* [[History of Poland]]

[[Category:Poland]]
[[category:Labor Unions]]
[[category:Communism]]

Talk:World History Lecture Thirteen

2013-01-07T02:28:08Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{protect|Geo.plrd}}

== Somalia ==

Somalia was formed from British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland but NOT French Somaliland. French Somaliland became the separate independent state of [[Djibouti]].

Also, you have omitted the significant colonial acquisitions made by Germany between the 1880s and the 1914-18 War: Kamerun, German South West Africa, German East Africa (Tanganyika). [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 09:47, 30 August 2007 (EDT)

== Mrs Gandhi ==
did not succeed her father, Nehru, on his death but two years later. [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 11:20, 31 August 2007 (EDT)

== UK/Palestine==
The UK returned its mandate over Palestine to the UN. It did not 'ask the UN to partition Palestine'. [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 11:20, 31 August 2007 (EDT)

== Golda Meir ==
''Golda Meir was the third women in history to run a nation''

Cleopatra, Elizabeth I, Mary Tudor, Mary Queen of Scots, Queen Anne, Christina of Sweden, Catherine the Great, the Dowager Empress Cixi... [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 11:44, 31 August 2007 (EDT)

== Ethnic Cleansing ==
Your comments are a disgrace. 'Ethnic cleansing' and racial murder by all parties in Bosnia is well-documented, but was principally carried out by Serbs of Moslems. To try and deny this by blaming it on an 'anti-Christian' press is obscene. [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]] 11:44, 31 August 2007 (EDT)

== Errors ==
''"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken. Put another way, Latin America is all of America south of the United States.''

No: what about Surinam, Guyana and French Guiana? they do not speak Spanish or Portugese.

Also, many other errors in this essay (and others) have been pointed out to you. Why do you persist in perpetuating inaccuracies? [[User:Pachyderm|Pachyderm]]

== More Errors ==
''Five European powers – Great Britain, Belgium, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands – had divided Africa into colonies during the Imperialism Era.''

What about Germany? Spain? Italy? And the only Dutch colony - the Cape Colony - was taken over by Britain at the time of the Naoploeonic Wars. [[User:DukeAra|DukeAra]] 07:36, 29 February 2008 (EST)

''Demonstrations, such as the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, occasionally broke out but were violently put down. An ANC leader named Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for his role in that demonstration. Riots over school segregation occurred in Soweto in 1976, and in 1977 the government beat an outspoken critic, Steve Biko, to death''

Words fail me. You should get a Pullitzer, Andy, for your prose alone. [[User:DukeAra|DukeAra]] 07:41, 29 February 2008 (EST)

== Viet Minh ==
"When he returned in 1941, he founded “Vietminh”, with the name reflecting that he intended to rule as a dictator"#

Please expand on this statement. [[User:DukeAra|DukeAra]] 07:44, 29 February 2008 (EST)

:Yes, according to the dictionary, Viet Minh is an abbreviation of a phrase that means "Vietnam Independence League."<ref>http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Vietminh</ref> There is nothing about that phrase that necessarily implies that anyone intended to rule as a dictator. --[[User:Rubashov|Rubashov]] 11:00, 20 January 2010 (EST)

== East Germany ==
''Hungary helped end communism in East Germany, which was the most brutal of the communist regimes.''
If one is making comparisons between communist regimes, I would argue that that in Romania was a good deal more repressive and brutal than that of the GDR. [[User:DukeAra|DukeAra]] 07:53, 29 February 2008 (EST)

== Editing ==

I tried to add a wikilink to Igbo but the page has been locked. I also feel that the sections should be wiki-headings so that it is easier to navigate a long document. [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:08, 18 April 2008 (EDT)

Huge error = when you are referring to "Eastern Europe", you actually mean Central or Central and Eastern Europe. See: [[Eastern Bloc]]

Lech Wałęsa

2013-01-07T02:26:00Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Lech Wałęsa''' (born 1943) was a leader in [[Solidarity]], a [[Poland|Polish]] anti-Communist labour organization that arose in the port city of [[Gdańsk]] in the 1980s. Poland, was at the time, a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] satellite nation. In 1980, Walesa led a strike at the [[Gdańsk]] shipyard, which led to strikes throughout Poland for workers' rights. He was awarded the 1983 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his actions. <ref>http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1983/walesa-bio.html</ref>

In 1990, he was elected president of Poland, and served until 1995.

==References==

<References/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Walsea,Lech}}

[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Polish People]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom award winners]]

Baltic Sea

2013-01-07T02:25:04Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''Baltic Sea''' is the body of water lying between the [[Scandinavia]]n peninsula and continental [[Europe]].

The Baltic sea is connected to the [[North Sea]] via the [[Kattegat]] and [[Skaggerak]] between Sweden and Denmark.

The northern Baltic in particular is of extremely low salinity, being diluted by the run-off of many rivers and the heavy regional rainfall, permitting many freshwater fish, such as the [[pike]], to inhabit its northern arm, the [[Gulf of Bothnia]]. Other important inlets are the Gulf of Riga and the Gulf of Finland. Much of the northern Baltic is frozen in winter.

Countries possessing Baltic coastlines are [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]], [[Estonia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Poland]], [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]].

Important cities and ports of the Baltic include [[Stockholm]], [[Helsinki]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Tallinn]], [[Riga]], [[Gdańsk]], [[Lubeck]] and [[Kiel]].

The Baltic's largest [[island]] is [[Gotland]].

Surrounded by a number of industrial cities, and with little mixing of its waters with other seas, the Baltic is amongst the most heavily polluted seas on Earth.

[[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]

Poland

2013-01-07T02:24:40Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

{{Country
|name =''Rzeczpospolita Polska''
|map =Poland rel00.jpg
|map2 =Poland location.png
|flag =Flag of Poland.png
|arms =Arms of Poland.png
|capital =Warsaw
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Polish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Bronisław Komorowski
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Donald Tusk
|pm-raw =
|area =120,728 sq mi
|pop =38,441,588
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$413.3 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$10,858 (2006)
|currency =Złoty (PLN)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Poland''' is the most [[pro-life]] nation in [[Central Europe]] (Middle Europe) located on its western side. It has suffered many hardships before and after [[World War I]] and [[World War II|II]] disappearing as a nation in 1975 and re-appearing in 1918. Emerging as a nation again after World War I, Poland was partitioned between [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] at the start of World War II. Given nationhood again at the end of the war, it was under the shroud of being a Soviet satellite controlled by a [[communist]] regime. Poland finally became liberated from the communist rule in late 1980s. The exact date of the end of communism in Poland is hard to difine, but it is often accepted as July 4, 1989 (the date of the elections won by the ''Solidarność'', or ''Solidarity'' movement. [[Pope John Paul II]] was from Poland and played a major part in bringing down [[communist|communism]] in Poland. Among the nations under Soviet domination, Poland was unique in continuing to keep its strong [[Catholic]] roots even in the face of persecution. The [[capital]] of Poland is [[Warsaw]].

== People ==
[[File:Fickowa Pokusa Poland.JPG|thumb|left|Polish musician.]]
Poland today is ethnically almost homogeneous (98% Polish), in contrast with the period before and during World War II, when there were significant ethnic minorities--4.5 million [[Ukrainiane|Ukrainians]], 3 million [[Jew]]s, 1 million [[Belorusse|Belorussians]], and 800,000 [[German]]s. The majority of the Jews were murdered during the German occupation in World War II, and many others emigrated in the succeeding years.

Most Germans left Poland at the end of the war, while many Ukrainians and Belorussians lived in territories incorporated into the then-U.S.S.R. Small Ukrainian, Belorussian, [[Slovakia]]n, and [[Lithuania]]n minorities reside along the borders, and a German minority is concentrated near the southwest city of Opole.
*Population (July 2006): 38.5 million.
*Annual growth rate: Unchanging.
*Ethnic groups: Polish 98%, German, Ukrainian, Belorussian, Lithuanian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, Eastern Orthodox, Uniate, Protestant, Judaism.
*Language: Polish.
*Education: Literacy--98%.
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate--7.2/1,000. Life expectancy--males 71 yrs., females 79 yrs.
*Work force: 17.2 million. Industry and construction--29%; agriculture--16%; services--54%.
=== Religion ===
[[File:St John Cathedral Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|St. John Cathedral, Warsaw.]]
[[File:Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice Poland.jpg|thumb|Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice.]]
More than 94% of the population is Roman Catholic. According to the 2007 Annual Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the formal membership of the listed religious groups includes: 33,862,800 Roman Catholics; 506,800 Polish Orthodox Churchmembers; 53,000 Greek Catholics; 126,827 Jehovah's Witnesses; 77,500 Lutherans (Augsburg Confession); 23,670 Old Catholic Mariavits; 21,199 Pentecostals; 9,620 Seventh-day Adventists; 19,035 members of the Polish Catholic Church; 4,881 members of the New Apostolic Church; 4,726 Baptists; 4,445 Methodists; 3,516 Lutherans (Reformed); 2,500 Jews; 2,425 members of the Church of Christ; 2,195 Catholic Mariavits; 1,299 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons); 915 members of the Church of Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas); and 112 registered members of Muslim associations. These figures do not account for persons who adhere to a particular faith but do not maintain formal membership. Figures for Jews and Muslims in particular are significantly deflated as a result. Jewish and Muslim organizations estimate their actual numbers to be 30,000-40,000 and 25,000, respectively.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/ U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The majority of asylum seekers are Muslims from Chechnya. In the refugee centers around the country, they organize their own mosques where they practice their religion.

Currently, there is a movement in Poland to completely ban [[abortion]]<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,262104,00.html</ref>, however there is an opposite movement to allow abortion to greater extent than it is now. Most political forces in the parliament are in favor of keeping abortion law as it is (allowing abortion when the women's life or health is threatened, when pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, when the fetus is irreversibly damaged). The attempts to change constitution so that it would be stated that life would be protected from the moment of conception to natural death failed.

== Government and Political Conditions ==
The current government structure consists of a council of ministers led by a Prime Minister, typically chosen from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (Sejm). The president, elected every five years for no more than two terms, is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The judicial branch plays a minor role in decision-making.

The parliament consists of the 460-member Sejm and the 100-member Senat, or upper house. The new constitution and the reformed administrative division (as of 1999) required a revision of the election ordinance (passed in April 2001). The most important changes were liquidation of a national list (all deputies are elected by voters in electoral districts) and introduction of a new method of calculating seats (the modified St. Lague method replaced the d'Hondt method, thus eliminating the premium for the top parties). The law stipulated that with the exception of guaranteed seats for small ethnic parties, only parties receiving at least 5% of the total vote could enter parliament.

Parties represented in the newly elected (October 2011) Sejm are [[Civic Platform]] (PO), [[Law and Justice]] (PiS), Palikot's Movement (RP), Polish Peasant Party (PSL), Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), and the United Poland (SP) which was created after elections by former Law and Justice members. There is also one representative of the German Minority and some non-allied members of Parliament

=== Principal Government Officials ===
*President--Bronisław Komorowski
*Prime Minister--Donald Tusk (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration--Jerzy Miller (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy--Waldemar Pawlak (PSL)

[[File:Bronislaw Komorowsk Poland.jpg|left|300px]]

 
President Bronislaw Komorowski.
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign Relations ===
Poland became an associate member of the EU and its defensive arm, the Western European Union, in 1994. In a June 2003 national referendum, the Polish people approved EU accession by an overwhelming margin, and Poland gained full membership on May 1, 2004.

Changes since 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, and Poland has had to forge relationships with seven new neighbors. Poland has actively pursued good relations, signing friendship treaties replacing links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West.

== Defense ==
Poland became a full member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) in March 1999 as part of the first wave of enlargement outlined at the July 1997 NATO Summit in [[Madrid]]. Poland's top national security goal is to further integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic, and political institutions while modernizing and reorganizing its military. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defense posture as its Alliance partners.

Poland maintains a sizable armed force currently numbering about 140,572 troops divided among an army of 87,877, an air and defense force of 31,147, and a navy of 21,548. Poland relies on military conscription for the majority of its personnel strength. All males (with some exceptions) are subject to a 12-month term of military service. The Polish military continues to restructure and to modernize its equipment. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure. Although budget constraints remain a drag on modernization, Poland has been able to move forward with U.S. assistance on acquiring 48 [[F-16]] multi-role fighters, [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]] cargo planes, HMMWVs, and other items key to the military’s restructuring.

Poland continues to be a regional leader in support and participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace Program and has actively engaged most of its neighbors and other regional actors to build stable foundations for future European security arrangements. Poland continues its long record of strong support for UN peacekeeping operations by maintaining a unit in Southern Lebanon, a battalion in NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR), and by providing and actually deploying the KFOR strategic reserve to Kosovo. Polish military forces have served in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Poland assumed command of a multinational division of stabilization forces in Iraq (MDN-CS) on September 3, 2003. Poland and its MND-CS partners have worked effectively since then to stabilize south central Iraq while working to train Iraqi forces to take over MND-CS responsibilities and operate independently. <ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat_coalition.htm</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Pol-cia.jpg|thumb|320px]] The Polish economy grew rapidly in the mid-1990s, slowed considerably in 2001 and 2002, returned again to healthy growth rates in 2003, then faltered during the worldwide [[recession of 2008]]. Poland’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annualized rate of 5.2% in the first quarter of 2006. Faster growth has begun to reduce persistently high unemployment, from nearly 20% in the middle of 2004 to 16.5% in May 2006. Tight monetary policy and dramatic productivity growth have helped to hold down inflation, which was 2.1% in 2005. Likewise, Poland's current account deficit, which grew rapidly in the late 1990s, has since moderated to 1.4% of GDP in 2005. The 2005 budget deficit was 27.5 billion zloty, or 2.8% of GDP in 2005, and the current government pledged to restrain the 2006 and 2007 budgets at 30 billion zloty.

Throughout the 1990s, the United States and other Western countries supported the growth of a free enterprise economy by reducing Poland's foreign debt burden, providing economic aid, and lowering trade barriers. Poland graduated from U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance in 2000 and paid the balance of its U.S.-held Paris Club debt in 2005. Poland officially joined the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004.
*GDP (2006): $265.4 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 5.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $14,100.
*Rate of inflation (2006): 1.3%.
*Natural resources: [[Coal]], [[copper]], [[sulfur]], [[natural gas]], [[silver]], [[lead]], [[salt]].
*Agriculture: Products--grains, hogs, dairy, potatoes, horticulture, sugarbeets, oilseed.
*Industry: Types--machine building, iron and steel, mining, shipbuilding, automobiles, furniture, textiles and apparel, chemicals, food processing, glass, beverages.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$110.7 billion: furniture, cars, ships, coal, apparel. Imports--$113.2 billion: crude oil, passenger cars, pharmaceuticals, car parts, computers.

=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture employs 16.1% of the work force but contributes only 5% to the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting relatively low productivity. Unlike the industrial sector, Poland's agricultural sector remained largely in private hands during the decades of communist rule. Most of the former state farms are now leased to farmer tenants. Lack of credit is hampering efforts to sell former state farmland. Currently, Poland's 2 million private farms occupy 90% of all farmland and account for roughly the same percentage of total agricultural production. These farms are small--8 hectares (ha) on average--and often fragmented. Farms with an area exceeding 15 ha accounted for only 9% of the total number of farms but cover 45% of total agricultural area. Over half of all farming households in Poland produce only for their own needs with little, if any, commercial sales.

Poland is a net exporter of confectionery, processed fruit and vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Processors often rely on imports to supplement domestic supplies of wheat, feed grains, vegetable oil, and protein meals, which are generally insufficient to meet domestic demand. However, Poland is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye and is one of the world's largest producers of sugarbeets. Poland also is a significant producer of rapeseed, grains, hogs, and cattle. Attempts to increase domestic feed grain production are hampered by the short growing season, poor soil, and the small size of farms.

Pressure to restructure the agriculture sector intensified as Poland prepared to accede to the European Union, which is unwilling to subsidize the vast number of subsistence farms that do not produce for the market. The changes in agriculture are likely to strain Poland's social fabric, tearing at the heart of the traditional, family-based small farm as the younger generation drifts toward the cities. Nonetheless, dramatically increasing agricultural exports to the EU-15 (38% growth in 2005) and payments to farmers from Brussels following accession have enriched Polish commercial farmers and dramatically increase support for EU membership in Poland’s rural areas.

[[File:Panorama-Morskiego-Oka Poland.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panoramic view of Morskie Oko ("Marine Eye").]]

=== Industry ===
[[File:Locomotive train station Poland..jpg|thumb|Locomotive at a train station.]]
Before World War II, Poland's industrial base was concentrated in the coal, textile, chemical, machinery, iron, and steel sectors. Today it extends to fertilizers, petrochemicals, machine tools, electrical machinery, electronics, and shipbuilding.

Poland's industrial base suffered greatly during World War II, and many resources were directed toward reconstruction. The communist economic system imposed in the late 1940s created large and unwieldy economic structures operated under a tight central command. In part because of this systemic rigidity, the economy performed poorly even in comparison with other economies in central Europe.

In 1990, the Mazowiecki government began a comprehensive reform program to replace the centralized command economy with a market-oriented system. While the results overall have been impressive, many large state-owned industrial enterprises, particularly the railroad and the mining, steel, and defense sectors, have remained resistant to the change and downsizing required to survive in an open market economy.

=== Economic Reform Program and Direct Foreign Investment ===
The economic reforms introduced in 1990 removed price controls, eliminated most subsidies to industry, opened markets to international competition, and imposed strict budgetary and monetary discipline. Poland was the first former centrally planned economy in central Europe to end its recession and return to growth in the early 1990s. The private sector now accounts for over two-thirds of GDP.

In early 2002, the government announced a new set of economic reforms known as the Hausner Plan, designed in many ways to complete the process launched in 1990. The package acknowledged the need to improve Poland's investment climate, particularly the conditions for small and medium-sized enterprises, and better prepare the economy to compete as a European Union (EU) member. The government also aimed to improve Poland's public finances to prepare for eventual adoption of the euro. Though the government was able to enact only portions of the Hausner Plan, those successes coupled with successful monetary efforts to strengthen the zloty, have put Poland within reach of the National Bank’s goal of Euro accession in 2008-2009.

As a result of Poland's growth and investment-friendly climate, the country has received over $85 billion in direct foreign investment (DFI) since 1990, with roughly $7 billion in 2004 alone. According to a recently publish report by Ernst and Young, Poland is tied with Germany as the most attractive destination for foreign investment in Europe. The availability of cheap land and a large, relatively skilled labor force are among Polish strengths. However, the government continues to play a strong role in the economy, as seen in excessive red tape and the high level of politicization in many business decisions. Investors complain that state regulation is not transparent or predictable, and the economy suffers from a lack of competition in many sectors, notably telecommunications.

=== Foreign Trade ===
With the collapse of the ruble-based COMECON trading bloc in 1990, Poland scrambled to reorient its trade. As early as 1996, 70% of its trade was with EU-15 members, and neighboring Germany today is Poland's dominant trading partner. Most of Poland's imports are capital goods needed for industrial retooling and for manufacturing inputs, rather than imports for consumption. Therefore, a deficit is expected and should even be regarded as positive at this point. Poland, a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and European Union, applies the EU’s common external tariff to goods from other countries--including the U.S.

In the year after it joined the EU, Poland experienced an overall growth in exports of 30%. This growth was not confined to trade among EU partners: while exports to EU countries rose by 27%, exports to developing countries rose by 46%, and exports to Russia rose an unexpected 77%. Poland’s trade balance continued to improve, with export growth significantly outpacing import growth. Opportunities for trade and investment continue to exist across virtually all sectors. The American Chamber of Commerce in Poland, founded in 1991 with seven members, now has more than 300 members. Strong economic growth potential, a large domestic market, EU membership, and political stability are the top reasons U.S. and other foreign companies do business in Poland.

== History ==
{{main|History of Poland}}
[[File:Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.jpg|thumb|Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.]]
Poland's written history begins with the reign of [[Mieszko I]], who accepted [[Christianity]] for himself and his kingdom in AD 966. The Polish state reached its zenith under the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] in the years following the union with [[Lithuania]] in 1386 and the subsequent defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]] at Grunwald in 1410. The Union of Lublin united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on July 1, 1569, in Lublin, Poland which created a single state known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish Commonwealth was at one point the largest country in Europe, covering much of what is today Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland. The Polish experienced their Golden Age during the 16th century. The monarchy survived many upheavals but eventually went into a decline, which ended with the final partition of Poland by [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], and [[Austria]] in 1795.

Independence for Poland was one of the 14 points enunciated by [[President Woodrow Wilson]] during [[World War I]]. Many Polish Americans enlisted in the military services to further this aim, and the United States worked at the postwar conference to ensure its implementation.

However, the Poles were largely responsible for achieving their own independence in 1918 and keeping it shortly thereafter against [[Polish-Soviet War|Red aggression]] from [[Bolshevik]] Russia. Authoritarian rule predominated for most of the period before [[World War II]]. In the years preceding the outbreak of the World War 2, German leader, Adolf Hitler, repeatedly requested an alliance with Poland. On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov nonaggression pact]], which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939, Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and then occupied eastern Poland under the terms of this agreement. On October 6, all remaining Polish resistance inside Poland ceased and Poland fell to Soviet and German occupation. The eastern half of Poland known as the Kresy, was annexed into the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.

The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a government in exile, first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Soviet Union. During World War II, 400,000 Poles fought under Soviet command, and 200,000 went into combat on Western fronts in units loyal to the Polish government in exile.

In April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile after the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyn]], in the U.S.S.R. (The Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports.) In July 1944, the Soviet Red Army entered Poland and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" (PKWN) at Lublin.

Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including uprisings by Jews in the Warsaw ghetto and by the Polish underground, was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city.

During the war, about 6 million Poles were killed, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. More than 3 million Jews (all but about 100,000 of the Jewish population) were killed in death camps like those at Oswiecim ([[Auschwitz]]), Treblinka, and Majdanek.

Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945; the U.S. recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination.

==== Communist Party Domination ====
[[File:Socialist reliefs Warsaw.jpg|thumb|left|Socialist relief, Pałac Kultury i Nauki, Warsaw.]]

In 1945, Poland was forced to give up its eastern territories to the Soviet Union, in exchange for Germany's eastern territories of Pomerania and Silesia. Poland took over Germany's former eastern territories and its territories illegally seized by the Soviet Union, including the cities of Lvov and Vilnius were incorporated and annexed under an agreement by the Communist rulers of Poland and the Soviet Union. Poland ended up losing its eastern territories which comprised half of the country and a sizable portion of the population.

In October 1956, after the 20th ("de-Stalinization") Soviet Party Congress in Moscow and riots by workers in Poznan, there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka liberalized Polish internal life.

In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an "anti-Zionist" campaign initially directed against Gomulka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. Edward Gierek replaced Gomulka as First Secretary.

Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.

In October 1978, the Bishop of Krakow, Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, became [[Pope John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.

In July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coalmines in Silesia. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.

==== The Solidarity Movement ====
[[File:Lech Walesa.jpg|thumb|Lech Walesa.]]
On August 31, 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Walesa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at Szczecin and in Silesia. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers' right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement--"Solidarity"--swept Poland.

The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania as First Secretary.

Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September-October 1981, Lech Walesa was elected national chairman of the union.

On December 12-13, the regime declared martial law, under which the army and special riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.

In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.

In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and 2 years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored.

==== Roundtable Talks and Elections ====
[[File:Royal Castle of Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Royal Castle of Warsaw.]]
The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May, and August 1988. In an attempt to take control of the situation, the government gave de facto recognition to Solidarity, and Interior Minister Kiszczak began talks with Lech Walesa on August 31. These talks broke off in October, but a new series, the "roundtable" talks, began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly open National Assembly elections. The June election produced a Sejm (lower house), in which one-third of the seats went to communists and one-third went to the two parties which had hitherto been their coalition partners. The remaining one-third of the seats in the Sejm and all those in the Senat were freely contested; virtually all of these were won by candidates supported by Solidarity.

The failure of the communists at the polls produced a political crisis. The roundtable agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of some Solidarity deputies, elected General Jaruzelski to that office. Two attempts by the communists to form governments failed, however.

On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by non-communists.

In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland." The Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. Most of the property of the former Communist Party was turned over to the state.

The May 1990 local elections were entirely free. Candidates supported by Solidarity's Citizens' Committees won most of the races they contested, although voter turnout was only a little over 40%. The cabinet was reshuffled in July 1990; the national defense and interior affairs ministers--holdovers from the previous communist government--were among those replaced.

In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In December, Lech Walesa became the first popularly elected President of Poland.

==== The Republic of Poland ====
The [[Republic of Poland]] in the early 1990s made great progress toward achieving a fully democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Walesa was elected President for a 5-year term. Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, at Walesa's request, formed a government and served as its Prime Minister until October 1991, introducing world prices and greatly expanding the scope of private enterprise.
[[File:Downtown Warsaw skyline Poland 2006.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Downtown Warsaw skyline, 2006.]]
Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, representing a full spectrum of political views. No single party received more than 13% of the total vote.

Since 1991, Poland has conducted five general parliamentary elections and four presidential elections--all free and fair. Incumbent governments have transferred power smoothly and constitutionally in every instance to their successors. The post-Solidarity center-right and post-Communist center-left have each controlled the parliament and the presidency since 1991. Most recently, Poles elected Law and Justice (PiS) candidate and Mayor of Warsaw Lech Kaczynski to a 5-year term as President. Kaczynski narrowly defeated Civic Platform (PO) candidate Donald Tusk and was sworn in December 23, 2005.

PiS was also the top vote-getter in September 25, 2005, parliamentary elections. After coalition talks with runner-up PO collapsed, PiS alone formed a minority government under Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. Frustrated by its inability to achieve its legislative program alone, PiS formed a formal coalition government with Self-Defense (SO) and the League of Polish Families (LPR) in April 2006. In July 2006, Prime Minister Marcinkiewicz resigned and was replaced by PiS party leader Jaroslaw Kaczynski as Prime Minister.
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Lech Kaczyński]] - President
*[[Jarosław Kaczyński]] - PM
==Further reading==
* Library of Congress. ''A Country Study: Poland'' (1993), highly detailed factual report by U.S. government (it is in the public domain, with no copyright) [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pltoc.html online edition]
* ''Poland'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing) (2007)
* ''Lonely Planet Poland'' by Tom Parkinson, et al. (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Poland-Tom-Parkinson/dp/174059522X/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1188096687&sr=8-2 online excerpt and search from Amazon.com]
* Biskupski, M. B. ''The History of Poland.'' Greenwood, 2000. 264 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28002395 online edition]
* Davies, Norman. ''Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland.'' Oxford University Press, 1984. 511 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Heart-Europe-Past-Polands-Present/dp/0192801260/ref=pd_bbs_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192604734&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Podgórecki, Adam. ''Polish Society'' Praeger, 1994 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28518609 online edition]
* Turnock, David. ''The Human Geography of East Central Europe.'' Routledge. 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108154408 online edition]

== References ==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Overture

2013-01-07T02:21:50Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

An '''overture''' is normally thought of as a prelude or an introductory piece of music, played before a dramatic work – ballet, opera, musical comedy, and the like.

Historically, this is generally the case, although, until the time of [[Gluck]] and [[Mozart]] the music bore no thematic relationship to the musical action that followed. Like most other types of music, the overture (or “''sinfonia''” in Italy) had followed the usual path of development into national styles, with [[French]] and [[Italian]] forms reaching their full pre-Gluck development under [[Lully]] and [[Alessandro Scarlatti]] respectively.

In [[Germany]] “''ouvertüre''” had already become a term for a [[suite]] of music that began with an overture. In the early 19th century, whilst retaining its introductory purpose (and considered most important too – Beethoven wrote four overtures to his opera, “Fidelio” before he was satisfied; the first three have come down to us as the popular “Leonora” overtures, named after the heroine of the opera) - the term began describing a single movement short descriptive piece. [[Felix Mendelssohn]]’s “''Hebrides''” (“''Fingal’s Cave''”) is considered the first of these. (Although his “''Overture to A Midsummer Night’s Dream''”, which is a descriptive piece written many years before the rest of the incidental music to the play, may be able to stake a claim of seniority.) The career of the “Concert Overture” as an independent piece of music had begun.

During the 19th century the overture in its original sense went through a series of transformations, becoming (as in [[Wagner]]’s “''Tannhäuser''”) a dramatic [[prelude]] lasting over a quarter of an hour, or a major piece for soloist, orchestra and chorus (Boito’s “M''efistofeles''”) or short preludes as in Wagner’s “''Lohengrin''” and many of the Verdi operas, or virtually none at all ([[Puccini]]’s “''La Boheme''”).
The concert overture has taken various forms and reasons for being:
*As a piece for an occasion – e.g.[[William Walton]]’s “''Johannesburg Festival Overture''” was commissioned for that city’s 70th birthday celebrations.
*As a gift – [[Brahms]] wrote his “''Academic Festival Overture''” as a thank you for an honorary doctorate at University of [[Wrocław]].
*As pure music – Brahms again. His “''Tragic Overture''” is named to describe the music therein.
*As a suite – the composer could have just as easily called it a suite, but chose “overture” instead. An example is [[Prokofiev]]’s “''Overture on Hebrew Themes''” which is rare as it is an overture written as chamber music.
*On literary themes. The most popular example would be [[Tchaikovsky]]’s “''Romeo and Juliet – Fantasy Overture''”; however he did the same to “''Hamlet''”
*Descriptive of an event – Tchaikovsky’s “''1812 Overture''”.
*Just for the heck of it – various overtures have been written just at the whim of the composer; and would have been just as acceptable (or not) as a Suite, or Romance, [[Serenade]] or any number of other available terms.

[[Category:Musical forms]]

Christian Wolff

2013-01-07T02:21:09Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Christian Wolff''' ([[Wrocław]], 1679 - Halle, 1754) was a [[German]] [[philosopher]]. His philosophical system was that of [[Gottfried Leibniz]], with [[Aristotle|Aristotelean]] features. Wolff reproduced and systematized Leibniz's theory (determinism and optimism), but with differences like the intention to make the ''principle of contradiction'' the fundamental principle of philosophy, discarding the ''principle of sufficient reason'' introduced by Leibniz.

<blockquote>
Wolff himself was expelled from his chair at the University of Halle on account of the [[Rationalism|Rationalistic]] nature of his teaching, principally owing to the action of Lange (1670-1774; cf. "Causa Dei et reilgionis naturals adversus atheismum", and "Modesta Disputatio", Halle, 1723). Retiring to Marburg, he taught there until 1740, when he was recalled to Halle by Frederick II. Wolff's attempt to demonstrate natural religion rationally was in no sense an attack upon revelation. As a "supranaturalist" he admitted truths above reason, and he attempted to support by reason the supernatural truths contained in the [[Holy Scripture]]. But his attempt, while it incensed the pietistic school and was readily welcomed by the more liberal and moderate among the orthodox Lutherans, in reality turned out to be strongly in favour of the [[Naturalism]] that he wished to condemn. Natural religion, he asserted, is demonstrable; revealed religion is to be found in the [[Bible]] alone. But in his method of proof of the authority of Scripture recourse was had to reason, and thus the human mind became, logically, the ultimate arbiter in the case of both.
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12652a.htm Rationalism] Catholic Encyclopedia.
</blockquote>

The most widely accepted scheme, that which still governs the division of the branches of philosophy is due to him.

== See also ==

*[[Philosophy]]

[[Category:German Philosophers]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolff, Christian}}

Wernicke's syndrome II

2013-01-07T02:20:55Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Wernicke's syndrome II''' refers to the painful psychogenic muscle cramp precipitated by anxiety or fear. It should not be confused with [[Wernicke's syndrome I]] which is the frequent condition of old age marked by defective memory, loss of sense of location, and disorientation with confabulation. The condition was first described by the notable [[Germany|German]] neurologist [[Carl Wernicke]] in his seminal work ''Ein Fall von Crampus-Neurose''<ref>Published by Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1904</ref>.

Wernicke discovered the syndrome though his work with a patient known as Gerda S. who had an acute fear of pencil shavings which had a deleterious affect on her work as a clerk in the German electronics company [[Siemens]]. Although he achieved a partial cure through the use of high-frequency low-voltage signal applied to the temples (which he demonstrated in a lecture at the University of [[Wrocław]] in May 1904) Gerda S. eventually comitted suicide. It is thought that this tragedy was a contributing factor to his fatal bicycle accident with a tram in the town of [[Dörrberg im Geratal]] in 1905<ref>Companion to Clinical Neurology by William Pryse-Phillips, Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 2003</ref>.

==Synonyms==
[[Wernicke's cramp]]<ref>http://www.whonamedit.com/syndlist.cfm/41</ref>

==Notes & references==
<references/>

[[category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]

Mongol Empire

2013-01-07T02:20:28Z

Johnpeterslusarski: /* Invasion of Europe */

The '''Mongol Empire''' was the largest land empire in history, started by [[Genghis Kahn]] who united the [[Mongol]]s and led them to conquer China, central Asia, and Persia. His sons divided the empire into four "khanates" or "ulus", under the Great Kahn Ogedei son of Genghis <ref>http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire</ref>.

==Empire-Building==
===Invasion of Europe===
Batu, Kahn of the Golden Horde (Russia), invaded Europe in 1241. He sacked [[Kraków]] and defeated the Polish army, but the death of Ogedei in Asia caused him to retreat since all Mongols traditionally needed to be personally present at the election of a new Kahn. <ref>''The Collected What If? Eminent Historians Imagine What Might Have Been.'' Ed. Robert Cowley.</ref> To this day, Poland continues to celebrate the battle, claiming it as a strategic victory because the Mongols retreated.

==Life under the Mongols==
The Mongol Empire continued for a significant time in Asia. Historians retrospectively term this period the "Pax Mongolica," saying the Mongols curbed tribal warfare.

[[Kublai Khan]], Mongol ruler of China, asked the Pope in Rome to send missionaries to preach the Gospel to his people. The Pope sent two monks with [[Marco Polo]]; however, both the monks turned back before reaching the Mongol lands. Disappointed, Kublai turned to [[Buddhism]]. Marco stayed in China for a long time, gaining a high governmental office.<ref>''The Travels of Marco Polo'', [[Marco Polo]]</ref>

The Russians continued for centuries to pay tribute to the Kahnate of the Golden Horde.

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Asian History]]

Wernicke's cramp

2013-01-07T02:19:58Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Wernicke's cramp''' is painful psychogenic muscle cramp precipitated by anxiety or fear<ref>http://www.whonamedit.com/syndlist.cfm/41</ref>. The condition was first described by the notable [[Germany|German]] [[neurology|neurologist]] [[Carl Wernicke]] in his seminal work ''Ein Fall von Crampus-Neurose'' <ref>Published by Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1904</ref>.

Wernicke discovered the syndrome though his work with a patient known as Gerda S. who had an acute fear of pencil shavings which had a deleterious affect on her work as a clerk in the [[German]] electronics company [[Siemens]]. He achieved a partial cure through the use of high-frequency low-voltage signal applied to the [[temple]]s which he demonstrated in a lecture at the University of [[Wrocław]] in May 1904<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=9dB43SUdneUC ''Companion to Clinical Neurology'' by William Pryse-Phillips, Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 2003]</ref>.

==Synonyms==
[[Wernicke's syndrome II]]<ref>http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/889.html</ref>

==Notes & references==
<references/>

[[Category:Medicine]]

Franz Leopold Neumann

2013-01-07T02:19:41Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Franz Leopold Neumann''' (1900 - 1954) was born in [[Katowice]] near [[Kraków]], [[Poland]].

=== New Beginning ===

As a student Neumann participated in the German [[German Revolution|November revolution]] of 1918 and joined the [[Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). Neumann was instrumental in organizing the Socialist Students Society in Frankfurt, where in 1918 he met Leo Lowenthal, a future member of the [[Frankfurt School]]. At [[Wrocław]], Leipzig, Rostock and Frankfurt am Main, Neumann studied the law and graduated in 1923 (Dr. jur., a Ph.D.). He was active from 1925 to 1927 as a teacher at the trade union academy, and later as an assistant of Hugo Sinzheimer. Neumann was active in the clandestine Leninist organization, ''Neu Beginnen'' (''New Beginning''), which tried to bridge the gap between the SPD and the KPD. And from 1928 to 1933 he worked in Berlin in partnership with [[Ernst Fraenkel]] as an attorney specializing on industrial law. As such he frequently represented the SPD and [[trade union]]s.

After the ascendance of the [[national socialism|National Socialists]] to power, Neumann was arrested in April of 1933 under the newly enacted [[Enabling Act]], and after a month of incarceration, escaped to England. There he studied under [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]] and was granted a doctorate in Political Science. At Laski's recommendation Neumann joined the [[Institute for Social Research|Frankfurt Institute of Social Research]] in 1936 and worked with [[Theodor Adorno]] and [[Max Horkheimer]]. [[Paul Massing]], husband of [[Hede Massing]], is also associated with the Frankfurt School. His presence at the Institute enhanced the [[Critical theory (Frankfurt School)|critical social theory]] analysis of fascism and [[Nazism|German National Socialism]]. Neumann moved to New York in [[1936]].

=== OSS ===

Neumann achieved his academic reputation with the publication of ''Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism'' in 1942. This brought him to the attention of [[William J. Donovan]], head of the U.S. [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS), who recruited Neumann first into the U.S. [[Board of Economic Warfare]], and then in February 1942 into the OSS. In July he became the chief economist of the Intelligence Division at the Office of the U.S. Chief of Staff. In 1943 Neumann became deputy chief of the Central European Section of the OSS and worked with Arkady Gurland [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://www.somnisllibertaris.com/libro/espagne3637/avant1986.htm&prev=/search%3Fq%3DArkady%2BGurland%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG], Otto Kirchheimer, and [[Friedrich Pollock]], [[Paul Baran]], Cora DuBois, [[John King Fairbank]], Hajo Halborn, Charles Kindleberger, Wassily Leontif, [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Barrington Moore Jr.]], [[Leo Löwenthal]] and [[Paul Sweezy]].

Nuemann, Marcuse and Kirchheimer were assigned to a group in the Research and Analysis Branch (R&A) that worked on the analysis of political tendencies in Germany. They were "specifically assigned to the identification of Nazi and anti-Nazi groups and individuals; the former were to be held accountable in the war crimes adjudication then being negotiated between the four Great Powers, and the latter were to be called upon for cooperation in post-war reconstruction. For his source materials he drew upon official and military intelligence reports, extensive OSS interviews with refugees, and special OSS agents and contacts in occupied Europe; it was his duty to evaluate the reliability of each of the items of intelligence that reached him, and assemble them all into a coherent analysis on points of strength and weakness in the Reich." (Katz, 1980:116). At the end of 1944, Neumann, Marcuse, and Kirchheimer were involved in preparing a [[Denazification|De-nazification Guide]].

On 3 April 1943 the New York KGB station informed Moscow "Zarubina met for the first time with Neumann who promised to pass us all the data coming through his hands. According to Neumann he is getting many copies of reports from American ambassadors ... has access to materials referring to Germany." In the same report Neumann conveyed to [[Elizabeth Zarubina]] the substance of conversations between [[Pope Pius XII]] and [[Cardinal Francis Spellman]], and official Spanish conversations with Italian and German generals and industrialists regarding prospects of a coup to remove [[Hitler]].." <ref>KGB File 28734, Vol. 1, pgs. 7, 8, 14, 15, 20, 23, 28. </ref> Neumann also supplied information on [[Donald Wheeler]], who later couriered information from the OSS to Soviet intelligence, describing him as "a calm and [[Progressivism|progressive]] man". <ref>KGB File 45049, Vol. 2, pg. 9.</ref> U.S. [[Army Signals Intelligence]] analysts working at Arlington Hall intercepted a [[NKVD|Soviet intelligence]] message in June of 1943. The decrypted message listed several Soviet agents working in the OSS and the [[Office of War Information]]; five of the Soviet sources have been identified: [[Maurice Halperin]], [[Duncan Lee]], [[Julius Joseph]], Franz Neumann, and [[Bella Joseph]]. Shortly before the [[July 20 Plot|20 July 1944]] assassination attempt on Hitler's life, Neumann described in detail negotiations between the German dissident conspirators and [[Allen Dulles]]. New York ''[[Rezident]]'' [[Vasily Zarubin]] sent several reports to Moscow that month based on Neumann's information. [[Anatoly Gorsky]], an official of the Soviet [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|Committee of Information]] (KI), in his 1948 Memorandum on ''Compromised American Sources and Networks'' listed Neumann as a member of the "Redhead group" headed by Hede Massing. <ref>John Earl Haynes, ''Comparative Analysis of Cover Names (Code Names) in the Gorsky Memo and Cover Names in Venona'', 2005; "'Ruff' ['Ersh' or 'Yeursch'] – Franz Neumann, former consultant in the Department of Research and Analysis of the OSS"; 'Ersh' is Russian for a type of fish known as 'Ruff' or 'Ruffe' in English but also has several other meanings, including that of a mixed beer and vodka drink.</ref> Neumann received [[U.S._citizenship#Naturalized_citizens|naturalized American citizenship]] in late 1943, and after Zarubina left the United States in the later half of 1944 Neumann had no further contact with Soviet intelligence.

=== Nuremberg ===

In the summer of 1945, Neumann travelled to Nuremberg, where he was to become the first chief of research of the [[Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal]] under chief prosecutor Justice [[Robert Jackson]]. Neumann was tasked with preparing an analysis of each of the twenty-two Nuremberg defendants, and various Nazi organizations. From mid-September 1945, Neumann’s R&A team prepared and supervised materials for a series of indictments with other OSS colleagues responsible for both interrogation and document analysis. Donovan initially directed Neumann to examine religious persecution under the Nazi regime.

The reports analysis of "the problem of establishing criminal responsibility" provided the prosecutorial strategy. The thinking was to show that measures taken against the [[Christian Church]]es were an integral part of National Socialism. It also attempted to show that measures were criminal from the standpoint of German or international law, depending where a given act was committed. This applied the typical Frankfurt School methodology of "immanent critique" to argue that the Nazi regime can be convicted most effectively by demonstrating that it violated not only the laws of ‘foreign’ occupied countries, but also the very ‘Germanic’ traditions it claimed to uphold. The report claimed key articles of the [[Weimar Constitution]] "were never formally abrogated by the National Socialist regime, … were left untouched and still remain theoretically in force." Furthermore: "respect for the principle of religious freedom", continued to be reiterated in various official policy statements of the Nazi regime, and in various "enactments of the National Socialist state, particularly the Concordat of 20 July 1933."

The material on religious persecution is placed in the wider context of how these agencies committed crimes against humanity as an integral part of the Nazi’s master plan, its conspiracy to seize and consolidate ideological control and totalitarian power within Germany by eradicating sources of actual and potential opposition. This material formed part of the evidence on which these agencies were judged to be criminal organisations. Neumann's group wrote,
<blockquote>"The Nazi conspirators, by promoting beliefs and practices incompatible with [[Christian]] teaching, sought to subvert the influence of the Churches over the people and in particular over the youth of Germany. They avowed their aim to eliminate the Christian Churches in Germany and sought to substitute therefore Nazi institutions and Nazi beliefs and pursued a programme of persecution of priests, clergy and members of monastic orders whom they deemed opposed to their purposes and confiscated Church property."</blockquote>

Neumann also took charge of revising the first draft prosecution brief detailing the personal responsibility of [[Hermann Goering]], the most senior defendant. Neumann believed that German war criminals should be tried before German courts according to [[Weimar Republic|Weimar law]] as an important part of the wider de-nazification effort. He continued working for a coming together of the Communist and Social Democratic movements. He later became disillusioned with the reality of Communist rule in [[East Germany]] and broke off contact with the Communists.

In 1948 Neuman became as a professor of Political Science at [[Columbia University]], and helped establish the [[Free University of Berlin]]. Together with Ernst Fraenkel and Karl Lowenstein, Neumann is considered to be among the founders of modern political science in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]]. He is noted together with Fraenkel, [[Hannah Arendt]], Ernst and Carl J. Friedrich as developing the [[Totalitarian]] theory. U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s [[National Security Advisor]] and [[United Nations]] Ambassador [[Jeanne Kirkpatrick]] was a student of Neumann's at Columbia University. Neumann died in an automobile accident in 1954. His widow, Inge Werner, married Herbert Marcuse in 1955.

The Franz Leopold Neumann file among the [[Joseph R. McCarthy]] Papers will be held under seal at [[Marquette University]] until the year [[2050]].

===References===
<references/>

=== Books by Franz Neumann ===
*''Die politische und soziale Bedeutung der arbeitsgerichtlichen Rechtsprechung''. Berlin: Laub. 1929.
*''Tarifrecht auf der Grundlage der Rechtsprechung des Rechsarbeitsgerichts''. Berlin: Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund. 1931.
*''Koalitionsfreiheit und Reichsverfassung. Die Stellung der Gewerkschaften im Verfassungssystem''. Berlin: Heymann. 1932.
*''Trade Unionism, Democracy, Dictatorship''. Preface by Harold J. Laski. London: Workers' Educational Trade Union Committee. 1934. (Published in the U.S. as European Trade Unionism and Politics, ed. Carl Raushenbuch. New York: [[League for Industrial Democracy]], 1936.)
*(under pseudonym '''Leopold Franz''') ''Die Gewerkschaften in der Demokratie und in der Diktatur. Probleme des Sozialismus, 13''. Karlsbad: Graphia. 1935.
*''Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism''. London: Gollancz. 1942.
*''Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism, 1933 - 1944''. 2nd rev. edn, with new appendix. Toronto: Oxford University Press. 1944.
*''The Democratic and the Authoritarian State: Essays in Political and Legal Theory'', ed. Herbert Marcuse. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press. 1957.
*''Wirtschaft, Staat, Demokratie. Aufsätze 1930 - 1954'', ed. Alfons Söllner. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. 1978.
*''Die Herrschaft des Gesetzes. Eine Untersuchung zum Verhältnis von politischer Theorie und Rechtssystem in der Konkurenzgesellschaft'' , trans. & ed. Alfons Söllner. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. (German trans. of the 1936 doctoral dissertation, 'The Governance of the Rule of Law: an Investigation into the Relationship between the Political Theories, the Legal System, and the Social Background in the Competitive Society,' London School of Economics, 1936 (supervisor: Harold J. Laski). 1980.
*''The Rule of Law: Political Theory and the Legal System in Modern Society'', ed. Matthias Ruete. Leamington Spa: Berg. 1986.

=== Sources ===
*Ian Bryan and Michael Salter, ''War Crimes Prosecutors and Intelligence Agencies: The Case for Assessing Their Collaboration'', Taylor & Francis Group, Volume 16, Number 3, September 2001.
*Barry M. Katz, ''The Criticism of Army: The Frankfurt School Goes to War.'' Journal of Modern History 59 (September 1987).
*Barry M. Katz, ''Foreign Intelligence'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
*Rolf Wiggershaus, ''The Frankfurt School'', Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1994.
*''European War Crimes Trials: A Bibliography'', compiled and annotated by Inge S. Neumann. Additional material furnished by the Wiener Library, London. Edited by Robert A. Rosenbaum. Publisher: New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1951.
*Martin Jay, ''The Dialectical Imagination. A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950''. Little Brown and Company, Canada. 1973. [http://www.marxists.org/subject/frankfurt-school/jay/ch01.htm]
*William E. Scheuerman, ''Franz Neumann - Legal Theorist of Globalization?'', Kritische Justiz, 2002.
*[[Allen Weinstein]] and Alexander Vassiliev, ''The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—the Stalin Era'' (New York: Random House, 1999), pgs. 249-51, 254, 261.

=== External links ===

*[http://www.wbenjamin.org/neumannproject.html Franz Neumann Project]
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/people/inge/inge.htm Inge S. Neumann]
*Brig. Gen. John Magruder (Director of the Strategic Services Unit) to McCloy (Assistant Secretary of War, Department of War), Strategic Services Unit as of 1 October 1945, Washington, October 9, 1945 [http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/intel/95_99.html CIA Historical Files], HS/HC-265, (on file with the Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion).
*Claire Hulme & Dr. Michael Salter, [http://www-camlaw.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/articles/RJLR_3_1_2.pdf ''The Nazi's Persecution as a War Crime: The OSS Response Within the Nuremeberg Trial's Process''], Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion, n.d.
*''Forced Migration and Scientific Change : Emigré German-Speaking Scientists and Scholars after 1933'', German Historical Institute, Mitchell G. Ash, Ed. (2002). [http://www.isa.unibo.it/focus%20group/ideas/ash.pdf]
*Bruce Cumings, ''Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies during and after the Cold War'', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 1993. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/cumings2.htm]
* Michael Salter, ''Neo-Fascist Legal Theory on Trial: An Interpretation of Carl Schmitt's Defence at Nuremberg from a Perspective of Franz Neumann's Critical Theory of Law'' [http://www.philosophy.ru/library/pdf/201432.pdf]
*Jeffrey Herf, ''The "Jewish War"'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1. (2005). [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/holocaust_and_genocide_studies/v019/19.1herf.html#FOOT16]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Neumann, Franz Leopold}}
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:International Political Figures]]
[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]
[[Category:Authors]]

Carl von Clausewitz

2013-01-07T02:18:40Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:Clausewitz.jpg|right|thumb|Carl von Clausewitz]]
'''Carl von Clausewitz''' (1780-1831)<ref> also known as: Carl Phillip Gottfried von Clausewitz, Carl Maria von Clausewitz, Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz, Karl von Clausewitz</ref> was an influential Prussian military theorist. His major work ''On War'' remains a central treatise on military and general strategy in the 21st century.

Clausewitz stressed the moral and political aspects of war. His great work ''On War'' was unfinished at his death. He used a romantic or Hegelian conception of warfare, stressing the dialectic of how opposite factors interact, and noting how unexpected new developments unfolded under the "fog of war" and called for rapid decisions by alert commanders. Clausewitz saw history as a complex check on abstractions that did not accord with experience. In opposition to his great intellectual rival [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]] he argued war could not be quantified or graphed or reduced to mapwork and graphs. Clausewitz had many aphorisms, of which the most famous is, "War is not merely a political act, but also a political instrument, a continuation of political relations, a carrying out of the same by other means," a working definition of war which has won wide acceptance.

==Influence==
Clausewitz had a strong influence on German military thought, and after 1890 on British thought, as typified by naval historian Julian Corbett (1854-1922). He had little influence on American military thought before 1945. But he influenced [[Lenin]] and the Soviet tradition, as Lenin emphasized the inevitability of wars among capitalist states in the age of imperialism and presented the armed struggle of the working class as the only path toward the eventual elimination of war.<ref>Jacob W. Kipp, "Lenin and Clausewitz: the Militarization of Marxism, 1914-1921." ''Military Affairs'' 1985 49(4): 184-191. Issn: 0026-3931 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-3931(198510)49%3A4%3C184%3ALACTMO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 in Jstor] </ref> Clausewitz directly influenced Chinese leader [[Mao Zedong]]. Mao read Clausewitz's ''On War'' in 1938 and organized a seminar on Clausewitz as part of the educational program for the Party leadership in Yan'an. Thus the "Clausewitzian" content in many of Mao's writings is not merely secondhand knowledge, via Lenin (as many have supposed), but reflects Mao's own in-depth study.

Since the end of the Cold War in 1990, and even more since the [[9-11 Attack]] on the United states in 2001, many commentators have argued that ''On War'' has lost its analytical edge as a tool for understanding war. Since Clausewitz focused solely on wars between countries by well-defined armies, they say the sorts of conflicts which he interpreted are limited chiefly to Europe between 1648 and 1990. Some have gone further, and suggested that Clausewitz's best known aphorism, that war is a continuation of policy by other means, is not only irrelevant today but also inapplicable historically.<ref>For an opposing view see Hew Strachan, and Andreas Herberg-Rothe, eds. ''Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century'' (2007) </ref>

== Career==
Carl von Clausewitz was born in 1780 in Burg, Kingdom of Prussia, in a middle-class family. Although not rich his family had claims to noble origins which eventually have been officially recognized. At 12 years old the boy entered Prussian army as a cadet in 34th Infantry Regiment. At age 13 he participated in his first military campaign fighting against revolutionary French forces; he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant at age 15. He entered the Berlin War Academy at the age of 21, where his influential mentor General Gerhard von Scharnhorst was director. Clausewitz studied history and philosophy – especially ideas of Immanuel Kant. After graduation in 1804 he became a military assistant (aide-de-camp) to Prussian Prince August. In the same year he met his future wife - a prominent Berlin’s socialite Marie von Brühl.

In 1806, he fought French invaders in the failed Jena Campaign. He was captured spent two years as a prisoner of war in France. After his return von Clausewitz was immediately appointed by his former mentor General von Scharnhorst as a military assistant to Prussian Army Chief of Staff. He worked with an exemplary dedication reorganizing and modernizing the Prussian Army. In year 1810, in recognition of his service he was appointed as a professor at the War Academy and assigned the prestigious task of military education of the Prussian Crown Prince. Von Clausewitz spent the next two years advancing not only his military career but also advancing his scholarly studies, interacting with many prominent Berlin intellectuals.

Von Clausewitz profoundly resented French political and cultural domination of Prussia. His dissatisfaction culminated in the year 1812, when Prussia allied with Napoleon and Clausewitz defiantly refused to collaborate with France. He left Prussia to serve in the Russian Army. However, before this forced exile von Clausewitz left the manuscript of his first major work "Principles of War" with the Prussian Crown Prince as a tutorial. He fought for Russia against Napoleon. When Prussia switched to become an ally of Russia against Napoleon, he became Russian liaison officer with the headquarters of Prussian Field Marshal Blücher, and ultimately was appointed chief of staff of the German-Russian legion. In the decisive 1815 Waterloo campaign he served as a chief of staff to General von Thielmann's III Prussian Army Corps.

Participation in the battles of Ligny and Wavre had a deep influence on von Clausewitz's understanding of the strategic Arcanum. In both those battles Prussian Army was greatly outnumbered and overwhelmed by French forces, and was eventually forced into the retreat. Nevertheless, those battles were hollow victories for the French and major strategic victories for Prussians because they delayed Napoleon long enough to prevent reinforcements at Waterloo.

In 1818 von Clausewitz was promoted to Major-General and appointed as a director of the War College in Berlin. He remained at this prestigious post until year 1830 spending his time on research, teaching and writing his scholarly treatises. In 1830 he became Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army. This promotion coincided with an impromptu mobilization of Prussian forces which were rushed to the eastern borders of the Prussian Kingdom. The hasty mobilization and sealing-off Prussian borders was done in an anticipation of possible outbreak of violence - related to a turbulent political situation in the Russian Empire. While staying with his troops von Clausewitz contracted cholera and died in the city of [[Wrocław]] on November 16, 1831. He was buried in his native city of Burg.

== Importance of ideas of von Clausewitz ==
Some historians describe the ideas conceived by von Clausewitz as a direct product of the "Napoleonic era." However, he transcended his contemporary political and historical reality.

Von Clausewitz's most enlightening discovery was that one universal element unifying all existence is a constant and unpredictable struggle.

Most studies of war soon became obsolete. Books that have survived the passage of time include [[Sun-tzu]]'s "The Art of War" (500 B.C.), [[Thucydides]]': "The Peloponnesian War" (400 B.C.), Jomini's ''The Art of War'' (1838) and von Clausewitz's ''On War'' (1832).

Von Clausewitz did not recommend any detailed strategic program nor did he advise any specific tactical solutions. He had a keen understanding that future readers of his books had to live in a world distinctively different from his own. Von Clausewitz knew this future world would be unpredictable for him due to unimaginable changes in technology, social structure and political status. Therefore, he has chosen to use a descriptive theoretical approach suitable for analysis of any conflict, at any time. A descriptive nature of his theory allows readers to develop their own strategic way of thinking, which may be practically applied to solve, strategic problems in virtually any environment.<ref> Recently, some authors noticed many similarities between von Clauzewitz's theses and modern theories of nonlinearity and complexity. D.S. Alberts, et al., ''Complexity, global politics, and national security.'' 1997, Washington: National Defense University</ref>

Von Clausewitz saw himself as a modern "scientist". Yet he ridiculed the popular thesis, attributed to Jomini, that one can create a "science of war."

== Main ideas of von Clausewitz ==
The texts of von Clauzewitz are notoriously difficult. Christopher Bassford summarized the importance of reading the actual text:
:"Unfortunately, the annoying thing about von Clausewitz is that, in order to understand him, you actually have to read his book....any attempt to summarize von Clausewitz is inherently misleading. This is true in part because von Clausewitz's dialectical method is at least as important as any particular insight that he offers. But all of von Clausewitz's insights are woven together in a fascinating whole; efforts to extract particular "nuggets" are destructive to a genuine understanding."''<ref>Bassford, C., Clausewitz Homepage. www.clausewitz.com, 2006.</ref>

• '''Realistic approach.''' Von Clausewitz elected to use a realistic as opposed to idealistic approach in his analysis of war. His treatise is a pragmatic description of an intricate and volatile matrix of never-ending struggle. In a systematic but not overly pedantic way he provides an account of complex interactions between unquantifiable human psyche and harsh realities of physical world in the process of armed conflict.

• '''Dialectical method of presentation.''' In addition to realistic approach von Clausewitz employed Hegelian dialectical method as a way of presenting his concepts. This method is based upon the introduction of two conflicting proposals - thesis and its anti-thesis - in order to achieve the synthesis.

• '''"War is a mere continuation of policy by other means."'''. This is one of the most frequently quoted and misquoted arguments of Von Clausewitz. When taken out of context and without understanding of von Clausewitz's dialectical method - it may be misinterpreted as a vicious advocacy for engaging in military conflicts. It is no so, however. The above quote is not a promotional phrase; it is neither a statement of the facts. In his point #24 of the Chapter One entitled "What Is War" von Clausewitz wrote: "war is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means. All beyond this which is strictly peculiar to war relates merely to the peculiar nature of the means which it uses." The above phrase is the dialectical antithesis to the presented before thesis that "war is nothing but a duel on a larger scale." Introduction of those two opposing notions leads ultimately to dialectical synthesis. In the Clausewitz’s synthesis, deficiencies of both those extreme statements are elegantly resolved in one unifying conclusion. This conclusion states that war is neither only an act of brute force nor purely rational political act.<ref>Bassford, C., Clausewitz Homepage. www.clausewitz.com, 2006.</ref> Von Clausewitz formulated his synthesis as the "fascinating trinity of war" which is discussed below.

• '''Fascinating Trinity of War.''' Literary in German wunderliche dreifaltigkeit - where word wunderliche is used to denote "fascinating" rather than "wonderful" character of the trinity. As discussed above fascinating trinity was a dialectical synthesis of the nature of war. Von Clausewitz defined this fascinating trinity as dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation.<ref>Bassford, C., Clausewitz Homepage. www.clausewitz.com, 2006.</ref> "Trinity of War" is sometimes misinterpreted as notion that a war is simply a triumvirate of people, military and government. This is however oversimplification of the actual point made by von Clausewitz.<ref>Villacres E.J. and Bassford C., Reclaiming The Clausewitzian Trinity Parameters. The journal of the U.S. Army War College., 1995.</ref>

Von Clausewitz wrote:
:''"War is...a wonderful trinity, composed of;
- of the original violence of its elements, hatred and animosity, which may be looked upon as blind instinct;
- of the play of probabilities and chance, which make it a free activity of the soul; and
- of the subordinate nature of a political instrument, by which it belongs purely to the reason.
The first of these three phases concerns more the people; the second more the general and his army; the third more the Government."''
• '''Center of gravity.''' Von Clausewitz introduced a concept of a "center of gravity" to illustrate his points about prioritization of choices in selection of military objectives. This concept became one of the most crucial elements of a current American war doctrine. It is considered to be a cornerstone of an American operational art; and it occupies a common place in a vocabulary of American military strategists.<ref>Echevarria, A.J., Clausewitz’s Center Of Gravity: Changing Our Warfighting Doctrine—Again! Strategic Studies Institute (SSI) Monograph., 2002.</ref> Von Clausewitz's definition of a "center of gravity" follows principles of Newtonian mechanics in the context of his metaphor comparing a war to a wrestling match. In mechanics, center of gravity represents a point where forces of gravity converge within an object. Striking at the object’s center of gravity with sufficient force will cause the object to lose its balance and fall. In von Clausewitz's wrestling metaphor center of gravity is a factor of balance of the wrestling opponent, rather than his source of strength. If one knows his opponent's center of gravity, one can defeat his enemy faster and with less force by concentrating one's decisive blow on the opponent’s center of gravity.

• '''Fog of war.''' While discussing peculiarities of war von Clausewitz pointed out the uncertainty of all data as one of major peculiarities of combat in progress. He wrote: "(…) the great uncertainty of all data in war is a peculiar difficulty, because all action must, to a certain extent, be planned in a mere twilight, which in addition not infrequently—like the effect of a fog or moonshine—gives to things exaggerated dimensions and an unnatural appearance. What this feeble light leaves indistinct to the sight, talent must discover, or must be left to chance."

The "fog of war" is a very important concept with applications beyond a wartime battlefield. In fact, it applies to all adversarial actions such as business competition, lawsuits, etc. A party to the adversarial process has to act upon more or less uncertain data about an opponent. Even in the discovery process of a legal action there will be instances when access to critical information may be blocked despite an underlying legal theory. Such a party should also understand that opponent's actions may be based upon erroneous data. The possibilities of misjudging a true nature and capabilities of one's adversary due to the war fog phenomenon are endless.

• '''Attack versus defense.''' The von Clausewitz’s opinion about the asymmetry of offense and defense has been vulgarized in the attributed to him saying that "the attack is the best form of the defense." In reality von Clausewitz wrote: "if we are really waging war, we must return the enemy's blows....Thus a defensive campaign can be fought with offensive battles.... The defensive form of war is not a simple shield, but a shield made up of well-directed blows."

Contrary to conventional wisdom von Clausewitz simply considered the defense as the easiest (not necessarily the best) form of waging a war. He stated: "The object of defense is preservation; and since it is easier to hold ground than to take it, defense is easier than attack. But defense has a passive purpose: preservation; and attack a positive one: conquest.... If defense is the stronger form of war, yet has a negative object, it follows that it should be used only so long as weakness compels, and be abandoned as soon as we are strong enough to pursue a positive object."

==Bibliography==
* Aron, Raymond. ''Clausewitz: Philosopher of War.'' (1985). 418 pp.
* Bassford, Christopher. ''Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America, 1815-1945.'' (1994)
* Echevarria, Antulio J., II. ''After Clausewitz: German Military Thinkers before the Great War.'' (2001). 346 pp.
* Echevarria, Antulio J., II. ''Clausewitz and Contemporary War'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Clausewitz-Contemporary-War-Antulio-Echevarria/dp/0199231915/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213823024&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Gat, Azar. ''The Origins of Military Thought from the Enlightenment to Clausewitz'' (1989)
* Handel, Michael I., ed. ''Clausewitz and Modern Strategy.'' 1986. 324 pp.
* Handel, Michael I. ''Masters of War: Classical Strategic Thought.'' (2001) 482 pages. Based on comparison of Clausewitz's ''On War'' with Sun Tzu's ''The Art of War''
* Heuser, Beatrice. ''Reading Clausewitz.'' (2002). 238 pp.
* Holmes, Terence M. "Planning Versus Chaos in Clausewitz's on War." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 2007 30(1): 129-151. Issn: 0140-2390 Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]
* Howard, Michael. ''Clausewitz : a very short introduction.'' (2002)
* Paret, Peter, Gordon A. Craig, and Felix Gilbert, eds. ''Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age'' (1986)
* Paret, Peter. "From Ideal to Ambiguity: Johannes von Müller, Clausewitz, and the People in Arms." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 2004 65(1): 101-111. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
* Smith, Hugh. ''On Clausewitz: A Study of Military and Political Ideas.'' (2005). 303 pp.
* Strachan, Hew, and Andreas Herberg-Rothe, eds. ''Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Clausewitz-Twenty-First-Century-Hew-Strachan/dp/0199232024/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b excerpt and text search]
* Sumida, Jon Tetsuro. "On the Relationship of History and Theory in on War: the Clausewitzian Ideal and its Implications." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(2): 333-354. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2677163 in Jstor]
* Wallach, Jehuda L. ''The Dogma of the Battle of Annihilation: The Theories of Clausewitz and Schlieffen and Their Impact on the German Conduct of Two World Wars.'' (1986). 334 pp.

===Primary Sources===
* Clausewitz, Carl Von, ''On War,'' edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. (2nd ed. 1984). ISBN 0691056579.
* Clausewitz, Carl von. ''Historical and Political Writings,'' ed. Peter Paret and Daniel Moran (1992).
==External links==
* [http://www.clausewitz.com Bassford, ed, "Clausewitz Homepage"]

====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clausewitz, Carl von}}
[[category:Military]]
[[category:Military History]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]

Max Born

2013-01-07T02:18:22Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:Max Born.jpg|thumb|300|right|Max Born, Nobel Prize winning German physicist]]
'''Max Born''' (1882-1970) was a [[Nobel Prize]] winning [[German]] [[Jewish]] [[physicist]] who helped discover [[quantum mechanics]] in the 1920s<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1954/born-bio.html Nobel Prize - Max Born biography]</ref>. Born was one of two children to parents Professor Gustav Born (anatomist and embryologist) and his wife Margarete (daughter of industrialists). Born was first educated at the [[Gymnasium|König Wilhelm Gymnasium]], then at the University of [[Wrocław]], then Heidelberg University and then the University of Zurich.

==Teaching appointments==
His first professorial appointment came at the University of Frankfurt-on-Main. He then taught theoretical physics at the University of Göttingen during 1921 – 1933. When the [[Nazi]] racial laws started taking effect in Germany in 1933 he fled to [[Britain]] where he taught principally at the University of [[Edinburgh]] from 1936 – 1953. During 1953 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics<ref>[http://www.mbi-berlin.de/en/general/maxborn/index.html Max Born Institute - Vita of Max Born]</ref>.

==Achievements==
In 1921 he was able to give a very precise definition of the quantity of heat and the most satisfactory mathematical statement of the law of [[thermodynamics]]. His most famous achievement came in 1926 when he collaborated with one of his students, [[Werner Heisenberg]] to develop a mathematical formulation that would describe Heisenberg’s first laws of the new quantum theory (matrix mechanics).

Born died January 5, 1970 in Göttingen, Germany.

== Notes & References ==

<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Born, Max}}
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
[[category:physicists]]
[[Category:German People]]

Gdańsk

2013-01-07T02:16:48Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Gdańsk''' is the Polish name for the major port known as '''Danzig''' in German. Located on the [[Baltic Sea]], it formed part of [[Prussia]] and [[Germany]] until 1919. As a result of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] Danzig, although having a majority German population, was taken from Germany and created a 'Free City' in order to provide the newly-independent [[Poland]] with a sea port not controlled by Germany. In the late 1930s Danzig developed a strong [[Nazi]] movement, and control of the city, and of the "[[Polish Corridor]]" (Polish land separating Danzig and [[East Prussia]] from the rest of Germany) was used by Germany as an excuse for its aggressive posture towards Poland. The first shots of the [[Second World War]] in [[Europe]] were fired in Danzig, as German warships attacked a Polish garrison in the port. Following the defeat of Poland, Danzig was reincorporated into the Reich, but on Germany's defeat in 1945 it was ceded to Poland. Danzig was known for its shipyards, and here in 1980 [[Lech Walesa]] founded the [[Solidarity]] trade union that was within a decade to precipitate the collapse of [[Communism]] in [[Poland]], later [[Central Europe]] and all the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]] (the Balkans and the [[Soviet Union]]).

[[Category:Polish Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

Gdynia

2013-01-07T02:15:43Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

'''Gdynia''' is a port city in northern [[Poland]] on the [[Baltic Sea]]. It was created in the years following the [[First World War]] to give Poland its own sea port and reduce its dependence on the facilities of the Free City of [[Gdańsk]], nominally independent but dominated politically by [[German]]s at the time.

[[Category:Polish Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

European Diplomacy

2013-01-07T02:14:38Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

This article covers '''European diplomacy''' since 1815.
==1815 to 1918==
===1815-1900===
===1900 to 1914===
===1914-1919===
==Post 1920==
At Versailles the victorious Allies promoted democracy and [[self-determination]] for central and eastern Europe. However the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s caused most of the countries to abandon democracy and become one-party states or dictatorships.

===Central Europe between the wars===
Starting in 1919, it was the policy of France to construct a ''cordon sanitaire'' (quarantine line) in [[Eastern Europe]] that was designed to contain both the Germans and Soviets and their ideologies, which were metaphorically compared to diseases. The crushing of [[Béla Kun]]'s [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] in 1919 by the combined forces of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and France was an early example of an enforcement of the ''cordon sanitaire''. In 1921, France signed a defensive alliance with Poland committing both states to come to each other's aid in the event of one of the powers being attacked by another European power. In 1924, the French signed a similar defensive alliance with Czechoslovakia, in 1926 with [[Romania]] and in 1927 with [[Yugoslavia]].

In 1925, the French signed new treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which tightened the levels of military co-operation between the signatory states. In addition, the French tried to turn the [[Little Entente]] of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia which had been set up as an anti-Hungarian alliance in 1921 into an anti-German alliance. In 1921, Poland and Romania signed a [[Polish-Romanian Alliance|defensive alliance]]. This was as close as Poland came to joining the Little Entente. The French would have preferred to also see Poland a member, but antagonism between Czechoslovakia and Poland doomed the idea.

Beyond the Covenant of the [[League of Nations]], Britain had no defense commitments in Eastern Europe in the 1920s and made clear that they wanted to keep it that way.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or the Soviet Union).<ref> In 1933, there were false rumors that a "preventive war" option against Germany was being considered by the French, Belgian and Polish governments. </ref>

In 1932 and again in 1934, Poland signed a 10 year non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Also in 1932, the Soviets signed 10-year non-aggression pacts with [[Finland]], [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]. In January 1934, Germany and Poland signed a 10-year non-aggression pact. In 1935, the Soviets signed treaties of alliance with France and Czechoslovakia. The Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty committed the Soviets to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia if attacked by a neighbor provided France did first.

==World War II==

==Czechoslovakia==
''See also: [[History of Czechoslovakia# Before WWII (1938 – 1939)]] and later sections''

The term "Western betrayal" was coined after the [[Munich Conference]] (1938) when [[Czechoslovakia]] was forced to cede part of its area ([[Sudetenland]]) to Nazi [[Germany]]. Czech politicians joined the newspapers in regularly using the term and it, along with the associated feelings, became a stereotype among [[Czechs]]. The Czech terms ''Mnichov'' ([[Munich]]), ''Mnichovská zrada'' (''Munich betrayal'') and ''zrada spojenců'' (''betrayal of the allies'') were coined at the same time and have the same meaning.

During the post-war 1946 parliamentary campaign, the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] argued (with much success) that the historical unreliability of Western allies must be countered by closer relations with the Soviet Union. After the Communist Party seized all power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, the 1938 betrayal was frequently referenced in Communist propaganda. This interpretation of history was official and the only one allowed.

After the Communist Party lost its power in the 1989 [[Velvet Revolution]], official use of the term stopped and historians began to discuss the events.
==Poland==
=== First World War aftermath ===
After the First World War, Poland regained independence after 123 years of partitions. While the victorious Western allies proclaimed their support for an independent Poland, they also wanted to weaken Germany and the Soviet Union.

===Silesia===
Germany controlled [[Silesia]], an industrial area with a largely Polish populace. Many French and British politicians desired the industrial region of Silesia to remain part of Germany, so that Germany would have an easier time paying the Great War reparations to France and its allies. Britain provided no aid to Poland during the 1921 [[Silesian Uprisings]]. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], a [[plebiscite]] was to be held to determine which areas of ethnically mixed Silesia were to be ceded to Poland and which were to remain with Germany. In some districts of Upper Silesia, the majority of the people were Polish and opted for Poland; the majority in the rest of Upper Silesia opted for Germany. After the plebiscite, the Germans balked at handing over any part of Upper Silesia, claiming that the Versailles treaty did not call for partitioning Silesia by districts. The German interpretation was that the majority of people in Silesia had chosen Germany and so all of Silesia should remain with Germany. The German view was supported by Britain. In fact, the Versailles Treaty did clearly state that Upper Silesia was to be partitioned by districts after the plebiscite.

In the years immediately after World War One, it was French policy to weaken Germany as much as possible, and though the French did not champion the border that the Poles wanted in Silesia, the French attitude to the Polish cause in regard to the Silesian dispute was markedly pro-Polish and anti-German. Indeed, it was a ultimatum from Paris that compelled the Germans to withdraw their forces from Silesia in June 1921.

Ostensibly, the British view that all of Silesia ought to remain with Germany was based on the belief that it would allow Germany to more easily pay reparations to France; by 1921, London had largely abandoned any claims against Germany and was strongly pressuring both France and Belgium to lower their reparations claims against the Germans as much as possible. The British argument about reparations was mostly a bid to influence French public opinion; the real reason for London's pro-German stance was the belief that if Germany were to lose too much territory, this could undermine the fragile [[Weimar Republic]] and lead to extremists taking power in Germany. Thus, British policy towards Silesia in 1921 was largely motivated by the desire to consolidate German democracy. Though the British were prepared to support an interpretation of Versailles that violated both its letter and its spirit, and though the Poles were understandably angry with London’s pro-German view in this matter, it is very hard to refer to British refusal to support the Polish rebels in Silesia as a “betrayal” as Britain had never made any commitments to do so.

During the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1918-1921), there was a debate among western politicians which side they should support: the [[White Russians]] (representing the former [[Imperial Russia]] loyalists), the new [[Bolshevik]] revolutionaries, or newly independent countries trying to expand their territory at the expense of the powers that lost the First World War. Eventually, France and Britain decided to support the White Russians and Poland; however, their support to Poland was limited to the few hundred soldiers of the [[French Military Mission to Poland|French military mission]]. Further, when it seemed likely in early 1920 that Poland would lose the war (which did not happen), Western diplomats encouraged Poland to surrender and settle for large territorial losses (the [[Curzon line]]).

In July 1920, Britain announced it would send huge quantities of World War One surplus military supplies to Poland, but a threatened general strike by the [[Trades Union Congress]] who objected to British support of "White Poland" ensured that none of the weapons that were supposed to go to Poland went any further than British ports. The British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] had never been enthusiastic about supporting the Poles, and had been pressured by his more right-wing Cabinet members such as [[Lord Curzon]] and Winston Churchill into offering the supplies. The threatened general strike was for Lloyd George a convenient excuse for backing out of his commitments. The French were hampered in their efforts to supply Poland by the refusal of [[Gdańsk]] (now in Poland) dockworkers to unload supplies for Poland. Likewise, French efforts to supply Poland via land were hindered by the refusal of Czechoslovakia and Germany (both which had border disputes with Poland) to allow arms for Poland to cross their frontiers.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complicated set of alliances was established amongst the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or Soviet Russia). With the rise of [[Nazism]] in Germany, this system of alliances was strengthened by the signing of a series of "mutual assistance" alliances between France, Britain, and Poland. This agreement stated that in the event of war the other allies were to fully mobilize and carry out a "ground intervention within two weeks" in support of the ally being attacked.

===Up to 1939===
====Diplomacy====
In the years following the end of World War I and the [[Polish-Soviet War]], Poland had signed alliances with many European powers. The most important were the military alliance with France signed on February 19, 1921 and the defensive alliance with [[Romania]] of March 3, 1921. The alliance with France was a major factor in Polish inter-war foreign relations, and was seen as the main warrant of peace in [[Central Europe]]; Poland's military doctrine was heavily influenced by this alliance as well.

As World War II was nearing, both governments started to look for a renewal of the bilateral promises. This was accomplished in May 1939, when General Tadeusz Kasprzycki signed a secret protocol (later ratified by both governments) to the Franco-Polish Military Alliance with General Maurice Gamelin. It was agreed that France would grant her eastern ally a military credit ''as soon as possible''. In case of war with Germany, France promised to start minor land and air military operations at once, and to start a major offensive ''(with the majority of its forces)'' not later than 15 days after the declaration of war.

On March 30, 1939, the British government pledged to defend Poland, in the event of a German attack. The British “guarantee” of Poland was only of Polish independence, and pointly excluded Polish territorial integrity. Britain hoped to prevent Hitler from expanding easterwards, and obtaining control of the resources of Central and Eastern Europe, which would enable him to turn upon the Western countries with overwhelming force. The basic goal of British foreign policy between 1919-1939 was to prevent another world war by a mixture of “carrot and stick”. The “stick” in this case was the “guarantee” of March 1939, which was intended to prevent Germany from attacking either Poland or Romania. At the same time, the Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and his Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax hoped to offer a “carrot” to [[Adolf Hitler]] in the form of another Munich-type deal that would see the Free City of [[Gdańsk]] (now Poland) and the Polish Corridor returned to Germany in exchange for a promise by Hitler to leave the rest of Poland alone.

This declaration was further amended in April, when Poland and Britain signed a mutual assistance treaty. Like the “guarantee” of March 30, the Anglo-Polish alliance committed Britain only to the defense of Polish independence. It was clearly aimed against German aggression. In case of war, Britain was to start hostilities as soon as possible; initially helping Poland with air raids against the German war industry, and joining the struggle on land as soon as the British army arrived in France. In addition, a military credit was granted and armament was to reach Polish or Romanian ports in ''early autumn.''

At the same time secret German-Soviet talks were held in Moscow which resulted in signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] on August 22, 1939--a decisive event that signaled the war would start soon.

====The Phony War====
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany after ultimatums to withdraw expired on September 3. Britain and France enforced a naval [[blockade]] on Germany and seized German ships starting with the declaration of war.

A French offensive in the Rhine river valley area (the "Saar Offensive") was immediately launched against Germany. Eleven French divisions advanced along a 32 km line with negligible German opposition. Britain conducted a number of air raids against the German navy on September 4 1939.

The Allied attitude towards Poland in 1939 has been a subject of an ongoing dispute among historians ever since. Some historians argue that if only France had pursued the offensive against Germany, it would have been able to break through the unfinished Siegfried Line and force Germany to fight a costly two-front war. Others argue that France and Britain had promised more than they would deliver — especially when confronted with the option to declare war on the [[Soviet Union]] for violating Poland's territory on September 17, 1939 the way they had on Germany on September 3, 1939 — and that the French army was superior to the [[Wehrmacht]] in numbers only. It lacked the offensive doctrines, mobilization schemes, and offensive spirit necessary to attack Germany.

The problem with Polish expectations was that the French and British commitments greatly exaggerated their capabilities. Although France promptly declared war, the French mobilization was not complete until early October, by which time Poland had fallen. In Britain where mobilization was more rapid, only 1 in 40 men were mobilized (compared to 1 in 10 in France, and 1 in 20 in Poland), thus providing only a token force against Germany's forces of several million. After the war, General Alfred Jodl commented that the Germans survived 1939 "only because approximately 110 French and English divisions in the West, which during the campaign on Poland were facing 25 German divisions, remained completely inactive."

In the end, many Poles believe that although Poland held out for five weeks, three weeks longer than was planned, it received no military aid from its allies, Britain and France. Additionally Poland never surrendered to either the Germans or Russians. The agreed upon "two week ground response" never materialized, and Poland fell to the Nazis and the Soviets as a result.
===1940s===
Soon after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Polish government in exile signed a pact with [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin refused to consider any suggestion that he surrender the Polish territory he seized in 1939. Britain nonetheless pressured the Poles to withdraw this demand, since, in Churchill's words, "We could not force our new and sorely threatened [Soviet] ally to abandon, even on paper, regions on her frontier which she regarded for generations as vital to her security." The London Poles conceded but only after Britain agreed to state in writing that all agreements that adjusted Poland's pre-war borders were null and void. The Soviet-Polish agreement was signed on July 30, 1941, and [[Anthony Eden]] formally notified the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] of the arrangements that same day. In response to a parliamentary question about Britain's commitment, however, Eden stated that "The exchange of notes which I have just read to the House does not involve any guarantee of frontiers by His Majesty's Government."

The Poles were more successful in obtaining Soviet agreement to the creation of the [[Polish Army in the East]], and obtaining the release of Polish citizens from the [[GULag|Soviet labor camps]]. Despite the difficulties the Soviet government made, many were freed from confinement and permitted to join the Polish Army formed formally on August 12, 1941. However, after the troops were withdrawn to the [[Middle East]] in March 1942, Stalin revoked the amnesty and in June and July arrested all Polish diplomats in the USSR.

Meanwhile, on September 24, 1941, Poland and the Soviet Union signed the [[Atlantic Charter]]. It underlined that no territorial changes should be made that would ''not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.'' It was viewed by the Polish government as a warrant of Poland's borders, although it became apparent that some concessions would have to be made.

In December 1941, a Conference was held in [[Moscow]] between the USSR and Great Britain. Stalin proposed to base post-war Polish western borders on the [[Oder-Neisse Line]] and demanded that the United Kingdom accept the pre-war western borders of the Soviet Union. [[Anthony Eden]] accepted the demand as he assumed that the border in question was the 1939 line.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, Stalin apparently meant the 1941 border with Germany. It was soon discovered, but the British government decided not to change the document. On March 11, 1942, [[Winston Churchill]] notified Prime Minister [[Władysław Sikorski]] that the borders of the [[Baltic States]] and [[Romania]] were guaranteed, and that no decision was made regarding the borders of Poland.

====Katyn and the Soviet pressure====
From the very beginning of Polish-Soviet talks in 1941, the government of Poland was searching for approximately 20,000 Polish officers missing in Russia. Stalin always replied that they either ''must have fled to Mongolia'' or ''are somewhere in Russia, which is a big country and it's easy to get lost here''{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In April 1943 German news agencies reported finding mass graves of Polish soldiers in [[Katyn]]. The Polish government requested the Soviet Union examine the case and at the same time asked the [[Red Cross|International Red Cross]] for help in verifying the German reports.

On April 24, 1943, Sikorski met with Eden and demanded Allied help in releasing Polish prisoners in the [[gulag]]s and Soviet prisons. Sikorski also declined the Soviet demand that Poland withdraw their plea to have the Red Cross investigate Katyn. [[Anthony Eden]] refused to help and the Soviet Union broke diplomatic relations with Poland on the following day, arguing that the Polish government was collaborating with [[Nazi Germany]]. Despite Polish pleas for help, the [[United States]] and the United Kingdom decided not to put pressure on the USSR.

After the Soviets stopped the German advance on the Eastern Front, Poland lost its significance as the main Eastern ally. This was made obvious by the German [[Battle of Stalingrad|defeat at Stalingrad]].

====Tehran====

:''See also: '''[[Teheran conference]]'''''
In November 1943, the [[Big Three]] (USSR, USA, and UK) met at the [[Tehran Conference]]. Both Roosevelt and Churchill officially agreed that the eastern borders of Poland would roughly follow the Curzon Line. That meant that Western Ukraine would become part of the Ukraine (and thus part of the Soviet Union). Few Poles lived therebut they did not want to gove it up. and Roosevelt did not wish to upset Polish voters in the United States during the upcoming [[Presidential elections of 1944]].<ref> Roosevelt told Stalin, “Next year in the United States elections are in prospect. …In America there are millions of citizens of Polish origin, and therefore, being a practical person, I would not want to lose their concerns. I am agreeable with Marshal Stalin to the fact that we must restore the Polish state, and personally I do not have objections to the borders of Poland being moved from the east to the West - up to Oder, but for political reasons I cannot participate at present in the resolution of this question. I consider Marshal Stalin's ideas, I hope that he will understand, why I cannot publicly participate in resolution of this question." [http://nobsopus.blogspot.com/2007/08/63-memorandum-of-conversation-i-v.html № 63 Memorandum of conversation Josef Stalin with Franklin Roosevelt], [[Teheran conference]], 1 December, 1943 [http://vlastitel.com.ru/stalin/vov/tegeran.html Russian text].</ref>

====1944 Warsaw Uprising====
Since the establishment of the Polish government in exile, the military commanders of the Polish army were focusing most of their efforts on preparation of a future all-national uprising against Germany. Finally, the plans for "Operation Tempest" were prepared and on August 1, 1944 the [[Warsaw Uprising]] started. The Uprising was an armed struggle by the Polish Home Army to liberate [[Warsaw]] from German occupation and Nazi rule. At this point the Russian army was closing in, but it unexpectedly stopped, allowing the Germans to use their full military power to crush the pooly armed revolt. The uprising lasted for over 60 days, from August 1 to early October 1944. The Polish underground army, known as the AK, took on numerically superior and much better-armed Wehrmacht and SS units. The outcome was catastrophic. After the AK surrendered, the Germans evacuated all the inhabitants of Warsaw amid scenes of random murder. In the course of the whole ordeal at least 160,000 Poles, and perhaps many more, were killed. With flamethrowers and dynamite, the Germans then destroyed the deserted city with all its historic landmarks, its cathedral and palaces.

Polish and RAF planes flew missions over Warsaw dropping supplies from 4 August on, the United States did not join the operation. Stalin refused the use of Soviet airfields, and refused any aid to the Warsaw freedom fighters. Any aid would have been symbolic, for the uprising was hopeless without the full commitment of Societ forces.<ref> Norman Davies, ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw'' (2004)</ref>

====Yalta====
: ''See also: [[Yalta conference]]''.

In 1945, Poland's borders were redrawn following the decision made at the [[Tehran Conference]] of 1943 at the insistence of the Soviet Union. The Polish government was not invited to the talks and was to be notified of their outcome. Polish representatives did present arguments concerning borders at the Potsdam conference, however, and Polish demands for German territory were agreed to. The eastern territories which the Soviet Union had occupied in 1939 (with the exception of the [[Białystok]] area) were permanently annexed, and most of their Polish inhabitants expelled: today these territories are part of [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Lithuania]]. The factual basis of this decision was the result of a forged referendum from November 1939 in which the "huge majority" of voters accepted the incorporation of these lands into Western Belarus and Western Ukraine. In compensation, Poland was given former German territory (the so-called [[Regained Territories]]): the southern half of [[East Prussia]] and all of [[Pomerania]] and [[Silesia]], up to the [[Oder-Neisse Line]]. The German population of these territories [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|were deported]] and these territories were subsequently repopulated with [[Expulsion of Poles after World War II|Poles deported from the eastern regions]]. This combined with other similar migrations in Central and Eastern Europe to form [[Human migration#Post-World War II Migrations|one of the largest human migrations in modern times]]. Stalin ordered Polish resistance fighters to be either incarcerated or deported to [[gulag]]s in Siberia. Many Poles believe that Western leaders tried to force Polish leaders to accept the conditions of Stalin. Some view it as a 'betrayal' of Poland by its Western allies (which can be seen as part of a larger 'betrayal' to 'allow' it to fall entirely into the Soviet sphere of influence).<ref>‘’The Yalta Betrayal’’, Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/pearl/www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/yaltabet.html pgs. 12 - 13]. “Fact is that Roosevelt, eager to succeed where Woodrow Wilson had failed, dreamed of creating a better and more peaceful world through legal instruments, and in pursuit of his illusions obtruded himself upon Joe Stalin with every imaginable gift, including eleven billion dollars' worth of [[lend-lease]], the security of eighty million eastern Europeans and hundreds of millions of Chinese, and the lives of several millions of the best friends free society possessed.”</ref> Moreover, it was used by ruling communists to underline anti-Western sentiments.<ref name="Sharp"> {{cite book | author =[[Samuel Leonard Sharp]] | title =Poland, white eagle on a red field | year =1953 | editor = | pages =163 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Harvard University Press]] | location =Harvard | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xtceAAAAMAAJ&vid=OCLC01457011&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=betrayal&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Davies"> {{cite book | author =[[Norman Davies]] | title =[[God's Playground]] | volume = 2 | year =2005 [1982] | editor = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =[[Columbia University Press]] | location = | id =ISBN 0-231-12819-3| url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref> It was easy to argue that Poland was not very important to the West, since Allied leaders sacrificed Polish borders, the legal government, and free elections.<ref name="Jones"> {{cite book | author =[[Howard Jones]] | coauthors = | title =Crucible of Power: a history of U.S. foreign relations since 1897 | year =2001 | editor = | pages =205-207 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =Rowman & Littlefield | location = | id =ISBN 0842029184 | url =http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0842029184&id=n6Al88smOAUC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&ots=ifNDYJ7z_Y&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&sig=6fllW8jCLI-QEifsfDX0XFTZ2Vk#PPA207,M1 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="PAC"> {{cite journal | author =various authors | year =1948 | month = | title =A compilation of selected resolutions, declarations, memorials, memorandums,... | journal =Selected Documents | volume = | issue =1244-1248 | pages =112 | publisher = [[Polish American Congress]] | location = Chicago, IL | id = | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=x5brwE5vmlwC&vid=OCLC05523398&dq=Yalta+free+elections+Poland&q=AS+A+PARTY+TO+THE+YALTA+AGREEMENT+THAT+CRUSHED&pgis=1#search }}</ref><ref name="Sharp_2">Sharp, op.cit., p.12</ref>

With this background, even Stalin looked more reliable since he did have strong interests in Poland. The Federal Republic of Germany, formed in 1949, was portrayed by Communist propaganda as the breeder of Hitler's posthumous offspring who desired retaliation and wanted to take back from Poland the "[[Recovered Territories]]".<ref>"Poland under Stalinism", _Poznan in June 1956: A Rebellious City_, The Wielkopolska Museum of the Fight for Independence in Poznan, 2006, p. 5</ref> Giving this picture a grain of creditability was contained in the fact that Federal Republic of Germany until 1970 refused to recognize the Oder-Neisse Line and that many West German officials were alleged to have a tainted Nazi past. Thus, for a segment of Polish public opinion, Communist rule was seen as the lesser of the two evils.
[[Image:Sovietambitions.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The darkened areas represent territorries of Soviet ambitions and designs, 1921 - 1949.]]
Defenders of the actions taken by the Western allies maintain that [[Realpolitik]] made it impossible to do anything else, and that they were in no shape to start an utterly un-winnable war with the Soviet Union over the subjugation of Poland and other [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[East Europe|Eastern European]] countries immediately after the end of World War II. Some argue that the actions of the Secretary of State were a result of ignorance rather than Realpolitik.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} is not aware of the fact." Molotov paused for a reply. No denial was forthcoming.85 The truth was out at last. Later Churchill told Mikolajczyk he "was not going to wreck the peace of Europe because of a quarrel between Poles."<ref>Jan Ciechanowski, ''Defeat in Victory'', Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1947, pgs. 330-331, quoted in John T. Flynn, ''The Roosevelt Myth'', Fox and Wilkes, 1948, Book 3, Chapter 9, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Nine___The_Great_Confere.htm ''The Great Conferences''].</ref> It is contended that the presence of a double standard with respect to Nazi and Soviet aggression existed in 1939 and 1940, when the Soviets invaded eastern Poland and the Baltic States, respectively, and the Western Allies failed to declare war. The U.S. State Department never issued a single diplomatic protest against the Soviet Union despite her absorption of [[Sinkiang]] and [[Outer Mongolia]], while at the same time, Japan was censured for stationing troops in [[Manchukuo|Manchuria]].<ref>Communism at Pearl Harbor, How the Communists Helped to Bring on Pearl Harbor and Open up Asia to Communinization, Dr. Anthony Kubek, Dallas Texas, Teaching Publishing Company, 1959, [http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/comatph.html pg. 22]. Dr. Anthony Kubek was the Editor of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]], Report on the ''Morgenthau Diaries''. In 1965, the SISS issued a two volume committee print entitled Morgenthau Diary (China), Edited by Dr. Anthony Kubek, containing entries from the records at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library selected to illustrate the implementation of Roosevelt administration policy in China. According to Dr. Kubek, the subcommittee wanted to produce a documentary history on the subject and "also indicate the serious problem of unauthorized, uncontrolled and often dangerous power exercised by non-elected officials," specifically [[Harry Dexter White]]. White was a major figure in Senator William Jenner's investigation of interlocking subversion in Government departments in 1953. [http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-13-judiciary-1947-1968.html#103] </ref>

What the Western allies sacrificed is also disputed. Some argue that Poland's borders had been re-drawn many times in history, the country had not had free elections since 1926 and throughout the 1930s it had endured increasing political repression under an [[authoritarian]] [[Sanacja]] government. On the other hand, the Polish government in exile was composed entirely of the pre-war democratic opposition and all political parties of the [[Polish Secret State]] underlined the need to follow the democratic traditions of March 1921 constitution, rather than [[autocratic]] [[Polish constitution of 1935|April constitution of Poland]] of 1935.

In May 2005 US President [[George W. Bush]] admitted that the Soviet domination of central and eastern Europe after World War II was "one of the greatest wrongs of history" and acknowledged that the United States played a significant role in the division of the continent and that the Yalta conference "followed in the unjust tradition of Munich and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. (...) Once again, when powerful governments negotiated, the freedom of small nations was somehow expendable." In fact, chief American negotiator at Yalta, [[Alger Hiss]], was later found to be secretly working for the Soviets.<ref>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html Venona 1822 Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945].</ref>

====Aftermath====
[[Władysław Sikorski]], Prime Minister of Polish Government in Exile, was killed in an air crash over [[Gibraltar]] in July 1943. As he was the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles, his death was a severe setback to the Polish cause, and was certainly highly convenient for Stalin. It was in some ways also convenient for the western Allies, who were finding the Polish issue a stumbling-block in their efforts to preserve good relations with Stalin.

This has given rise to persistent suggestions that Sikorski's death was not accidental. Many historians speculate that his death might have been effect of Soviet, British or even a Polish conspiracy. This has never been proven, and the fact that the principal exponents of this theory in the west have been the [[revisionism|revisionist]] historians David Irving and Rolf Hochhuth has not encouraged many western historians to take it seriously.

On the other hand by 2000 only a small part of the British Intelligence documents related to Sikorski's death had been unclassified and made available to Polish historians. The majority of the files will be classified for another "50 to 100 years." This is a common procedure in the release of most types of official secret documents in the UK.

In November 1944, despite his mistrust of the Soviets, Sikorski's successor, Prime Minister [[Stanisław Mikołajczyk]] resigned to return to Poland and take office in the [[People's Republic of Poland|new government]] established under the auspices of the Soviet occupation authorities. Many of the Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a facade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland, a view that was later proved correct; after losing an election which was later shown to have been fraudulent, Mikołajczyk left Poland again in 1947.

Meanwhile the government in exile had maintained its existence, but the United States and the United Kingdom withdrew their recognition on July 6, 1945. The Polish armed forces in exile were disbanded in 1945 and most of the exiles, unable to return to Communist Poland, settled in other countries. The London Poles had to leave the embassy on Portland Place and were left only with the president's private residence at 43 Eaton Place. The government in exile then became largely symbolic, serving mainly to symbolize the continued resistance to foreign occupation of Poland, and retaining control of some important archives from pre-war Poland. [[Ireland]] and [[Spain]] were the last countries to recognize the government in exile.

No representatives of Polish military, veterans of [[Battle of Britain]] and [[Monte Cassino]], were invited to the [[London Victory Parade]] of 1946 - Poles were supposed to attend the Moscow Victory Parade instead. This was because the Victory Parade was solely for the nations of the British Empire and Commonwealth and no other foreign troops were invited.

At the war's end many of these feelings of resentment were capitalized on by the occupying Soviets, who used them to reinforce anti-Western sentiments within Poland. Propaganda was produced by Communists to show Russia as the Great Liberator, and the West as the Great Traitor.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Capitalism was shown as being inherently bad, because capitalists only cared for "their own skin," while communism was portrayed as the great "uniter and protector."

==Russia==
In the final days of the war, masses of refugees from Nazi-abandoned Russia and [[#Croatia|Croatia]] were fleeing from the Red Army and [[Josip Broz|Tito]]'s partisans.
In [[Operation Keelhaul]], British troops gathered these thousands of refugees in Austria including [[Cossacks]], [[Ustase]], [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatian]] and [[White Russia]]n troops, and civilians.
The Soviet and Russian citizens were turned to [[East Germany|Soviet-occupied Germany]], where in many cases they were summarily shot.

==Baltic States==
For the Baltic States, however, who also had their fate sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, which (after some revision) assigned the Baltics to Soviet control. The U.S. never recognized this annexation and helped the Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania become fully independent in 1991.

==Notes and references==

<div class="references-small">
::'''In-line:'''
<references/>

==See also==
*[[history of Poland#World War II in Poland (1939-1945)|History of Poland]]
*[[history of Czechoslovakia#Before WWII (1938 – 1939)|History of Czechoslovakia]]
**[[Munich Agreement]]
**[[Occupation of Czechoslovakia]]
*[[History of Finland]]
**[[Winter War]]
*[[history of Ukraine#The 20th Century|History of Ukraine]]
*[[History of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Operation Keelhaul]]
*[[Polish contribution to World War II]]
*[[Revolutions of 1989]]
==Bibliography==
===19th century===
* Gilpin, Robert. ''War and Change in World Politics'' (1981) [http://www.amazon.com/Change-World-Politics-Robert-Gilpin/dp/0521273765/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447559&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===World War I===
* Bakeless, John Edwin. ''The Economic Causes of Modern War: A Study of the Period: 1878-1918'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wgAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=LZcIMpEGmzqwkIldzuhfH5Muveg#PPR3,M1 online edition]
* Cramer, Kevin. "A World of Enemies: New Perspectives on German Military Culture and the Origins of the First World War," ''Central European History'' (2006), 39#2 pp 270-298 online at [[CJO]]
* Evans, R. J. W., and Hartmut Pogge Von Strandman, eds. ''The Coming of the First World War'' (1990), essays by scholars from both sides [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22768266 online edition]
* Fay, Sidney. ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930); classic scholarly study; argues every nation shared guilt for starting the war [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html online edition]
* Fromkin, David. ''Europe's Last Summer: Who Started the Great War in 1914?'', (2004), ISBN 0375411569.
* Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. ''The Origins of World War I,'' (2003) 553pp; 15 long essays by leading scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-World-War-I/dp/0521817358/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447179&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
** Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. ''Decisions for War, 1914-1917'' (2004) ' a condensed version in 282pp
* Henig, Ruth ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2002) 76pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103326769 online edition]
* Hewitson, Mark. ''Germany and the Causes of the First World War'' (2004)
* Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War''. (3rd ed 2006).
* Kennedy, Paul M. (ed.). ''The War Plans of the Great Powers, 1880-1914.'' (1979)
* Kennedy, Paul M. ''The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914'' (1981)
* Lee, Dwight E. ed. ''The Outbreak of the First World War: Who Was Responsible?'' (1958), readings from multiple points of view
* Maier, Charles S. "Wargames: 1914-1919" in Rabb T. and Rotberg R. (eds.), ''The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1989), 249-279
* Miller, Steven E. (ed.) ''Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War: an International Security Reader'', (1985)
* Page, Thomas Nelson. ''Italy and the World War'' (1920) [http://books.google.com/books?id=9RUitonph38C&dq=intitle:world+intitle:war+date:1919-2007&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Ponting, Clive. ''Thirteen Days: Diplomacy and Disaster - The Countdown to the Great War'' (2002)
* Snyder, Jack L. ''The Ideology of the Offensive. Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914''. (1984), 267 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Ideology-Offensive-Military-Decision-Disasters/dp/0801482445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206447730&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Stevenson, David. ''The First World War and International Politics'' (2005)
* Van Evera, Stephen. ''Causes of War. Power and the Roots of Conflict''. (1998), chap.7, pp 193-239.
* Williamson, Samuel R. Jr. "The Origins of World War I" in Rabb T. and Rotberg R. (eds.), ''The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars'', (1989), 225-248.
* Williamson, Samuel R. ''The politics of grand strategy: Britain and France prepare for war, 1904-1914'' (1990) [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Williamson Jr. Samuel R. and Ernest R. May. "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," ''Journal of Modern History''(2007) Volume 79, Number 2, 335-87, historiography [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/519317 online]
===1920s===
* Craig, Gordon A. and Felix Gilbert, eds. ''The Diplomats 1919–1939'' (1953).
* Cienciala, Anna M. and Titus Komarnicki ''From Versailles to Locarno: keys to Polish foreign policy, 1919–25'', (1984).
* Lukes, Igor, and Erik Goldstein, eds. ''The Munich crisis, 1938: prelude to World War II'', (1999).
* Macmillan, Margaret Olwen. ''Paris 1919: six months that changed the world'' (2001). Very well written scholarly study of making of the Treaty of Versailles

==1920-1945==
* Adamthwaite, Anthony. ''Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe, 1914-40'' (1995) 276 pp
* Bell, P.M.H. ''The Origins of the Second World War in Europe'' (3rd ed. 2007) good short survey
* Boyce, Robert. ''French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918-1940: The Decline and Fall of a Great Power'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/French-Foreign-Defence-Policy-1918-1940/dp/0415150396/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206940237&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Deist, Wilhelm et al., ed. ''Germany and the Second World War. Vol. 1: The Build-up of German Aggression.'' (1991). 799 pp., official German history
* Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. ''France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932-1939'' (2004)
* Eubank, Keith. ''The Origins of World War II'' (2004), short survey
* Finney, Patrick ed. ''The Origins of the Second World War'' (1997)
* Henig, Ruth. ''The Origins of the Second World War 1933-1939'' (2nd ed 2005) short survey [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-Second-1933-1941-Lancaster-Pamphlets/dp/0415332621/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206957954&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Finney, Patrick. ''The Origins of the Second World War'' (1998), 480pp
* Goldstein, Erik & Lukes, Igor, eds. ''The Munich crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II'', (1999)
* Hildebrand, Klaus. ''The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich'', (1973).
* Imlay, Talbot. "Democracy and War: Political Regime, Industrial Relations, and Economic Preparations for War in France and Britain up to 1940." ''Journal of Modern History'' 2007 79(1): 1-47. Issn: 0022-2801
* Kaiser, David E. ''Economic diplomacy and the origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939'' (1980)
* Lamb, Margaret and Tarling, Nicholas. ''From Versailles to Pearl Harbor: The Origins of the Second World War in Europe and Asia.'' (2001). 238 pp.
* Leitz, Christian. ''Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/104259086 online edition]
* Lukes, Igor. ''The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II'' (1999), 416pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0714680567/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Mallett, Robert. ''Mussolini and the Origins of the Second World War, 1933 - 1940'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Mussolini-Origins-Second-World-1933/dp/0333748158/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195791097&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Overy, Richard. ''The Road to War'' (2nd ed. 2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Road-War-Revised-Richard-Overy/dp/014028530X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206940109&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Overy, Richard and Timothy Mason, "Debate: Germany, 'Domestic Crisis' and War in 1939" ''Past and Present'', Number 122, February 1989. pages 200-240
* Parker, R. A. C. ''Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War.'' (1993). 388 pp.
* Prazmowska, Anita J. ''Eastern Europe and the Origins of the Second World War.'' (2000). 278 pp.
* Read, Anthony and Fisher, David. ''The Deadly Embrace: Hitler, Stalin and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941.'' (1988). 675 pp.
* Record, Jeffrey. ''The Specter of Munich: Reconsidering the Lessons of Appeasing Hitler'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Specter-Munich-Reconsidering-Lessons-Appeasing/dp/1597970395/ref=sr_1_19?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195791247&sr=1-19 excerpt and text search]
* Rothwell, Victor. ''War Aims in the Second World War: The War Aims of the Key Belligerents 1939-1945'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/War-Aims-Second-World-Belligerents/dp/0748615024/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206957954&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Salerno, Reynolds Matthewson. ''Vital Crossroads: Mediterranean Origins of the Second World War, 1935-1940.'' (2002). 285 pp.
* Strang, G. Bruce ''On The Fiery March: Mussolini Prepares For War'', (2003) ISBN 0-275-97937-7.
* Taylor, A J P ''The Origins of the Second World War'' (1961). 368pp. highhly controversial in Britain
* Tooze, Adam. "Hitler's Gamble?" ''History Today'' 2006 56(11): 22-28. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]], economic causes
* Tooze, Adam. ''The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy'' (2007) influential emphasis that Hitler began to rearm in 1933
* Watt, Donald Cameron ''How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939'', (1989), a major survey
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II'' (1994). Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Weinberg, Gerhard. ''The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937-1939'', (1980) ISBN 0-226-88511-9.
* Young, Robert J. ''France and the Origins of the Second World War'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/France-Origins-Second-Twentieth-Century/dp/0312161867/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206938840&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

===Historiography===
* Boxer, Andrew. "French Appeasement: Andrew Boxer Considers Explanations for France's Disastrous Foreign Policy between the Wars." ''History Review'' v. 59 (2007) pp. 45+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5024380016 online edition]
* Boyce, Robert, and Joseph A. Maiolo. ''The Origins of World War Two: The Debate Continues'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-World-War-Two-Continues/dp/0333945395/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195791097&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Peter. "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War," ''History Compass'' Vol. 4, August 2006 [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00344.x?cookieSet=1 online edition]
* Martel, Gordon, ed. ''The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered: A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians,'' (2nd ed. 1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Origins-Second-World-Reconsidered-J-P/dp/0415163250/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206957954&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Neville, Peter. "The Origins of the Second World War Revisited." ''European History Quarterly'' 2005 35(4): 569-582. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Young, Robert J. ''French Foreign Policy, 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials.'' (1991)

====references====
<references/>
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:World War II]]

Art cities

2013-01-07T02:12:58Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

[[Image:Tthe-royal-philharmonic-orchestra.jpg|thumb|240px|The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, London.]]
[[Image:Uffizi Gallery.jpg|thumb|320px|Uffizi Gallery, Florence.]]

'''Art cities''' around the world:
* [[Amsterdam]]
* [[Berlin]]
* [[Chicago]]
* [[Kraków]]
* [[Edinburgh]]
* [[Florence]]
* [[London]]
* [[Madrid]]
* [[Mexico City]]
* [[New York City]]
* [[Paris]]
* [[Prague]]
* [[Rome]]
* [[Salzburg]]
* [[Vienna]]
* [[Washington, D.C.]]
[[Image:The Apollo Theatre, London.jpg|thumb|left|230px|The Apollo Theatre, London.]]

{{Clear}}
<center>
[[File:Pissarro The Hermaitage at Pontoise.jpg|thumb|340px|center|The Hermaitage at Pontoise by [[Camille Pissarro]]; The original is in the Thannhauser collection of the Guggenheim in New York. ]]
</center>

[[Category:Art]]

Hussite Wars

2013-01-07T02:11:35Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''[[Hussite]] Wars''' (1419-1436) followed the burning at the stake of [[Jan Hus]] in 1415 which aroused enormous religious and national unrest in[[Bohemia]], and led to the formation of the [[Hussite League]]. The movement spread rapidly under King Wenceslas IV and open war broke out under Sigismund, whom the Bohemians held responsible for Hus's death. In 1420 the [[pope]] called for a [[crusade]] against the Hussites. The [[Emperor]] suffered serious defeats, and raids into [[Silesia]], [[Austria]] and as far as [[Gdańsk]] spread fear of the Hussites. For the first time, an imperial [[tax]] was levied to fund the [[war]] against them. Continued Hussite successes led to a [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] solution being reached in the pacts of [[Prague]] (1433) and Iglau (1436).

[[Category:History]]

Polish Corridor

2013-01-07T02:11:18Z

Johnpeterslusarski:

The '''Polish Corridor''' was a strip of land ceded by [[Germany]] to the newly-formed state of [[Poland]] at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]]. The Corridor gave Poland access to the [[Baltic Sea]], but it also divided [[East Prussia]] from the rest of Germany. The area had a significant German minority population, and the [[Nazi]] regime in Germany used trumped-up charges about the treatment of that population, as well as the status of the Free City of [[Gdańsk]], as the pretext for launching their invasion of Poland in 1939.

[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:World War II]]