Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

University of Cambridge

2008-11-26T13:01:47Z

JohnC2:

The '''[[University]] of Cambridge''' commonly referred to as '''Cambridge University''' or simply '''Cambridge''' is an institution of higher learning based in [[Cambridge]], [[England]], and the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. Cambridge was established in 1209 [http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/pubs/history/records.html] by scholars fleeing the hostility of the townsmen in [[Oxford]], the historical reason for the competition between the two Universities and the origin of the traditional river "dunking" of Cambridge scholars visiting Oxford.

Cambridge is a confederation of colleges, faculties, and institutions[http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/pubs/works/]. The University administration is relatively small compared to the size of the University. Many functions that are normally carried out by the central university bureaucracy in other universities are carried out by the colleges as at Oxford University. The functions of the colleges include teaching and research. Degrees are however conferred by the University. A person with a degree from Cambridge can put ''Cantab.'' after their name and degree, ''Cantab.'' being short for ''Cantabrigian'' (from the Latin name for the city, which is ''Cantabrigia''.)

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge collectively are often known as "Oxbridge". Historically, these two universities (along with Hull university) are regarded as the top English universities.

==List of colleges==
The following is a list of Cambridge colleges and halls as of 2008.[http://www.cam.ac.uk/colleges/]

*Christ's College
*Churchill College
*Clare College
*Clare Hall
*Corpus Christi College
*Darwin College
*Downing College
*Emmanuel College
*Fitzwilliam College
*Girton College
*Gonville and Caius College
*Homerton College
*Hughes Hall
*Jesus College
*Lucy Cavendish College
*King's College
*Magdalene College
*Murray Edwards College (formerly New Hall)
*Newnham College
*Pembroke College
*Peterhouse College
*Queens' College
*Robinson College
*St. Catherine's College
*St. Edmund's College
*St. John's College
*Selwyn College
*Sidney Sussex College
*Trinity College
*Trinity Hall
*Wolfson College

==External links==
*[http://www.cam.ac.uk University of Cambridge]

[[Category:British Universities]]

Free good

2008-11-26T12:57:49Z

JohnC2:

A '''free good''' is a good that is not [[scarce]]. It is a good which has a [[supply]] that always exceeds [[demand]] even at a price of zero. Examples of free goods are air and seawater at sea or near the coast.

[[category:economics]]

Sturgeon

2008-11-26T12:56:26Z

JohnC2:

''Do not confuse with [[Surgeon]].''

The '''Sturgeon''' is a kind of [[fish]] endemic to the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]] in [[Asia]]. It can grow to six or eight feet long, in the wild, but that doesn't happen very often because most sturgeons these days are [[harvest]]ed for their [[egg]]s, or ''[[caviar]]'', when they are still fairly young. The Sturgeon population of the Caspian Sea has plummeted since the 1950s, due to the high demand for caviar. Sturgeons are considered living fossils. Scientists estimate similar fish have existed for 200 million years.

It is currently [[illegal]] to hunt or fish for Sturgeon in the wild, so most sturgeon caviar comes from farm-raised fish. Some other [[species]] of fish produce caviar, which has taken some of the demand off of the sturgeon population. For example, [[beluga]] caviar is quite popular in [[Russia]] if you can afford it.

[[Category:Fish]]
[[Category:Economics]]

Prudhoe

2008-11-26T12:51:22Z

JohnC2:

'''Prudhoe''' is a town in [[Northumberland]], [[England]]. It has a [[Norman]] castle which was strategically important in the border wars between England and [[Scotland]] in the latter part of the 12th century. The River Tyne is just north of Prudhoe which has a population of over 11.000

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Mystery Science Theater 3000

2008-11-26T12:48:18Z

JohnC2:

'''Mystery Science Theater 3000''' was a [[television]] program involving one man and two [[robot]]s making fun of bad movies on a [[space station]]. An evil scientist trappped the man and robots on a space station and forces them to watch terrible films. They make fun of the films in an effort to stay sane.

==External Links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094517/ Mystery Science Theater 3000] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:Television Shows]]

List of dictators

2008-11-26T12:42:48Z

JohnC2:

===North America===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Agustín de Iturbide]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1822 - 1823 || Shortly after the Mexican War of Independence, he was declared Emperor of Mexico in 1822. Repressive, cracked down on free speech and any opposition. Desposed when popular opposition forced him to abdicate.
|-
| align=center|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Antonio López de Santa Anna]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1833 - 1855 (intermittent) || President or Provisional President of Mexico 1833-1837, then 1841 to February 1844, June to December 1844, March to September 1847 and finally 1853-1855. When [[Anastasio Bustamante]] led a coup overthrowing and killing President [[Vicente Guerrero]], Santa Anna seized power and then was elected President in 1833. At first he gave a free hand to his vice-president [[Valentín Gómez Farías]], a liberal reformer. Later he dismissed Gómez Farías, declared the Constitution suspended, disbanded the Congress and worked to concentrate power in the central government. He was overthrown and restored to power several times before his final overthrow in 1855.
|-
| align=center|[[Andrew Schlafly]] || align=center|[[Conservapedia]] || align=center|2006 - ? || Bought himself a computer system using money that his mother ‘earned’. He and his trusted sysops block users who disagree with him. At other rational websites where his banhammer doesn’t reach he is increasingly a laughing stock.
|-
| align=center|[[Porfirio Díaz]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1879 - 1910 || Interim president 1876-1877; President of Mexico 1877-1880, 1884-1911. ''De facto'' ruler 1880-1884. Gained power in a coup, after his Revolution of Tuxtepac overthrew his predecessor, Lerdo. He did not run for reelection after his first term in order to keep his one-term promises that he made during his revolution. However, he retook the presidency a few years later and did not leave from power until the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution of 1910]] kicked him from the Presidency. His rule saw the rapid modernization of Mexico, progress mainly caused by Diaz's encouragement of foreign investment in the country's infrastructure. However, the poor became quite miserable during this time. Political opposition was squelched and rebellions were put down by the ''rurals'', Diaz's personal guard. He was eventually overthrown by the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution]] which lasted 10 years.
|-
| align=center|[[Victoriano Huerta]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1913 - 1914 || Appointed president, established a military dictatorship for about a year, and then was forced to resign.
|}

List of dictators

2008-11-26T12:41:08Z

JohnC2:

===North America===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Agustín de Iturbide]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1822 - 1823 || Shortly after the Mexican War of Independence, he was declared Emperor of Mexico in 1822. Repressive, cracked down on free speech and any opposition. Desposed when popular opposition forced him to abdicate.
|-
| align=center|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Antonio López de Santa Anna]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1833 - 1855 (intermittent) || President or Provisional President of Mexico 1833-1837, then 1841 to February 1844, June to December 1844, March to September 1847 and finally 1853-1855. When [[Anastasio Bustamante]] led a coup overthrowing and killing President [[Vicente Guerrero]], Santa Anna seized power and then was elected President in 1833. At first he gave a free hand to his vice-president [[Valentín Gómez Farías]], a liberal reformer. Later he dismissed Gómez Farías, declared the Constitution suspended, disbanded the Congress and worked to concentrate power in the central government. He was overthrown and restored to power several times before his final overthrow in 1855.
|-
| align=center|[[Andrew Schlafly]] || align=center|[[Conservapedia]] || align=center|2006 - ? || Bought himself a computer system using money that his mother ‘earned’. He and his trusted sysops block users who disagree with him. At other rational websites where his banhammer doesn’t reach he is increasingly a laughing stock.
|}

| align=center|[[Porfirio Díaz]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1879 - 1910 || Interim president 1876-1877; President of Mexico 1877-1880, 1884-1911. ''De facto'' ruler 1880-1884. Gained power in a coup, after his Revolution of Tuxtepac overthrew his predecessor, Lerdo. He did not run for reelection after his first term in order to keep his one-term promises that he made during his revolution. However, he retook the presidency a few years later and did not leave from power until the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution of 1910]] kicked him from the Presidency. His rule saw the rapid modernization of Mexico, progress mainly caused by Diaz's encouragement of foreign investment in the country's infrastructure. However, the poor became quite miserable during this time. Political opposition was squelched and rebellions were put down by the ''rurals'', Diaz's personal guard. He was eventually overthrown by the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution]] which lasted 10 years.
|-
| align=center|[[Victoriano Huerta]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1913 - 1914 || Appointed president, established a military dictatorship for about a year, and then was forced to resign.
|}

List of dictators

2008-11-26T12:40:23Z

JohnC2: /* North America */

: ''For a list of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] dictators, see [[Roman dictator#Roman dictators|Roman dictator]].''
: ''See also the [[#See also|related lists]] at the end of this article.''

The following is a list of national leaders ([[Head of state|heads of state]] and/or [[Head of government|heads of government]]) commonly regarded as modern [[dictator]]s. This usage usually carries a pejorative sense and refers to a ruler who:

* is an [[absolute ruler]] of a [[state|sovereign state]];
* governs outside the otherwise accepted [[rule of law]];
* commonly (but not necessarily) gained power through [[fraud]] or a [[coup d'état]], or resorts to them to stay in power;
* may develop a [[cult of personality]];
* may be autocratic, oppressive, despotic or tyrannical.

Some so-called "[[Dictator#"The benevolent dictator"|benevolent dictators]]" may be viewed as beneficial and their leadership seen as a "necessary evil".
The modern usage of the term 'dictator' developed largely in response to instances of autocratic rule in [[republic]]s, so traditional [[monarch]]s are not usually described as dictators in historical commentary. Also excluded from this list are those who held [[absolute power]] during national [[State of emergency|emergencies]], but restored the rule of law soon thereafter. Otherwise those included have been widely cited by historians or described by the [[Mass media|media]] as dictators. Any controversy surrounding such characterisation is mentioned in the notes.

The list is sorted according to when each dictator began their years in power. This refers to any years in office as a head of state, government or the like before their dictatorship was established. Any years of elected and judicial rule may be indicated parenthetically.

==Africa==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
|align=center|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] ||align=center| [[Egypt]] ||align=center| 1954–1970 || Prime Minister of Egypt 1954-1962; President of Egypt 1956-1970. Part of a group of officers in control of Egypt after the coup against British supported [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]] in 1952; In February 1954, Nasser forced {{fact}} President [[Muhammad Naguib]] to appoint him prime minister and give up most practical power to him; later in that year Naguib resigned and Nasser became president by self-appointment; elected by popular vote (as only candidate) in 1956, and subsequently. Many personalistic elements to Nasser's rule, but nominal parliamentary system under Nasser's 1956-1970 presidency {{fact}}, until his death in 1970.
|-
|align=center|[[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] ||align=center| [[Guinea]] ||align=center| 1958–1984 || President of Guinea. Widely described as a dictator (see [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/DIAINS.html], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/world/awards2003/profile_jazz.shtml]) with estimates of up to 50,000 extra-judicial killings during his rule (see [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat6.htm]) and 250,000 Guineans fleeing his rule ([http://www.africanet.com/africanet/country/guinea/history.htm]).
|-
|align=center|[[David Dacko]] ||align=center| [[Central African Republic]] ||align=center| 1960–1966 1979–1981 || President of the Central African Republic. Banned opposition (see [http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad36]); Gained power by coup in 1979, though subsequently stood for election (see [http://www.african-geopolitics.org/show.aspx?ArticleId=3638]).
|-
|align=center|[[Modibo Keita]] ||align=center| [[Mali]] ||align=center| 1960–1968 || Schoolteacher and first president of Mali. Forced socialization and extensive protectionism severely harmed the economy and continued the country's dependence on aid donors. Discontent with these policies led Keita to implement his own "Cultural Revolution" and establish a network of people's militias to inform on and punish dissent. In the last few years of his presidency, full powers were vested in an extralegal "National Committee for Defense of the Revolution". He was deposed in a military coup.
|-
|align=center|[[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]] ||align=center| [[Chad]] ||align=center| 1960–1975 || Head of State 1960-1962; President of Chad 1962-1975. Never fought a contested election; imprisoned opposition leaders. Launched a "Cultural Revolution" in the early 1970s encouraging ''[[authenticité]]''.
|-
|align=center|[[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]] ||align=center| [[Côte d'Ivoire]] ||align=center| 1960–1993 || President of Côte d'Ivoire. Ruled until 1990 with all opposition banned, but not considered particularly repressive. Relocated the official capital to his home village of [[Yamoussoukro]] and constructed the [[Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro]], the largest religious structure in Africa.
|-
|align=center|[[Milton Obote]] ||align=center| [[Uganda]] ||align=center| 1962–1972 1980–1985 || Prime Minister of Uganda 1962-1966; President of Uganda 1966-1971 and 1980-1985. Suspended the constitution and declared himself President and Prime Minister in 1966.
|-
|align=center|[[Hastings Kamuzu Banda]] ||align=center| [[Malawi]] ||align=center| 1963–1994 || Prime Minister of Malawi 1963-1966; President of Malawi 1966-1994. Banned all opposition in 1966; declared himself [[President for Life]] in 1971; exiled and killed opposition leaders. Ordered that a letter bomb be sent to exiled opposition leader [[Attati Mpakati]]; suspected of being involved in the car crash deaths of senior Congress Party leaders; violently crushed an attempted rebellion. Aged 98, he allowed and lost a free election in 1994.
|-
|align=center|[[Kenneth Kaunda]] ||align=center| [[Zambia]] ||align=center| 1964–1991 || President of the Republic of Zambia 1964-1991.Elected 1964, banned all political parties in Zambia, viewed himself as "WAMUYAYA" (eternal President).Accused of torturing political opponents.Defeated by Frederick Chiluba in 1991.
|-
|align=center|[[Houari Boumediene]] ||align=center| [[Algeria]] ||align=center| 1965–1978 || 
President of Algeria from June 19, 1965 to his death, (December 27, 1978); Chairman of the Revolutionary Council until December 12, 1976). In June 1965, Boumédienne seized power in a bloodless coup. Initially lacking a personal power base, he was seen as a weak ruler. But after a botched coup attempt against him by military officers in 1967 he tightened his rule, and then remained Algeria's undisputed ruler until his death in 1978.
|-
|align=center|[[Modibo Keita]] ||align=center| [[Mali]] ||align=center| 1960–1968 || Schoolteacher and first president of Mali. Forced socialization and extensive protectionism severely harmed the economy and continued the country's dependence on aid donors. Discontent with these policies led Keita to implement his own "Cultural Revolution" and establish a network of people's militias to inform on and punish dissent. In the last few years of his presidency, full powers were vested in an extralegal "National Committee for Defense of the Revolution". He was deposed in a military coup.
|-
|align=center|[[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] ||align=center| [[Central African Republic]] ||align=center| 1966–1979 || President of the Central African Republic 1966-1976; Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire 1976-1979. Bokassa overthrew the autocratic Dacko in a swift coup d'état and assumed power as president of the Republic and head of the sole political party, the Mouvement pour l'évolution sociale de l'Afrique Noire (MESAN). Bokassa abolished the constitution of 1959 on January 4 and began to rule by decree. He proclaimed himself emperor in 1976 (see [http://www.african-geopolitics.org/show.aspx?ArticleId=3638]).
|-
|align=center|[[Gnassingbé Eyadéma]] ||align=center| [[Togo]] ||align=center| 1967–2005 || President of Togo. Gained power in a coup; never fought a contested election until 1998; banned, tortured and killed opposition. Fostered a cult of personality that was reinforced after he was the sole survivor of an airplane crash in 1974. In late 1991, troops loyal to Eyadéma closed a constitutional conference that had shifted most executive power to a new transitional government and banned Eyadéma's RPT party. January 1993 saw a mass exodus of residents to neighboring states after security forces fired on pro-democracy demonstrators. Further repression followed a purported 1994 coup attempt (see[http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/data/togoewechro.htm]).
|-
|align=center|[[Omar Bongo]] ||align=center| [[Gabon]] ||align=center| '''1967–present''' || As vice president, he acceded to the presidency following the death of President [[Léon M'ba]]. In 1968, Bongo decreed a one-party state under his [[Gabonese Democratic Party]] and was thrice elected unopposed in the 1970s and 1980s. He became very wealthy during the country's oil boom. Open elections were held in 1990 and Bongo was re-elected in 1993, 1998 and 2005. Observers have criticized the elections as unfair and corruption watchdogs have accused the president of [[nepotism]]. Riots resulting from the mysterious death in 1990 of prominent dissident [[Joseph Rendjambe]] in a government hotel room were put down by French troops.
|-
|align=center|[[Moussa Traoré]] ||align=center| [[Mali]] ||align=center| 1968–1991 || Chairman of the Military National Liberation Committee 1968-1969; Head of State 1969-1979; President of Mali 1979-1991. Seized power in a coup; banned all opposition; installed a police state; established one-party state in 1979.
|-
|align=center|[[Francisco Macías Nguema]] ||align=center| [[Equatorial Guinea]] ||align=center| 1968–1979 || President of Equatorial Guinea 1968-1979. Elected in 1968 but declared himself [[President for Life]] in 1972; "extreme personality cult"; over a third of population fled his regime. Banned fishing and sanctioned the deaths of most of his pre-independence political rivals, including ex-prime minister [[Bonifacio Ondó Edu]] and foreign minister [[Atanasio Ndongo Miyone]]. Declared an atheist state by Spanish dictator [[Francisco Franco]]. As many as 50,000 civilians were killed, in particular those of the [[Bubi]] ethnic [[minority]] on [[Bioko]] associated with relative wealth and [[intellectual]]ism.
|-
|align=center|[[Gaafar Nimeiry]] ||align=center| [[Sudan]] ||align=center| 1969–1985 || Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council 1969-1971; President of Sudan 1971-1985. Gained power in a military coup, banned opposition, dissolved southern Sudanese government, imposed sharia law. Executed several leading communists (the most prominent being [[Abdel Khaliq Mahjub]] and [[Joseph Garang]]) after a botched 1971 coup attempt.
|-
|align=center|[[Mohamed Siad Barre]] ||align=center| [[Somalia]] ||align=center| 1969–1991 || Chairman of the Supreme Revolutionary Council 1969-1976; President of Somalia 1976-1991. In 1969, during the power vacuum following the assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, the military staged a coup and took over. Barre was to rule for the next twenty-two years. He attempted to develop a personality cult; large posters of him were common in the capital Mogadishu during his reign, many of which can still be seen today. He dreamed of a "[[Greater Somalia]]" and tried unsuccessfully to annex the [[Ogaden]]—legally Ethiopian territory—in 1977 to realize this end (see [[Ogaden War]]).
|-
|align=center|[[Anwar Sadat]] || align=center|[[Egypt]] || align=center|1970-1981 || President of Egypt 1970-1981. Unelected, suppressed opposition in what was termed "The Corrective Revolution". Assassinated.
|-
|align=center|[[Idi Amin]] ||align=center| [[Uganda]] ||align=center| 1971–1979 || [[President of Uganda]], later (1976) declared as [[President for Life|for Life]]. Deposed in 1979 after declaring war on [[Tanzania]].
|-
|align=center|[[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] ||align=center| [[Ethiopia]] ||align=center| 1974–1991 || Chairman of the Provisional Military Administrative Council ([[Derg]]) in 1974 and 1977-1987; President of Ethiopia 1987-1991. One-party state; repression of opposition; tens of thousands of extra-judicial killings.
|-
|align=center|[[Olusegun Obasanjo]] ||align=center| [[Nigeria]] ||align=center| 1976-1979 || Head of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria between 1976 and 1979. Elected President of Nigeria in 1999. Chairman of the [[African Union]] 2004-2006.
|-
|align=center|[[Jean-Baptiste Bagaza]] ||align=center| [[Burundi]] ||align=center| 1976–1987 || President of Burundi. Widely described as a military dictator (see [http://www.africanews.com/article265.html], [http://www.electionworld.org/history/burundi.htm]).
|-
|align=center|[[Albert René]] ||align=center| [[Seychelles]] ||align=center| 1977–2004 || President of Seychelles. Deposed the elected president Sir [[James Mancham]] and promulgated a one-party constitution after a period of rule by decree. Created the [[National Youth Service]] (NYS), a compulsory educational institution that included traditional curricula interlaced with political indoctrination and paramilitary training.
|-
|align=center|[[Daniel arap Moi]] ||align=center| [[Kenya]] ||align=center| 1978–2002 || President of Kenya. Changed constitution to establish a ''de jure'' one-party state; resorted to repressive rule, including torture and imprisonment without trial.
|-
|align=center|[[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] ||align=center| [[Equatorial Guinea]] ||align=center| '''1979–present''' || Chairman of the Supreme Military Council 1979-1982; President of Equatorial Guinea 1982-present. Deposed his uncle in a violent coup; opposition is banned in all but name.
|-
|align=center|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]] ||align=center| [[Angola]] ||align=center| '''1979–present''' || President of Angola. One-party state; did not stand for election until 1992 (see [http://www.cpj.org/Briefings/2000/Angola_Marques_00/Angola_Marques_00.html]).
|-
|align=center|[[João Bernardo Vieira]] ||align=center| [[Guinea-Bissau]] ||align=center| 1980-1984 and '''2005-present''' || become president by a coup. killing and exiled opposition. faoumes for the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]].
|-
|align=center|[[Samuel K. Doe]] ||align=center| [[Liberia]] ||align=center| 1980–1990 || Chairman of the People's Redemption Council 1980-1984; President of Liberia 1984-1990. Gained power in a military coup that killed President [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]], a [[Reform movement|reformer]]. Promoted [[Krahn]] chauvinism and "died a multi-millionaire and proud owner of mansions and estates" (see[http://www.theperspective.org/2004/oct/bookpeople.html]).
|-
|align=center|[[Robert Mugabe]] ||align=center| [[Zimbabwe]] ||align=center| '''1980–present''' ||
Gained power through election, and repeatedly re-elected, but criticized for steps used to maintain power. From 1999 on, used police and militant groups like the War Veterans Association and [[Border Gezi Youth]] to enforce [[ZANU-PF]] policies and to prevent opponents from voting; called "king" by his aides.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1709488.stm] Arrested and tortured opponents and human rights activists; gave amnesty to murderers of his political opponents in 2000; ignores court rulings.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,410850,00.html] Criticized as dictator by [[Desmond Tutu]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1754307.stm] and [[Vladimir Putin]][http://www.namibian.com.na/2005/July/world/05C16ABC4A.html].
|-
|align=center|[[Jerry Rawlings]] ||align=center| [[Ghana]] ||align=center| 1981-1992 || Gained power in a military coup during 1979 but handed it over. Re-took power in another coup of 1981. Elected President in 1992 and again in 1996 before standing aside as per the constitution.
|-
|align=center|[[André Kolingba]] ||align=center| [[Central African Republic]] ||align=center| 1981–1993 || Chairman of the Military Committee of National Recovery 1981-1985; President of the Central African Republic 1985-1993. Gained power in a coup; persecuted opposition; allowed (and lost) free elections in 1993. Attempted second coup in 2001.
|-
|align=center|[[Hosni Mubarak]] || align=center|[[Egypt]] || align=center|'''1981-present''' || President of Egypt. Did not stand in a contested election until 2005, when a highly-restricted democratic process was allowed.
|-
|align=center|[[Paul Biya]] ||align=center| [[Cameroon]] ||align=center| '''1982–present''' || He served under President Ahmadou Ahidjo and became Prime Minister in 1975. Ahidjo resigned on November 6, 1982 and Biya became president. After years of totalitarian rule, he allowed the creation of opposition parties in 1990 but his re-elections have been marked by widespread fraud and intimidation.
|-
|align=center|[[Hissène Habré]] ||align=center| [[Chad]] ||align=center| 1982–1990 || Chairman of the Council of State 1982; President of Chad 1982-1990. Gained power in a coup; abolished post of Prime Minister; executed opposition leaders.
|-
|align=center|[[Thomas Sankara]] ||align=center| [[Burkina Faso]] ||align=center| 1983-1987 || President of Upper Volta 1983-1984; President of Burkina Faso 1984-1987. Gained power in coup. Lead millitary regime. Overthrown and killed in coup.
|-
|align=center|[[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] ||align=center| [[Mauritania]] ||align=center| 1984–2005 || Deposed the military head of state, [[Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla]], on December 1984 and declared himself Chairman of the Military Committee for National Salvation. Deposed by [[Ely Ould Mohamed Vall]] in a bloodless coup d'état. 
|-
|align=center|[[Ibrahim Babangida]] ||align=center| [[Nigeria]] ||align=center| 1985-1993 || Annulled the most free and fair presidential election in the history of Nigeria, leading to the death of the presidenstial candidate [[Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola]].
|-
|align=center|[[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]] ||align=center| [[Tunisia]] ||align=center| '''1987–present''' || President of Tunisia. Although he announced [[Pluralism#Plualism in politics|political pluralism]] in 1992, his Democratic Constitutional Rally (formerly Neo-Destour party) continues to dominate the national politics and there is no genuine open political debate. In 1999, although two unknown alternative candidates were permitted for the first time to stand in the presidential elections, Ben Ali was re-elected with 99.66% of the vote. A controversial constitutional referendum in 2002 allowed him to seek re-election and contemplate the possibility of remaining in office until 2014. On October 24, 2004, he was again re-elected, officially taking 94.48% of the vote. Certain books, periodicals and internet sites are banned or blocked. The [http://www.tunisiatv.com National Television] frequently show his actions during a week, but often the President only appears in passing on television.
|-
|align=center|[[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir]] ||align=center| [[Sudan]] ||align=center| '''1989–present''' || President of the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation 1989-1993; President of Sudan 1993-present. Took power in a military coup and increasingly centralized power into himself. Widely believed to be implicated in the [[Darfur]] [[Janjaweed]] [[pogrom]]s.
|-
|align=center|[[Idriss Déby]] ||align=center| [[Chad]] ||align=center| '''1990–present''' || Head of State 1990-1991; President of Chad 1991 to date. Gained power in a coup; continues to suppress opposition and press (see [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/tcd-summary-eng]).
|-
|align=center|[[Sani Abacha]] ||align=center| [[Nigeria]] ||align=center| 1993–1998 || Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council 1993-1998. Seized power in a coup; persecuted opposition; never stood for election. Jailed Chief [[Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola]], the presumed winner of the annulled 1993 presidential election; presided over execution of activist [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]].
|-
|align=center|[[Paul Kagame]] || align=center|[[Rwanda]] || align=center|'''1994-present''' || Vice-President of Rwanda 1994-2000; President 2000-Present. Brouhgt to power by a guerilla movement which plunged the country into bloodshed and led to the Rwandan Genocide in 1994. Responsible of the the killings of innocent civilians, women and children in Kibeho refugee camp. Responsible of the killings of 4 millions congolese. Responsible of the killings of Priests and Archbishops in Kabgayi.
|-
|align=center|[[Yahya Jammeh]] ||align=center| [[The Gambia]] ||align=center| '''1994-Present''' || President of The Gambia. Gained power in coup d'état. Right to the press and free speech supressed. Stood for three elections (1996, 2001, and 2006); last election deemed unfair by opposition.
|-
|align=center|[[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]] ||align=center| [[Congo-Kinshasa]] ||align=center| 1997–2001 || President of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Overthrew [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] in coup. No elections held during ongoing, interstate [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s.
|-
|align=center|[[Charles G. Taylor]] ||align=center| [[Liberia]] ||align=center| 1997–2003 || President of Liberia 1997-2003. Elected, but widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.guardian.co.uk/sierra/article/0,2763,221878,00.html], [http://www.cij.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=viewNews&newsID=9], [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2003/127/48.0.html]). Linked to "[[blood diamonds]]" and illegal arms trading. Believed to have interfered frequently in the internal affairs of neighboring states while a [[warlord]], before his election to the presidency.
|-
|align=center|[[François Bozizé]] ||align=center| [[Central African Republic]] ||align=center| '''2003–present''' || President of the Central African Republic 2003 to date. Gained power in a coup and suspended the constitution, though he has restored some democracy (see [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/02/28/1456242]).
|-
|align=center|[[Ely Ould Mohamed Vall]] ||align=center| [[Mauritania]] ||align=center| 2005-2007 || Chairman of the Military Council for Justice and Democracy. Gained power via a military coup. Though he has said to relinquish power to an elected government in 2007.
|}

==The Americas==
===North America===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Agustín de Iturbide]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1822 - 1823 || Shortly after the Mexican War of Independence, he was declared Emperor of Mexico in 1822. Repressive, cracked down on free speech and any opposition. Desposed when popular opposition forced him to abdicate.
|-
| align=center|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Antonio López de Santa Anna]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1833 - 1855 (intermittent) || President or Provisional President of Mexico 1833-1837, then 1841 to February 1844, June to December 1844, March to September 1847 and finally 1853-1855. When [[Anastasio Bustamante]] led a coup overthrowing and killing President [[Vicente Guerrero]], Santa Anna seized power and then was elected President in 1833. At first he gave a free hand to his vice-president [[Valentín Gómez Farías]], a liberal reformer. Later he dismissed Gómez Farías, declared the Constitution suspended, disbanded the Congress and worked to concentrate power in the central government. He was overthrown and restored to power several times before his final overthrow in 1855.
|-
| align=center|[[Andrew Schlafly]] || align=center|[[Conservapedia]] || align=center|2006 - ? || Bought himself a computer system using money that his mother ‘earned’. He and his trusted sysops block users who disagree with him. At other rational websites where his banhammer doesn’t reach he is increasingly a laughing stock.
|}

| align=center|[[Porfirio Díaz]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1879 - 1910 || Interim president 1876-1877; President of Mexico 1877-1880, 1884-1911. ''De facto'' ruler 1880-1884. Gained power in a coup, after his Revolution of Tuxtepac overthrew his predecessor, Lerdo. He did not run for reelection after his first term in order to keep his one-term promises that he made during his revolution. However, he retook the presidency a few years later and did not leave from power until the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution of 1910]] kicked him from the Presidency. His rule saw the rapid modernization of Mexico, progress mainly caused by Diaz's encouragement of foreign investment in the country's infrastructure. However, the poor became quite miserable during this time. Political opposition was squelched and rebellions were put down by the ''rurals'', Diaz's personal guard. He was eventually overthrown by the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution]] which lasted 10 years.
|-
| align=center|[[Victoriano Huerta]] || align=center|[[Mexico]] || align=center|1913 - 1914 || Appointed president, established a military dictatorship for about a year, and then was forced to resign.
|}

===Central America===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Rafael Carrera]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1844–1848 1851–1865 || President of Guatemala. Gained power in a coup; styled himself [[President for Life]].
|-
|align=center|[[William Walker]] ||align=center| [[Nicaragua]] ||align=center| 1856-1857 || An american fillibuster takes over and proclaims himself President of Nicaragua. Tried to conquer several central american countries. Eventually executed.
|-
| align=center|[[Justo Rufino Barrios]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1873–1885 || President of Guatemala. Gained power in a bloody coup, but introduced reforms.
|-
| align=center|[[Manuel Estrada Cabrera]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1898–1920 || President of Guatemala. Never elected; subverted constitution; widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033093], [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558775/Estrada_Cabrera_Manuel.html]). Constructed numerous large [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]]-style temples as monuments to his rule.
|-
| align=center|[[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]] || align=center|[[El Salvador]] || align=center|1931–1934 1935–1944 || Acting President 1931-1934; President of El Salvador 1935-1944. Gained power in a coup; suppressed opposition; oversaw massacre of between ten and forty thousand suspected opponents. Presided over ''[[1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising|La Matanza]]'' in 1932, a massacre (genocide) of communists, suspected communists, [[campesinos]] and [[Pipil]] Indians (see [http://countrystudies.us/el-salvador/7.htm]).
|-
| align=center|[[Jorge Ubico]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1931–1944 || President of Guatemala. Elected, but suppressed opposition and "assumed dictatorial powers".
|-
| align=center|[[Tiburcio Carías Andino]] || align=center|[[Honduras]] || align=center|1933–1949 || President of Honduras. Banned opposition and set up a [[Rubberstamp (politics)|rubber-stamp]] congress; suppressed unions (see[http://countrystudies.us/honduras/19.htm]).
|-
| align=center|[[Anastasio Somoza García]] || align=center|[[Nicaragua]] || align=center|1937–1956 || Somoza used his position as head of the [[National Guard (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] to overthrow President [[Juan Bautista Sacasa]]; centralized constitutional authority under his control; alternately rigged elections for himself or installed relatives in his place; kleptocrat.[http://www.immigrantinfo.org/kin/nicaragua.htm][http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9212.html].
|-
| align=center|[[Carlos Castillo Armas]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1954–1957 || Junta Chairman, 1954; President of Guatemala 1954-1957. Gained power in a coup; banned the popular [[Guatemalan Party of Labour|Communist party]]; purged trade unions of leftist influence; declared himself president in 1956. Assassinated.
|-
| align=center|[[Oswaldo López Arellano]] || align=center|[[Honduras]] || align=center|1963–1971 1972–1975 || Head of Military Government 1963-1965; President of Honduras 1965-1971; Head of State 1972-1975. Military officer who allowed elections in 1971 before re-seizing power the next year. According to Clara Nieto in ''Masters of War: Latin America and United States Aggression from the Cuban Revolution through the Clinton years'', p. 114 (ISBN 1-58322-545-5): "During this second term (1972-1975) López governed without a congress and by decree."
|-
| align=center|[[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]] || align=center|[[Nicaragua]] || align=center|1967-1979 || Succeeded his somewhat more liberal brother [[Luis Somoza Debayle|Luis]]; stepped down briefly in 1972, then resumed the presidency after an earthquake; outlawed several opposition parties; declared [[martial law]] in response to guerilla opposition; oversaw brutal repression by the National Guard.
|-
| align=center|[[Omar Torrijos]] || align=center|[[Panama]] || align=center|1968–1981 || Commander of the National Guard. Gained power in a coup; banned opposition, unions and free press.
|-
| align=center|[[Efraín Ríos Montt]] || align=center|[[Guatemala]] || align=center|1982–1983 || Chairman of military junta 1982; President of Guatemala 1982-1983. Dictator during a military coup. Known for [[scorched earth]] counter-insurgency strategies. Since then was Head of Congress for many years and made several failed attempts to be elected democratically. Used his declared conservative evangelical Christian beliefs to portray dissent as an attack against God.
|-
| align=center|[[Manuel Noriega]] || align=center|[[Panama]]|| align=center|1983–1989 || Commander of the National Guard and ''de facto'' military leader, widely described as a dictator (see [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056130], [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561240/Noriega_Moreno_Manuel_Antonio.html], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/8155061.htm]).
|}

===South America===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] || align=center|[[Paraguay]] || align=center|1813-1814 and 1814-1840 ||gained power in election. Outlawed all opposition. Installed a police state. Cult of personality; citizens forced to raise their hats or a brim when he passed by; styled himself with the position name "El Supremo". 
|-
| align=center| [[Simón Bolívar]] || align=center| [[Gran Columbia]] || align=center| 1821-1830 || Though an admirer of classical liberal democracy, the founder and president of Gran Colombia proclaimed himself dictator in 1828 after an unsuccessful constitutional convention. Resigned eighteen months later.
|-
| align=center|[[Juan Manuel de Rosas]] || align=center|[[Argentina]] || align=center|1835–1852 || Governor of Buenos Aires 1829-1832, 1835-1852; Supreme Chief of the Argentine Confederation 1851-1852. Assumed dictatorial powers; exiled opponents.
|-
| align=center|[[Carlos Antonio López]] || align=center|[[Paraguay]] || align=center|1841–1862 || First Consul 1841-1844; President of Paraguay 1844-1862. 
|-
| align=center|[[Manuel Belzu]] || align=center|[[Bolivia]] || align=center|1848–1855 || Provisional President of Bolivia 1848-1850; President of Bolivia 1850-1855. Unelected military ruler; ''[[caudillo]]''. A populist and nationalist who voluntarily relinquished power after 1855 elections, described in (ISBN 0-13-524356-4), p.131, as the "cleanest ever held" in (early) Bolivian history.
|-
| align=center|[[Francisco Solano López]] || align=center|[[Paraguay]] || align=center|1862–1869 || President of Paraguay. Inherited power from his father; had himself awarded immense powers by a congress he had packed with supporters. Killed in the [[War of the Triple Alliance]] (which Lopez had caused by invading Brazil), along with 90 per cent of the Paraguayan adult (age 14+) male population.
|-
| align=center|[[Mariano Melgarejo]] || align=center|[[Bolivia]] || align=center|1864–1871 || Provisional President 1864-1870; President of Bolivia 1870-1871. Gained power in a coup and ruthlessly suppressed opposition. In 1869 he sent the army to suppress an uprising by [[Huaichu]] Indians attempting to regain land privileges they enjoyed under President Belzu (see ISBN 1-55753-324-5).
|-
| align=center|[[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]] || align=center|[[Venezuela]] || align=center|1870–1888 || Acting President of Venezuela 1863, 1865; General-in-chief April-July 1870; Provisional President of Venezuela 1870-1873; President of Venezuela 1873 - 1877; Supreme Director 1879; Provisional President of Venezuela 1879 - 1880; President of Venezuela 1880 -1884, 1886 -1888. Described, perhaps inaccurately, as a "benevolent despot"; other sources mention his "long dictatorship" (see[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:ghIhQZ7WhgUJ:www.normangall.com/artigos/Church_Militant.pdf+Antonio+Guzm%C3%A1n+Blanco+%22dictator%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Cipriano Castro]] || align=center|[[Venezuela]] || align=center|1899–1909 || Supreme Chief 1899-1901; Provisional President 1901 - 1902, 1904 - 1905; President of Venezuela 1902 - 1904, 1905 - 1909. Took over in a military coup (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:kdvql1ZK2-4J:www.sg.inter.edu/revista-ciscla/volume29/singh.pdf+Antonio+Guzm%C3%A1n+Blanco+%22dictator%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Rafael Reyes]] || align=center|[[Colombia]] || align=center|1904–1909 || President 1904 - 1909, as a military ruler representing the Conservatives. "In the course of his regime, Reyes improved the country’s finances, expanded roads and railroads, and encouraged increased coffee production. Large U.S. investments and purchases of coffee and minerals contributed to Colombia’s economic growth. However, Reyes ruled as a dictator. He dissolved the congress and replaced it with a handpicked legislature, jailed and exiled political opponents, and declared martial law." (''Colombia'', [[Encarta|Microsoft Encarta]] 2003)
|-
| align=center|[[Juan Vicente Gómez]] || align=center|[[Venezuela]] || align=center|1909–1914 1922–1929 1931–1935 || Provisional President 1909-1910; President of Venezuela 1910-1914, 1922-1929, 1931-1935. Gained power in a coup; never elected; kleptocrat; widely described as a dictator (see [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037322], [http://movies2.nytimes.com/gst/movies/movie.html?v_id=156078], [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563557/Juan_Vicente_Gomez.html]).
|-
| align=center|[[Óscar Benavides]] || align=center|[[Peru]] || align=center|1914–1915 1933–1939 || Junta Chairman 1914; President of Peru 1914-1915, 1933-1939. Twice gained power by coup.
|-
| align=center|[[Augusto B. Leguía y Salcedo|Augusto Leguía]] || align=center|[[Peru]] || 1919–1930 || President of Peru. Gained power in a coup; ignored constitution; suppressed and exiled opposition.
|-
| align=center|[[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] || align=center|[[Chile]] || align=center|1927–1931 || Acting President 1927, President 1927 - 1931. Democratically elected to a six-year term in 1952.
|-
| align=center|[[Getúlio Vargas]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1930–1934 1937–1945 || Head of provisional government 1930-1934 after revolution; indirectly elected as Constitutional President 1934-1937; launched a coup in 1937 and became dictator 1937-1945; democratically-elected President of Brazil 1950-1954.
|-
| align=center|[[Gabriel Terra]] || align=center|[[Uruguay]] || align=center|1931–1938 || President of Uruguay. Suspended congress and dissolved constitution in 1933. 
|-
| align=center|[[Higinio Morínigo]] || align=center|[[Paraguay]] || align=center|1940–1948 || Provisional president 1940-1943; President of Paraguay 1943-1948. Seized absolute power; ruled by [[diktat]] until 1946.
|-
| align=center|[[Manuel Odría]] || align=center|[[Peru]] || align=center|1948–1956 || Chairman of military junta 1948 - 1950; President of Peru 1950 - 1956. Gained power in a coup; restricted civil rights; allowed election in 1956.
|-
| align=center|[[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]] || align=center|[[Venezuela]] || align=center|1948–1958 || Member of military junta 1948 - 1952; Provisional president 1952 -1953; President of Venezuela 1953 - 1958. Never elected; pursued opposition violently; credited with improvements to the country's infrastructure.
|-
| align=center|[[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]] || align=center|[[Colombia]] || align=center|1953–1957 || President of Colombia. Gained power in a coup.
|-
| align=center|[[Alfredo Stroessner]] || align=center|[[Paraguay]] || align=center|1954–1989 || President of Paraguay. He took over in a military coup (see[http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19890301faessay5951/riordan-roett/paraguay-after-stroessner.html], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:vqkaVDmcvaIJ:www.columbia.edu/cu/polisci/pdf-files/apsa_krutz.pdf+Stroessner+dictator],[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:qfMgvA6bakgJ:users.ox.ac.uk/~newc1465/Proudman%2520-%2520SoftPowerMeetsHard.pdf+Stroessner+dictator]). 
|-
| align=center|[[Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco|Humberto Castelo Branco]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1964–1967 || President of Brazil. Gained power in a coup; abolished most opposition; subsequently appointed by congress.
|-
| align=center|[[René Barrientos]] || align=center|[[Bolivia]] || align=center|1964–1969 || Chairman of the military junta, 1964-January 1966 (jointly with [[Alfredo Ovando]] 1965-1966); President of Bolivia, August 1966 - 1969. Gained power in military coup; kleptocrat; responsible for [[Catavi massacre]] and execution of [[Che Guevara]] (ISBN 0-85345-991-6), p.136.
|-
| align=center|[[Forbes Burnham]] || align=center|[[Guyana]] || align=center|1966–1985 || Prime Minister 1966 - 1980; President 1980 - 1985. Elected, but became increasingly dictatorial; held dubious elections and encouraged leftist religious cults (such as the [[Peoples Temple]]) to settle in the Guyanese interior (see [http://www.jagan.org/janet_jagan29.htm], [http://www.hardbeatnews.com/editor/RTE/my_documents/my_files/details.asp?newsid=4498&title=Politics]).
|-
| align=center|[[Artur da Costa e Silva]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1967–1969 || President of Brazil 1967-1969. Elected in 1966, but centralised power; closed the Congress; banned opposition; suspended free press. Decreed [[Institutional Act No. 5]], described as "the most unconstitutional, anti-democratic, arbitrary, and repressive decree in Brazil's history." (ISBN 1-58322-545-5), p.167.
|-
| align=center|[[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1969–1974 || President of Brazil. Appointed by congress, but instituted a military government; suppressed press and opposition (see[http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/62/index.rtf]).
|-
| align=center|[[Hugo Banzer]] || align=center|[[Bolivia]] || align=center|1971–1978 || President of Bolivia. Gained power in a coup; suppressed opposition; closed universities; 3,000 opponents arrested, 200 killed.
|-
| align=center|[[Juan María Bordaberry]] || align=center|[[Uruguay]] || align=center|1972–1976 || President of Uruguay 1972 - 1976. Elected, but installed a military government, dissolved Congress, suspended civil liberties and banned unions.
|-
| align=center|[[Augusto Pinochet]] || align=center|[[Chile]] || align=center|1973–1990 || Chairman of military junta 1973-1974; Supreme Head of the Nation 1974; President of Chile 1974 - 1990. Gained power in a coup; suppressed and exiled opposition; over 3000 "[[Forced disappearance|disappearances]]" and 28,000 tortured.
|-
| align=center|[[Ernesto Geisel]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1974-1979 || Congress-appointed President of Brazil. The fourth of the military dictators; party and union freedom were still inexistent during his term; had oppositionists like journalist [[Wladimir Herzog]] and factory worker [[Manoel Fiel Filho]] tortured and murdered.
|-
| align=center|[[Jorge Rafael Videla]] || align=center|[[Argentina]] || align=center|1976–1981 || President of Argentina. Gained power in a coup; never elected; between ten and thirty thousand opponents killed.
|-
| align=center|[[João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo]] || align=center|[[Brazil]] || align=center|1979-1985 || Congress-appointed President of Brazil. Society won some democratic measures these years, but there was still a major fraud during 1982 State government elections. His government was responsible for the 1983 bomb in the Riocentro.
|-
| align=center|[[Dési Bouterse]] || align=center|[[Suriname]] || align=center|1980–1988 || Chairman of the National Military Council 1980-1988. Gained power in a coup; never elected; widespread misrule. Most infamous atrocity is the ''[[Decembermoorden]]''.
|-
| align=center|[[Luis García Meza Tejada]] || align=center|[[Bolivia]] || align=center|1980–1981 || President of Bolivia. Gained power in the "Cocaine Coup" aided by [[Klaus Barbie]]; highly repressive; over 1,000 killed.
|-
| align=center|[[Gregorio Conrado Álvarez]] || align=center|[[Uruguay]] || align=center|1981–1985 || President of Uruguay. Ignored constitution; extensive human rights abuses (see [http://www.rulers.org/indexa2.html]).
|-
| align=center|[[Leopoldo Galtieri]] || align=center|[[Argentina]] || align=center|1981–1982 || President of Argentina 1981-1982. Gained power in a coup (see[http://www.guardian.co.uk/argentina/story/0,,873601,00.html], [http://english.pravda.ru/world/2003/01/14/41968.html]). Deposed after failed [[Falklands War|invasion of the Falkland Islands]] in 1982.
|-
|align=center| [[Alberto Fujimori]] || align=center|[[Peru]] || align=center|1992-1993 || President of Peru 1990-2000, widely critizised for his political authoritarism. [http://www.fpif.org/briefs/vol5/v5n34peru_body.html][http://www.aprodeh.org.pe/fujimori/delitos-eng.htm] [http://www.cverdad.org.pe/ingles/pagina01.php]. After enjoying a certain degree of popular support, Fujimori was forced from office following controvertial third term re-election[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/05/29/peru.elections.04/]. In 2000 political opponent Mario Vargas Llosa called Fujimori a "dictator" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/741841.stm]. His government was also marked by the influence of the director of the SIN, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]] [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2005.00165.x?cookieSet=1&journalCode=goop][http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB37/]. Currently in Peru, Fujimori is in trial for presumed charges ranging from corruption to participation in crimes against humanity. [http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/americas/peru-qna-1030.htm].
|-
|align=center|[[Hugo Chávez]] ||align=center| [[Venezuela]] ||align=center| '''1999-present || Appointed special powers, nationalized the media and oil companies,Shut down opposition media and banned "The Simpsons."
|-
|}

===Caribbean===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] || align=center|1804-1806 || Governor-General of Haiti 1804; Emperor of Haiti (as Jacques I) 1804 - 1806. Ruled autocratically.
|-
| align=center|[[Henry Christophe]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] (northern)|| align=center|1806-1820 || Provisional Chief of the Haitian Government 1806-1807; President of Haiti 1807-1811; King of Haiti (as Henry I) 1811-1820. Ruled autocratically.
|-
| align=center|[[Pedro Santana]] || align=center|[[Dominican Republic]] || align=center|1844-1848, 1853 -1856, 1858 - 1861 || Never elected; suppressed opposition; widely considered a dictator.
|-
| align=center|[[Buenaventura Báez]] || align=center|[[Dominican Republic]] || align=center|1849-1878 (intermittent) || President of the Dominican Republic five times. Gained power following coups; never elected.
|-
| align=center|[[Ulises Heureaux]] || align=center|[[Dominican Republic]] || align=center|1882-1899 (intermittent) || President of the Dominican Republic three times. Never elected; widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.marcusgarvey.com/wmview.php?ArtID=507], [http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/8.htm], [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2004.00452.x]).
|-
| align=center|[[Gerardo Machado]] || align=center|[[Cuba]] || align=center|1925-1933 || President of Cuba. A follower of [[Benito Mussolini]], he is widely described as a dictator (see [http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=672], [http://www.highbeam.com/ref/doc0.asp?docid=1E1:MachadoG]).
|-
| align=center|[[Rafael Trujillo]] || align=center|[[Dominican Republic]] || align=center|1930-1961 || President of the Dominican Republic 1930 - 1938, 1942 - 1952; ''de facto'' ruler 1930-1961. Gained power in a coup; cult of personality (renamed the capital [[Ciudad Trujillo]]); promoted racism against Haitians and ordered the massacre of 20,000 blacks.
|-
| align=center|[[Paul Magloire]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] || align=center|1950-1956 || President of Haiti. Gained power in a coup; never elected.
|-
| align=center| [[Fulgencio Batista]] || align=center| [[Cuba]] || align=center| 1952-1959 || President of Cuba 1940-1944; 1952-1959. Gained power the second time in a coup; suppressed opposition violently. Use of torture and collective punishment. Mafia ties.
|-
| align=center|[[François Duvalier]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] || align=center|1957-1971 || President of Haiti. Elected in 1957, but banned opposition; declared himself [[President for Life]] in 1964; highly repressive.
|-
| align=center|[[Fidel Castro]] || align=center|[[Cuba]] || align=center| 1959-2006 || Prime Minister of Cuba 1959-1976; President of the Council of State and the Council of Ministers from 1976. Gained power after [[Cuban Revolution|revolution]]. Castro was elected President [[Elections in Cuba|after 1976]], but within a one-party [[Communist state]].
|-
| align=center|[[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] || align=center|1971-1986 || President of Haiti. Inherited presidency aged 19 from his father; never elected.
|-
| align=center|[[Eric Gairy]] || align=center|[[Grenada]] || align=center|1974-1979 || Prime Minister of Grenada 1967-1979. Widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.factbites.com/topics/Eric-Gairy], [http://www.paradise-inn-carriacou.com/grenada_revolution.php], [http://counterpunch.org/gibson06052004.html]). 
|-
| align=center|[[Raoul Cédras]] || align=center|[[Haiti]] || align=center|1991-1994 || ''De facto'' ruler for a relatively short period of time. Gained power in a coup (see [http://www.haitisupport.gn.apc.org/infamous.htm]).
|-
|align=center|[[Raul Castro]] ||align=center| [[Cuba]] ||align=center| '''2006-present''' || Appointed successor by his brother of the Communist Party of Cuba.
|-
|}

==Asia==

===Western Asia ("Middle East")===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] || align=center|[[Iran]] || align=center|1941/1953–1979 || Installed over his father [[Reza Shah|Rezah Shah Pahlavi]] by [[Allies (World War II)|Allied]] occupation forces. Fled Iran in 1953 amid a power struggle with Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] and was restored with help from the United States and Great Britain. Abolished all rival political parties and used a secret police, [[Savak]], to torture and imprison thousands of political dissidents; yet, modernized Iran.
|-
| align=center|[[Abdul Karim Qassem]] || align=center|[[Iraq]] || align=center|1958–1963 || Gained power by coup; viewed by some as benevolent (see [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/03/18/wisad18.xml]).
|-
| align=center|[[Abdul Salam Arif]] || align=center|[[Iraq]] || align=center|1963–1966 || Gained power in a coup; military ruler.
|-
| align=center|[[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]] || align=center|[[Iraq]] || align=center|1968–1979 || Gained power in a coup; never elected.
|-
| align=center|[[Hafez al-Assad]] || align=center|[[Syria]] || align=center|1970–2000 ||Gained power in a coup; totalitarian;{{fact}} cult of personality; oversaw [[Hama massacre]] yielding twenty to forty thousand dead (see [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=M1ARTM0012197]).
|-
| align=center|[[Ruhollah Khomeini]] || align=center|[[Iran]] || align=center|1979–1989 || As [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]], held ultimate and uncontested authority over all government matters under the principle of [[Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists|Guardianship]]. Created the extra-constitutional [[Special Clerical Court]] system in 1987, accountable only to the Supreme Leader and used principally for suppression of political dissent. Instituted routine torture, beheadings for children.
|-
| align=center|[[Saddam Hussein]] || align=center|[[Iraq]] || align=center|1979–2003 || Pressured Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr to resign in 1979 and formally became president. Repressive; developed extensive personality cult; deposed by [[United States]] and coalition forces in an invasion.
|-
| align=center|[[Ali Khamenei|Ayatollah Ali Khamenei]]||align=center| [[Iran]] ||align=center| '''1989-present''' || Continues Khomeini's [[Islamist]] path & uses religion as a tool, cracks down on all authentic dissent, tortures, and has given orders that permit killings like that of [[Akbar Mohammadi]] and [[Zahra Kazemi]]. Only permitts [[government-organized demonstrations]]. Allows a multi-party government but disallows the candidacy of true moderates.[http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=9940][http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1527919/][http://www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200505310823.asp][http://www.deanesmay.com/posts/1154652871.shtml][http://isd.georgetown.edu/demo_0102.pdf][http://www.boycottliberalism.com/liberalcelebrity.htm]ISBN 0-16-074590-X
|-
| align=center|[[Bashar al-Assad]] || align=center|[[Syria]] || align=center|'''2000–present''' || No opposition permitted in election following death of his father; widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.opinionjournal.com/best/?id=110007449], [http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sd&ID=SP92405], [http://www.freeman.org/m_online/feb04/pasko.htm]).
|}

===Central Asia===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Askar Akayev]] || align=center|[[Kyrgyzstan]] || align=center|1990–2005 || Appointed but became increasingly authoritarian; widely described as a dictator (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4542783.stm], [http://www.villagevoice.com/blogs/bushbeat/archive/000935.php], [http://www.eurasianet.org/resource/kazakhstan/hypermail/200507/0023.shtml]).
|-
| align=center|[[Islom Karimov]] || align=center|[[Uzbekistan]] || align=center|'''1991–present''' || Described as authoritarian who is increasingly centralizing power (see [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://bell/soviet/2003/00000019/00000004/art00002&unc=], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:uuOVzdj_xBoJ:www1.dogus.edu.tr/dogustru/journal/sayi_6/M00073.PDF+%22Islam+Karimov%22+%22dictator%22]). Elections essentially uncontested and unmonitored. Opposition repressed. 
|-
| align=center|[[Saparmurat Niyazov]] || align=center|[[Turkmenistan]] || align=center|'''1991–present''' || Declared [[President for Life]] in 1999; [[cult of personality]]; his book ''[[Ruhnama]]'' is to be treated with reverence (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:blnbM3mP0eAJ:www.eurasianet.org/turkmenistan.project/files2/050603Turkmenreport.pdf+%22Niyazov%22+%22dictatorship%22], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:Ie2QfLuR_ysJ:www.ndu.edu/ctnsp/tamerlane/Tamerlane-Chapter2.pdf+%22Niyazov%22+%22dictatorship%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Muhammed Omar]] || align=center|[[Afghanistan]] || align=center|1996–2001 || Considered a Theocratic Dictator who excercized strict sharia laws; allowed the persecution of Hazaras; gave Al Qaeda refuge in Afghanistan. (see[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0881088.html][http://www.afghan-web.com/bios/today/momar.html]).
|-
| align=center|[[Ilham Aliyev]] || align=center|[[Azerbaijan]] || align=center|'''2003–present''' || Dubious election; opposition suppressed (see[http://www.underreported.com/print.php?sid=1241]).
|-
| align=center| [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedow]] || align=center|[[Turkmenistan]] || align=center|'''2006-present''' ||Unelected, appointed as successor upon Niyazov's death. Turkemnistan still continues to be oppresive and a single-party state.
|}

===South Asia===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center|[[Ayub Khan]] || align=center|[[Pakistan]] || align=center|1958–1969 || Gained power in a coup. Subsequent elections considered dubious (see[http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A069], [http://www.indianexpress.com/messages.php?content_id=71414]).
|-
| align=center|[[Yahya Khan]] || align=center|[[Pakistan]] || align=center|1969–1971 || Military ruler, gaining power from coup (see [http://presidentyahya.com],[http://www.pbs.org/now/politics/pakistantimeline.html], [http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/kpsgill/terrorism/04Jan10Pio.htm]).
|-
| align=center|[[Maumoon Abdul Gayoom]] || align=center|[[Maldives]] || align=center|'''1978–present''' || [[Autocracy|Autocrat]]; widely considered to be a dictator; no opposition or free press allowed.
|-
| align=center|[[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] || align=center|[[Pakistan]] || align=center|1978–1988 || Took over following coup. Claimed government to be legitimate because it was Islamic (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:dcmhb0vRS4wJ:smartech.gatech.edu:8282/dspace/bitstream/1853/6901/1/kulkarni_nikhil_v_200505_ms.pdf+%22Muhammad+Zia%22+%22dictator%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Rahimuddin Khan]] || align=center|[[Balochistan (Pakistan)]] || align=center|1978–1984 || Appointed supreme Martial Law Governor of Balochistan by central Pakistani military government following coup. (see [http://www.answers.com/rahimuddin%20khan]).
|-
|align=center|[[Hossain Mohammad Ershad]] || align=center|[[Bangladesh]] || align=center|1982–1990 ||Gained power in a coup; declared martial law; never elected.
|-
|align=center| [[Pervez Musharraf]] || align=center| [[Pakistan]] || align=center| 1999-2008 || Deposed Nawaz Sharif in a military coup, calling it a necessity during a state of emergency. Governed directly as commander in chief until Parliament reconvened in November 2002. Assumed the title of President upon Rafiq Tarar's resignation and stood in a referendum in 2002. Opposition parties state that the rule of law in his custody has deteriorated further.
|}

===Eastern Asia ("Far East")===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in   power !! Notes
|-
|align=center|[[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] || align=center|[[Japan]] || align=center|1600-1616|| Shogun of [[Japan]] and founder of the long reigning [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. Gained power by unifying the warring clans during [[Japan]]'s long period of civil unrest. He also created an "alternate attendance" system to pacify the [[daimyo]] warlords, as well as closing and isolating trade and the economy, in order to retain his power. His rule was also marked by persecution of european missionaries and japanese christians.
|-
|align=center|[[Yuan Shikai]] || align=center|[[Republic of China]] || align=center|1912–1916 || [[President of the Republic of China]] 1912 - 1915, self-proclaimed [[Emperor of China]], 1916. Ignored legislative consent as defined by the [[Constitution of the Republic of China|Constitution]]; dissolved the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]; assassinated [[Song Jiaoren]]; disbanded the [[Kuomintang]].
|-
| align=center|[[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg]] || align=center|[[Mongolia]] || align=center|1921 || 
Born, Baron Roman Nicolaus von Ungern-Sternberg (Роман Фёдорович Унгерн фон Штернберг), in Graf, Austria of Prussian nobility, von Ungern-Sternberg fought, against his own Prussians, in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I and fought the [[Bolsheviks]], in [[Siberia]], after 1917. A rabid [[monarchist]], von Ungern-Sternberg soon thereafter became an independent [[warlord]] with the intention of establishing an independent Russo-Sino-Mongolian monarchy in [[Urga]] under the nominal rule of [[Bogd Khaan]] (the [[Living Buddha]]). Although considered the paragon of bravery, von Ungern-Sternberg was reckless, brutal and mentally unstable.

After a savage battle against occupying [[Chinese republic]]an forces, on March 13, 1921, [[Mongolia]] was proclaimed an independent [[monarchy]], and Ungern von Sternberg became Mongolian [[dictator]]. His brief rule of Mongolia was characterised by looting, raping and a reign of terror by his army. Eventually, the [[Bolsheviks]] invaded Mongolia and after a series of battles, von Ungern-Sternberg was defeated in a August 1921, captured by his own soldiers, and handed over to the [[Red Army]] on August 21, 1921.

|-
|align=center|[[Chiang Kai-Shek]] ||align=center| [[Republic of China]] ||align=center| 1927-1975 || Known as the "Generalissimo". Gained power by military force. Leader of anti-communist one-party state under the Kuomintang. Rule on mainland China repeatedly undermined by powerful regional factions, civil wars, and the war against Japan. Ruled with an iron-fist following his retreat to Taiwan in 1949.
|-
| align=center|[[Horloogiyn Choybalsan]] || align=center|[[Mongolia]] || align=center|1936–1952 || Unelected; opponents purged; cult of personality.
|-
| align=center|[[Kim Il-sung]] || align=center|[[North Korea]] || align=center|1948–1994 || Appointed prime minister in 1948; purged rivals in the [[Workers' Party of Korea]] to consolidate power in 1956 (see [http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/korean_studies/v026/26.1lankov.pdf]); introduced "[[Juche]]" ideology demanding absolute loyalty to him and the party; created most pervavise cult of personality in recent history. Declared "Eternal President" on his death.
|-
|align=center|[[Ho Chi Minh]] ||align=center| [[North Vietnam]] ||align=center| 1945-1969 || Unelected; killed thousands of political rivals in the 1940s; killed tens of thousands more during the land reforms of the 1950s; presided over a one-party state.
|-
|align=center| [[Sukarno]] || align=center|[[Indonesia]] || align=center| 1949-1968 ||First President of Indonesia. Consolidated his powers, and got proclaimed President for LIfe. Was overthrown by the then Dictator of Indonesia, Suharto.
|-
|align=center|[[Mao Zedong]] || align=center|[[People's Republic of China]] || align=center|1949–1976 || Chairman of the PRC (1949 – 1959), Chairman of the [[Communist Party of China]] (1945 – 1976), Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] (1936 – 1976). Immense cult of personality; purged members of government; silenced opposition. Circumvented Communist Party hierarchy after the 1966 [[Cultural Revolution]]; imprisoned head of state [[Liu Shaoqi]]. Millions of Chinese citizens killed or murdered as a result of his policies and repression.
|-
| align=center|[[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Ðình Diệm]] || align=center|[[South Vietnam]] || align=center|1955–1963 || Unelected; autocratic; oppressed Buddhists (see[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055646?tocId=9055646&ref=news0905arc]).
|-
| align=center|[[Park Chung Hee]] || align=center|[[South Korea]] || align=center|1961–1979 || Took power in 1961 coup. Although initially welcomed by much of the population, he suspended the constitution in 1971 and introduced a new constitution that greatly increased his power.
|-
| align=center|[[Ne Win]] || align=center|[[Burma]] || align=center|1962–1988 || Seized power in a coup; instituted extreme repression (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:rSAOt9c_lU0J:www.iseas.edu.sg/62003.pdf+%22Ne+Win%22+%22dictator%22], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:yqkmuBoqlnYJ:www.asiapacificms.com/papers/pdf/burma_india_china.pdf+%22Ne+Win%22+%22dictator%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Thanom Kittikachorn]] || align=center|[[Thailand]] || align=center|1963–1973 || Military dictator, known as one of Thailand's so-called "Three Tyrants". Oppressed student-led uprisings in October 1973 and 1976.
|-
| align=center|[[Suharto]] || align=center|[[Indonesia]] || align=center|1967–1998 || His ''[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]'' imprisoned Communists and alleged Communists; repressed Chinese inhabitants; made existing parties subordinate. Also a cleptocrat (with personal and family's assets at least worth US$ 15 billion, based on [[Time]] Magazine investigation in 1998). Described as a dictator in many sources (see[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:Bbh_caM50o4J:www.aut.ac.nz/depts/commstud/journ/docs/reviewscronau.pdf+%22Suharto+dictatorship%22], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:128rEIvvRD4J:www.civiced.org/research/pdfs/RisingTide.pdf+%22Suharto+dictatorship%22], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:_233mw5azNkJ:cmbc.ucsd.edu/content/1/docs/laurance2004.pdf+%22Suharto+dictatorship%22]).
|-
| align=center|[[Lon Nol]] || align=center|[[Cambodia]] || align=center|1972–1975 || Gained power by coup; not elected.
|-
| align=center|[[Pol Pot]] || align=center|[[Democratic Kampuchea]] || align=center|1975–1979 || Unelected; led a [[Khmer Rouge]] dictatorship; responsible for deaths of at least 1 million Cambodian citizens during his rule.
|-
| align=center|[[Chun Doo Hwan]] || align=center|[[South Korea]] || align=center|1980–1988 || Gained power in a coup; declared martial law; oversaw [[Gwangju Massacre]].
|-
|align=center|[[Mahathir bin Mohamad]] ||align=center| [[Malaysia]] ||align=center| 1981-2003 || Authoritarian; suppresed opposition, media.
|-
| align=center|[[Khamtai Siphandon]] || align=center|[[Laos]] || align=center|1992–2006 || Unelected; one-party state (see[http://www.arthuredelstein.org/worlddictators]).
|-
| align=center|[[Than Shwe]] || align=center|[[Myanmar]] || align=center|'''1992–present''' || Unelected; persecution of minorities (especially [[Karenni]] and [[Rohingya]] groups [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51506.htm]) leading 250,000 to flee, either becoming [[IDP]]s or moving across the border to Thailand; consolidated power into himself from the [[SPDC]] - he moved to a new capital in Kyat Pyay in 2006 , &renamed it as Nay Pyi Daw ,i.e the Royal Palace City"; gained power via a military [[coup]] and announced that he would not hand over the power to [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'s Elected Party (the [[NLD]]); no free press (see [http://www.bbc.co.uk/burmese/forum/story/2004/10/041020_khin_nyunt_ousted.shtml]).
|-
| align=center|[[Kim Jong-il]] || align=center|[[North Korea]] || align=center|'''1994–present''' || Became General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and Chairman of the National Defense Commission (the highest state offices) on his father's death. Continues his father's "[[Juche]]" ideology.
|-
| align=center|[[Sonthi Boonyaratglin]] || align=center|[[Thailand]] || align=center|'''2006–present''' || Army chief seized power while Prime Minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] was out of the country. A state of martial law was declared, parliament was dissolved and the constitution abrogated. Instituted press censorship and restrictions on protests. The first Muslim in charge of the mostly Buddhist army.
|-
|}

==Europe==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center| [[Oliver Cromwell]] || align=center| [[Commonwealth of England]] || align=center| 1653-1658 || A [[Puritan]] general in the [[English Civil War]] who quickly rose through the ranks to become ''de facto'' head of the Parliamentary forces. After the Royalist defeat and the execution of [[Charles I]] the newly constituted [[Rump Parliament]] was overthrown by Cromwell who refused the Crown, choosing instead the title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. After his death the monarchy was reinstated. [http://www.olivercromwell.org/].
|-
| align=center| [[Maximilien Robespierre]] || align=center| [[France]] || align=center| 1793–1794 || Head of the Committee of Public Safety during the French Revolution. To purge french society of "Counter Revolutionaries", he instituted the heavily repressive Reign of Terror, a period which killed thousands of french citizens, many of those killed were simply killed under mere suspicion, with little or no proof. Desposed when the National Convention declared him an outlaw.
|-
| align=center| [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] || align=center| [[France]]|| align=center| 1799–1814 || First Consul, 1799-1804. Emperor of the French 1804-1814. Declared himself "First Consul for Life" in 1802 and then Emperor in 1804.
|-
| align=center| [[Józef Chłopicki|Józef Grzegorz Chłopicki]] || align=center| [[Poland]] || align=center| 1830–1831 || Held official title of dictator for one year only.
|-
| align=center| [[Napoleon III of France|Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte]] || align=center| [[France]] || align=center| (1848–1851) 1851–1870|| President of France from 1848 to 1852. In 1851 he launched a coup against the legislature, making himself absolute ruler. From 1852 to 1870 he styled himself Emperor of the French under the name Napoléon III from 1852 to 1870. Later during his reign constitutional liberties were gradually restored. In 1870 he was captured during the abortive [[Franco-Prussian War]] and deposed in his absence by the [[Third Republic]] of France.
|-
| align=center| [[Romuald Traugutt]] || align=center| [[Poland]] || align=center| 1863–1864 || Held official title of dictator for one year. Succeeded [[Marian Langiewicz]] who had declared himself dictator previously, but only lasted less than a year in 1863. 
|-
|align=center|[[Nicholas II]] ||align=center| [[Russia]] ||align=center| 1894-1917 || Ruthless, overthrown by the "October Revolution" and the newly established communist government. The last Tsar of Russia.
|-
| align=center| [[Vladimir Lenin]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1917-1924 || Head of Bolshevik Revolution took power in 1917. Secured victory in the Russian civil war. Headed effort to transform the Russian economy to a socialist model.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/lenin_vladimir.shtml] 
|-
| align=center|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] || align=center|[[Turkey]] || align=center|1918-1938 || Led the Turkish national movement. Transformed Turkey into a secular republic through broad authoritarian reforms.
|-
| align=center| [[Benito Mussolini]] || align=center| [[Italy]] || align=center| 1922–1943, and in part of the country 1943-1945 || Prime Minister of Italy 1922-1943; head of the so-called [[Italian Social Republic]] until 1945. "He introduced strict censorship and altered the methods of election so that in 1925–1926 he was able to assume dictatorial powers and dissolve all other political parties" (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:0PFM13qC39YJ:www.ablongman.com/history_rh_bridge/assets/0321025865_ch15.pdf+%22Italian+dictator+Benito+Mussolini%22],[http://doi.contentdirections.com/mr/greenwood.jsp?doi=10.1336/0275979377]).
|-
| align=center| [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] || align=center| [[Spain]] || align=center| 1923–1930 || Prime Minister of Spain. Gained power in a coup; suspended the constitution; established martial law; imposed strict censorship; banned all political parties. Widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061388], [http://www.bartleby.com/65/pr/PrimRivM.html], [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565186/Miguel_Primo_de_Rivera.html]). 
|-
| align=center| [[Aleksandar Tsankov]] || align=center| [[Bulgaria]] || align=center| 1923-1926 || Established Right wing nationalist, anti communist coup against [[Stamboliyski]]’s democratic elected [[Agrarians]]. Forced out of power by Tsar [[Boris III]]. [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ts/TsankovA.html]. 
|-
| align=center| [[Joseph Stalin]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1924–1953 || General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 1922 - 1953; Premier of the Soviet Union 1941 - 1953. Never elected; cult of personality; heavily repressive; responsible for deaths of millions of Soviet citizens (see [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108469], [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559200/Stalin_Joseph.html],[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/prof_josephstalin.html]).
|-
| align=center| [[Ahmet Bej Zogu]] || align=center| [[Albania]] || align=center| 1925–1939 || Originally elected Prime Minister of Albania 1922-1924 and 1925; President of Albania 1925-1928; crowned himself King of the Albanians (as Zog I) 1928-1939. Described as a dictator (see[http://www.albanian.com/information/history/independ.html], [http://www.diplom.org/manus/talossa/?lingo=&page=Statute&act=25RZ13], [http://www.electionworld.org/history/albania.htm]). Forced to flee with his wife, Queen Geraldine, the imminent takeover of the country by Italy under [[Benito Mussolini]].
|-
| align=center| [[José Mendes Cabeçadas]] || align=center| [[Portugal]] || align=center| 1926 || Leader of [[Ditadura Nacional]] during the first part of June immediately after the [[28th May 1926 coup d'état]]
|-
| align=center| [[Gomes da Costa]] || align=center| [[Portugal]] || align=center| 1926 || Succeeded Cabeçadas as head of the [[Ditadura Nacional]] for less than a month
|-
| align=center| [[António Óscar Carmona]] || align=center| [[Portugal]] || align=center| 1926-1928 || Head of [[Ditadura Nacional]]
|-
| align=center| [[Józef Piłsudski]]|| align=center| [[Poland]] || align=center| 1926–1935 || Polish Head of State 1918-1922, but regained power in 1926 via coup. Prime Minister of Poland 1926-1928 and 1930; Commander in Chief of the Army 1926-1935. Initiated authoritarian [[Sanacja]] government; often described as a "benevolent dictator".
|-
| align=center| [[Antanas Smetona]] || align=center| [[Lithuania]] || align=center| 1926–1940 || President of Lithuania. Seized power in a 1925 military coup (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:wEZn53dBGtoJ:www.gla.ac.uk/departments/dcees/Duvold.pdf+Antanas+Smetona+%22dictatorship%22]); authoritarian rule. His description as a dictator is common (see[http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchpool.asp?target=@DOCKEYWORDS%20balthistbio&unkey=balthistbio&clientIp=216%2E63%2E197%2E211&userAgent=Mozilla%2F4%2E0+%28compatible%3B+MSIE+6%2E0%3B+Windows+NT+5%2E1%3B+SV1%3B+%2ENET+CLR+1%2E1%2E4322%29]), but not universal.
|-
| align=center| [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] || align=center| [[Portugal]] || align=center| 1928–1968 || Prime Minister of Portugal. Established an anti-democratic, anti-parliamentarian, ultra-[[Clericalism|clericalist]], [[Corporativism|corporativist]], extremely conservative, repressive and authoritarian dictatorship, connoted with the Italian fascism, highly supported by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Longest right-wing dictatorship ever (four complete decades).
|-
| align=center| [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|Alexander I]] || align=center| [[Yugoslavia]] || align=center| 1929-1934 || King of Yugoslavia from 1921. On January 6, 1929 he abolished the constitution, prorogued parliament and established the so-called "January 6 Dictatorship." A new constitution in 1931 left all significant political power in the hands of the King.
|-
| align=center| [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] || align=center| [[Austria]] || align=center| 1933–1934 || Chancellor of Austria 1932-1934. Suspended parliament indefinitely in March 1933, governing thereafter by decree. Rule sometimes compared to Mussolini or Franco (see [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:PUVNNLui6y4J:www3.la.psu.edu/hrsweb/majmin/Theses/Houlihan/Thesis.pdf+%22dictator%22+%22Dollfuss%22]).
|-
| align=center| [[Konstantin Päts]] || align=center| [[Estonia]] || align=center| 1933–1940 || State Elder 1933 - 1937; State Protector 1937 - 1938; President of Estonia 1938-1940. Established authoritarian rule following a coup. Allowed (and won) election in 1938.
|-
| align=center| [[Adolf Hitler]] || align=center| [[Nazi Germany]] || align=center| 1933–1945 || Chancellor of Germany 1933-1945; ''Führer'' (Leader) 1934-1945. The 1933 [[Enabling Act]] suspended most of the constitution and allowed Hitler to [[rule by decree]]. Heavily repressive; ordered imprisonment of millions of political opponents and members of ethnic minorities in concentration camps, where they were abused and killed.
|-
| align=center| [[Kimon Georgiev]] || align=center| [[Bulgaria]] || align=center| 1934 || Took power in coup. Overthrown by Tsar Boris III. 
|-
| align=center| Tsar [[Boris III]] || align=center| [[Bulgaria]] || align=center| 1934-1943 || Overthrew Kimon Geogiev. Took power him self ruled through puppet Prime Ministers Georgi Kyoseivanov. His Regime banned all opposition parties. Took Bulgaria into alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. 
|-
| align=center| [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] || align=center| [[Austria]] || align=center| 1934–1938 || Chancellor of Austria. Maintained his predecessor Dollfuss' oppressive rule.
|-
| align=center| [[Karlis Ulmanis|Kārlis Ulmanis]] || align=center| [[Latvia]] || align=center| 1934–1940 || Prime Minister of Latvia 1934-1940; President of Latvia 1936 - 1940. Gained power in a coup and dissolved parliament; generally viewed as a "benevolent dictator" (see [http://www.ltn.lv/~krz/latvia/lat_history.html], [http://www.sciencedaily.com/encyclopedia/karlis_ulmanis], [http://www.bartleby.com/65/la/Latvia.html]).
|-
| align=center| [[Ioannis Metaxas]] || align=center| [[Greece]] || align=center| 1936–1941 || Prime Minister of Greece. Never elected; banned political parties; arrested opponents; criminalized unions; censored media. Widely described as a dictator (see[http://www.bartleby.com/65/pa/PapandrG.html], [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052304], [http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/metaxas.htm]). 
|-
| align=center| [[Francisco Franco]] || align=center| [[Spain]] || align=center| 1936–1975 || Prime Minister of Spain 1938-1975 and Head of State 1939 - 1975 (in the Nationalist Zone, both only to 1939). Purged opposition; often referred to as a dictator or ''caudillo'' (see[http://www.policyreview.org/jun03/diamond.html], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:B1Mmefo38twJ:www.personal.psu.edu/mlb300/spainsocprob.pdf+%22dictator+Francisco+Franco%22],[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:NsfbKjiVUowJ:www.acad.carleton.edu/curricular/POSC/faculty/montero/Spain%2520Paper%25201.pdf+%22dictator+Francisco+Franco%22], [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=active&q=cache:9ZzXaMENcm8J:www.artcult.org/cst/spain_prepack_participants.pdf+%22Francisco+Franco%22+%22dictatorship%22]). Strongly supported by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] worldwide.
|-
| align=center| [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] || align=center| [[Romania]] || align=center| 1938-1940 || King of Romania from 1930. In January 1938 he abolished parliamentary government and pushed through a new constitution putting all executive power into his own hands.
|-
| align=center| [[Jozef Tiso]] || align=center| [[Slovakia]] || align=center| 1939–1945 || President of [[Slovak Republic (1939-1945)|WWII Slovak Republic]]. Led a partly Roman Catholic clerical, partly pro-Nazi, one-party state. Described by some as a dictator (see [http://www.adl.org/PresRele/HolNa_52/3578_52.asp], [http://dominican-republic.asinah.net/en/wikipedia/j/jo/jozef_tiso.html], [http://www.ce-review.org/00/19/vaknin19.html]).
|-
| align=center| [[Ion Antonescu]] || align=center| [[Romania]] || align=center| 1940–1944 || Prime Minister of Romania. Two days after his appointment, forced King Carol II (see above) to abdicate in favor of his son, Mihai. Named himself ''Conducător'' (Leader), assumed dictatorial powers and relegated monarchy to decorative role.
|-
| align=center| [[Philippe Pétain]] || align=center| [[Vichy France]] || align=center| 1940–1944 || Prime Minister of France 1940 - 1942; Head of State 1940 - 1944. The ''Assemblée Nationale'' of Vichy France suspended the [[Third Republic]] and granted Pétain dictatorial power, although ultimately he was answerable to the German Nazi hierarchy.
|-
| align=center| [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pavelić]] || align=center| [[Croatia]] || align=center| 1941–1945 ||''Poglavnik'' ("Leader") of Croatia. Not elected; ordered massacres of Serbs, Jews, Gypsies and dissidents; hundreds of thousands slaughtered; led the genocial, devoutly Roman Catholic Ustase (see [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/tyrants.htm], [http://www.cuttingedge.org/articles/RC130.html], [http://emperors-clothes.com/vatican/cpix.htm]). Supported by most, if not all, of the Roman Catholic church in Croatia.
|-
| align=center| [[Vidkun Quisling]] || align=center| [[Norway]]|| align=center| 1942–1945 || Minister President of Norway between 1942-1945, and founder of the fascist "National Unity" party . Traitor to his country. Executed by firing squad. Described as being the Hitler of Norway.
|-
| align=center| [[Ferenc Szálasi]] (Szálasi Ferenc) || align=center| [[Hungary]] || align=center| 1944–1945 || Leader of the [[fascist]] [[Arrow Cross]] party, Szálasi was installed as a fascist ruler by the [[Nazis]] following their overthrow of [[regent]] [[Miklós Horthy]].
|-
| align=center| [[Josip Broz Tito]] || align=center| [[Yugoslavia]] || align=center| 1944–1980 || Secretary-General of the Yugoslav Communist Party 1937 - 1963; Prime Minister of Yugoslavia 1945–1953; Premier of Yugoslavia 1953 - 1963; President of Yugoslavia 1953 - 1980; President of the ''Presidium of the League of Communists'' from 1963 until 1980. Declared himself [[President for Life]] in 1963. Viewed favorably in Yugoslavia despite authoritarian rule.
|-
| align=center| [[Enver Hoxha]] || align=center| [[Albania]] || align=center| 1944-1985|| General Secretary of the Albanian Party of Labour. Leader of single-party Communist state; extensive personality cult; Declared his nation to be the world's only officially atheist state and banned all practice of religion in 1967.
|-
| align=center| [[Mátyás Rákosi]] || align=center| [[Hungary]] || align=center| 1949-1953|| General Secretary of the [[Hungarian Workers Party]] and Prime Minister of the [[Hungarian People's Republic]]. Leader of single-party Communist state; nicknamed "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"; Invented the phrase "[[salami tactics]]" to describe piecemeal assumption of power.
|-
| align=center| [[Nikita Khrushchev]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1953-1964 || First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1953-1964. Allowed limited liberalisation in the arts and media later on. 
|-
| align=center| [[Todor Zhivkov]] || align=center| [[Bulgaria]] || align=center| 1956-1989 || Head of pro soviet communist regimen in Bulgaria. Became party secretary in 1956 and prime minister in 1962. Forced out of power in 1989 by communist party to comply with demands of protesters.
|-
| align=center| [[Antonín Novotný]] || align=center| [[Czechoslovakia]] || align=center| 1957-1968 || Antonín Novotný, the First Secretary of the Communist Party and President of the Republic, was leader of Czechoslovakia during the Stalinisation of the country, resulting in the replacement of the Czechoslovakian democracy by a one-party communist state. His dictatorship centralized power and used force to protect his regime which lasted fifteen years.
|-
| align=center| [[Walter Ulbricht]] || align=center| [[German Democratic Republic]] || align=center| 1950/1960-1971 || General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany 1950-1971 and Head of State 1960-1973.
|-
| align=center| [[Leonid Brezhnev]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1964–1982 || First/General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1964-1982. Formed a [[cult of Personality]] later on.
|-
| align=center| [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] || align=center| [[Romania]] || align=center| 1965–1989 || General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party, 1965-1989; President of Romania, 1974-1989. Leader of single-party Communist state; extensive personality cult developed during the 1970s. Lived lavish lifestyle while country was still using donkey carts.
|-
| align=center| [[George Papadopoulos]] || align=center| [[Greece]] || align=center| 1967–1973 || Prime Minister of Greece 1967 - 1973; Regent 1972 - 1973; President of Greece 1973. Gained power in a coup; lead military regime. Widely described as a dictator (see [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0778782.html], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/379334.stm], [http://www.hellas.net]).
|-
| align=center| [[Marcelo Caetano]] || align=center| [[Portugal]] || align=center| 1968–1974 || Prime Minister of Portugal 1968 - 1974; Upon the death of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] he continued the dictatorial regime. Some liberties were improved but the situation of the country and the [[Portuguese Colonial War|colonial wars]] lead to the [[Carnation Revolution]].
|-
| align=center| [[Gustáv Husák]] || align=center| [[Czechoslovakia]] || align=center| 1969-1987 || Came into power through soviets, Crushed the Prague spring. Headed brutal secret police stepped down from power in 1987 two years before communism fell. 
|-
| align=center| [[Erich Honecker]] || align=center| [[German Democratic Republic]] || align=center| 1971-1989 || General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany 1971-1989 and Head of State 1976-1989.
|-
| align=center| [[Phaedon Gizikis]] || align=center| [[Greece]] || align=center| 1973-1974 || President of Greece 1973-1974. Gained power in coup. Lead millitary regime installed by previous head of state.
|-
| align=center| [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] || align=center|[[Poland]] || align=center|1961-1990 || Imposed martial law in Poland in 1981 in response to Solidarity party led strikes. Made himself head of the "Commission for National Salvation." Stated his actions were taken in order to prevent a Soviet invasion of Poland. Was President of Poland until his resignation in 1990. 
|-
| align=center| [[Yuri Andropov]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1982-1984 || General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1982-1984. Early signs of [[Perestroika]] and [[Glasnost]].
|-
| align=center| [[Konstantin Chernenko]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1984-1985 || General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1984-1985. Ailing stop-gap leader. 
|-
| align=center| [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] || align=center| [[Soviet Union]] || align=center| 1985-1991 || General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed and the CPSU was banned. Oversaw democratisation in the Soviet Union, but was never directly elected as leader.
|-
| align=center| [[Slobodan Milošević]] || align=center| [[Serbia]], [[Yugoslavia]] || align=center| 1989-1997, 1997-2000 || In 1984 he became the head of the local Communist party in Belgrade and adopted a populist style, the party's leader. He successfully took over as head of the Serbian Communist party in 1987. He challenged the federal government, championed Serbian control of the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, and advocated stridently socialist economic policy. By 1988, he had replaced party leaders in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and in 1989 he became president of Serbia. However, in September 1990, a new democratic constitution was passed allowing direct, multi-party presidential and parliamentary elections. Milosevic was elected president of Serbia for the first time in December 1990, although allegations persist of electoral fraud during the Milosevic years.
|-
| align=center| [[Alexander Lukashenko]] || align=center| [[Belarus]] || align=center| '''1994-present''' || President of Belarus. Said to have an "authoritarian ruling style". Lack of democratic standards. Human rights violations. Referred to as "Europe's last dictatorship."
|}

==Oceania==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Years in power !! Notes
|-
| align=center| [[Sitiveni Rabuka]] || align=center|[[Fiji]] || align=center|1987–1992 || Twice gained power through coup, allowed elections in 1992, which he won.
|-
| align=center| [[Frank Bainimarama]] || align=center|[[Fiji]] || align=center|'''2006-present''' ||Launched a coup d'etat in December 2006 after weeks of threats against the elected government.
|}

==See also==
* [[Constitutional crisis]]
* [[Cult of personality]]
* [[List of political leaders who held active military ranks in office]]
* [[List of political leaders who suspended the constitution]]
* [[List of successful coups d'état]]
* [[President for Life]]
* [[Single-party state]]

==External links==
*[http://www.thedictatorship.com The Dictatorship]
*[http://www.dkosopedia.com/wiki/Dictators_and_Non-Democratic_Governments Dictators and Non-Democratic Governments]
*[http://www.lkwdpl.org/schools/horacemann/dictators/ Modern dictators and Human Rights Violations]
*[http://www.dkosopedia.com/wiki/Oppressive_Regimes Oppressive Regimes]
*[http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2006/edition_01-22-2006/Dictators The World’s 10 Worst Dictators]

[[Category:Lists|dictators]]

Watergate

2008-11-22T13:09:07Z

JohnC2:

The '''Watergate Affair''' was a political scandal leading to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon's]] resignation. It began when members of the campaign to reelect Richard Nixon broke into the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] National Committee headquarters in the [[Watergate Hotel]] during the 1972 presidential election campaign. Nixon may have had no prior knowledge of the burglary plans, nor give. consent to the escapade. If that was true he was gravely incompetent. Yet his loyalty to subordinates led to Nixon consenting to cover up activities and transferring money from the Presidential election campaign fund to pay for the legal defense of those who were involved. Nixon resigned when it became clear he had lost support within his own party and [[Congress]], which had Democratic majorities in both branches, was likely to [[impeach]] him for [[obstruction of justice]].

==The Watergate Break-In==
On June 17, 1972, five men were caught breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate complex in [[Washington, D.C.]] The burglars included [[James W. McCord]], a former [[CIA]] employee, and several [[Cuba|Cuban]] expatriates with ties to the CIA. The subsequent investigation of the break-in revealed that the intruders were acting on behalf of the [[Committee to Reelect the President]] (also known as CRP or CREEP). They, along with accomplices [[E. Howard Hunt]] and [[G. Gordon Liddy]], were convicted of burglary and wiretapping in Jan. 1973.

==From Burglary to Political Scandal==
Evidence that emerged at the burglary trial suggested that the break-in had the approval of higher-level government officials who were attempting to cover up their involvement. This possibility was aggressively pursued by investigative reporters in the print [[media]], with [[Washington Post]] reporters [[Carl Bernstein]] and [[Bob Woodward]] playing particularly critical roles. Woodward and Bernstein, as well as others, discovered evidence that the break-in was only part of a wider effort of political "dirty tricks" designed to discredit Democratic candidates. They also uncovered the existence of a secret [[slush fund]] used to finance these activities<ref>Bernstein, Carl and Woodward, Bob. ''All The President's Men''</ref>.

==Senate Investigation==
In April 1973, with a [[Senate]] investigation underway, several top Nixon aides, including [[H. R. Haldeman]] and [[John D. Ehrlichman]], resigned over the scandal, and White House counsel John Dean III was fired. Dean subsequently testified during televised hearings beginning in May, exposing Nixon's participation in the Watergate cover-up and massive illegalities in Republican fundraising in 1972.

The hearings also revealed that since 1971 Nixon had recorded conversations and telephone calls in his office. The president, however, refused to turn the tapes over to the Senate Watergate committee, citing executive privilege. In Oct. 1973 Nixon ordered [[Elliot Richardson]], the attorney general, to fire [[Archibald Cox]], the special prosecutor who had subpoenaed the tapes, but Richardson chose to resign instead. Richardson's assistant, William Ruckelshaus, also refused to fire Cox and was himself fired. Finally, it was the solicitor general, Robert Bork, who fired Cox. The incident, which became known as the "[[Saturday Night Massacre]]," led to widespread calls for Nixon's [[impeach|impeachment]].

The White House released edited transcripts of the tapes in April 1974, and eventually the tapes themselves, after the Supreme Court rejected Nixon's claim to executive privilege. But the damage was done; President Nixon's behavior—his cover-up of the burglary and refusal to turn over evidence—and the erosion of the public's confidence in his administration, led the House Judiciary Committee to issue three articles of impeachment on July 30, 1974. The document also indicted Nixon for illegal wiretapping, misuse of the CIA, perjury, bribery, obstruction of justice, and other abuses of executive power.

"In all of this," the articles of impeachment summarize, "Richard M. Nixon has acted in a manner contrary to his trust as President and subversive of constitutional government, to the great prejudice of the cause of law and justice, and to the manifest injury of the people of the United States." Impeachment appeared inevitable, and Nixon resigned on [[Aug. 9, 1974]].

Nixon was succeeded in office the same day by [[Vice President]] [[Gerald R. Ford]], who a month later issued a full pardon to Nixon for any crimes he might have committed in office, thus eliminating the possibility of future prosecution. A number of other administration officials served time in prison for their offenses, including former attorney general John Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Dean, and [[G. Gordon Liddy]], a former FBI agent who helped plan the Watergate break-in.

==The Tapes==
Nixon was caught by a recording system whose installation he had himself ordered. It transpired during the course of the investigation that all conversations in the President's office had been secretly recorded for years for historic purposes.<ref>Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson also made secret recordings: [http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK+Library+and+Museum/News+and+Press/JFK+Library+and+Museum+to+Host+Presidential+Tapes+Conference+in+February.htm JFK Library and Museum to Host Presidential Tapes Conference], JFK Library, February, 2003</ref> During the investigation the White House was forced to release transcripts of Watergate-related tapes. These transcripts showed that at the very least Nixon was participating in near-daily, ongoing discussions of how to manage the spreading Watergate scandal. Many dubious actions, such as the payment of "hush money" to the defendants, were openly discussed and, seemingly, considered.

Tension was heightened when a tape with a key conversation, recorded a week after the burglary, turned out to have an eighteen-minute gap. To date the gap has not been explained, nor has anyone managed to recover the erased material. White House chief Alexander Haig provoked derision by a suggestion that the erasure had been caused by "some sinister force." Nixon's secretary Rose Mary Woods told the press that she could have erased the tape by accident while talking on the phone; when the press asked her to demonstrate, it became clear that this explanation was literally a long stretch.<ref>[http://www.ford.utexas.edu/museum/exhibits/watergate_files/content.php?section=3&page=a&zoom=2 Rosemary Woods demonstrating how she may have erased tape recordings].</ref> Later analysis by acoustics firm Bolt, Baranek and Newman concluded that the gap was the result of at least five separate erasures; since the tape recorder had a two-button interlock to prevent accidental erasure, the conclusion was that it must have been a deliberate action.<ref>[http://foi.missouri.edu/destructiondocs/natarchives.html National Archives Has Given Up on Filling the Nixon Tape Gap], New York Times, 2003</ref> If the conversation had involved Watergate, then it might have proved that Nixon learned of the burglary earlier than he had admitted.

==David Frost interview==
In 1977, Nixon had an interview with British journalist David Frost. The event is recounted in Peter Morgan's play [[Frost/Nixon]]

==Notes and references==
<references/>

==See also==

*[[Carl Bernstein]]

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Scandals]]

Sarah Palin

2008-11-22T13:03:33Z

JohnC2:

[[Image:Sarah Palin.jpg|right|thumb|Governor Sarah Palin]] '''Sarah Louise Heath Palin''' (pronounced pay'-lynn) (born February 11, 1964) is the [[conservative]] first-term [[Republican Party|Republican]] [[Governor]] of [[Alaska]]. She is the youngest person to hold this office as well as the first woman to do so in the state's history. Palin was Senator [[John McCain]]'s Vice Presidential running mate in the [[2008 Presidential Election]].<ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/08/palins_vp_selection_speech.html Acceptance Speech by Palin]</ref>

She brought a [[populism|populist]] image and a record of cutting wasteful spending and reforming government to McCain's ticket. In the summer of 2007, she was the most popular governor in America, after cutting 13% of [[Alaska]]'s budget.<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/013/851orcjq.asp</ref> She is strongly [[pro-life]]. She favors more competition in health care, and pushed for abolishing the [[certificate of need]] regulations that interfere with opening new medical clinics.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/04/AR2008090403253.html?referrer=emailarticle</ref>

Married for 20 years, Sarah Palin's husband is a member of the United Steelworkers Union and her eldest son (of five children) is in the [[United States Army]], scheduled to go to Iraq. In an appearance on August 30, 2008 in Washington, Pennsylvania, she was greeted by a surprisingly large crowd as she promoted the new McCain-Palin ticket.

She earned her Journalism degree from the University of [[Idaho]]<ref>http://www.adn.com/palin/story/516085.html</ref> and worked in the media and the utility industry before beginning her public service 14 years ago.

==Personal Background==
[[Image:Sarah Palin Todd Trig.jpg|thumb|right|In this April 23, 2008 file photo, Alaska Gov. Sarah Palin, left, and her husband, Todd Palin, hold their baby boy Trig in Anchorage, Alaska. 
''Photo courtesy of Newsmax.com'']]
Palin arrived in Alaska with her family in 1964, when her parents came to teach school in Skagway. Palin attended Wasilla High School where her extracurricular activities included captaining the basketball team which went on to win the state championship <ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122108935141721343.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Obama Can't Win Against Palin] Wall Street Journal, September 11, 2008</ref> after graduating in 1982. She went on to college, after attending several institutions she received a bachelor of science degree in communications-journalism from the University of Idaho in 1987. Over the course of her 44 years in Alaska she has lived in Skagway, Eagle River and Wasilla. To earn money for college, Palin entered beauty pageants.

She is married to [[Todd Palin]], part Yupik [[Eskimo]], who is a lifelong Alaskan, works at a non-management union job in the oil industry, and also as a commercial salmon fisherman. He is a four-time champion of the Iron Dog, the world's longest snowmobile race.

Sarah Palin is a [[Labor union | union]] member, a [[moose]] hunter and holds a membership in the [[NRA]].<ref>[http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/08/29/mccain-to-name-running-mate-on-friday/ McCain Names Alaska Gov. Palin as Running Mate] Fox News, August 29, 2008</ref> Todd and Sarah have five children together: Track, Bristol, Willow, Piper, and Trig.

Palin has been widely praised among conservatives for acting on her [[pro-life]] beliefs in the case of her youngest son, Trig, who was diagnosed with [[Down syndrome]] in the fourth month of her pregnancy. After researching the condition, she and her husband agreed to continue to pregnancy:
: "[My husband Todd said,] we shouldn't be asking 'Why us?' We should be saying 'Well, why not us?' We've both been very vocal about being pro life. We understand that every innocent life has wonderful potential. I'm looking at him right now, and I see perfection. Yeah, he has an extra chromosome. I keep thinking, in our world, what is normal and what is perfect?" <ref>http://www.celebrity-babies.com/2008/05/gov-sarah-palin.html</ref> <ref>[http://www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=29242 Canadian Doctors 'Fear' Sarah Palin's Choice May Start a Trend] Catholic Online, Septmeber 11, 2008</ref>

Trig was born on April 18, 2008, four months before his mother was announced as the vice-presidential candidate. Palin wrote:
:"This new person in your life can help everyone put things in perspective and bind us together, and get everyone focused on what really matters ... Those who love him will think less about self and focus less on what the world tells [us] is 'normal' or 'perfect.'"<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

:"It's a sign of the times to be able to do this," she said. "I can think of so many male candidates who watched a families grow while they were in office. There is no reason to believe a woman can't do it with a growing family. My baby will not be at all or in any sense neglected."<ref>Alaska governor balances newborn's needs, official duties [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-05-10-4082128881_x.htm]</ref>

Palin's older son, Track, serves in the U.S. Army, and was deployed to [[Iraq War|Iraq]] in September 2008. Palin says, "I'm proud of him but I worry."<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

In September of 2008, Palin announced that her daughter Bristol was five months pregnant. After having been given the choice, Bristol bravely chose to keep the child. Palin stated "We're proud of Bristol's decision to have her baby and even prouder to become grandparents."<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080901/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_palin_daughter Palin says 17-year-old daughter is pregnant]</ref>.

[[Image:Palin Family..jpg|thumb|left|Palin family members at the announcement of Palin's vice presidential selection, August 29, 2008. From left: Todd, Piper, Willow, Bristol, and Trig.]]

==Political Career==
Palin was elected to two terms on the Wasilla City Council, and then two terms as the Mayor / Manager of Alaska's fastest growing community (Population: 5400 in 2000)<ref>[http://wasilla.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm Wasilla Population and Demographics]</ref>. During her time as mayor, Palin hired a Washington lobbying firm to help secure $8 million in congressionally directed spending projects, otherwise known as earmarks.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-08-31-palin-bridge_N.htm Palin backed 'bridge to nowhere' in 2006]</ref> Ms. Palin's leadership qualities were recognized when she was elected as President of the Alaska Conference of Mayors. In 2002, she ran for Lieutenant Governor, but came in second in a four-way race. Later that year, when [[Frank Murkowski]] resigned his [[Senate]] seat to become [[governor]], she interviewed for the opening. Instead, Murkowski appointed his daughter to the seat. From there, she went on to run for governor and won, becoming the first female governor of Alaska and its youngest.

In 2003, then-Governor Mukowski appointed Palin to serve as Panel Ethics Commissioner of Alaska's Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, which regulates Alaska's [[non-renewable energy|non-renewable]] resources: [[oil]] and [[gasoline|gas]]. She resigned in 2004 as a protest over the "lack of ethics" of fellow panelists who had ignored her complaints of legal violations and conflicts of interest.

To help cultivate influence and political clout in the state, Palin served from 2003 - June, 2005 as one of three directors of the "Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.", a 527 group that raised funds from corporate donors.<ref>[http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/09/01/palin_was_a_director_of_embatt.html#more Palin Was a Director of Embattled Sen. Ted Stevens's 527 Group]</ref> The stated purpose of the group is, "To increase the number of Republican women in elected offices and in appointed governmental and political positions, including advisory and regulatory commissions through training and education."<ref>[http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/527/ted_stevens_excellence_in_public_service_inc.asp Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.]</ref>

She ran for Governor in 2006 on a clean government platform, and accomplished a political rarity in defeating the incumbent Governor [[Frank Murkowski]] in his own Republican primary. Palin went on to defeat former Governor [[Tony Knowles]] in the general election.

She has also served on the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission. She was named one of Alaska's "Top 40 Under 40", Alaska's Public Works "Person of the Year", and was recently inducted into the Sigma Beta Delta Honor Society at Alaska Pacific University.

Palin has served on numerous boards and commissions throughout the State, and stays active as a marathon runner, sports team mom, hockey manager and school volunteer. A lifetime member of the [[NRA]], she enjoys hunting, fishing, and Alaska history. <ref>http://gov.state.ak.us/bio.php Alaska Governor Sarah Palin</ref>

In 2007, Palin's 18-year old son, Track, enlisted in the [[Army]]. <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,,-6920410,00.html</ref>

<blockquote>
''I am pro-life and I believe that marriage should only be between and man and a woman. I am opposed to any expansion of gambling in Alaska.'' <ref> Source: Campaign website, www.palinforgovernor.com, "Issues" Nov 7, 2006 </ref>
</blockquote>

==Record as Governor==
===Energy and Oil===

A strong supporter of harnessing [[oil]] and natural [[gas]] resources, Palin presented the Alaska Gasline Inducement Act (AGIA) in March 2007, which would be the new legal vehicle for building a natural gas pipeline from the state's North Slope.<ref>http://www.newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/29/palin-alaska-gasline-inducement-act-nears-completi/</ref> It received bipartisan support and was signed into law by Governor Palin in June. In August of 2008 she signed legislation giving state authority to award TransCanada Corp a license to build and operate a multibillion-dollar pipeline to ship natural gas from the North Slope.<ref>http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/story.html?id=2e84b1e8-9a4a-4558-ad05-21b517c50fae</ref> As Governor, Palin created a new subcabinet that will develop policies to reduce greenhouse gases and help the state adapt to [[climate change]]. She supports oil production in ANWR, connecting it with national security.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GE11URmmnc</ref>

In 2007, over the objections of oil companies, Palin worked with the Alaska state legislature to approve a major increase in taxes on the oil industry. <ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2008103325_alaskatax07.html Windfall tax lets Alaska rake in billions from Big Oil]</ref> The state then gave Alaskans a $1200 check to pay for increased gas prices, using the increased revenues from the tax.<ref>[http://hotair.com/archives/2008/08/11/palin-backed-alaskan-windfall-profits-tax/ Palin backed Alaskan windfalls-profit tax]</ref> Palin also announced on May 21, 2008 that the state would challenge a recent listing of polar bears as a threatened species as she and other Alaska elected officials feared such a listing would cripple oil and gas development in prime polar bear habitat off the state's northern and northwestern coasts. Palin's belief is that there is not enough evidence to support a listing asserting that polar bears are well-managed and their population has dramatically increased over 30 years as a result of conservation.
===State Economy===
[[Image:Govp_2008stos_large.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gov. Sarah Palin delivering her 2008 State of the State address]] At first, Palin supported the Gravina Island Bridge Project, otherwise known as the "Bridge to Nowhere". In September 2006, during a stop in Ketchikan as part of her gubernatorial campaign, Palin stated, "OK, you've got Valley trash standing here in the middle of nowhere," Palin said, according to an account in the Ketchikan Daily News. "I think we're going to make a good team as we progress that bridge project."<ref>[http://www.adn.com/sarahpalin/story/511471.html Palin touts stance on 'Bridge to Nowhere']</ref> The $398 million bridge would have connected Ketchikan, on one island in southeastern Alaska, to its airport on another nearby island. The Anchorage Daily News also quoted her in an October, 2006 article as saying yes, she would continue state funding for the bridge because she wanted swift action on infrastructure projects. "The window is now while our congressional delegation is in a strong position to assist," she said.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080831/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_bridge_to_nowhere;_ylt=Am.NkRx1mLWk9A34FLhn8IADW7oF Critics: Palin used 'Bridge to Nowhere' for gain]</ref> Palin announced her opposition to the project in a 2007 press release.

She has stated her opposition arose because of the excessive amount of pork-barrel spending in the project, and that she would not fund the $329 million that was short for the budget.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/09/22/alaska.bridge.ap/</ref> This reversal cost her the support of prominent Alaskan Republicans like Former state House Speaker Gail Phillips, who said, "You don't tell a group of Alaskans you support something and then go to someplace else and say you oppose it". Palin instead said that the best option would be to upgrade the ferry system. However, the money that was retained from the earmark was not used for the ferry system, but was spent building a road on Gravina Island that links to the site of the canceled bridge.<ref name="bridge">http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN3125537020080901 Palin "bridge to nowhere" line angers many Alaskans</ref>

Prominent Alaskan politicians criticized Palin for not "giving back" money earmarked for the project. These critics included her Republican campaign coordinator in Ketchikan, who stated that "She said 'thanks but no thanks,' but they kept the money".<ref name="bridge" /> However, state governments do not "give back" money in the manner proposed.

Three times during Palin's time as mayor, earmark funding for projects in Wasilla were noted in [[John McCain]]'s list of "objectionable" spending in 2001 and 2002. McCain's list of spending approved without normal budget scrutiny identified a $500,000 earmark for a public transportation project in the city and a $1 million earmark for an emergency communications center while $450,000 was set aside for an agricultural processing facility.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/la-na-earmarks3-2008sep03,0,6145252.story McCain had criticized earmarks from Palin]</ref> Palin, of course, as mayor of a small town had no ability to put these items in a Congressional bill, but her town did benefit from earmarked spending given to Alaska.

While Palin was true to her word and slashed the amount of earmarked money that Alaska requested from the federal government cutting the number of projects from 54 to 31, in 2008 Alaska still requested more earmarks per capita than any other state at $500 per citizen. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/10/palin.earmarks/index.html McCain criticized Wasilla earmarks in 2001]</ref>

=== Foreign Policy ===
[[Image:Ftwainwright_govp_05s.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Governor Sarah Palin visits Strykers at Fort Wainwright, where she is briefed on how the troops are trained and what the training grounds provide.]]
Palin is Commander in Chief of the Alaska Army [[National Guard]]. In 2007 she visited troops in [[Germany]] and [[Kuwait]]. According to Major General Craig E. Campbell, the adjutant general of the Alaska National Guard who commands the roughly 3,800 state militia members, the Alaskan governor is not in the site's chain of command and has no authority over its operations. He told the Associated Press on August 31st that he and Palin play no role in national defense activities, even when they involve the Alaska National Guard. He went on to state that the entire operation is under federal control.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/08/31/ap/politics/main4401854.shtml GOP Cites Palin's Skill, But How Relevant Is It?]</ref>

During her first major interview, with ABC's [[Charlie Gibson]], Gibson asked Palin if she agreed with the "[[Bush Doctrine]]". Palin responded, "In what respect, Charlie?" Gibson followed, "What do you interpret it to be?" Palin answered with another question, "His world view?" Gibson still refused to answer directly but instead stated it was the doctrine Bush had proposed in September of 2002, before the Iraq war. Palin gave a response concerning Bush's attempt to eradicate Islamic extremism. Gibson then explained that the Bush doctrine refers to the right of anticipatory defense, a right to a preemptive strike against any country that we think is going to attack us. <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpJsQch9uZo Asked about the Bush Doctrine...Palin is Clueless]</ref> What Gibson did not point out is that he himself once gave a definition of the "Bush doctrine" (a concept made up by the press that has no clear definition) that was similar to Palin's answer. Indeed it has been pointed out since that there are actually four different versions of what the Bush doctrine is and the term and meaning changes over time and place.<ref>http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/09/12/palins-definition-of-bush-doctrine-hits-the-gibson-mark/</ref>

===Rape Kits===

Sarah Palin was the mayor of Wasilla at the time when the city passed legislation that stopped the practice of providing women who were victims of [[rape]] with free rape exams. Women are still able to obtain rape exams for a fee that they have the option of paying for out of pocket. Police require a rape exam, which collects DNA evidence and medical information from rape victims, to proceed with criminal investigations pertaining to rape. Women who cannot pay for rape exams therefore became unable to prosecute rapists.

Supporters of Sarah Palin respond to this claim by pointing out that there was no evidence whatsoever of Sarah Palin's involvement with (or, indeed, knowledge of) this legislation at the time, and insist that it does not reflect on her character. However, others respond that in a city the size of Wasilla, word of any controversial act such as this must have reached the Mayor's ears, and in any case the Mayor should be following the city's legislative activities closely and responding to unpalatable developments as they occur<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/21/palin.rape.exams/index.html Palin's Town Charged Women for Rape Exams, 9/22/08</ref>. It is suggested that women were billed as well as insurance companies. [http://www.swamppolitics.com/news/politics/blog/2008/09/sarah_palin_rape_kit_wasilla.html]

Providing women with free rape exams goes against conservative values, as it appropriates tax dollars from some sectors of the population which are demographically less vulnerable to rape to pay for what is essentially an insurance policy that protects those who are more likely to be raped.

===Legislature Investigation===
In August of 2008, the [[Alaska]] state legislature began an investigation of Palin and her staff for potential abuse of power in regards to a firing of Commissioner of Public Safety Walter Monegan. Legally, Palin could dismiss Monegan at any time as he serves at the pleasure of the governor. Monegan was dismissed from his position in July of 2008, which Palin's political opponents claim was due to Monegan's refusal to fire trooper Mike Wooten, Palin's former brother-in-law who had a history of complaints including tasering his 10 year old stepson.<ref name="pc">http://www.postchronicle.com/news/original/article_212168861.shtml</ref> Palin says she released Monegan due to differences on budgeting. In an interview Monegan said that he was never told specifically by Sarah Palin to fire the state trooper Mike Wooten. <ref name="pc" />

Palin has denied the charges and, as is customary, the State of Alaska has hired a lawyer to represent her office in the investigation. August 25th, the Legislative Council voted 12-0 to hire Hollis French as the investigator. <ref>[http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=59d_1220063478 Investigation into Governor Sarah Palin's abuse of powers] CBS 11, August 30, 2008</ref> The Senate Judiciary Committee voted 3-2 and the House Judiciary Committee voted 7-0. The State's attorney released this statement:<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/cvn_palin_troopergate Palin hires attorney for Troopergate investigation]</ref>

:The governor of every state gets legal counsel and this attorney is part of a weeks-old effort to provide this governor defense in a series of outlandish politically motivated charges. This legal defense is neither new nor uncommon nor at all political. It is a matter of her job and is not recent and it is not related to her selection on the McCain-Palin ticket.

The McCain campaign came out with a picture that includes three lead state Democratic legislators investigating the Branchflower probe, known as ‘Troopergate'. The photo shows the three of them at [[Obama]] headquarters in Anchorage, Alaska in July. The McCain campaign said the whole investigation is politically tainted and compromised. Republican Rep. John Coghill of North Pole called on managing investigator, legislator French to step down from the probe, saying he no longer had confidence in his objectivity. "These statements cause me to think that the report is already written even though the investigation is only just begun and the most important witnesses have not even been interviewed,” Coghill wrote in a letter calling for French’s replacement. “The investigation appears to be lacking in fairness, neutrality and due process.” <ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/2078644/posts McCain Camp has pictures of "troopergate" investigators at Obama Headquarters] FreeRepublic.com, September 9, 2008</ref> Democratic State Senator Kim Elton, head of the legislative council overseeing the investigation, said the decisions made by Sen. Hollis French "have been appropriate, bipartisan ... and unchallenged" and that French has called the comments he made last week "regrettable".<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/08/palin.investigation/ Head of Palin trooper probe will stay, lawmaker says]</ref> Lawyer Thomas Van Flein called the investigation "unlawful and unconstitutional" and said the man hired to run it, former prosecutor Stephen Branchflower, has a conflict of interest because he is a friend of the fired commissioner. <ref>[http://www.adn.com/troopergate/story/522488.html Palin's attorney calls investigator biased] Ap, September 11, 2008</ref> 

The investigation issued its report for the Alaska State Legislative Council on October 10, 2008, concluding that Monegan's refusal to fire the trooper was not the sole reason he was dismissed, but was likely a contributing factor. The author of the report, Stephen Branchflower, focused on two questions of the inquiry: did Palin fire Walt Monegan improperly, and was the firing solely because of his refusal to fire her ex brother-in-law. "Governor Palin knowingly permitted a situation to continue where impermissible pressure was placed on several subordinates in order to advance a personal agenda, to wit: to get Trooper Michael Wooten fired," Branchflower wrote.<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref> Based on this, Branchflower claims that "I find that Governor Sarah Palin abused her power by violating Alaska Statute 39.52.110(a) of the Alaska Executive Branch Ethics Act."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/DOWNLOAD.pdf Page 8</ref>

In accordance with the second question the report focused on, Branchflower wrote, "I find that, although Walt Monegan's refusal to fire Trooper Michael Wooten was not the sole reason he was fired by Governor Sarah Palin, it was likely a contributing factor to his termination as Commissioner of Public Safety," Branchflower wrote. The second finding of the report reads: "In spite of that, Governor Palin's firing of Commissioner Monegan was a proper and lawful exercise of her constitutional and statutory authority to hire and fire executive branch department heads." Branchflower also dismissed the Palins' assertions that they were afraid of Wooten because of threats they said he made. "Such claims of fear were not bona fide and were offered to provide cover for the Palins' real motivation: to get Trooper Wooten fired for personal family related reasons," he wrote. <ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_10692757?source=most_viewed</ref> A preemptive response to this report was issued by the McCain/Palin campaign on October 9th, in which the campaign's own investigation concluded that Palin "acted within her proper and lawful authority in the reassignment of Walt Monegan".<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref>

In the end the "October Surprise" predicted by the head of the commission came to pass. Although the commission was asked not to release its findings until after the election to avoid political posturing, they refused to do so. Apart from tarring and feathering Palin, the report made no recommendations for any further inquiries or punishment, as it was understood that there was no case to do so. No direct reports of Sarah Palin abusing her power were ever produced or asking for the official to be fired were ever produced, but that didn't stop the report from drawing its conclusions based upon conjecture without evidence. Indeed, after the hoopla over the report subsided, the state personnel board released its finding that exonnerated her of any wrongdoing.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081104/ap_on_el_pr/palin_troopergate</ref>

==Vice Presidential Candidate==

On August 29, 2008, Palin was announced to be the Vice Presidential nominee for Republican Senator John McCain <ref>http://www.newsmax.com/headlines/sarah_palin_vp/2008/08/29/126138.html</ref>. The selection was a surprise, as those in the media were expecting [[Minnesota]] Governor [[Tim Pawlenty]] or former [[Massachusetts]]'s Governor [[Mitt Romney]]. Palin adds youth and executive experience to the ticket. She is the second female Vice Presidential candidate of a major party in U.S. history and the first one on a Republican ticket. The first was [[Geraldine Ferraro]], who the Democratic Party put on the ticket under [[Walter Mondale]] in 1984.

Palin's speech before the Republican convention on Wednesday, September 3rd was watched by over 40 million people. She had as many people turn in to see her as watched Obama's acceptance speech on the final day of the Democratic convention. Palin has also been attacked by the press on a level not seen since [[Dan Quayle]], although she ultimately handled it much better.
===Democratic responses===
In a possible problem for the Democratic ticket, a majority of the people believed that the press is trying to hurt Palin<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/story/rasmussen/20080904/pl_rasmussen/palinmedia20080904;_ylt=AqErk__wZIKdoVvqUXdr44Nh24cA</ref> and that type of unwarranted attack could have backfired into more support for the McCain/Palin ticket especially with unaffiliated voters believing the press is purposely attacking Palin by a 49% to 32% margin.

Many Democrats had advised the Obama campaign to ignore Palin, fearing that emphasis on her inexperience will backfire against Obama himself.<ref>[http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/capital/2008/09/05/tips-for-obama-ignore-palin-dis-mccain Matt Coopoer, "Tips for Obama: Ignore Palin, Dis McCain," Sept. 5, 2008, ''Conde-Nast Portfoloio.com'']</ref> She participated in a debate with the Democratic VP candidate Joe Biden on October 2, 2008, ending up being declared the winner by most credible news sources that are not influenced by liberal bias.<ref>[http://www.mydesert.com/article/20081004/OPINION02/810040311/1139/news01]</ref><ref>[http://m.nypost.com/ms/p/nyp/nyp/view.m?id=127899&storyid=131936]</ref>

During a campaign event in [[Virginia]], Barack Obama said of the McCain/Palin ticket's similar policies, "...You can put lipstick on a pig, it's still a pig."<ref>http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/obama_lipstick_mccain/2008/09/09/129274.html</ref> Given the fact that she's stated "The difference between a hockey mom and a pitbull (is) lipstick" and the fact that only a female candidate would wear lipstick, the McCain camp released a web ad implying that the comment was targeting Governor Palin. The ad featured video clips of Gov. Palin convention speech, Obama's remarks at the campaign event, and a clip of Katie Couric commenting on pervasive sexism in the campaign. After extensive discussion in the news media, the ad was removed from McCain's website and other video sites following a copyright claim by CBS news. <ref>[http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/0908/CBS_takes_down_McCain_webad_suggests_its_misleading.html?showall]</ref>

===Impact on Ticket===

In the run-up to the Vice-Presidential debate on October 2, 2008, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center attempted to measure the degree to which Palin impacted the GOP ticket positively or negatively in September.<ref>http://people-press.org/report/456/obama-regains-lead</ref> The survey compared the answers to two identical questions about her qualifications and overall favorable/unfavorable rating between polls taken in early and late September. The results show that public opinion of Palin has fallen significantly since the Republican convention, particularly in the public's opinion of her qualification to be Vice President. Faced with a barrage of negative press attacks after her nomination, some prominent Republicans like [[Mitt Romney]] believe that the isolation of Palin from the media in September was a mistake, and are calling for an increase in unscripted encounters with the press and public to counter that perception. According to Romney, "Holding Sarah Palin to just three interviews and microscopically focusing on each interview I think has been a mistake. I think they’d be a lot wiser to let Sarah Palin be Sarah Palin. Let her talk to the media, let her talk to people." <ref>http://features.csmonitor.com/politics/2008/09/30/doubts-about-palin-grow-even-among-conservatives/</ref> Exit polling from the election itself had the final say on the matter of her impact on the ticket. For those who considered her nomination on the ticket to be unimportant, 57% voted for Obama. For those who considered her nomination to be important, 53% voted for Obama, thereby showing a positive overall impact on the ticket. Considering that exit polling tilts Democratic, the actual impact may have been greater.

==Beliefs==
Palin filled out a policy questionnaire for the Eagle Forum Alaska during her 2006 gubernatorial race. One question asked, "Will you support funding for abstinence-until-marriage education instead of for explicit sex-education programs, school-based clinics, and the distribution of contraceptives in schools?" Palin responded, "Yes, the explicit sex-ed programs will not find my support." Yet [[public schools]] still resist teaching abstinence and instead promote sexual behavior by teenagers.

Another question asked, "Are you offended by the phrase 'Under God' in the Pledge of Allegiance? Why or why not?" Palin replied, "Not on your life. '''If it was good enough for the founding fathers''', it's good enough for me and I'll fight in defense of our Pledge of Allegiance."

Many liberals ignorant of the history of "under God" have tried to ridicule Palin's remark, even calling her an "idiot" for it.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/michaeltomasky/2008/sep/01/week</ref><ref>The Pledge of Allegiance was written in 1892, and George Washington's phrase "under God" was added to it in June 1954.</ref> In fact, the origin of the phrase "under God" is the General Orders of [[George Washington]] on July 2 and 9, 1776: "The fate of unborn millions will now depend, under God, on the courage and conduct of this army" (July 2); "the peace and safety of the Country now depends, under God, solely on the success of our arms" (July 9).<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/003/264xqezm.asp?pg=2</ref> George Washington was indeed a [[Founding Father]], and the Founding Fathers made no secret of their Christian faith and unfailing belief in God in the [[Declaration of Independence]] and later writings.

Palin also believes that students need to learn of the controversy surrounding the [[Theory of evolution|'Theory' of evolution]], and that discussing Creationism should not be banned from schools. During the 2006 campaign for the Alaskan Governorship, Palin was answering a question from the moderator near the conclusion of Wednesday night's televised debate on KAKM Channel 7 when she said, "Teach both. You know, don't be afraid of information. Healthy debate is so important, and it's so valuable in our schools. I am a proponent of teaching both."<ref>http://dwb.adn.com/news/politics/elections/story/8347904p-8243554c.html</ref> She later clarified her position by stating "I don't think there should be a prohibition against debate if it comes up in class. It doesn't have to be part of the curriculum." She added that, if elected, she would not push the state Board of Education to add such creation-based alternatives to the state's required curriculum. As of September 2008 she has kept that pledge.

In a typical example of liberal mockery, the [[Huffington Post]] attempted to make light of Sarah Palin's creationist beliefs, highlighting the creationary belief that [[dinosaur|dinosaurs]] and man coexisted.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/28/palin-claimed-dinosaurs-a_n_130012.html</ref> SNL likewise did a skit in which they had her refer to the Museum of Natural History as "that evolution museum".

==Church Life==
Sarah Palin was baptized as a Roman Catholic and, at age 12, she was rebaptized in the Wasilla Assembly of God church. <ref>{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-08-30
|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-mccainveepbio30-2008aug30,0,2159346.story
|title=Palin has risen quickly from PTA to VP pick
|author=Decker, Cathleen and Michael Finnegan,
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=August 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| last = Gorsk| first = Eric
| url = http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5g4-w_DCWffagBaQb8Il9a0R2hkPAD92SL7E00
| title = Evangelicals energized by McCain-Palin ticket
| publisher =Associated Press
| date = 2008-08-30
| accessdate = 2008-08-30}}</ref>

Palin attends the Wasilla Bible Church<ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Pepper |title=Regarding Governor Palin: A Letter from Pastor David Pepper |url=http://churchontherockak.org/Regarding-Sarah-Palin.html |publisher=Church on the Rock |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>, an independent congregation,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wasillabible.org/faq.htm |title=Wasilla Bible Church FAQ |accessdate=2008-09-05 |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref><ref name="miller">Lisa Miller and Amanda Coyne. "[http://www.newsweek.com/id/156679 A Visit to Palin's Church: Scripture and discretion on the program in Wasilla]." ''Newsweek''. Sept. 2, 2008.</ref> when at home and the Juneau Christian Center when in Juneau as governor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement Concerning Sarah Palin |url=http://www.jccalaska.com/images/10000/3000/582JU/user/palin.htm |publisher=Juneau Christian Center |date=2008-09-03 |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

==Popularity==

Whether or not people say that they like Sarah Palin, they gravitate to see her. She earned the highest TV ratings at the Republican convention when she spoke, even surpassing McCain's acceptance speech, and matched Obama's acceptance speech when he was in front of a Greek temple with a stadium of people. As a Vice Presidential candidate, that was unprecedented. Likewise her Vice Presidential debate with Joe Biden had more viewers than any of the three debates between McCain and Obama. Finally, her briefly appearing on Saturday Night Live gave the show its highest ratings in 14 years, and was actually the third highest ranked show for the week based on the number of people who tuned in originally to watch her, 17 million, even though it ran at midnight.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/oct/20/ustelevision-tvratings</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
[[Image:Palin.JPG|thumb]]
*[http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ State of Alaska - Governor Sarah Palin Official Website]
*[http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=864bb9006da3f010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD National Governor's Association - Alaska Governor Sarah Palin]
*[http://votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=27200 Project Vote Smart - Governor Sarah H. Palin]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Sarah_Palin.htm Sarah Palin On the issues]
*[http://parentingfreedom.com/2008/09/03/sarah-palin-mother-and-first-female-vice-president-pictures-children-parenting/ Sarah Palin: Mother and First Female Vice President], ''Parenting Freedom'', September 03, 2008

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palin, Sarah}}

[[Category:Alaska Governors]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:United States Mayors]]
[[Category:Women]]

Sarah Palin

2008-11-22T13:00:32Z

JohnC2:

[[Image:Sarah Palin.jpg|right|thumb|Governor Sarah Palin]] '''Sarah Louise Heath Palin''' (pronounced pay'-lynn) (born February 11, 1964) is the [[conservative]] first-term [[Republican Party|Republican]] [[Governor]] of [[Alaska]]. She is the youngest person to hold this office as well as the first woman to do so in the state's history. Palin was Senator [[John McCain]]'s Vice Presidential running mate in the [[2008 Presidential Election]].<ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/08/palins_vp_selection_speech.html Acceptance Speech by Palin]</ref>

She brought a [[populism|populist]] image and a record of cutting wasteful spending and reforming government to McCain's ticket. In the summer of 2007, she was the most popular governor in America, after cutting 13% of [[Alaska]]'s budget.<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/013/851orcjq.asp</ref> She is strongly [[pro-life]]. She favors more competition in health care, and pushed for abolishing the [[certificate of need]] regulations that interfere with opening new medical clinics.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/04/AR2008090403253.html?referrer=emailarticle</ref>

Married for 20 years, Sarah Palin's husband is a member of the United Steelworkers Union and her eldest son (of five children) is in the [[United States Army]], scheduled to go to Iraq. In an appearance on August 30, 2008 in Washington, Pennsylvania, she was greeted by a surprisingly large crowd as she promoted the new McCain-Palin ticket.

She earned her Journalism degree from the University of [[Idaho]]<ref>http://www.adn.com/palin/story/516085.html</ref> and worked in the media and the utility industry before beginning her public service 14 years ago.

==Personal Background==
[[Image:Sarah Palin Todd Trig.jpg|thumb|right|In this April 23, 2008 file photo, Alaska Gov. Sarah Palin, left, and her husband, Todd Palin, hold their baby boy Trig in Anchorage, Alaska. 
''Photo courtesy of Newsmax.com'']]
Palin arrived in Alaska with her family in 1964, when her parents came to teach school in Skagway. Palin attended Wasilla High School where her extracurricular activities included captaining the basketball team which went on to win the state championship <ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122108935141721343.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Obama Can't Win Against Palin] Wall Street Journal, September 11, 2008</ref> after graduating in 1982. She went on to college, after attending several institutions she received a bachelor of science degree in communications-journalism from the University of Idaho in 1987. Over the course of her 44 years in Alaska she has lived in Skagway, Eagle River and Wasilla. To earn money for college, Palin entered beauty pageants.

She is married to [[Todd Palin]], part Yupik [[Eskimo]], who is a lifelong Alaskan, works at a non-management union job in the oil industry, and also as a commercial salmon fisherman. He is a four-time champion of the Iron Dog, the world's longest snowmobile race.

Sarah Palin is a [[Labor union | union]] member, a [[moose]] hunter and holds a membership in the [[NRA]].<ref>[http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/08/29/mccain-to-name-running-mate-on-friday/ McCain Names Alaska Gov. Palin as Running Mate] Fox News, August 29, 2008</ref> Todd and Sarah have five children together: Track, Bristol, Willow, Piper, and Trig.

Palin has been widely praised among conservatives for acting on her [[pro-life]] beliefs in the case of her youngest son, Trig, who was diagnosed with [[Down syndrome]] in the fourth month of her pregnancy. After researching the condition, she and her husband agreed to continue to pregnancy:
: "[My husband Todd said,] we shouldn't be asking 'Why us?' We should be saying 'Well, why not us?' We've both been very vocal about being pro life. We understand that every innocent life has wonderful potential. I'm looking at him right now, and I see perfection. Yeah, he has an extra chromosome. I keep thinking, in our world, what is normal and what is perfect?" <ref>http://www.celebrity-babies.com/2008/05/gov-sarah-palin.html</ref> <ref>[http://www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=29242 Canadian Doctors 'Fear' Sarah Palin's Choice May Start a Trend] Catholic Online, Septmeber 11, 2008</ref>

Trig was born on April 18, 2008, four months before his mother was announced as the vice-presidential candidate. Palin wrote:
:"This new person in your life can help everyone put things in perspective and bind us together, and get everyone focused on what really matters ... Those who love him will think less about self and focus less on what the world tells [us] is 'normal' or 'perfect.'"<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

:"It's a sign of the times to be able to do this," she said. "I can think of so many male candidates who watched a families grow while they were in office. There is no reason to believe a woman can't do it with a growing family. My baby will not be at all or in any sense neglected."<ref>Alaska governor balances newborn's needs, official duties [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-05-10-4082128881_x.htm]</ref>

Palin's older son, Track, serves in the U.S. Army, and was deployed to [[Iraq War|Iraq]] in September 2008. Palin says, "I'm proud of him but I worry."<ref name="people">[[People magazine]]</ref>

In September of 2008, Palin announced that her daughter Bristol was five months pregnant. After having been given the choice, Bristol bravely chose to keep the child. Palin stated "We're proud of Bristol's decision to have her baby and even prouder to become grandparents."<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080901/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_palin_daughter Palin says 17-year-old daughter is pregnant]</ref>.

[[Image:Palin Family..jpg|thumb|left|Palin family members at the announcement of Palin's vice presidential selection, August 29, 2008. From left: Todd, Piper, Willow, Bristol, and Trig.]]

==Political Career==
Palin was elected to two terms on the Wasilla City Council, and then two terms as the Mayor / Manager of Alaska's fastest growing community (Population: 5400 in 2000)<ref>[http://wasilla.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm Wasilla Population and Demographics]</ref>. During her time as mayor, Palin hired a Washington lobbying firm to help secure $8 million in congressionally directed spending projects, otherwise known as earmarks.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-08-31-palin-bridge_N.htm Palin backed 'bridge to nowhere' in 2006]</ref> Ms. Palin's leadership qualities were recognized when she was elected as President of the Alaska Conference of Mayors. In 2002, she ran for Lieutenant Governor, but came in second in a four-way race. Later that year, when [[Frank Murkowski]] resigned his [[Senate]] seat to become [[governor]], she interviewed for the opening. Instead, Murkowski appointed his daughter to the seat. From there, she went on to run for governor and won, becoming the first female governor of Alaska and its youngest.

In 2003, then-Governor Mukowski appointed Palin to serve as Panel Ethics Commissioner of Alaska's Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, which regulates Alaska's [[non-renewable energy|non-renewable]] resources: [[oil]] and [[gasoline|gas]]. She resigned in 2004 as a protest over the "lack of ethics" of fellow panelists who had ignored her complaints of legal violations and conflicts of interest.

To help cultivate influence and political clout in the state, Palin served from 2003 - June, 2005 as one of three directors of the "Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.", a 527 group that raised funds from corporate donors.<ref>[http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/09/01/palin_was_a_director_of_embatt.html#more Palin Was a Director of Embattled Sen. Ted Stevens's 527 Group]</ref> The stated purpose of the group is, "To increase the number of Republican women in elected offices and in appointed governmental and political positions, including advisory and regulatory commissions through training and education."<ref>[http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/527/ted_stevens_excellence_in_public_service_inc.asp Ted Stevens Excellence in Public Service, Inc.]</ref>

She ran for Governor in 2006 on a clean government platform, and accomplished a political rarity in defeating the incumbent Governor [[Frank Murkowski]] in his own Republican primary. Palin went on to defeat former Governor [[Tony Knowles]] in the general election.

She has also served on the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission. She was named one of Alaska's "Top 40 Under 40", Alaska's Public Works "Person of the Year", and was recently inducted into the Sigma Beta Delta Honor Society at Alaska Pacific University.

Palin has served on numerous boards and commissions throughout the State, and stays active as a marathon runner, sports team mom, hockey manager and school volunteer. A lifetime member of the [[NRA]], she enjoys hunting, fishing, and Alaska history. <ref>http://gov.state.ak.us/bio.php Alaska Governor Sarah Palin</ref>

In 2007, Palin's 18-year old son, Track, enlisted in the [[Army]]. <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,,-6920410,00.html</ref>

<blockquote>
''I am pro-life and I believe that marriage should only be between and man and a woman. I am opposed to any expansion of gambling in Alaska.'' <ref> Source: Campaign website, www.palinforgovernor.com, "Issues" Nov 7, 2006 </ref>
</blockquote>

==Record as Governor==
===Energy and Oil===

A strong supporter of harnessing [[oil]] and natural [[gas]] resources, Palin presented the Alaska Gasline Inducement Act (AGIA) in March 2007, which would be the new legal vehicle for building a natural gas pipeline from the state's North Slope.<ref>http://www.newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/29/palin-alaska-gasline-inducement-act-nears-completi/</ref> It received bipartisan support and was signed into law by Governor Palin in June. In August of 2008 she signed legislation giving state authority to award TransCanada Corp a license to build and operate a multibillion-dollar pipeline to ship natural gas from the North Slope.<ref>http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/story.html?id=2e84b1e8-9a4a-4558-ad05-21b517c50fae</ref> As Governor, Palin created a new subcabinet that will develop policies to reduce greenhouse gases and help the state adapt to [[climate change]]. She supports oil production in ANWR, connecting it with national security.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GE11URmmnc</ref>

In 2007, over the objections of oil companies, Palin worked with the Alaska state legislature to approve a major increase in taxes on the oil industry. <ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2008103325_alaskatax07.html Windfall tax lets Alaska rake in billions from Big Oil]</ref> The state then gave Alaskans a $1200 check to pay for increased gas prices, using the increased revenues from the tax.<ref>[http://hotair.com/archives/2008/08/11/palin-backed-alaskan-windfall-profits-tax/ Palin backed Alaskan windfalls-profit tax]</ref> Palin also announced on May 21, 2008 that the state would challenge a recent listing of polar bears as a threatened species as she and other Alaska elected officials feared such a listing would cripple oil and gas development in prime polar bear habitat off the state's northern and northwestern coasts. Palin's belief is that there is not enough evidence to support a listing asserting that polar bears are well-managed and their population has dramatically increased over 30 years as a result of conservation.
===State Economy===
[[Image:Govp_2008stos_large.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gov. Sarah Palin delivering her 2008 State of the State address]] At first, Palin supported the Gravina Island Bridge Project, otherwise known as the "Bridge to Nowhere". In September 2006, during a stop in Ketchikan as part of her gubernatorial campaign, Palin stated, "OK, you've got Valley trash standing here in the middle of nowhere," Palin said, according to an account in the Ketchikan Daily News. "I think we're going to make a good team as we progress that bridge project."<ref>[http://www.adn.com/sarahpalin/story/511471.html Palin touts stance on 'Bridge to Nowhere']</ref> The $398 million bridge would have connected Ketchikan, on one island in southeastern Alaska, to its airport on another nearby island. The Anchorage Daily News also quoted her in an October, 2006 article as saying yes, she would continue state funding for the bridge because she wanted swift action on infrastructure projects. "The window is now while our congressional delegation is in a strong position to assist," she said.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080831/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_bridge_to_nowhere;_ylt=Am.NkRx1mLWk9A34FLhn8IADW7oF Critics: Palin used 'Bridge to Nowhere' for gain]</ref> Palin announced her opposition to the project in a 2007 press release.

She has stated her opposition arose because of the excessive amount of pork-barrel spending in the project, and that she would not fund the $329 million that was short for the budget.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/09/22/alaska.bridge.ap/</ref> This reversal cost her the support of prominent Alaskan Republicans like Former state House Speaker Gail Phillips, who said, "You don't tell a group of Alaskans you support something and then go to someplace else and say you oppose it". Palin instead said that the best option would be to upgrade the ferry system. However, the money that was retained from the earmark was not used for the ferry system, but was spent building a road on Gravina Island that links to the site of the canceled bridge.<ref name="bridge">http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN3125537020080901 Palin "bridge to nowhere" line angers many Alaskans</ref>

Prominent Alaskan politicians criticized Palin for not "giving back" money earmarked for the project. These critics included her Republican campaign coordinator in Ketchikan, who stated that "She said 'thanks but no thanks,' but they kept the money".<ref name="bridge" /> However, state governments do not "give back" money in the manner proposed.

Three times during Palin's time as mayor, earmark funding for projects in Wasilla were noted in [[John McCain]]'s list of "objectionable" spending in 2001 and 2002. McCain's list of spending approved without normal budget scrutiny identified a $500,000 earmark for a public transportation project in the city and a $1 million earmark for an emergency communications center while $450,000 was set aside for an agricultural processing facility.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/la-na-earmarks3-2008sep03,0,6145252.story McCain had criticized earmarks from Palin]</ref> Palin, of course, as mayor of a small town had no ability to put these items in a Congressional bill, but her town did benefit from earmarked spending given to Alaska.

While Palin was true to her word and slashed the amount of earmarked money that Alaska requested from the federal government cutting the number of projects from 54 to 31, in 2008 Alaska still requested more earmarks per capita than any other state at $500 per citizen. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/10/palin.earmarks/index.html McCain criticized Wasilla earmarks in 2001]</ref>

=== Foreign Policy ===
[[Image:Ftwainwright_govp_05s.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Governor Sarah Palin visits Strykers at Fort Wainwright, where she is briefed on how the troops are trained and what the training grounds provide.]]
Palin is Commander in Chief of the Alaska Army [[National Guard]]. In 2007 she visited troops in [[Germany]] and [[Kuwait]]. According to Major General Craig E. Campbell, the adjutant general of the Alaska National Guard who commands the roughly 3,800 state militia members, the Alaskan governor is not in the site's chain of command and has no authority over its operations. He told the Associated Press on August 31st that he and Palin play no role in national defense activities, even when they involve the Alaska National Guard. He went on to state that the entire operation is under federal control.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/08/31/ap/politics/main4401854.shtml GOP Cites Palin's Skill, But How Relevant Is It?]</ref>

During her first major interview, with ABC's [[Charlie Gibson]], Gibson asked Palin if she agreed with the "[[Bush Doctrine]]". Palin responded, "In what respect, Charlie?" Gibson followed, "What do you interpret it to be?" Palin answered with another question, "His world view?" Gibson still refused to answer directly but instead stated it was the doctrine Bush had proposed in September of 2002, before the Iraq war. Palin gave a response concerning Bush's attempt to eradicate Islamic extremism. Gibson then explained that the Bush doctrine refers to the right of anticipatory defense, a right to a preemptive strike against any country that we think is going to attack us. <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpJsQch9uZo Asked about the Bush Doctrine...Palin is Clueless]</ref> What Gibson did not point out is that he himself once gave a definition of the "Bush doctrine" (a concept made up by the press that has no clear definition) that was similar to Palin's answer. Indeed it has been pointed out since that there are actually four different versions of what the Bush doctrine is and the term and meaning changes over time and place.<ref>http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/09/12/palins-definition-of-bush-doctrine-hits-the-gibson-mark/</ref>

===Rape Kits===

Sarah Palin was the mayor of Wasilla at the time when the city passed legislation that stopped the practice of providing women who were victims of [[rape]] with free rape exams. Women are still able to obtain rape exams for a fee that they have the option of paying for out of pocket. Police require a rape exam, which collects DNA evidence and medical information from rape victims, to proceed with criminal investigations pertaining to rape. Women who cannot pay for rape exams therefore became unable to prosecute rapists.

Supporters of Sarah Palin respond to this claim by pointing out that there was no evidence whatsoever of Sarah Palin's involvement with (or, indeed, knowledge of) this legislation at the time, and insist that it does not reflect on her character. However, others respond that in a city the size of Wasilla, word of any controversial act such as this must have reached the Mayor's ears, and in any case the Mayor should be following the city's legislative activities closely and responding to unpalatable developments as they occur<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/21/palin.rape.exams/index.html Palin's Town Charged Women for Rape Exams, 9/22/08</ref>.

Providing women with free rape exams goes against conservative values, as it appropriates tax dollars from some sectors of the population which are demographically less vulnerable to rape to pay for what is essentially an insurance policy that protects those who are more likely to be raped. It is suggested that women were billed as well as insurance companies. [http://www.swamppolitics.com/news/politics/blog/2008/09/sarah_palin_rape_kit_wasilla.html]

===Legislature Investigation===
In August of 2008, the [[Alaska]] state legislature began an investigation of Palin and her staff for potential abuse of power in regards to a firing of Commissioner of Public Safety Walter Monegan. Legally, Palin could dismiss Monegan at any time as he serves at the pleasure of the governor. Monegan was dismissed from his position in July of 2008, which Palin's political opponents claim was due to Monegan's refusal to fire trooper Mike Wooten, Palin's former brother-in-law who had a history of complaints including tasering his 10 year old stepson.<ref name="pc">http://www.postchronicle.com/news/original/article_212168861.shtml</ref> Palin says she released Monegan due to differences on budgeting. In an interview Monegan said that he was never told specifically by Sarah Palin to fire the state trooper Mike Wooten. <ref name="pc" />

Palin has denied the charges and, as is customary, the State of Alaska has hired a lawyer to represent her office in the investigation. August 25th, the Legislative Council voted 12-0 to hire Hollis French as the investigator. <ref>[http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=59d_1220063478 Investigation into Governor Sarah Palin's abuse of powers] CBS 11, August 30, 2008</ref> The Senate Judiciary Committee voted 3-2 and the House Judiciary Committee voted 7-0. The State's attorney released this statement:<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/cvn_palin_troopergate Palin hires attorney for Troopergate investigation]</ref>

:The governor of every state gets legal counsel and this attorney is part of a weeks-old effort to provide this governor defense in a series of outlandish politically motivated charges. This legal defense is neither new nor uncommon nor at all political. It is a matter of her job and is not recent and it is not related to her selection on the McCain-Palin ticket.

The McCain campaign came out with a picture that includes three lead state Democratic legislators investigating the Branchflower probe, known as ‘Troopergate'. The photo shows the three of them at [[Obama]] headquarters in Anchorage, Alaska in July. The McCain campaign said the whole investigation is politically tainted and compromised. Republican Rep. John Coghill of North Pole called on managing investigator, legislator French to step down from the probe, saying he no longer had confidence in his objectivity. "These statements cause me to think that the report is already written even though the investigation is only just begun and the most important witnesses have not even been interviewed,” Coghill wrote in a letter calling for French’s replacement. “The investigation appears to be lacking in fairness, neutrality and due process.” <ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/2078644/posts McCain Camp has pictures of "troopergate" investigators at Obama Headquarters] FreeRepublic.com, September 9, 2008</ref> Democratic State Senator Kim Elton, head of the legislative council overseeing the investigation, said the decisions made by Sen. Hollis French "have been appropriate, bipartisan ... and unchallenged" and that French has called the comments he made last week "regrettable".<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/09/08/palin.investigation/ Head of Palin trooper probe will stay, lawmaker says]</ref> Lawyer Thomas Van Flein called the investigation "unlawful and unconstitutional" and said the man hired to run it, former prosecutor Stephen Branchflower, has a conflict of interest because he is a friend of the fired commissioner. <ref>[http://www.adn.com/troopergate/story/522488.html Palin's attorney calls investigator biased] Ap, September 11, 2008</ref> 

The investigation issued its report for the Alaska State Legislative Council on October 10, 2008, concluding that Monegan's refusal to fire the trooper was not the sole reason he was dismissed, but was likely a contributing factor. The author of the report, Stephen Branchflower, focused on two questions of the inquiry: did Palin fire Walt Monegan improperly, and was the firing solely because of his refusal to fire her ex brother-in-law. "Governor Palin knowingly permitted a situation to continue where impermissible pressure was placed on several subordinates in order to advance a personal agenda, to wit: to get Trooper Michael Wooten fired," Branchflower wrote.<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref> Based on this, Branchflower claims that "I find that Governor Sarah Palin abused her power by violating Alaska Statute 39.52.110(a) of the Alaska Executive Branch Ethics Act."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/DOWNLOAD.pdf Page 8</ref>

In accordance with the second question the report focused on, Branchflower wrote, "I find that, although Walt Monegan's refusal to fire Trooper Michael Wooten was not the sole reason he was fired by Governor Sarah Palin, it was likely a contributing factor to his termination as Commissioner of Public Safety," Branchflower wrote. The second finding of the report reads: "In spite of that, Governor Palin's firing of Commissioner Monegan was a proper and lawful exercise of her constitutional and statutory authority to hire and fire executive branch department heads." Branchflower also dismissed the Palins' assertions that they were afraid of Wooten because of threats they said he made. "Such claims of fear were not bona fide and were offered to provide cover for the Palins' real motivation: to get Trooper Wooten fired for personal family related reasons," he wrote. <ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_10692757?source=most_viewed</ref> A preemptive response to this report was issued by the McCain/Palin campaign on October 9th, in which the campaign's own investigation concluded that Palin "acted within her proper and lawful authority in the reassignment of Walt Monegan".<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4998X420081011</ref>

In the end the "October Surprise" predicted by the head of the commission came to pass. Although the commission was asked not to release its findings until after the election to avoid political posturing, they refused to do so. Apart from tarring and feathering Palin, the report made no recommendations for any further inquiries or punishment, as it was understood that there was no case to do so. No direct reports of Sarah Palin abusing her power were ever produced or asking for the official to be fired were ever produced, but that didn't stop the report from drawing its conclusions based upon conjecture without evidence. Indeed, after the hoopla over the report subsided, the state personnel board released its finding that exonnerated her of any wrongdoing.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081104/ap_on_el_pr/palin_troopergate</ref>

==Vice Presidential Candidate==

On August 29, 2008, Palin was announced to be the Vice Presidential nominee for Republican Senator John McCain <ref>http://www.newsmax.com/headlines/sarah_palin_vp/2008/08/29/126138.html</ref>. The selection was a surprise, as those in the media were expecting [[Minnesota]] Governor [[Tim Pawlenty]] or former [[Massachusetts]]'s Governor [[Mitt Romney]]. Palin adds youth and executive experience to the ticket. She is the second female Vice Presidential candidate of a major party in U.S. history and the first one on a Republican ticket. The first was [[Geraldine Ferraro]], who the Democratic Party put on the ticket under [[Walter Mondale]] in 1984.

Palin's speech before the Republican convention on Wednesday, September 3rd was watched by over 40 million people. She had as many people turn in to see her as watched Obama's acceptance speech on the final day of the Democratic convention. Palin has also been attacked by the press on a level not seen since [[Dan Quayle]], although she ultimately handled it much better.
===Democratic responses===
In a possible problem for the Democratic ticket, a majority of the people believed that the press is trying to hurt Palin<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/story/rasmussen/20080904/pl_rasmussen/palinmedia20080904;_ylt=AqErk__wZIKdoVvqUXdr44Nh24cA</ref> and that type of unwarranted attack could have backfired into more support for the McCain/Palin ticket especially with unaffiliated voters believing the press is purposely attacking Palin by a 49% to 32% margin.

Many Democrats had advised the Obama campaign to ignore Palin, fearing that emphasis on her inexperience will backfire against Obama himself.<ref>[http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/capital/2008/09/05/tips-for-obama-ignore-palin-dis-mccain Matt Coopoer, "Tips for Obama: Ignore Palin, Dis McCain," Sept. 5, 2008, ''Conde-Nast Portfoloio.com'']</ref> She participated in a debate with the Democratic VP candidate Joe Biden on October 2, 2008, ending up being declared the winner by most credible news sources that are not influenced by liberal bias.<ref>[http://www.mydesert.com/article/20081004/OPINION02/810040311/1139/news01]</ref><ref>[http://m.nypost.com/ms/p/nyp/nyp/view.m?id=127899&storyid=131936]</ref>

During a campaign event in [[Virginia]], Barack Obama said of the McCain/Palin ticket's similar policies, "...You can put lipstick on a pig, it's still a pig."<ref>http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/obama_lipstick_mccain/2008/09/09/129274.html</ref> Given the fact that she's stated "The difference between a hockey mom and a pitbull (is) lipstick" and the fact that only a female candidate would wear lipstick, the McCain camp released a web ad implying that the comment was targeting Governor Palin. The ad featured video clips of Gov. Palin convention speech, Obama's remarks at the campaign event, and a clip of Katie Couric commenting on pervasive sexism in the campaign. After extensive discussion in the news media, the ad was removed from McCain's website and other video sites following a copyright claim by CBS news. <ref>[http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/0908/CBS_takes_down_McCain_webad_suggests_its_misleading.html?showall]</ref>

===Impact on Ticket===

In the run-up to the Vice-Presidential debate on October 2, 2008, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center attempted to measure the degree to which Palin impacted the GOP ticket positively or negatively in September.<ref>http://people-press.org/report/456/obama-regains-lead</ref> The survey compared the answers to two identical questions about her qualifications and overall favorable/unfavorable rating between polls taken in early and late September. The results show that public opinion of Palin has fallen significantly since the Republican convention, particularly in the public's opinion of her qualification to be Vice President. Faced with a barrage of negative press attacks after her nomination, some prominent Republicans like [[Mitt Romney]] believe that the isolation of Palin from the media in September was a mistake, and are calling for an increase in unscripted encounters with the press and public to counter that perception. According to Romney, "Holding Sarah Palin to just three interviews and microscopically focusing on each interview I think has been a mistake. I think they’d be a lot wiser to let Sarah Palin be Sarah Palin. Let her talk to the media, let her talk to people." <ref>http://features.csmonitor.com/politics/2008/09/30/doubts-about-palin-grow-even-among-conservatives/</ref> Exit polling from the election itself had the final say on the matter of her impact on the ticket. For those who considered her nomination on the ticket to be unimportant, 57% voted for Obama. For those who considered her nomination to be important, 53% voted for Obama, thereby showing a positive overall impact on the ticket. Considering that exit polling tilts Democratic, the actual impact may have been greater.

==Beliefs==
Palin filled out a policy questionnaire for the Eagle Forum Alaska during her 2006 gubernatorial race. One question asked, "Will you support funding for abstinence-until-marriage education instead of for explicit sex-education programs, school-based clinics, and the distribution of contraceptives in schools?" Palin responded, "Yes, the explicit sex-ed programs will not find my support." Yet [[public schools]] still resist teaching abstinence and instead promote sexual behavior by teenagers.

Another question asked, "Are you offended by the phrase 'Under God' in the Pledge of Allegiance? Why or why not?" Palin replied, "Not on your life. '''If it was good enough for the founding fathers''', it's good enough for me and I'll fight in defense of our Pledge of Allegiance."

Many liberals ignorant of the history of "under God" have tried to ridicule Palin's remark, even calling her an "idiot" for it.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/michaeltomasky/2008/sep/01/week</ref><ref>The Pledge of Allegiance was written in 1892, and George Washington's phrase "under God" was added to it in June 1954.</ref> In fact, the origin of the phrase "under God" is the General Orders of [[George Washington]] on July 2 and 9, 1776: "The fate of unborn millions will now depend, under God, on the courage and conduct of this army" (July 2); "the peace and safety of the Country now depends, under God, solely on the success of our arms" (July 9).<ref>http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/003/264xqezm.asp?pg=2</ref> George Washington was indeed a [[Founding Father]], and the Founding Fathers made no secret of their Christian faith and unfailing belief in God in the [[Declaration of Independence]] and later writings.

Palin also believes that students need to learn of the controversy surrounding the [[Theory of evolution|'Theory' of evolution]], and that discussing Creationism should not be banned from schools. During the 2006 campaign for the Alaskan Governorship, Palin was answering a question from the moderator near the conclusion of Wednesday night's televised debate on KAKM Channel 7 when she said, "Teach both. You know, don't be afraid of information. Healthy debate is so important, and it's so valuable in our schools. I am a proponent of teaching both."<ref>http://dwb.adn.com/news/politics/elections/story/8347904p-8243554c.html</ref> She later clarified her position by stating "I don't think there should be a prohibition against debate if it comes up in class. It doesn't have to be part of the curriculum." She added that, if elected, she would not push the state Board of Education to add such creation-based alternatives to the state's required curriculum. As of September 2008 she has kept that pledge.

In a typical example of liberal mockery, the [[Huffington Post]] attempted to make light of Sarah Palin's creationist beliefs, highlighting the creationary belief that [[dinosaur|dinosaurs]] and man coexisted.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/28/palin-claimed-dinosaurs-a_n_130012.html</ref> SNL likewise did a skit in which they had her refer to the Museum of Natural History as "that evolution museum".

==Church Life==
Sarah Palin was baptized as a Roman Catholic and, at age 12, she was rebaptized in the Wasilla Assembly of God church. <ref>{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-08-30
|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-mccainveepbio30-2008aug30,0,2159346.story
|title=Palin has risen quickly from PTA to VP pick
|author=Decker, Cathleen and Michael Finnegan,
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=August 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| last = Gorsk| first = Eric
| url = http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5g4-w_DCWffagBaQb8Il9a0R2hkPAD92SL7E00
| title = Evangelicals energized by McCain-Palin ticket
| publisher =Associated Press
| date = 2008-08-30
| accessdate = 2008-08-30}}</ref>

Palin attends the Wasilla Bible Church<ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Pepper |title=Regarding Governor Palin: A Letter from Pastor David Pepper |url=http://churchontherockak.org/Regarding-Sarah-Palin.html |publisher=Church on the Rock |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>, an independent congregation,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wasillabible.org/faq.htm |title=Wasilla Bible Church FAQ |accessdate=2008-09-05 |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref><ref name="miller">Lisa Miller and Amanda Coyne. "[http://www.newsweek.com/id/156679 A Visit to Palin's Church: Scripture and discretion on the program in Wasilla]." ''Newsweek''. Sept. 2, 2008.</ref> when at home and the Juneau Christian Center when in Juneau as governor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement Concerning Sarah Palin |url=http://www.jccalaska.com/images/10000/3000/582JU/user/palin.htm |publisher=Juneau Christian Center |date=2008-09-03 |accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

==Popularity==

Whether or not people say that they like Sarah Palin, they gravitate to see her. She earned the highest TV ratings at the Republican convention when she spoke, even surpassing McCain's acceptance speech, and matched Obama's acceptance speech when he was in front of a Greek temple with a stadium of people. As a Vice Presidential candidate, that was unprecedented. Likewise her Vice Presidential debate with Joe Biden had more viewers than any of the three debates between McCain and Obama. Finally, her briefly appearing on Saturday Night Live gave the show its highest ratings in 14 years, and was actually the third highest ranked show for the week based on the number of people who tuned in originally to watch her, 17 million, even though it ran at midnight.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/oct/20/ustelevision-tvratings</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
[[Image:Palin.JPG|thumb]]
*[http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ State of Alaska - Governor Sarah Palin Official Website]
*[http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=864bb9006da3f010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD National Governor's Association - Alaska Governor Sarah Palin]
*[http://votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=27200 Project Vote Smart - Governor Sarah H. Palin]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Sarah_Palin.htm Sarah Palin On the issues]
*[http://parentingfreedom.com/2008/09/03/sarah-palin-mother-and-first-female-vice-president-pictures-children-parenting/ Sarah Palin: Mother and First Female Vice President], ''Parenting Freedom'', September 03, 2008

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palin, Sarah}}

[[Category:Alaska Governors]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:United States Mayors]]
[[Category:Women]]

Watergate

2008-11-21T04:00:23Z

JohnC2:

The '''Watergate Affair''' was a political scandal leading to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon's]] resignation. It began when members of the campaign to reelect Richard Nixon broke into the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] National Committee headquarters in the [[Watergate Hotel]] during the 1972 presidential election campaign. Nixon may have had no prior knowledge of the burglary plans, nor given consent to the escapade, which if true suggests incompetence. Yet his loyalty to subordinates led to Nixon consenting to cover up activities and transferring money from the Presidential election campaign fund to pay for the legal defense of those who were involved. Nixon resigned when it became clear he had lost support within his own party and [[Congress]], which had Democratic majorities in both branches, was likely to [[impeach]] him for [[obstruction of justice]].

==The Watergate Break-In==
On June 17, 1972, five men were caught breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate complex in [[Washington, D.C.]] The burglars included [[James W. McCord]], a former [[CIA]] employee, and several [[Cuba|Cuban]] expatriates with ties to the CIA. The subsequent investigation of the break-in revealed that the intruders were acting on behalf of the [[Committee to Reelect the President]] (also known as CRP or CREEP). They, along with accomplices [[E. Howard Hunt]] and [[G. Gordon Liddy]], were convicted of burglary and wiretapping in Jan. 1973.

==From Burglary to Political Scandal==
Evidence that emerged at the burglary trial suggested that the break-in had the approval of higher-level government officials who were attempting to cover up their involvement. This possibility was aggressively pursued by investigative reporters in the print [[media]], with [[Washington Post]] reporters [[Carl Bernstein]] and [[Bob Woodward]] playing particularly critical roles. Woodward and Bernstein, as well as others, discovered evidence that the break-in was only part of a wider effort of political "dirty tricks" designed to discredit Democratic candidates. They also uncovered the existence of a secret [[slush fund]] used to finance these activities<ref>Bernstein, Carl and Woodward, Bob. ''All The President's Men''</ref>.

==Senate Investigation==
In April 1973, with a [[Senate]] investigation underway, several top Nixon aides, including [[H. R. Haldeman]] and [[John D. Ehrlichman]], resigned over the scandal, and White House counsel John Dean III was fired. Dean subsequently testified during televised hearings beginning in May, exposing Nixon's participation in the Watergate cover-up and massive illegalities in Republican fundraising in 1972.

The hearings also revealed that since 1971 Nixon had recorded conversations and telephone calls in his office. The president, however, refused to turn the tapes over to the Senate Watergate committee, citing executive privilege. In Oct. 1973 Nixon ordered [[Elliot Richardson]], the attorney general, to fire [[Archibald Cox]], the special prosecutor who had subpoenaed the tapes, but Richardson chose to resign instead. Richardson's assistant, William Ruckelshaus, also refused to fire Cox and was himself fired. Finally, it was the solicitor general, Robert Bork, who fired Cox. The incident, which became known as the "[[Saturday Night Massacre]]," led to widespread calls for Nixon's [[impeach|impeachment]].

The White House released edited transcripts of the tapes in April 1974, and eventually the tapes themselves, after the Supreme Court rejected Nixon's claim to executive privilege. But the damage was done; President Nixon's behavior—his cover-up of the burglary and refusal to turn over evidence—and the erosion of the public's confidence in his administration, led the House Judiciary Committee to issue three articles of impeachment on July 30, 1974. The document also indicted Nixon for illegal wiretapping, misuse of the CIA, perjury, bribery, obstruction of justice, and other abuses of executive power.

"In all of this," the articles of impeachment summarize, "Richard M. Nixon has acted in a manner contrary to his trust as President and subversive of constitutional government, to the great prejudice of the cause of law and justice, and to the manifest injury of the people of the United States." Impeachment appeared inevitable, and Nixon resigned on [[Aug. 9, 1974]].

Nixon was succeeded in office the same day by [[Vice President]] [[Gerald R. Ford]], who a month later issued a full pardon to Nixon for any crimes he might have committed in office, thus eliminating the possibility of future prosecution. A number of other administration officials served time in prison for their offenses, including former attorney general John Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Dean, and [[G. Gordon Liddy]], a former FBI agent who helped plan the Watergate break-in.

==The Tapes==
Nixon was caught by a recording system whose installation he had himself ordered. It transpired during the course of the investigation that all conversations in the President's office had been secretly recorded for years for historic purposes.<ref>Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson also made secret recordings: [http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK+Library+and+Museum/News+and+Press/JFK+Library+and+Museum+to+Host+Presidential+Tapes+Conference+in+February.htm JFK Library and Museum to Host Presidential Tapes Conference], JFK Library, February, 2003</ref> During the investigation the White House was forced to release transcripts of Watergate-related tapes. These transcripts showed that at the very least Nixon was participating in near-daily, ongoing discussions of how to manage the spreading Watergate scandal. Many dubious actions, such as the payment of "hush money" to the defendants, were openly discussed and, seemingly, considered.

Tension was heightened when a tape with a key conversation, recorded a week after the burglary, turned out to have an eighteen-minute gap. To date the gap has not been explained, nor has anyone managed to recover the erased material. White House chief Alexander Haig provoked derision by a suggestion that the erasure had been caused by "some sinister force." Nixon's secretary Rose Mary Woods told the press that she could have erased the tape by accident while talking on the phone; when the press asked her to demonstrate, it became clear that this explanation was literally a long stretch.<ref>[http://www.ford.utexas.edu/museum/exhibits/watergate_files/content.php?section=3&page=a&zoom=2 Rosemary Woods demonstrating how she may have erased tape recordings].</ref> Later analysis by acoustics firm Bolt, Baranek and Newman concluded that the gap was the result of at least five separate erasures; since the tape recorder had a two-button interlock to prevent accidental erasure, the conclusion was that it must have been a deliberate action.<ref>[http://foi.missouri.edu/destructiondocs/natarchives.html National Archives Has Given Up on Filling the Nixon Tape Gap], New York Times, 2003</ref> If the conversation had involved Watergate, then it might have proved that Nixon learned of the burglary earlier than he had admitted.

==David Frost interview==
In 1977, Nixon had an interview with British journalist David Frost. The event is recounted in Peter Morgan's play [[Frost/Nixon]]

==Notes and references==
<references/>

==See also==

*[[Carl Bernstein]]

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Scandals]]

User talk:HangBushForWarCrime

2008-11-16T18:34:18Z

JohnC2: New page: {{Welcome}} You're a liberal? You approve of the death penalty. ~~~~

{{Welcome}}
You're a liberal? You approve of the death penalty. [[User:JohnC2|JohnC2]] 13:34, 16 November 2008 (EST)

User:JohnC2

2008-11-16T18:15:23Z

JohnC2: New page: You can probably guess. I'm from Europe.

You can probably guess. I'm from Europe.

Paper

2008-11-16T18:10:23Z

JohnC2:

'''Paper''' is a material used for writing, printing, wrapping, cleaning and other uses. It is a thin material made of fibers, usually [[cellulose]] from [[wood]] pulp or from other plant fibers wood, such as [[rice]], rags or [[grass]]es.

The word paper comes from [[papyrus]], which was an early form of writing material used in ancient [[Egypt]]. Papyrus however, is not paper - it is reed strips pounded together. True paper, or paper made from the cellulose and wood pulp of plant materials, was invented in the [[Han Dynasty]] around the 2nd century B.C. In [[Mediaeval]] [[Europe]] parchment or vellum was made from animal skin. Unually calf skin or sheep skin was used. Books were made from parchment the way paper is used today.

[[Category: Writing]]

Paper

2008-11-16T18:09:53Z

JohnC2:

'''Paper''' is a material used for writing, printing, wrapping, cleaning and other uses. It is a thin material made of fibers, usually [[cellulose]] from [[wood]] pulp or from other plant fibers wood, such as [[rice]], rags or [[grass]]es.

The word paper comes from [[papyrus]], which was an early form of writing material used in ancient [[Egypt]]. Papyrus however, is not paper - it is reed strips pounded together. True paper, or paper made from the cellulose and wood pulp of plant materials, was invented in the [[Han Dynasty]] around the 2nd century B.C. In [[Mediaeval]] parchment or vellum was made from animal skin. Unually calf skin or sheep skin was used. Books were made from parchment the way paper is used today.

[[Category: Writing]]

Paper

2008-11-16T18:09:33Z

JohnC2:

'''Paper''' is a material used for writing, printing, wrapping, cleaning and other uses. It is a thin material made of fibers, usually [[cellulose]] from [[wood]] pulp or from other plant fibers wood, such as [[rice]], rags or [[grass]]es.

The word paper comes from [[papyrus]], which was an early form of writing material used in ancient [[Egypt]]. Papyrus however, is not paper - it is reed strips pounded together. True paper, or paper made from the cellulose and wood pulp of plant materials, was invented in the [[Han Dynasty]] around the 2nd century B.C. In [[Mediaeval]] parchment or vellum was made from animal skin. Unually calf skin or sheep skin was used. Bookswere made from parchment the way paper is used today.

[[Category: Writing]]