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Counterexamples to an Old Earth

2011-03-13T20:31:23Z

Jewforliebniz: moved commas after references, enhancing readability

It takes only one "counterexample" to disprove the theory of an [[Old Earth]].<ref>Most of the "evidence" for an [[Old Earth]] is based on claims that lack testability, as in [[radiometric dating]], and hence would not even satisfy minimum requirements for admissibility in court.</ref> As with any logical proposition, one contradiction disproves the proposed rule. If each of 31 counterexamples has merely a 10% chance of being valid -- an underestimate -- then the probability that the Earth is billions of years old is only 3.8%. With the total of these counterexamples at 31, '''they demonstrate that the Earth must be young with a likelihood of greater than 96%'''.

''The motivation for [[atheist]]s to insist on teaching falsely that the Earth is old is to pull students away from [[God]]'s immediate presence, and to turn them away from [[Jesus Christ]]''.

== Counterexamples ==
The growing list of counterexamples to the theory of an [[Old Earth]] includes:

=== Astronomy ===
# The [[moon]] is receding from the [[Earth]] at a rate<ref>"Measurements show that the Moon is receding from Earth at a rate of about 3.8 centimeters per year." [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/ApolloLaser.html Measuring the Moon's Distance] ''Apollo Laser Ranging Experiments Yield Results'' by Fred Espenak, GSFC Planetary Systems Laboratory (LPI Bulletin, No. 72, August, 1994).</ref> that would have placed it too close to the Earth merely four billion years ago, causing instability in its orbit, tidal catastrophes on Earth, and other problems, causing Earth and the moon to be as they are today.
# [[Spiral galaxies]] appear to be young, and only implausible proposals of the existence of [[dark matter]] can reconcile the spirals with a belief in an old universe.
# The planetary orbits in the solar system - including Earth's - are unstable and unsustainable over the long periods claimed by Old Earth believers.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/201582 Newsweek: "An embarrassing little secret of astronomy ...."]. (Newsweek has inexplicably taken down its article, but it is quoted by Google and other links)</ref><ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7248/full/nature08096.html Existence of collisional trajectories of Mercury, Mars and Venus with the Earth] by J. Laskar & M. Gastineau, ''Nature'' 459, 817-819 (11 June 2009). Believers in an Old Earth speculate that the instability would not result in problems in a billion years, but other computer simulations could be developed to demonstrate multi-body instability for the solar system far more recent than that.</ref>
# At least one [[spiral galaxy]] spins in the direction opposite to the spin of its tail, suggesting an age too young to have generated the tail and contradicting the theory that the tails of spiral galaxies were formed over a long period of time.<ref>[http://www.unisci.com/stories/20021/0207023.htm "Hubble Shows Galaxy Rotating In The Wrong Direction"]</ref>
# The primary reaction in the [[Sun]] is the fusing of [[hydrogen]] to make [[helium]], but the ratio of these remains too high for the Sun to have been burning for millions of years.{{fact}}

=== Geology ===
[[Image:Stratigraphy_of_the_Grand_Canyon.png|right|thumb|300px|The Nonconformity is readily apparent in the [[Grand Canyon]] where foliage and ground cover do not obscure the rock face.]]
# The continued existence of fragile natural arches without having collapsed a short time period for erosion and stresses on them<ref>http://www.naturalarches.org/big9.htm</ref>.
# An extrapolation of time between the collapse of weaker arches<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/11/AR2008081102290.html</ref> with still-standing stronger arches supports a young earth age.
# The massive [[Great Lakes]] and freshwater lakes near the equator could not exist for millions of years, and several of these lakes are rapidly receding in volume.
# The existence of inland saltwater lakes, such as [[Mono Lake]] and the [[Great Salt Lake]], suggest a recent global [[flood]].
# The plentiful supply of high concentrations of underground well water, which would be expected based on familiar principles of [[entropy]] to dissipate over a long period of time.
# The relative purity of underground well water, which should be a muddy slurry had millions of years of erosion taken place.
# Earthquakes alter the Earth's rotation several times each century;<ref>http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/2010872/japan_quake_changed_earths_rotation/</ref> extrapolating by orders of magnitude in time would have resulted in the occurrence of much larger earthquakes that would have destabilized the rotation<ref>A similar analysis may be performed for the likelihood of devastating collisions with meteors as time is extrapolated by orders of magnitude.</ref>
# The lack of erosion between rock layers.<ref>http://www.amazon.com/review/R1WTZL8GG4H9K0</ref><ref>http://www.knowthebible.net/id115.html</ref>
# Levels of contamination in water are rising, as water proceeds through the [[water cycle]] it becomes progressively more contaminated. If earth (and life) had existed for billions of years, a limit would have long been reached where water (essential to life) was too contaminated for life to continue.
# [[Paraconformity]] and unconformity such as that seen at the [[Grand Canyon]] disprove the [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian]] view of earth history.
# All [[carbon dating]] of water supplies, even the most ancient and the deepest underground reservoirs, result in relatively young ages,<ref>http://www.betalabservices.com/PDF/Geyh.pdf</ref> and no water has been found suggesting an Old Earth.
# The ratio of strontium isotopes in seawater, which should change due to long-term erosion, has varied by only 0.35% throughout history. In fact, its value today is exactly the same as in the oldest samples, which are claimed to be from 500 million years ago!{{fact}}
# The interior of the earth is heated by decay of radioactive isotopes, which could not possibly still be persisting in sufficient quantities after 5 billion, or even half a billion, years.{{fact}}
# The relatively recent separation of the still-moving continents from one land mass -- denied for 100 years by [[atheist]]s before they accepted it -- suggest a young earth or at least a relatively recent cataclysmic event.
# Fresh tracks of motion by stationary rocks are still visible in some areas, which have baffled Old Earth scientists for more than 60 years; Old Earth magazines refer to them as "self-moving rocks."<ref>http://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2011/02/18/rafting-for-rocks?s_cid=rss:rafting-for-rocks</ref>
# Beaches have long been eroding far too quickly for the Old Earth theory; "between 80 and 90 percent of the sandy beaches along America’s coastlines have been eroding for decades," sometimes by as much as 50 feet per year.<ref>http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=what-causes-beach-erosion</ref>

=== Biology ===
# The intelligence of humans is rapidly declining, whether measured by SAT scores<ref>SAT scores have been rapidly decreasing in real terms.</ref>, music, personal letters<ref>E.g., Civil War letters.</ref>, quality of political debates<ref>E.g., contrast the Lincoln-Douglas debates with debates today.</ref>, the quality of news articles<ref>''The Federalist'' was written for the newspaper audience in the late 1780s, but is far too intellectual for newspapers today.</ref>, websites such as this <ref>http://www.conservapedia.com</ref>, or any other measure.
# The age of onset of [[puberty|sexual maturity]] is rapidly changing, suggesting that life is in a short-term rather than long-term equilibrium.<ref>For evidence of a rapidly changing age for sexual maturity in fish, see http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/46/3/235</ref>
# The high observed rate of [[extinctions of species]]<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-10-26/animals-face-extinction-threat-as-conservation-efforts-slow-report-says.html One in five species are at risk of extinction]</ref> and harmful [[genetic mutation]]s suggest a relatively short period for the existence of life rather than a long one.
# The age of onset of graying of hair or balding is rapidly decreasing, with many teenagers now experiencing baldness or premature graying ([[CNN]]'s [[Anderson Cooper]] began graying as a teenager and was fully gray long before age 40);<ref name="Graying">http://articles.sfgate.com/2006-06-18/living/17299704_1_hair-taylor-hicks-american-idol</ref> many celebrities (such as [[American Idol]] winner Taylor Hicks graying in his 20s)<ref name="Graying"/> and athletes (such as Cal Ripken, Jr. graying and balding in his mid-30s)<ref>"There's a man, close-cropped gray hair, looks older than 35": Sports Illustrated's description of Cal Ripken at 35. [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1163438/index.htm#ixzz12ONbgydd] By age 50 he was bald too.</ref> increasingly experience premature graying or balding.
# The age of onset of [[cancer]] is markedly decreasing,<ref>http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/109865519/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0</ref> suggesting rapid changes inconsistent with an alleged long existence to life.
# The oldest direct evidence of life -- written documents, clothing, remnants of civilizations, tree rings, etc. -- is no older than about 3000 B.C.
# The number of natural, pure-bred bred dogs declines over time as dogs naturally crossbreed; a short period of time is suggested by the fact that there are over 100 different natural, pure breeds of dog thriving today.
# Lack of genetic diversity among the ''Homo sapiens'' species. Were evolution and the old earth true, the human population would show a much larger genetic variance.<ref>http://www.godandscience.org/evolution/descent.html#rpafAHIwKHS7</ref>
# Frequent occurrences of massive deaths of birds and fish, which if extrapolated over millions of years would result in little or no such life today.<ref>http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/story?section=news/technology&id=7884786</ref>

=== Science & Discovery ===
# A stalemate of significant and valid discoveries in the last several decades.<ref>Though there has been some progress in this timeframe, many of the "discoveries" are liberal propaganda, or are scientifically weak.</ref>

== External links ==
*[http://creation.com/age-of-the-earth Age of the earth -101 evidences for a young earth and universe] by [[Creation Ministries International]]

== Footnotes ==

<references/>

== See also ==

*[[Counterexamples to Evolution]]
*[[Counterexamples to the Bible]]
*[[Counterexamples to Relativity]]
[[Category:geology]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2011-03-13T20:27:34Z

Jewforliebniz: /* DNA fingerprinting */

[[Image:799.gif|right|thumb|300px]]
'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' (DNA) is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] made up of [[molecule]]s shaped like a [[double helix]] (like a twisted ladder). The individual building blocks of DNA (and other nucleic acids) are [[nucleotide]]s, which themselves consist of three principle parts: A nitrogenous base, a [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group.

DNA contains [[gene]]s that are the instructions for [[protein]]s, which are produced by the DNA first being transcribed into [[RNA]]. All organisms (plants, animals, and etcetera) contain DNA, except for a few [[virus]]es. Offspring of sexually reproducing organisms contain DNA from both parents.

==History==
In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nuclei]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 the American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]], [[Thomas Gilmore]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophage]]s to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that the ratios of A and T as well as G and C were always the same, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases that were held together through hydrogen bonding.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that areas of the DNA known as genes worked in groups of three to code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]]. Most codons are redundant and code for the same amino acids, these mostly are different in only the third base pair. This means that differences in genotype can build up in the third position (thereby changing the genotype) without changing the protein (keeps the same phenotype).

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of [[information]]. Scientists do not yet understand the function of all DNA, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==
[[Image:818.gif|right|thumb|Structure of DNA.]]
Small lengths of DNA called [[gene]]s serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to the physical traits of the organism. <ref>"Eye-color genes, through the proteins they encode, direct the amount and placement of melanin in the iris." [http://www.hhmi.org/cgi-bin/askascientist/highlight.pl?kw=&file=answers%2Fgenetics%2Fans_044.html Ask A Scientist - Genes and eye color]</ref> DNA is packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of [[chromosome]]s, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father. 22 of these chromosomes are referred to as [[autosome]]s, while the remaining chromosome is the sex chromosome that determines gender.

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends) with the exception of [[Mitochondrial DNA]] and chloroplast DNA which is separate from that of the eukaryotic organism. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts were thought to once be prokayotic organisms that became symbiotes within eukaryotic organisms, this explains why they still retain their circular DNA. The ends of eukaryotic DNA is protected by [[telomere]]s, which are joined together in knots, except when the cell is undergoing [[mitosis]]. DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

Some viral [[genome]]s are composed of DNA, such as that of the [[influenza]] virus.

[[Mutation]]s in DNA accumulate over time and build up to create differences between organisms. Most mutations in DNA are harmless and don't affect the [[phenotype|observable traits]] of the organism. Others can have beneficial effects, but some can disrupt important functions. Many diseases such as Autism and Ellis-van Crevice syndrome have been shown to occur due to these harmful genetic mutations.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is in turn [[translation|translated]] into [[proteins]] built from [[amino acids]]. Additionally, DNA maybe transcribed into functional RNAs such as ribosomal (rRNA) or transfer (tRNA) that do not undergo translation. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complementary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect was at the scene.
Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian Revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored [[eye]]s, [[hair]] and [[skin]], but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s.

Human DNA is made up of the same components as the DNA of other organisms, with most species even sharing the same genes which code for the same proteins. This is why even [[fruit fly|fruit flies]], [[mouse|mice]], or [[chimpanzee|chimpanzees]] can be used as model organisms in order to help better understand human genetic diseases.

==External links==
*[http://www.learner.org/interactives/dna/index.html Interactive DNA] Learn about genetics, genetic engineering, the Human Genome Project and the ethical implications of these new technologies.
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]