Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Minimum wage

2009-12-26T19:03:08Z

JeffD: nc

If there were no mimimum wage law or unions in the United States, employers would be paying laborers what they are paid in Indonesia.[[User:Panini|Panini]] 18:36, 23 July 2007 (EDT)

==No point contributing to this article until after the election==
The crazies will own it. See you again when Obama's president.

==Minimum wage update==
The minimum wage went up to $6.55, and I'm not sure how you conservatives would like to word it, so I didn't edit anything.

The correlation between minimum wage increase and increase in unemployment is bunk, in Canada employment in county is the lowest in the province for years, and minimum wage has been going up bi yearly for the last 3 years by rather large increments, and I believe the same trends exist in the rest of the country, with the caveat for industrial jobs , ie' ford factories, which are more suffering from poor management and investment than government interference ( I would say).--[[User:JeffD|JeffD]] 14:03, 26 December 2009 (EST)

Tommy Douglas

2009-12-26T18:43:29Z

JeffD: nc

'''Tommy Douglas''' was a Canadian [[Christian]] Minister and politican. He was a former leader of the [[NDP]] and was a strong proponent of universal healthcare. He was recently voted the Greatest [[Canadian]] of All Time. Douglas is credited with the implementation of [[universal healthcare]] in Canada. See : [[Canadian Healthcare]]. Said of Douglas '''"He pursued his radical ideas relentlessly until they became so mainstream rival politicians claimed them as their own"'''.

He is the grandfather of Kiefer Sutherland, star of [[24]]<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000662/bio IMDB trivia and Bio page for Keifer Sutherland]</ref>.

[[Category:Canadian Political People]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Douglas, Tommy}}

Tumbling strain

2009-12-25T17:19:59Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737241 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Tumbling strain''' is a vocal feature of [[music]] common to many types of music, especially ethnic music. It is charactarized by a phrase of singing starting high in pitch and getting lower as the user runs low on breath.

[[Category:Musical terms]]

Plasma arc gasification

2009-12-25T17:18:51Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737242 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Plasma arc gasification''' is a technology that uses a [[plasma arc]] to [[gasify]] waste into [[syngas]] and a sort of glass-like [[slag]].

[[Category:Technology]]

Nebuchadnezzar I

2009-12-25T17:17:59Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737240 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Nebuchadnezzar I''' was the [[emperor]] of the [[Babylonian Empire]] from 1146 to 1123 BC. He was a member of Chaldean Dynasty.

[[category:Babylon]]
[[category:royalty]]

Malformation

2009-12-25T17:17:37Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737239 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Malformation''' is a structural defect inherited in an [[organ]] or part of an organ that results from abnormal fetal development. [[Abortion]] advocates often cite malformation as a justification for termination of the pregnancy, regardless of the [[Viability|viability]] of the [[Fetus|fetus]].

== Sources ==
http://www.genome.gov/glossary.cfm?key=malformation

[[Category:Genetics]]

Thyroid

2009-12-25T17:17:19Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737238 by Timothyjones (Talk)

The '''thyroid''' (from the [[Greek]] word for door) is a small [[endocrine]] ([[hormone]]-producing) organ located in the front of the neck just below your [[larynx]] ("Adam's apple"). The thyroid is responsible for regulating many processes in the human body.

==Function==
The thyroid processes '''[[iodine]]''' into two hormones: [[thyroxine]] (T4) and [[triiodythyromine]] (T3). These two hormones control [[metabolism]]. It also produces [[calcitonin]], which is necessary for [[calcium]] absorption. The thyroid is controlled by the [[pituitary gland]].

The pituitary releases '''T'''hyroid '''s'''timulation '''h'''ormone (TSH) in response to T3 and T4 levels circulation in the blood. If there is an excess of T4, TSH production is diminished; if there isn't enough T4, TSH production is increased.

==Iodine==
Iodine, which is found in many foods, is the essential nutrient in thyroid function. If one does not consume enough iodine, the thyroid becomes enlarged, which leads to [[goiter]]. This is the reason that we see ''iodized'' salt—to prevent growth deficiencies related to a lack of iodine in the diet.

==Hypo/hyperthyroid==
Hypothyroidism is a lack of T3/T4 in the blood stream; hyperthyroid is an excess. The chief diagnostic tool for these illnesses is that TSH level. The TSH level is inversely proportionate to the level of thyroid function (i.e. a high TSH level means an hypoactive thyroid). Signs and symptoms include:

===Hypothyroid===
*Fatigue
*Intolerance to cold
*Depression
*Constipation
*Paleness
*Weight gain and/or water retention
*[[Bradycardia]] (slow heart rate)

Treatment for hypothyroid involves thyroid-hormone replacement therapy ([[thyroxine]]).

===Hyperthyroid (Graves disease)===
*Anxiety or feeling "hyper"
*Intolerance to head
*Hair loss
*Polydipsia (uncontrollable thirst)
*Tachycardia (fast hear rate) or dysrhythmia

Treatment for hyperthyroid is more complicated. Some cases require surgical intervention to remove part or all of the thyroid. In most cases, alleviation of symptoms is achieved by irradiated iodine. The irradiated iodine destroys a part of the overactive gland, returning the T3/T4 levels to normal.

==External Links==
*[http://www.endocrineweb.com/thyfunction.html Endocrine Web]
*[http://www.medicinenet.com/thyroid/focus.htm MedicineNet.com]

[[Category:Physiology]]

Canterbury Tales

2009-12-25T17:16:43Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737237 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''''The Canterbury Tales''''' is a collection of stories by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (1342-1400), written between 1387 and 1400.<ref> http://www.librarius.com/cantales.htm </ref> It concerns a group of thirty [[pilgrim]]s traveling to [[Canterbury]] in [[England]]. The pilgrims, who come from all layers of society, tell stories to each other to kill time while they travel to Canterbury. In the General Prologue to the work, Chaucer states as his intention that each pilgrim should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two tales on the way back.<ref> To this end Chaucer's text reads: "This is the poynt, to speken short and pleyn, / That ech of yow, to shorte with oure weye, / In this viage shal telle tales tweye / To Caunterbury-ward, I mene it so, / And homward he shal tellen othere two...." (''This is the point, to speak short and plain, that each of you, to pass the time on this voyage, will tell two tales toward Canterbury and another two homeward.'') --Prologue, lines 792-96</ref>

This project was left incomplete at Chaucer's death in 1400, and even those tales which were then completed had not been finally revised. Partially as a result of this, and partially because the printing press had yet to be invented when Chaucer wrote his works, ''The Canterbury Tales'' was passed down in several handwritten manuscripts. Scholars are uncertain about the intended order of the tales.

==Some of the Tales==
In the tales, pilgrims are given distinct personalities and characters, and the work is considered to be one of the precursors of the modern novel. Many of the tales are ribald and earthy and full of humor. Some of the more notable tales are

===The Knight’s Tale===
"A knight there was, and he a worthy man, 
Who, from the moment that he first began 
To ride about the world, loved chivalry, 
Truth, honour, freedom and all courtesy." <ref>http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gchaucer/bl-gchau-can-genpro.ht</ref>

This is the first tale, a story rich in love, rivalry and chivalry. Two men fall in love with the same beautiful young girl.

===The Miller’s Tale===
"His mouth was like a furnace door for size. 
He was a jester and could poetize, 
But mostly all of sin and ribaldries. 
He could steal corn and full thrice charge his fees;"

A bawdy but humorous tale, telling a rather different story of love.

===The Wife of Bath’s Tale===
"She'd been respectable throughout her life, 
With five churched husbands bringing joy and strife, 
Not counting other company in youth; 
But thereof there's no need to speak, in truth."

She tells a thoughtful tale which poses the question, "What thyng is it that wommen moost desiren[?]" ("What do women most desire?"). Her romantic tale is set in the time of King Arthur.

===The Nun’s Priest’s Tale===
"Then spoke our host out, in rude speech and bold, 
And said he unto the nun's priest anon: 
"Come near, you priest, come hither, you Sir John, 
Tell us a thing to make our hearts all glad;" <ref>http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gchaucer/bl-gchau-can-nun.htm</ref>

An animated farmyard tale of a cockerel, a hen and a wily old fox.

===The Pardoner’s Tale===
"With him there rode a gentle pardoner 
Of Rouncival, his friend and his compeer; 
Straight from the court of Rome had journeyed he. 
Loudly he sang "Come hither, love, to me,"

A thrilling tale of death and trickery and one which will leave you with a slight tingle down your spine. The tale has an unexpected ending.<ref> For a full account of all the tales see: http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/cantales.html </ref>

Chaucer wrote in [[Middle English]], a form of English that is so archaic that it can be difficult to understand without a glossary or explanatory notes. Most modern English readers prefer to read it in translation.

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.canterburytales.org/canterbury_tales.html Electronic Literature Foundation edition]

[[category:literature]]

Prince v. Massachusetts

2009-12-25T17:16:21Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737236 by Timothyjones (Talk)

In '''''Prince v. Massachusetts''''', 321 U.S. 158 (1944), the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] confirmed that there is a constitutional dimension to the right of parents to direct the upbringing of their children. "It is cardinal with us that the custody, care and nurture of the child reside first in the parents, whose primary function and freedom include preparation for obligations the state can neither supply nor hinder." 321 U.S. at 166. <ref>http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=321&invol=158</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]
[[category:Parental Rights]]

Rangoon

2009-12-25T17:15:51Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737235 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Rangoon''' (also known as ''Yangon'') is the capital city of [[Burma]] (Myanmar); it is the largest city in Burma and has a population of 6 million.

[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Burma]]
[[Category:Asian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]

James Burnham

2009-12-25T17:15:34Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737234 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''James Burnham''' (1905-1987) was a leading American conservative of the the 1950s, and an editor of ''[[National Review]]'' magazine.

He is best known as a proponent of [[Rollback]] against Soviet Communism, which he promoted in the late 1940s. Opponents warned it would lead to nuclear war. It was adopted by [[Ronald Reagan]] in the 1980s, and Soviet Communism collapsed.

In the 1930s he was a Communist of the [[Trotskyite]] anti-Soviet variety, but was attacked by [[Trotsky]] himself and expelled by the Socialist Workers Party in 1940.
==Further reading==
* Francis, Samuel. '' James Burnham: Thinkers of Our Time‎'' (2nd ed. 1999) 164 pages
** previously published as '' Power and history: the political thought of James Burnham‎'' (1984)
* Kelly, Daniel. ''James Burnham and the struggle for the world: a life'' (2002) 443 pages; the standard scholarly biography

===Primary Sources===
* Burnham, James. '' The Managerial Revolution: Or What is Happening in the World Now'' (1940), highly influential study of capitalism
* Burnham, James. '' The Struggle for the World'' (1947)
* Burnham, James. '' The Coming Defeat of Communism'' (1950)
* Burnham, James. ''Containment or Liberation?'' (1952).

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burnham, James}}
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Former Leftists]]

Pro-drilling

2009-12-25T17:15:15Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737233 by Timothyjones (Talk)

'''Pro-drilling''' is a term to describe Americans who feel that the USA should be leading the world in energy production. Due to our vast resources, wealth and technology, pro-drilling advocates want an "all of the above" solution to the energy crisis.

The "all of the above" solution starts with drilling for oil ''first''. This strategy is to be part of a larger national energy policy that includes oil, shale, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar as well as new nuclear power-plant construction. A major [[campaign]] in the pro-drilling movement is the '''"Drill Here!, Drill Now!"''' effort. Citizens by the millions have signed up with [[American Solutions]] to support drilling initiatives.

Pro-drilling gained major support in response to the extremely high gasoline prices that have been inflicted upon the American consumer since the [[summer]] of 2005. This effort has become absolutely necessary due to Democratic [[congressional]] leaders refusal to drill for oil. Instead, [[Democrats|Democratic politicians]] are allied with extremist [[environmental]] organizations such as the [[Sierra Club]]. Plus, Speaker [[Nancy Pelosi]] has made narcissistic comments such as '''"I am trying to save the planet."''' <ref>[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0708/12122.html Pelosi: 'I'm trying to save the planet'] Politico, July 29, 2008</ref> The environmentalists' motives are clearly questionable. Plus, other [[humans]] worldwide are suffering from [[starvation]] because gasoline prices have made food unaffordable.

Recently, Pro-drilling supporters were mocked by Speaker Pelosi as the "two-cents-in-10-years-crowd." <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,412549,00.html Debunking Democrats on Drilling] Fox News, August 28, 2008</ref> This attitude proves the Democratic leadership has no intention of lifting drilling bans off the continental shelf or in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]].

Lindsey Williams (a [[Baptist]] minister who was a [[chaplain]] on the 1970s [[Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline]]) in his 1980 book ''The Energy Non-Crisis'' claims to have personally witnessed an oil find at a location called Gull Island which would have made the United States energy independent indefinitely, but the company was ordered by government regulators not to produce that well.<ref>Williams, Lindsey. ''The Energy Non-Crisis'', 1980. Complete text at http://www.reformation.org/energy-non-crisis.html</ref>

==Also See==
*[[Oil]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Energy independence]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.americansolutions.com/ American Solutions for Winning the Future website]
*[http://www.grassfire.org/108/petition.asp Grassfire.org Emergency Petition To Congress]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Energy]]
[[Category:Political Terms]]

Homozygous genotype

2009-12-25T17:14:56Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737232 by Timothyjones (Talk)

A '''Homozygous genotype''' is a [[genotype]] in which both [[allele|alleles]] are identical.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==See also==
*[[Heterozygous genotype]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]

Rock (music)

2009-12-25T17:14:35Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737231 by Timothyjones (Talk)

A '''rock''' is a solid material made of one or more [[mineral]]s. The minerals the rock is made of help determine the properties of that rock. All of the rocks in the earth's crust can be grouped into three categories based on how they formed. Rocks are classified into three groups. The way a rock formed determines which group it is in. They may range in size from tiny pebbles to huge [[mountain]]s. Rocks make up the earth’s crust. Many rocks are not solid -- such as [[magma]], [[dirt]], and [[clay]]. In general, the only people interested in rocks are geologists. Different mineral deposits can be found in related rock formations, providing use by estimating what minerals rock formations may contain.

==Types of Rocks==
* [[Igneous Rock]]s
* [[Sedimentary Rock]]s
* [[Metamorphous Rock]]s

''Rock'' may also refer to [[Rock and Roll]].

==External Links==
*[http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/index.html Interactive Rock Cycle] Learn how to distinguish between types of rocks and discover how rocks change over time.

[[Category:Earth Sciences]]

French Third Republic

2009-12-25T17:12:54Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737360 by Timothyjones (Talk)

The '''Third Republic''' existed as the French government between the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and [[World War II]] (1870 – 1940). It followed the [[French Second Empire]] and was succeeded by the [[Vichy regime]]. So it began in the turbulence after the Franco-Prussian War and ended in the turbulence of the quick French defeat at the hands of [[Nazi Germany]] early in World War II. Both the beginning and the end came about due to shocking defeats at the hands of German armies.

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Articles needing expansion]]

Burglary

2009-12-25T17:11:29Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737382 by Timothyjones (Talk)v

A '''burglary''' is the act of illegal entry with the intent to commit a felony.

Household burglary is the unlawful or forcible entry or attempted entry of a residence. This [[crime]] usually, but not always, involves [[theft]]. The illegal entry may be by [[force]], such as breaking a [[window]] or slashing a screen, or may be without force by entering through an unlocked door or an open window. As long as the person entering has no legal right to be present in the structure a burglary has occurred. Furthermore, the structure need not be the house itself for a burglary to take place; illegal entry of a garage, shed, or any other structure on the premises also constitutes household burglary. If breaking and entering occurs in a [[hotel]] or vacation residence, it is still classified as a burglary for the household whose member or members were staying there at the time the entry occurred.

*Completed burglary is a form of burglary in which a person who has no legal right to be present in the structure successfully gains entry to a residence, by use of force, or without force.
*Forcible entry is a form of completed burglary in which force is used to gain entry to a residence. Some examples include breaking a window or slashing a screen.
*Unlawful entry without force is a form of completed burglary committed by someone having no legal right to be on the premises, even though no force is used.
*Attempted forcible entry is a form of burglary in which force is used in an attempt to gain entry.

Burglaries can be prevented by means known as target hardening, such as locking your doors, securing your valuables, and purchasing an alarm system,carrying a [[gun]] on your person if legal in your place of residence helps to protect against burgalars

[[Category:Legal Terms]]
[[category:crimes]]

American History Homework Nine Answers - 1.414213562373095048, (square root of 2)

2009-12-25T17:10:17Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737325 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

American History Homework Nine
Instructor: Andy Schlafly
In recognition of the midterm exam and your hard work for it, this week's lecture and assignment is only half as long.

Joseph M.

Read the lecture first.

''1. In your opinion, the 2008 election that concluded on Tuesday is most similar to which election in history, and why? ''
I that this election is most like the election between Senator John Quincy Adams and Senator Andrew Jackson. Andrew Jackson was a war hero, like McCain, plus there is the endorsement of Barrack Obama by Colin Powell. Many said that President-elect Obama would give Powell a high position in the government. This would be akin to the “Corrupt Bargain”, when Senator Henry Clay widely endorsed John Quincy Adams, and after Adams was elected, he gave Clay the Secretary Of State position.

:Excellent detailed analysis.

''2. Imperialism: a good or bad thing?''
I believe that in some cases imperialism can be good, but as with all things, too much of it is never good. I think that a bigger country exerting influence over a smaller country can sometimes be good, as the two countries can trade, and exchange valuable knowledge and technology, but then it can be taken to the extreme, as in the infamous Opium Wars, where the British forced the Chinese to buy the highly addictive drug opium.

:I doubt the British '''forced''' the Chinese to buy opium, but that issue is beyond our American History course. Good otherwise.

''3. Your thoughts on the progressive movement, please.''
I think that the goals of the progressive movement are almost all very good. I don’t see a way that anybody could disagree with them. The progressive movement’s goals also remind me of the goals of the U.N., which seeks world peace and civil rights, and to improve working conditions.

:The goals may seem good, but the real question is the approach taken by the progressive movement to achieve the goals, such as more and more regulation. You didn't address the means used. (Minus 1).

''4. Please explain the cartoon in the Minnesota Tribune, having the caption at top, "WHAT WILL HE DO!" and the caption at the bottom, "The eyes of the world are upon him." Include your description of the point of view of the cartoonist.''
This cartoon features a man, (probably McKinley,) holding a Cuban or a Spanish man by the scruff of his neck, I think that the cartoon is saying that McKinley is on the edge of a war against the Spanish, and that the entire world is watching to see when the war will start. I believe that the cartoonist is probably against the war, and the cartoonist portrays McKinley as a bit of a gruff old man, but portrays the Cuban/Spanish man as a harmless, undefended man that McKinley is harming.

:No, this misses the mark. See the model answers. (Minus 2).

Honors (pick 2 out of 3)

''H1. Do you agree with how the United States finally ended the fighting in the Philippines during the Spanish-American War?''
I do agree, because not only did the United States grant Cuba independence, but the U.S. also put a military base in Cuba to help stem further uprising. And we signed the Treaty of Paris, giving the U.S even more land, and they ended the war in a way that would eventually make Spain our ally.

:Fine, but doesn't specifically answer the question about the ''Philippines''. (Minus 1).

''H2. How do you think the role of newspapers in the recent election compares with the "yellow journalism" of the 1890s?''
I believe that the role of the newspapers in the recent election is very similar to Yellow Journalism, for instance, when Barack Obama called McCain’s economic policies a “pig in lipstick”, the next day all the tabloids and a lot of the newspapers had headlines like “Obama calls McCain/ Palin Pig”! which caught my eye, and even though it wasn’t the truth, I had already picked up the newspaper and seen that Jeter was batting 333, so I wanted to read the sports section and then I saw that the new Batman was coming out. And so on, so even though the newspapers were not publishing the truth, they were still catching the public’s eye.
On the other hand, newspapers were not so influential in this election because television, radio and the internet played a larger role.

:Good analysis.

:Nice work. Score: 56/60.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 15:39, 14 November 2008 (EST)
[[Category:American History Homework Nine Answers]]

Cinque Ports

2009-12-25T17:09:42Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737323 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

The '''Cinque Ports''' (Derivation: Old French; ''cink porz'') - pronounced ''sink ports'' – were originally the 12th century seaports of [[Hastings]], [[Sandwich UK|Sandwich]], [[Dover UK|Dover]], [[Romney UK|Romney]] and [[Hythe]] that were granted special privileges for providing ships, equipment and men for the defence of the coasts of [[Kent]] and [[Sussex]] in [[England]]. They were the closest England ever had to a European-type league or confederacy of towns with a like-minded purpose.

Later, the five were joined by [[Winchelsea]] and [[Rye UK|Rye]] and, later still, other ports became sort of “branch members” so that the association ultimately totalled up to about forty. Their importance declined rapidly in the 17th century with the rise of a formal national navy and the silting up of several of the harbours, until today it only exists in the title of the “Warden of the Cinque Ports”, a purely ceremonial position revived in the early 20th century in conjunction with the Governorship of Dover Castle; and given to retired worthies, such as ex Conservative prime ministers and even the [[HM Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother|Queen Mother]].

[[Category: Medieval History]]
[[Category: English History]]
[[Category: United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Faith Center Church Evangelistic Ministries v. Glover

2009-12-25T17:09:20Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737322 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

The Alliance Defense Fund has filed its petition for cert. in '''''Faith Center Church Evangelistic Ministries v. Glover''''', to appeal a Ninth Circuit 2-1 ruling in favor of a library that allows virtually any use of its meeting rooms EXCEPT a use that includes religious worship.

The panel decision was split, 2-1, and 7 judges dissented from rehearing en banc. One of the panel judges, sitting by designation from the district court, was unusually harsh and one might say disrespectful in his statements about the [[U.S. Supreme Court]].

The Supreme Court docket on this case is here:[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/docket/06-1633.htm]

The DOJ filed an amicus brief before the Ninth Circuit here:[http://www.telladf.org/UserDocs/DOJFaithCenterAmicus.pdf]

*Applying Widmar and Good News Club, the district court reasoned that the County did not show a compelling state interest to justify the restriction on religious services. See Faith Ctr., 2005 WL 1220947, at *6. In response, the County argued that it must enforce the policy to avoid violating the [[Establishment Clause]]. Ibid. Dismissing the County’s argument and again applying Widmar, Good News Club, and Lamb’s Chapel, the district court concluded that the “Supreme Court has foreclosed this argument by consistently holding that a policy of equal access does not violate the Establishment Clause.”

[[category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]

Bundren v. Parriott

2009-12-25T17:08:52Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737321 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

In '''''Bundren v. Parriott''''', 2007 U.S. App. LEXIS 20258 (10th Cir. Aug. 24, 2007), the U.S. Court of Appeals for the [[Tenth Circuit]] affirmed summary judgment in favor of a defendant physician who was accused of defaming another physician by filing a complaint against him with the [[American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists]] (ACOG).

The defendant physician had filed the complaint with ACOG against the other physician due to his testimony as an expert in a malpractice trial. The trial court had granted [[summary judgment]] by concluding that the defendant physician "is not liable in damages for submitting his ACOG complaint, because the organization's grievance procedure is a 'professional review action' within the meaning of the Act." On appeal, the [[Tenth Circuit]] disagreed with this analysis, noting that qualified immunity under [[HCQIA]] did not apply unless and until there was a finding that the ACOG proceeding satisfied the procedural requirements of [[HCQIA]].

The [[Tenth Circuit]] did hold for defendant on other grounds, including a finding of lack of any [[defamatory]] statements in the complaint by the [[defendant]].
[[category:Circuit Cases]]
[[category:Tenth Circuit]]
[[category:Health Law]]

Caption

2009-12-25T17:07:54Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737356 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

A '''caption''' is a heading or introductory [[party]] of a [[pleading]] in a lawsuit. [[Category:Legal Terms]]

Zooplankton

2009-12-25T17:07:32Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737352 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

'''Zooplankton''' are tiny floating [[organism]]s that are either small [[animals]] or [[protozoa]].<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia
Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

==See also==
*[[Phytoplankton]]
*[[Plankton]] (main article)

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Western Isles

2009-12-25T17:07:14Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737340 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

The '''Western Isles''' (Gaelic: ''Na h-Eileanan Siar''), also known as the [[Outer Hebrides]], are a chain of Scottish islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, off the north-west coast of [[Scotland]]. The main islands are [[Lewis]] and [[Harris]] (which form one island), [[North Uist]], [[Benbecula]], [[South Uist]] and [[Barra]]. The two Uists and Benbecula are connected by bridges and causeways and are collectively known as 'the long island'. The administrative centre of the Western Isles is [[Stornoway]]. The islands, formerly divided between [[Invernessshire]] and [[Ross & Cromarty]], became a region of Scotland in 1975 and a county in 1996.

The islands are a stronghold of [[Gaelic]] language and culture, and are among the most strongly religious areas in the [[United Kingdom]]. In Lewis, Harris and North Uist [[Protestantism]] is the predominant faith; in the other islands, [[Roman Catholicism]].

[[Category:United Kingdom Counties]]
[[Category:Scotland]]
[[Category:Islands]]

Nathaniel Prentice Banks

2009-12-25T17:05:44Z

JeffD: Undo revision 737335 by Timothyjones (Talk)rv

'''Nathaniel Prentice Banks''', a Representative from [[Massachusetts]]; born in Waltham, Mass., January 30, 1816; attended the common schools; a [[machinist]] by trade; editor of a weekly paper in Waltham, Mass.; clerk in the [[customhouse]] in Boston, Mass.; studied law; was admitted to the Suffolk County bar and commenced practice in Boston; member of the State house of representatives 1849-1852, for two years serving as speaker; member of the State [[constitutional convention]] of 1853; elected as a [[Democrat]] to the Thirty-third Congress, as the candidate of the [[American Party]] to the Thirty-fourth Congress, and as a [[Republican]] to the Thirty-fifth Congress and served from March 4, 1853, until he resigned December 24, 1857, to become [[Governor]]; Speaker of the House of Representatives (Thirty-fourth Congress); Governor of Massachusetts from January 1858, until January 1861; moved to Chicago, Ill.; vice president of the Illinois Central Railroad; entered the Union Army as a major general of Volunteers May 16, 1861; honorably mustered out August 24, 1865; returned to Massachusetts; elected as a Republican to the Thirty-ninth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Daniel W. Gooch; reelected as a Republican to the Fortieth, Forty-first, and Forty-second Congresses and served from December 4, 1865, to March 3, 1873; chairman, Committee on Foreign Affairs (Thirty-ninth through Forty-second Congresses); unsuccessful [[Liberal]] and Democratic candidate for reelection in 1872 to the Forty-third Congress; member of the State senate in 1874; elected as an Independent to the Forty-fourth Congress and as a Republican to the Forty-fifth Congress (March 4, 1875-March 3, 1879); unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1878 to the Forty-sixth Congress; appointed United States [[marshal]] on March 11, 1879, and served until April 23, 1888; elected as a Republican to the Fifty-first Congress (March 4, 1889-March 3, 1891); chairman, Committee on Expenditures in the [[Department of the Interior]] (Fifty-first Congress); unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1890 to the Fifty-second Congress; died in Waltham, Middlesex County, Mass., September 1, 1894; interment in Grove Hill Cemetery.

==References==
*http://bioguide.congress.gov/biosearch/biosearch.asp

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banks, Nathaniel Prentice}}

[[Category:Former United States Representatives]]
[[Category:Speakers of the House(US)]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]

Holy Family

2009-12-25T17:05:21Z

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The '''Holy Family''' refers to [[Jesus]], the [[Virgin Mary]] His mother, and [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] His father. Stories of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph are found in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]]. It is a term used in [[Catholic]] settings. [[Church]]es and other places of worship are often dedicated to the Holy Family, one of the most famous being [[Gaudi]]'s Temple of the [[Sagrada Familia]] in [[Barcelona]].

[[Category:Christian Terms]]

George Reid

2009-12-25T17:04:55Z

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{{PM
|dob=25 February
|yob=1845
|birthplace=Renfrewshire, Scotland
|dod=12 September
|yod=1918
|wife=Flora Reid
|party-raw=(Free trade)
|succ={{Succession
|hdg=As Prime Minister
|start-date=18 August
|start-year=1904
|end-date=5 July
|end-year=1905
|prev=John Watson
|next=Alfred Deakin
}}
}}

The '''Rt Hon. George Houstoun Reid''' was [[Prime Minister]] of [[Australia]] for about ten months in 1904, following the resignation of [[John Watson]].
Reid resigned after losing support of the [[Protectionist Party]], and was replaced by [[Alfred Deakin]], who had previously been Australia's second Prime Minister.

Reid initially opposed [[Federation]] for Australia, but later changed his mind and supported it.

In 1910, he became Australia's first High Commissioner to the [[United Kingdom]]. After fulfilling that role for six years, he was offered a seat in the British [[House of Commons]], to which he was elected unopposed.

== Source ==
* National Museum of Australia, [http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/george_reid/ George Reid]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reid, George}}
{{Australian Prime Ministers}}

Juan Carlos

2009-12-25T17:04:12Z

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'''Juan Carlos de Bourbon y Bourbon''' is the current king of [[Spain]]. He took the crown at the end of the [[Franco]] era, and was instrumental in guiding the country safely towards [[democracy]] during a potentially volatile period. Because of this achievement, he commands respect among the majority of Spaniards, although the future of the country's [[monarchy]] after his death is not assured.

Juan Carlos' role in the government of Spain is mainly symbolic, in a similar way to the monarchy of the [[United Kingdom]].

[[Category:Monarchs]]
[[Category:Spanish People]]

Zhenli Ye Gon

2009-12-25T17:03:51Z

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[[Image:Zhenli int.jpg|left|Zhenli Ye Gon]]
'''Zhenli Ye Gon''' (b. 1963, Shanghai) is a business man of [[Chinese]] origin, apparently accused by Mexican government of trafficking pseudoephedrine into Mexico from [[Asia]].

Mr. Ye Gon claimed in an interview that he kept the money found in his house in [[Mexico]], which is apparently the largest illegal fortune ever found in the world (+205 million American dollars), after having been blackmailed by "Mexico's government party". U.S. and Mexican authorities are investigating the existence of at least $200 million more belonging to Zhenli Ye Gon, according to information from national security officials. <ref>http://cbrayton.wordpress.com/2007/08/03/ye-gon-quaint-customs-and-the-quest-for-the-mountain-of-money-ii/</ref> ''Prosecutors have also tried to secure the cooperation of Ye Gon's wife and two of his former employees, who are being held in a prison outside Mexico City. '' [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/28/AR2008102801364.html]

Zhenli Ye Gon was arrested in a Maryland restaurant four months after police discovered $207 million at his Mexico City mansion in what U.S. officials have called the world's biggest seizure of drug cash. He pled “not guilty” in a D.C. federal court. <ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,290520,00.html</ref> In June, 2009 The US Federal government dismissed conspiracy charges against Mr. Zhenli Ye Gon;

<blockquote>
With its case weakened, US prosecutors decided to punt, sending the case back to Mexico. "The government believes the interests of justice and the United States' ongoing collaborative efforts with the government of Mexico to combat international drug trafficking are best served by giving precedence to the Mexican prosecution," DOJ attorney Paul Laymon wrote in his motion to dismiss. [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/U.S.+PROSECUTORS+DROP+CHARGES+AGAINST+PHARMACIST+ZHENLI+YE+GON%2c...-a0204203938]

</blockquote>

On August 28, 2009 Judge Emmet Sullivan dismissed the drug trafficking conspiracy charge against Zhenli Ye Gon with prejudice.

Mr. Ye Gon's fathers-in-law have a good and old prestige among the Chinese community in Mexico.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/437166.html El Universal] In Spanish.
*[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/437354.html El Universal 2] In Spanish.
*[http://blog.wired.com/sterling/2007/07/zhenli-ye-gon-c.html Zhenli Ye Gon]

{{DEFAULTSORT: Ye Gon, Zhenli}}

[[category:Business People]]
[[category:Mexico]]

Twelver Shi'ism

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A division of Shi'ism prompted by the [[Shi'ite]]/[[Sunni]] split caused after the death of the Prophet [[Mohammed]]. Twelver Shi'as believe that the Twelfth [[Imam]] was taken into [[Occultation]], or mystical hiding, to await his return at the end of the world at the side of [[al-Mahdi]] and [[Jesus Christ]], and inaugurate an era of Islamic peace.

==References==
Berkey, "The Formation of Islam"

[[category:islam]]

Osmen Bey

2009-12-25T17:01:43Z

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'''Osmen Bey''' was a famous [[ghazi]] who began the Ottoman empire.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bey, Osmen}}
[[Category:Muslims]]

Second Amendment

2009-12-25T02:19:43Z

JeffD: corrected a minor error, the obsolete spelling is not an "f", it's a medial s, that fell out of use around the time of the constitutions writing actually.

The '''Second Amendment to the United States Constitution''' reads:<ref>This is the most-often quoted form of this Amendment, but note later in this entry the significant objection to including three commas rather than just one.</ref>

{{cquote|''A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.''}}

== Individual or Collective Right? ==
For several decades, the lower federal courts had interpreted the Second Amendment as protecting merely a collective right of state militias.<ref>http://www.davekopel.com/2A/LawRev/35finalpartone.htm</ref> However, the US Supreme Court has always called it an individual right. The 2008 case [[District of Columbia v. Heller]] ruled 5-4 that the Second Amendment protects an individual right.

==Where the Second Amendment comes from==
In 1786, the [[United States]] existed as a loose national [[government]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]]. This confederation was perceived to have several weaknesses, among which was the inability to mount a Federal military response to an armed uprising in western [[Massachusetts]] known as [[Shays' Rebellion]].

In 1787, to address these weaknesses, the [[Philadelphia Convention]] was held with the idea of amending the Articles. When the convention ended with a proposed [[Constitution]], those who debated the ratification of the Constitution divided into two camps; the [[Federalist]]s (who supported ratification of the Constitution) and the [[Anti-Federalists]] (who opposed it).

Among their objections to the Constitution, anti-Federalists feared a standing army that could eventually endanger [[democracy]] and [[civil liberties]]. Although the anti-Federalists were unsuccessful at blocking ratification of the Constitution, through the Massachusetts Compromise they insured that a [[Bill of Rights]] would be made, which would provide constitutional guarantees against taking away certain rights.

One of those rights was the right to bear arms. This was intended to prevent the Federal Government from taking away the ability of the states to raise an army and defend itself and arguably to prevent them from taking away from individuals the ability to bear arms.

==Comments==
The meaning of this amendment is controversial with respect to [[gun control]].

The [[National Rifle Association]], which supports gun rights, has a stone plaque in front of its headquarters bearing the words "The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." The slogan means that individual citizens have the right to own and use guns.

American law has always said that the militia includes ordinary private citizens, and gun rights advocates say that the amendment means individuals have the right to own and use guns. Gun control advocates began in the late 20th century to say it means only that there is only some sort of collective or state-controlled right.

[[Supreme Court]] opinions have all been consistent with the individual rights interpretation of the Second Amendment, but the lower court opinions are mixed.

As of 2007, people argue about the meaning of the Second Amendment, but there is no definitive answer. The latest ruling is Parker v District of Columbia, in which the DC Circuit court of appeals ruled on March 9, 2007 that the [[Washington, D.C.|DC]] gun ban violated individual rights under the Second Amendment.

'''''The One Comma vs. The Three Comma Debate

'''''A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.''''''''''

Quoted from:
http://www.freerepublic.com/forum/a39388c210c1b.htm

Down to the Last Second (Amendment)

Participants in the various debates on firearms, crime, and constitutional law may have noticed that the Second Amendment is often quoted differently by those involved. The two main variations differ in punctuation- specifically, in the number of commas used to separate those twenty-seven words. But which is the correct one? The answer to this question must be found in official records from the early days of the republic. Therefore, a look into the progression of this declaratory and restrictive clause from its inception to its final form is in order.

Before beginning, one must note that common nouns, like "state" and "people," were often capitalized in official and unofficial documents of the era. Also, an obsolete formation of the letter s used to indicate the long s sound was in common usage. The long 's' is subject to confusion with the lower case 'f' ,therefore, Congress" is sometimes spelled as "Congrefs," as is the case in the parchment copy of the Bill of Rights displayed by the National Archives. The quotations listed here are accurate. With the exception of the omission of quotations marks, versions of what is now known as the Second Amendment in boldface appear with the exact spelling, capitalization, and punctuation as the cited originals.

==Chronological History==

During ratification debates on the Constitution in the state conventions, several states proposed amendments to that charter. Anti-Federalist opposition to ratification was particularly strong in the key states of New York and Virginia, and one of their main grievances was that the Constitution lacked a declaration of rights. During the ratification process, Federalist James Madison became a champion of such a declaration, and so it fell to him, as a member of the 1st Congress, to write one. On June 8, 1789, Madison introduced his declaration of rights on the floor of the House. One of its articles read:

The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person.1

On July 21, John Vining of Delaware was appointed to chair a select committee of eleven to review, and make a report on, the subject of amendments to the Constitution. Each committeeman represented one of the eleven states (Rhode Island and North Carolina had not ratified the Constitution at that time), with James Madison representing Virginia. Unfortunately, no record of the committee's proceedings is known to exist. Seven days later, Vining duly issued the report, one of the amendments reading:

A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed, but no person religiously scrupulous shall be compelled to bear arms. 2

In debates on the House floor, some congressmen, notably Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts and Thomas Scott of Pennsylvania, objected to the conscientious objector clause in the fifth article. They expressed concerns that a future Congress might declare the people religiously scrupulous in a bid to disarm them, and that such persons could not be called up for military duty. However, motions to strike the clause were not carried. On August 21, the House enumerated the Amendments as modified, with the fifth article listed as follows:

5. A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the People, being the best security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. 3

Finally, on August 24, the House of Representatives passed its proposals for amendments to the Constitution and sent them to the Senate for their consideration. The next day, the Senate entered the document into their official journal. The Senate Journal shows Article the Fifth as:

Art. V. A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed, but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person. 4

On September 4, the Senate debated the amendments proposed by the House, and the conscientious objector clause was quickly stricken. Sadly, these debates were held in secret, so records of them do not exist. The Senators agreed to accept Article the Fifth in this form:

...a well regulated militia, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall net be infringed. 5

In further debates on September 9, the Senate agreed to strike the words, "the best," and replace them with, "necessary to the." Since the third and fourth articles had been combined, the Senators also agreed to rename the amendment as Article the Fourth. The Senate Journal that day carried the article without the word, "best," but also without the replacements, "necessary to." Note that the extraneous commas have been omitted:

A well regulated militia being the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 6

With two-thirds of the Senate concurring on the proposed amendments, they were sent back to the House for the Representatives' perusal. On September 21, the House notified the Senate that it agreed to some of their amendments, but not all of them. However, they agreed to Article the Fourth in its entirety:

Resolved, That this House doth agree to the second, fourth, eighth, twelfth, thirteenth, sixteenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twenty-fifth, and twenty-sixth amendments... 7

By September 25, the Congress had resolved all differences pertaining to the proposed amendments to the Constitution. On that day, a Clerk of the House, William Lambert, put what is now known as the Bill of Rights to parchment. Three days later, it was signed by the Speaker of the House, Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg, and the President of the Senate, Vice President John Adams. This parchment copy is held by the National Archives and Records Administration, and shows the following version of the fourth article:

Article the Fourth. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 8

The above version is used almost exclusively today, but aside from the parchment copy, the author was unable to find any other official documents from that era which carry the amendment with the extra commas. In fact, in the appendix of the Senate Journal, Article the Fourth is entered as reading:

Art. IV. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.9

Also, the Annals of Congress, formally called The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States, show the proposed amendment as follows:

Article the Fourth. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.10

Further, once two-thirds of both chambers of the Congress agreed to the proposed amendments, the House passed a resolve to request that the President send copies of them to the governors of the eleven states in the Union, and to those of Rhode Island and North Carolina. The Senate concurred on September 26, as recorded in their journal:

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the President of the United States be requested to transmit to the executives of the United States, which have ratified the constitution copies of the amendments proposed by Congress, to be added thereto; and like copies to the executives of the states of Rhode Island and North Carolina.11

Fortunately, an original copy of the amendments proposed by the Congress, and sent to the State of Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations, does survive. Certified as a true copy by Assembly Secretary Henry Ward, it reads in part:

Article the Fourth, --A well regulated Militia being neceffary to the Security of a free State, the Right of the People to keep and bear Arms fhall not be infringed. 12

And so, the proposed amendments to the Constitution were sent to the states for ratification. When notifying the President that their legislatures or conventions had ratified some or all of the proposed amendments, some states attached certified copies of them. New York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Rhode Island notified the general government that they had ratified the fourth amendment in this form:

Article the Fourth. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 13

Articles the First and Second were not ratified by the required three-fourths of the states, but by December 15, 1791, the last ten articles were. These, of course, are now known as the Bill of Rights. Renumbering the amendments was required since the first two had not been ratified. The 1796 revision of The Federalist on the New Constitution reflects the change as such:

ARTICLE THE SECOND

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.14

This version is carried throughout the 19th Century, in such legal treatises as Joseph Story's Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (1833) and Thomas Cooley's Principles of Constitutional Law (1898). It is also transcribed in this manner in the 1845 Statutes at Large, although the term "state" is capitalized in that text. The latter are the official source for acts of Congress.15,16, 17

This version still appears today, as is the case with the annotated version of the Constitution they sponsored on the Government Printing Office web site (1992, supplemented in 1996 and 1998). The Second Amendment is shown as reading:

A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. 18

(The Senate-sponsored GPO site does carry a "literal print" of the amendments to the Constitution showing the Second Amendment with the additional commas. The punctuation and capitalization of the amendments transcribed there are the same as those found on the parchment copy displayed in the Rotunda of the National Archives.)19

Thus, the correct rendition of the Second Amendment carries but a single comma, after the word "state." It was in this form that those twenty-seven words were written, agreed upon, passed, and ratified.

Why the Commas are Important

It is important to use the proper Second Amendment because it is clearly and flawlessly written in its original form. Also, the function of the words, "a well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state," are readily discerned when the proper punctuation is used. On the other hand, the gratuitous addition of commas serve only to render the sentence grammatically incorrect and unnecessarily ambiguous. These points will be demonstrated later in the Second Amendment Series.

Footnotes to Comment section:

1. Amendments Offered in Congress by James Madison, June 8, 1789. The Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/bor/amd_jmad.htm, 16 January 2000.

2. Amendments Reported by the Select Committee. July 28, 1789. The Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/bor/amd_scom.htm, 16 January 2000.

3. U.S. House Journal. 1st Cong., 1st sess., 21 August 1789.

4. U.S. Senate Journal. 1st Cong., 1st sess., 25 August 1789.

5. U.S. Senate Journal, 1st Cong., 1st sess., 4 September 1789.

6. U.S. Senate Journal, 1st Cong., 1st sess., 9 September 1789.

7. U.S. House Journal. 1st Cong., 1st sess., 21 September 1789.

8. Bill of Rights. National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.nara.gov/exhall/charters/billrights/bill.jpg, 22 January 2000.

9. U.S. Senate Journal. 1st Cong., 1st sess., Appendix.

10. Annals of Congress, 1st Cong., 1st sess., Appendix

11. U.S. Senate Journal. 1st Cong. 1st sess., 26 September 1789.

12. A True Bill. The Constitution for the United States, Its Sources and Its Applications. http://www.nidlink.com/~bobhard/billofrt.jpg, 27 January 2000.

13. U.S. House Journal, 1st Cong., 3rd sess., Appendix Note: Maryland and South Carolina capitalized the "m" in "Militia."

14. The Federalist on the New Constitution, 1796. The Constitution for the United States, Its Sources and Its Applications. http://www.nidlink.com/~bobhard/f16b1234.jpg, 17 February 2000.

15. Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/js/js_344.htm, 18 February 2000.

16. Quotes from Constitutional Commentators. Gun Cite. http://www.guncite.com/gc2ndcom.html, 2 February 2000.

17. Statutes at Large 1845, 21.

18. Second Amendment--Bearing Arms. The Constitution of the United States of America. http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/constitution/amdt2.html, 18 February 2000.

19. Text of the Amendments (Literal Print). The Constitution of the United States of America. http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/constitution/conamt.html, 18 February 2000.

== Footnotes ==

<references/>

==See Also==
[[United States Constitution]]

{{US amendments}}
[[Castle Doctrine]]
[[Category:United States Constitution]]

Plymouth Brethren

2009-12-25T00:08:40Z

JeffD: nc

The '''Plymouth Brethren''' or '''Christian Brethren''' is a small Protestant denomination which arose in Britain in the 1820s with the goal of returning to the beliefs and practices of the New Testament church.See: [[Christian Reconstructionism]] for a later manifestation. The structure of the Brethren denomination (speaking in generalization) is designed to replicate as accurately as possible the organization of the Pauline Christian Church<ref>J.R Littleproud, The Christian Assembly, (Grand Folio Press : Grand Rapids Michigan,1955)pp 53-81</ref>. In this sense, with a caveat for the exclusives, the emphasis on organization is on locally founded and locally organized assemblies of bible believing and bible practicing Christians. This facet of the movement has made writing about it very difficult, as each locally organized assembly determines in theory it's own doctrine and day to day matters. Generally speaking the denomination is loosely organized and does not have ordained clergy; the three main groupings are the "Open Brethren", "Closed Brethren" and "Exclusive Brethren", which due to the lack of doctrinal standardization refers largely to Communion practice, an early splitting point for brethren.

They are best known for devising the theory of [[Dispensationalism]], especially as formulated by Anglican priest [[John Nelson Darby]], later the founder of the "Exclusive" grouping. This theory became a core belief of [[Fundamentalism]] in the 20th century.

In 2005 the denomination, now known as the "Christian Brethren" reported 86,000 members and 600 clergy in the United States. They do not ordain their clergy. Since 1941 it operates Emmaus Bible College, which since 1984 has been located in Dubuque, Iowa.

== Defining Characteristics ==
With the caveats of the above, there are essentially six defining features of any given brethren congregations. Anti-clericalism and/or anti-churchism,the rejection of the concept of membership in a congregation,celebration of a weekly ceremony commemorating the Lord's death,separation of roles for men and women in the meeting and outside the meeting,absolutely non professionalization of ministers; there are no ministers per the proper definition of the term, and the rejection of charismatic gifts (cessationist position).

Brief explanation of each is necessary.

Anti-Clericalism/Anti-Churchism means that in the Brethren meeting there are no statues, no paintings, no musical accompaniment,nothing to tie the meeting of the local Christians to the ritualistic practices of the denominational church.In Brethren jargon, church refers not to the building or the denomination,rather it revers to the universal body of Christians unified by their profession of faith in their salvation obtained through the grace and mercy of the resurrected Christ.

Following said point, the congregation of believers rejects the concept of membership in the church and membership in any particular faction or congregation. Rather Brethren jargon prefers the word fellowship. Entering a brethren congregation is styled as entering into fellowship with the christian body in that particular area<ref>Littleproud,pp110</ref>.

There is typically a weekly ceremony where the two emblems of bread and wine are sent throughout the body<ref>Littleproud,pp.128-132</ref>. This is where most congregations differ, some say that any professing salvation may take part in the ritual, others say that only those approved by the church body or a middle ground solution, bearing letters of recommendation<ref>Littleproud,pp188,189</ref> from the congregation leaders which are styled as Elders and are typically selected by the congregation from the most learned and Christ centered men<ref>Littleproud,pp 51</ref>.Generally during this meeting an offering plate or box or bag is sent around, but only those in fellowship may contribute, and only to the amount they feel required of them; tithing is regarded as churchist and applying only to the dispensation existing between God and Israel.

Men and women are separate in all matters. Women were created to help men, but this does not imply a relationship of inferiority, rather a differed relationship. Women are housewives, child bearers, women are noted for their quiet worship and subdued nature rather than men who are noted for risk taking, and providing. Therefore, generally it is wished that a women shall stay home and watch the children produced by a marriage, and generally speaking all Brethren congregations agree that women shouldn't be allowed to speak during the meetings held<ref>Littheproud, pp 149-153</ref>.

Ministers are styled workers and are selected from the body of the men in any given congregation according to their gifts for learning and speaking. There is no formal school to produce or accredit them, there is no salary<ref>Littleproud,pp84</ref>. Ministers live at the bequest of individual congregations which may support their work to the manner they choose.Generally Ministers live very well.

Finally, there are no charismatic gifts in the congregation<ref>Littleproud,pp115</ref>. When the canon of scripture was completed with the book of Revelation, the outpouring of Charismatic gifts ended.

== References ==

<references/>

== External links ==
* [http://www.believershome.com/html/christian_brethren.html Homepage]
* [http://web.singnet.com.sg/~syeec/literature/brethren.html F. F. Bruce, "Who are the Brethren?"]
==External links==
===Open Brethren===
* BrethrenPedia :: The Plymouth Brethren Wiki Documenting the history of the brethren movement one assembly at a time
* Bruederbewegung About the Brethren Movement in Germany
* Bible Archive Web Log (blog) system based in the US.
* BrethrenAssembly.Com
* BrethrenAssembly.Com Forum Discussion Forum operated by Indian Brethren.
* Brethren Online.Org
* Emmaus Bible College Brethren Bible College based in the US (Dubuque, IA).
* Kawartha Lakes Bible College Brethren Bible College based in Canada
* Plymouth Brethren Discussion Forum Discussion Forum operated by Canadian Brethren
* Updated list of assemblies :: News, Reviews & Who's Who
*Plymouth Brethren.Org
* Plymouth Brethren.Com
* ShawnCuthill.com - A Canadian web site for PB assemblies
* BibleTruth.net - A portal for PB information for locating and contacting individual assemblies
* GospelHall.org - A conservative Open Brethren forum site
* MSC (Missionary Service Committee) - A Canadian site with an address book of many PB assemblies and overseas missionaries
* CMML (Christian Missions in Many Lands) - A US site with an address book of many PB overseas missionaries
===Closed Brethren===
* Salvation Ministries USA
* Pathways ministries Canada USA Assemblies List
* Brethren News
* Good News Gospel Outreach
* Closed Bible Society
===Exclusive Brethen===
* The Exclusive Brethren - The only 'Exclusive Brethren' endorsed site
* My Brethren.Org (Exclusive Brethren)
* The Brethren Writers' Hall of Fame — a biographical gallery of several prominent writers from the Plymouth Brethren and several others who had similar views.
==Bibliography:==
* Adams, Norman - Goodbye, Beloved Brethren. (1972, Impulse Publications Inc) ISBN 0901311138
* Coad, F. Roy - A History of the Brethren Movement: Its Origins, Its Worldwide Development and Its Significance for the Present Day. (2001, Regent College Publishing) ISBN 1573831832
* Ironside, H. A. - Historical Sketch of the Brethren Movement. (1985,Loizeaux Brothers) ISBN 0872133443
* Neatby, William Blair - A History of the Plymouth Brethren, (1901); Reprinted by Tentmaker Publications [5] covers the first seventy years of the Brethren movement.
* Pickering, Henry, Chief Men Among the Brethren, (1st ed. 1918 London: Pickering & Inglis), Loizeaux Brothers, Inc. Neptune, NJ, 1996, ISBN 0872137988
* Smith, Natan Dylan. - Roots, Renewal and the Brethren. (1996, Hope Publishing House) ISBN 0932727085
* Strauch, Alexander. - Biblical Eldership: An Urgent Call to Restore Biblical Church Leadership. (1995, Lewis & Roth Publishers) ISBN 0936083115
* Stunt, Timothy C. F., From awakening to secession : radical evangelicals in Switzerland and Britain, 1815-35, Edinburgh : T&T Clark, 2000, ISBN 0567087190
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Christian Denominations]]

Canadian Healthcare

2009-12-24T22:05:18Z

JeffD: new article

==Canadian Universal Healthcare (Medicare)==

The Canadian program for socialised medicine, a national health insurance program which is commonly called "Medicare", is designed to ensure that all citizens have acess to non-paid hospital and physician service. Canada has a national program that is composed of 13 interlocking programs, representing the provincial and to a smaller extent territorial responsability for health care programs as enshrined in the constitution. Each province and territory as a result of this interlocking balance offers a common standard of basic care. Medicare is mandated by the Canada Health Act , and is commonly seen by Canadians as a necessary function of a pluralistic democracy<ref>“Canadians embrace medicare as a public good, a national symbol and a defining aspect of their citizenship.” See: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hcs-sss/hhr-rhs/strateg/romanow-eng.php </ref> ; embodying the values of equity and solidarity of the person against materialist measures of wealth and prosperity.<ref>http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hcs-sss/medi-assur/index-eng.php</ref>.

==History ==

In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>

Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==References==
<References/>

Medicare

2009-12-24T21:50:14Z

JeffD: adding a caveat for Canadian universal healthcare which caries the same name and an option to create an article for such

''Refers to the Federal Healthcare program; for other uses see [[Canadian Healthcare]]''

'''Medicare''' is a [[socialized medicine]] program in the United States that reimburses some expenses for covered medical services for persons over 65 years old and for certain persons deemed disabled under 65 years old as follows:

*All hospital charges for covered services are reimbursed under [[Medicare Part A]]; and

*Most physician fees for covered services are reimbursed under [[Medicare Part B]] for individuals who have enrolled in Part B and make payments for that coverage.

Originally, Medicare covered only those 65 and older. In 1972, Congress added the disabled, now about 15% of beneficiaries. It also covered dialysis for kidney failure. In 2003, Bush asked for and Congress created a drug benefit. Other services such as hospice care and mammograms have been added.

Many elderly individuals buy "Medigap" plans from private industry to cover expenses that Medicare will not cover.
==Medicare Advantage==
Medicare Advantage is a private health insurance program that competes directly with the government-run Medicare program. In 2009 23% of all Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in a Medicare Advantage plan. Both insure people age 65 and older and some younger, disabled people. Under Medicare Advantage, the government contracts with private insurers, which offer policies that cover doctor visits, hospitalization and sometimes prescription medications. Medicare Advantage plans must offer at least the same benefits as traditional Medicare, but many providers include more in a bid to attract customers. Such plans were introduced in the 1970s in an effort to cut Medicare costs. However, as the government sought to add coverage in underserved -- often rural -- areas, costs soared. According to the independent Medicare Payment Advisory Commission, Medicare Advantage now costs the government 14% more per beneficiary than traditional Medicare.
==Politics==
Medicare began as part of President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'s [[Great Society]] in 1965. The Senate voted for the program by 68 to 21, with 13 Republicans joining 55 Democrats in favor, and 7 Democrats joining 14 Republicans in opposition. In 2003, some Democrats in both the House and the Senate voted with most Republicans to add a prescription drug benefit to Medicare.

==Cost==
Medicare accounts for more than one-fifth of all health spending in the U.S.. Its costs per beneficiary, about $12,000 in 2008, rose at an average annual rate of 8.5% a year from 1970 to 2007.

[[Morton Kaplan]] predicted that Medicare would bankrupt the federal government. [http://books.google.com/books?id=1CYNtYgpqEoC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=medicare+bankrupt+morton+kaplan&source=bl&ots=8HUtCMTen7&sig=gFioCnI9z3oQh299uHfYysmVgf4&hl=en&ei=CuAzS9LSFcaMlAex7-WTBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false]

==Medicaid==
Medicare is entirely separate from [[Medicaid]], a federal program that provides health benefits for certain poor people without insurance.
[[category:Health Care]]
[[Category:1960s]]
[[Category:Government Programs]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]

Arab

2009-12-24T01:39:43Z

JeffD: nc

[[Image:1937mecca-makkah.jpg|right|250px|Mecca]]
'''Arab''' is a word which refers to an ethnic group as well as a language group. In modern [[term]]s, an Arab is anyone of (1) Arab descent and (2) has some facility in the [[Arabic language]]. Historically, the term was narrower, referring to only those from [[Arabia]]. There is a tendency among Westerners to regard all Arabs as [[Muslims]], but this is incorrect, as there are some [[Christian]] Arabs, as well as Arabs of other faiths: actor [[Danny Thomas]] was a Christian Arab. There are also many Jewish Arabs, virtually all of whom were expelled from the various Arab countries in 1948 despite having lived there since the time of King Solomon.

The Modern [[Arabic language]] is a member of the Arabian Semitic stock (which includes Hebrew) of the Afro-Asiatic family of languages, and with the Berberic languages, display remarkable structural similarities.

==Arab American==
''see also'' [[Arab American]]

Arab-Americans are Americans of Arab ancestry. Over 4 million Americans trace their ancestry to Arab countries, and the vast majority are citizens of the United States. Over 75% are Christians, many having escaped religious persecution in their homelands. Today, one-third of Arab-Americans live in California, New York, and Michigan. They are better-educated than the average American. The average Arab-American entrepreneur may have a higher personal and household income than a non-Arab-American counterpart in most regions of the United States. [1] The overall U.S. population grew by 13% in the 1990s, while the Arab-American increased by 38%.
A majority of Arab-Americans, around 62%, originate from Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Jordan.
====References====
<references/>
== See also ==

*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Islamofascist]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Ramadan]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Vizier]]

{{terrorism}}

[[Category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:Middle East]]

Submission (film)

2009-12-23T03:16:20Z

JeffD: nc

== Submission (film) ==

Submission is a film, properly a short, produced by Theo Van Gogh, with the writing done by Ayaan Hirsi Ali (a female activist for women's rights in Islam). The title of the film makes reference to the common interpreation of the definition of Islam as derived from the triconsonantal root of slm, which can also be derivated into the world Salam, which means peace.

The film tells the stories of four characters created by Ali, intended to represent the worst abuses of women in the Islamic system. The four characters are played by one actor who is naked in the film, with her nudity covered somewhat by an interpretation of the Iranian Chador, full body veil. The medium of the film is the monologue, the actor reads the fictionalised accounts of these women as if it was herself, and then the verses from the Quran that supposedly support this treatment.

== Motivation of Producers ==

Hirsi has stated her motivation as coming from the Quran itself, Sura 4:34 states: "YUSUFALI: Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance): For Allah is Most High, great (above you all).

<blockquote>
PICKTHAL: Men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of women). So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded. As for those from whom ye fear rebellion, admonish them and banish them to beds apart, and scourge them. Then if they obey you, seek not a way against them. Lo! Allah is ever High, Exalted, Great.

SHAKIR: Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great. "
</blockquote>

This is presented in the three most friendly and authoritative translations, so there can be no doubt as too the meaning of this verse.

== Theo Van Gogh ==

Theo Van Gogh was eventually murdered brutally by an islamicist jihadist in public view

<blockquote>

Theo van Gogh was shot, stabbed and mutilated in front of dozens of witnesses.

A young Muslim radical was arrested. What was described as a ritual slaughter set off alarm bells throughout Europe and the United States, where millions of devoute Muslims live as minorities in secular society.

For the Dutch who have prided themselves for centuries on a tradition of tolerance, it was a painful awakening, the prospect of a homegrown jihad in the world's most liberal state. As Morley Safer reported 18 months ago, it all began with a movie called "Submission," a 12 minute movie, which aired on Dutch television.
</blockquote><ref>Rebecca Leung, Slaughter and Submission, CBS, Acessed online : http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/03/11/60minutes/main679609.shtml at Dec 23 2009</ref>

== Verses Used in the Film ==

Men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of women). So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded. As for those from whom ye fear rebellion, admonish them and banish them to beds apart, and scourge them. 4:34

They question thee (O Muhammad) concerning menstruation. Say: It is an illness, so let women alone at such times and go not in unto them till they are cleansed. And when they have purified themselves, then go in unto them as Allah hath enjoined upon you. 2:222

The adulterer and the adulteress, scourge ye each one of them (with) a hundred stripes. And let not pity for the twain withhold you from obedience to Allah, if ye believe in Allah and the Last Day. And let a party of believers witness their punishment. 24:2

.
====References====
----

<references/>

Debate:Islam; Religion of peace?

2009-12-23T02:22:49Z

JeffD: nc

Debate:Islam; Religion of peace?

2009-12-23T02:22:02Z

JeffD: nc-rant

This has always been an interesting topic for me; Islam : Good or Bad, basically it boils down to the holy books, how they tell Muslims to treat people,and how seriously Muslims are supposed to take the bad bits. I've put up a few leaders to help anyone along who wants to take the bait... --[[User:JeffD|JeffD]] 21:22, 22 December 2009 (EST)

== Yes ==

== No ==
I'm going to have to go with no. I'm not a bigot, I don't advocate for repression of Muslims, and Islamic theology fascinates me ; if you check out my edits. However, as someone who is steeped in fundamentalist Christianity (which I don't see as a swear word unlike most people..) and it's calling to defend each other as brothers, separate the obligations to God and the state, and to avoid blood shed as something inherently good. There are plenty of bad bits in the bible, but no sensible christian takes them seriously, ie. placing them in the proper context of the dispensation in which God grants Israel the right of conquest to the Levant. In the Quran and Hadith, I just don't see it.

Let's begin with the etymology...as religionofpeace.com puts it.. "Lesser educated Muslims sometimes claim that the root word of Islam is “al-Salaam,” which is “peace” in Arabic" Slm fairly clearly in Arabic (fairly, because Arabic is a very ambiguous language) means surrender,submission; which has no precedent for a peaceful connotation. So from the very beginning the potential convert is presented a deception, which is allowed for in Islam as well, Sahih Buckari records that the Prophet said.. "war is deceiet", which is the seminal root of the doctrine of Taqyiyya, ie. lieing to your enemy (the non believer) to furhter Islam's aim; the formation of the worldwide supertribe (ie. transforming the whole world into late 7th century Arabia)

Speaking of late 7th century Arabia, the Quran and Hadith, and association traditions are full of anti-semitism, and laws which are liberation for women of the time, but currently, totally bunk. Funny that they are bunk now, because the middle east doesn't seem to agree on that point.The leaders have to actively oppose their population in order to pass "pro-western" laws, ie. laws which extend to Muslims rights that we in the western world consider fundamental to man. Not to brag for the west, but we've done pretty good since we cast off the shackles of theocracy and willful ignorance in the early pre-modern era,and I don't think that's a spurious correlation... if you compare the muslim world , which claims that they are not prosperous because of the colonisation enacted for a brief period of time by england and france, they are actually declining in GDP and intellectual output. Step out and look at South Korea and Japan, and prepare to amaze yourself, two totally destroyed and totally alien countries to the west becoming leaders in the world economy, even as the west tried to help the arab states the entire way. Not to mention that even with the founding of Oil wealth, Iran is the only state to have invested to any extent in democratic institutions and the well being of its population (dis-regarding the last few years of the ahmadinejad era and any disagreements you may have with the Khomenie regime ; Iran has the most western state in the middle east besides Turkey)

Not to mention that Muhammad was a pedophile sand pirate, I'd probably lose my spot at University if I admitted that. Horrible double standard, what sort of true prophet rapes slave girls and marries children, eww.

<blockquote>
The Myth:

Muhammad was a peaceful man who taught his followers to be the same. Muslims lived peacefully for centuries, fighting only in self-defense - and when it was necessary. True Muslims would never act aggressively.

The Truth:

Muhammad organized 65 military campaigns in the last ten years of his life and personally led 27 of them. The more power that he attained, the smaller the excuse needed to go to battle, until finally he began attacking tribes merely because they were not part of his growing empire.

After Muhammad’s death, his most faithful followers and even his own family turned on each other almost immediately. There were four Caliphs (leaders) in the first twenty-five years, each of which was a trusted companion of his. Three of these four were murdered. The third Caliph was murdered by the son of the first. The fourth Caliph was murdered by the fifth, who left a 100-year dynasty that was ended in a gruesome, widespread bloodbath by descendents of Muhammad’s uncle.

Muhammad’s own daughter, Fatima, and his son-in-law, Ali, who both survived the pagan hardship during the Meccan years safe and sound, did not survive Islam after the death of Muhammad. Fatima died of stress from persecution within three months, and Ali was later assassinated by Muslim rivals. Their son (Muhammad’s grandson) was killed in battle with the faction that became today’s Sunnis. His people became Shias. The relatives and personal friends of Muhammad were mixed into both warring groups, which then fractured further into hostile sub-divisions as Islam expanded.

Muslim apologists who like to say that is impossible for today's terrorists to be Muslim when they kill fellow Muslims would have a very tough time explaining the war between Fatima and Aisha to a knowledgeable audience. Muhammad's favorite daughter and his favorite wife were both explicitly held up by him as model Muslim women before they engaged in violent battle following his death. Which one was the prophet of God so horribly wrong about?

Muhammad left his men with instructions to take the battle against Christians, Persians, Jews and polytheists (which came to include millions of unfortunate Hindus). For the next four centuries, Muslim armies steamrolled over unsuspecting neighbors, plundering them of loot and slaves, and forcing the survivors to either convert or pay tribute at the point of a sword.

Companions of Muhammad lived to see Islam declare war on every major religion in the world in just the first few decades following his death - pressing the Jihad against Hindus, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Buddhists.

By the time of the Crusades (when the Europeans began fighting back), Muslims had conquered two-thirds of the Christian world by sword, from Syria to Spain, and across North Africa.

Millions of Christians were enslaved by Muslims, and tens of millions of Africans. The Arab slave-trading routes would stay open for 1300 years, until pressure from Christian-based countries forced Islamic nations to declare the practice illegal (in theory). To this day, the Muslim world has never apologized for the victims of Jihad and slavery.

There is not another religion in the world that consistently produces terrorism in the name of religion as does Islam. The most dangerous Muslims are nearly always those who interpret the Qur’an most transparently. They are the fundamentalists or purists of the faith, and believe in Muhammad’s mandate to spread Islamic rule by the sword, putting to death those who will not submit.

The holy texts of Islam are saturated with verses of violence and hatred toward those outside the faith. In sharp contrast to the Bible, which generally moves from relatively violent episodes to far more peaceful mandates, the Qur’an travels the exact opposite path (violence is first forbidden, then permitted, then mandatory). The handful of earlier verses that speak of tolerance are overwhelmed by an avalanche of later ones that carry a much different message. While Old Testament verses of blood and guts are generally bound by historical context within the text itself, Qur'anic imperatives to violence usually appear open-ended and subject to personal interpretation.

By any objective measure, the "Religion of Peace" has been the harshest, bloodiest religion the world has ever known.

</blockquote>

And loads of other stuff ...
so-called toleration, entirely rubbish, read Bat Ye-or.
== I'm a liberal; terrorists scare me,but I'll defend them and their theology anyway to make myself look good to my peers ==
== Is Islam a religion? is it a totalitarian political system? ==

== Islamofascism,take 1 ==

Conservapedia:Debate Topics

2009-12-23T02:05:43Z

JeffD: /* Historical debates */ nc

'''Debate topic suggestions, organized so that it's not necessary to delete them.'''

(Note: If some topic is miscategorized, it can be cut and pasted without affecting the relevant links.)

==Philosophical Debates==
# [[Debate:Can Conservapedia become the next Wikipedia, is this good or bad]]
# [[Debate:If there is no objective truth, then is the claim "there is no objective truth" also not an objective truth?]]
# [[Conservapedia:Does History Matter?|Does History Matter?]]
# [[Debate:Is a first cause of a process necessary, always possible, or sometimes impossible?]]
# [[Debate:Can Objectivism develop beyond Ayn Rand's original formulation?]]
# [[Debate:Can any man live without some code of morality?]]
# [[Debate:Does the universe include everything, or does something outside the universe exist?]]
# [[Debate:Why is there something rather than nothing?]]
# [[Conservapedia:Stem Cells| Embryonic Stem Cells: Why or why not?]]
# [[Debate:Why Reason?]]
# [[Debate:Why does the conservative media often an ugly undertone?]]
# [[Debate:Should pharmacists be forced to fill legal prescriptions they personally object to on moral grounds?]]
# [[Debate:What is the real love?]]
# [[Debate:who created God?]]
# [[Debate: Why have conservatives let themselves get a bad name?]]
# [[Debate: Is it possible for God to be timeless?]]
# [[Debate: Is it possible for man to live a moral life without religion?]]
# [[Debate: How do conservatives view the Open Source movement and software?]]
# [[Debate: At what point does "Human" life begin?]]

==Religious debates==
# [[Debate:Does God punish sinners for eternity?]]
# [[Debate: Should certain books be banned from libraries?]]
# [[Debate: Is communism founded on Christian doctrine?]]
# [[Debate:Should the first story of creation be read allegorically or literally?]]
# [[Debate:Is Scientology a false religion?]]
# [[Debate:Why do Moses, Ezra, Jesus, and Paul all disagree on divorce?]]
# [[Debate:Did Jesus ever claim to be God?]]
# [[Debate:Grave errors/inconsistencies in the Bible make literal translation worthless.]]
# [[Debate:Was Jesus born in the right time and place?]]
# [[Debate:What does Christianity say about homosexuality?]]
# [[Debate:If God does not exist, can anything be morally wrong?]]
# [[Debate:Did God create evil?]]
# [[Debate:Which Christian denomination is the most true to the central teachings of Christianity?]]
# [[Debate:If Jesus were alive to day, where on the political spectrum would he fall?]]
# [[Debate:Should Religion Play a Large Role in Modern Societies?]]
# [[Debate:Does the Bible (Old and the New Testament) have the infallible words of God?]]
# [[Debate:AntiSemitism]]
# [[Debate:Does Intelligent Design deny the Existence of God?]]
# [[Debate:Could God create a rock so heavy that he himself could not lift it?]]
# [[Debate:What is the relationship between religion and the human tendency to kill each other?]]
# [[Debate:Natural Disaster versus Act of God]]
# [[Debate:What is the Sabbath day?]]
# [[Debate:Is it possible to be a conservative and not a religious person or even an atheist?]]
# [[Debate:Why do we still perform Baptisms?]]
# [[Debate:Does the Resurrection negate Gods Sacrifice of his only son?]]
# [[Debate:If most Muslims learned their religion from their parents, just like us Christians, they will probably be hard to convert. So what can we do to save their souls?]]
# [[Debate:If_most_Christians_learned_their_religion_from_their_parents%2C_just_like_us_Muslims%2C_they_will_probably_be_hard_to_convert._So_what_can_we_do_to_save_their_souls%3F|Debate:If most Christians learned their religion from their parents, just like us Muslims, they will probably be hard to convert. So what can we do to save their souls?]]
# [[Debate:Does mainstream Islam endorse violence?]]
# [[Debate:Is religion morally wrong?]]
# [[Debate:Does the Bible display poor ethics and morals?]]
# [[Debate:Why the Bible|Debate:What makes the Bible a reliable source of knowledge besides tradition?]]
# [[Debate:Why should we be afraid of God?]]
# [[Debate:Do conservative Christians have an unquestioning faith which is comparable to that of the Party in the book 1984?]]
# [[Debate:Antisemitism]]
# [[Debate:Are Christianity and the Bible superior to other religions and scriptures?]]
# [[Debate:Is "Coercive Interrogation" consistent with Christian Values?]]
# [[Debate:Should all access to Conservapedia be banned on Sundays?]]
# [[Debate:Mary Magdalene - First Witness to the Resurrection - Significance?]]
# [[Debate:Was Christ a fundamentalist?]]
# [[Debate:Atheism vs. Deism]]
# [[Debate:Atheism vs. Pastafarianism]]
# [[Debate:Why is homosexuality so bad?]]
# [[Debate:Are Young Earth Creationists detracting others from the Faith?]]
# [[Debate:Would the Flood and Noah's Ark cause inbreeding?]]
# [[Debate:Is there 1 God or are there many gods?]]
# [[Debate: Can you be a true Christian and believe in evolution?]]
# [[Debate:Should gay marriage be allowed?]]
# [[Debate:Is atheism a religion?]]
# [[Debate: If not naturalism, how do we decide which supernatural explanation is correct?]]
# [[Debate: Are Catholics Christians?]]
# [[Debate: Do Atheist believe they have a soul?]]
# [[Debate:Were Judas' actions necessary and foreordained?]]
# [[Debate: Is it possible to voluntarily convert one's religion?]]
# [[Debate: Can Christianity exist without Apostles and Prophets?]]
# [[Debate: What do you think about the violence in the Bible?]]
# [[Debate: Could Christian denominations exist without the Catholic Church?]]
# [[Debate: Which version of the Bible should be used as the authoritative reference on Conservapedia?]]
# [[Debate: Should Christians celebrate Christmas?]]
#[[Debate:Either God is indecisive or the world's major religions have ALL got it wrong]]
#[[Debate:Creationist]]
#[[Debate:Did Joan of Arc truly hear voices?]]
#[[Debate:Do ALL suicides go to hell?]]
#[[Debate:Epicurus' Trilemma]]
#[[Debate: Why does God care if we worship Him or not? Is it His ego?]]
#[[Debate: Can God explain all of the conspiracy theories and all other phenonmena?]]

==Historical debates==
# [[Debate:Was Benjamin Franklin a deist?]]
# [[Debate:Was the European colonization of the Americas good for the native people?]]
# [[Debate:Was President George H. W. Bush wrong to leave Saddam in power in 1991?]]
# [[Debate:Which was worse? the Civil War and it's effects or slavery?]]
# [[Debate:Why are most actors turned politicians Republicans?]]
# [[Debate: Did the Founding Fathers intend to apply their personal faith to the nation "As an institution"?]]
# [[Debate:Islam; Religion of peace?]]

==Political debates==
# [[Debate:Does Abstinence Only Education help or hurt us?]]
# [[Debate:Is homosexuality responsible for totalitarianism?]]
# [[Debate: Did the Founders have a religious motive?]]
# [[Debate: To what extent should we have obscenity laws]]
# [[Debate: Is communism founded on Christian doctrine?]]
# [[Debate:Why do we still have an embargo on Cuba?]]
# [[Debate:Has Britain Declined?]]
# [[Debate:Is illegal immigration control the answer to illegal immigration?]]
# [[Debate:Has Britain become the 51st State of the US?]]
# [[Debate:You think these Phd's are nuts?]]
# [[Debate:Does the European Union pose a threat to the United States?]]
# [[Debate:Which is true; progressive Liberal or regressive liberal]]
# [[Debate:Define torture]]
# [[Debate:Should the United States have entered World War I?]]
# [[Debate:Should the United States have entered World War II?]]
# [[Debate:Should the United States have eliminated communism in North Korea|Debate:Should the United States have eliminated communism in North Korea as General Douglas MacArthur wanted?]]
# [[Debate:Was the United States right to drop atomic bombs so quickly on Hiroshima and Nagasaki?]]
# [[Debate:Was it wrong for him to allow the attack in order to wake up the American public and motivate Americans to fight and win the war?|Debate:If President Roosevelt had known about the Pearl Harbor attack in advance, would it have been wrong for him to allow the attack in order to wake up the American public and motivate Americans to fight and win the war?]]
# [[Debate:Is gun-control the answer to crimes involving guns?]]
# [[Debate:Was world war inevitable?]]
# [[Debate:Does "free trade" increase wealth rather than simply redistribute it?]]
# [[Debate:Is it even possible to install democracy in a Muslim country?]]
# [[Debate:Is democracy even possible in Iraq?]]
# [[Debate:Should we have given the Panama Canal back to Panama?]]
# [[Debate:Should the United States leave the United Nations?]]
# [[Debate:Crusades... Good or Bad?]]
# [[Debate:Was American soldier Michael New right to refuse to fight wearing part of a United Nations uniform?]] See [[Michael New]]
# [[Debate:Which is a more powerful ideology, Islam or communism?]]
# [[Debate:Should the United States intervene in small countries to defeat communism there?]]
# [[Debate:Should public displays of the 10 Commandments be allowed under the constitution?]]
# [[Debate:Which has the best philosophy of education: the public school system, private schools, or the home school movement?]]
# [[Debate:Should We Support Democrats For Life.org?]]
# [[Debate:Women in the Military?]]
# [[Debate:Should students learn a foreign language?]]
# [[Debate:Why does the right side of the political spectrum tend to be more religous?|Debate:Why does the right side of the political spectrum tend to be more religious?]]
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#[[Debate:What should be America's policy toward Islam]]?
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# [[Is it possible to be conservative and know there is no possibility of there ever being a "God" and/or higher being?]]
# [[Debate:Is Obama an Atheist?]]
# [[Would anybody consider President Barry Soetoro a Muslim?]]

==Economic debates==
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==Scientific debates==
# [[Debate:Why haven't intelligent designists published a single scientific article?|Debate:If intelligent design is just as valid as evolution, where are all their scientific findings and publishings?]]
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[[Category:Conservapedia]]

Essay:Two adjacent paths to unity with God; Simone Weil and Charles Williams

2009-12-23T00:15:48Z

JeffD: nc

Two Adjacent Paths to Unity with God

The writings of Charles Williams<ref>Charles Williams, All Hallows Eve</ref> and Simone Weil<ref>Simone Weil, Various letters</ref> represent two polar opposites in the discussion of the role of freedom in life. Simone Weil advocates a life which begins as a standard Christian account with God as the telos. Weils account ends with a method of reaching him that advocates the total removal of freedom and the necessity of absolute obedience. Charles Williams however advocates a similar Christian account where the main characters seek to both defeat the Anti-Christ and liberate Lester and Evelyn from purgatory. Charles Williams is an account that allows for complete freedom of choice. Indeed, in Charles Williams account life, death, and the afterlife cannot work properly without complete freedom of action and choice.

The life lived in Simone Weils account is a grim afflicted life of determinism. This determinism is not one of the direct physical manifestation and intervention of God {although she does not discount this possibility and in some ways probability }. The determinism of Simone Weil is one of the absolute rationality of Gods superiority and sovereignty. ‘En anglais’ this means that God is so obviously high and mighty that if one is true to oneself one has no choice but to follow him. This assertion is proven not only by her words regarding the subject but by her own actions .Simone is caught in an odd reciprocity in that as much as she ‘envy’s the cross ‘, she hates the church. Rather however than entirely reject the church as she does in the rational sense, she moves always towards it or in its sphere, as according to her “man can never escape from obedience to god” .

When Simone says this thing about obedience to God, she is not referring to the church or its sacraments but is stating that this meaning is implicit in her life. Two of the things that God commands a Christ follower to do as of the utmost importance are to get baptised and, join a church congregation . It says in Acts 8:16; “He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that believeth not shall be damned”<ref>Acts:8:16</ref>. This verse usually is not read in the most literal of ways, but the magnitude of the meaning is carried across.

Simone Weil entirely rejects any application of the church or of “its” baptism to her. What she says of the church is very clear, concerning doctrine: “to add dogma to this conception of life, without being forced to by indisputable evidence would have seemed to me like a lack of honesty” . The more Simone Weil rejects the church and its baptism the closer she comes to an intellectual assent of it. In another one of these dual moments of hers she says “the sea is not less beautiful in our eyes because we know that sometimes ships are wrecked by it ” Meaning that the more she critiques it and the more she rejects it the closer she actually comes to it in that so much of her mind is caught up with contemplation of these things that she cannot but help to consume it. This compulsion is voiced by her on page 67 in the Spiritual autobiography when she says that “Christianity is primarily the religion of slaves and that slaves cannot help belonging to it, and I among others.<ref>Simone Weil, Spiritual Autobiography (collection of letters between her and an anonymous Catholic Preist) pp67 </ref> ”

A great portion of her writing is directed at what seems to be begging, a prayer, for a new church separated from the legalism and statism that defined the contemporary. On page 77, Simone spends three paragraphs expounding on her rejection of anathema sit. “It is the use of the two little words anathema sit. It is not their existence, but the way they have been employed up until now. It is that also which prevents me from crossing the threshold of the church” . Simone is saying that anathema sit is the only reason why she is not in the church and this because her own intelligence is numbered among those things that are categorized as anathema sit. She feels such a compulsion to the church that she is literally being divided between her mind and her soul.

The strength of her obedience to God’s will forces her too constantly try to get into the church . She asserts several times that aligning one with the will of God is a force of nature. The human soul will always try to better the human in the sense that without it the human is simply an animal free to indulge in base desires. The human soul always pushes the human toward obedience to God for several reasons. The main reason as explained by Simone Weil is that “the whole of creation is but a vibration of the word of God ” Furthermore, Since our whole essence is but a by-product of Gods command the only way we can be unified with him, to achieve the telos of the Christian life, it to be obedient; she goes further to say that “as soon as we feel this obedience with our whole being, we see God” . Indeed this force of nature that Simone refers to that deprives us of our freedom is attested to by the erratic nature of the church body. Weil says, “A blind mechanism, heedless of degrees of spiritual perfection, continually tosses men about and throws some of them at the very foot of the Cross” .

Choice however is an essential part to the life and death of the human being in All Hallows eve. Choice in All Hallows Eve as a theme is contrasted with Simone Weils account in that Charles Williams allows for an active evil entity working against God. In Simone Weils account there really isn’t such a thing as evil, there is either unity with God or succumbing to ones bestial nature. There isn’t room for an account where a character can make an intellectual and spiritual movement towards actively opposing God. The antagonist of All Hallows Eve is just such a figure.

Simone the Clerk is clearly meant to be interpreted as an antichrist figure. From the earliest chapters Simon is interpreted as a dark analogy to Christ; “"Oh well, sir," said Plankin, "you'll hear about them, if you stay. The Father gives us peace. He'll tell you about it." He nodded his head, swaying a little, and saying, "Peace, peace". ” Anyone familiar with the book of revelation and Anti-Christ prophecy knows that the main way to identify the anti Christ is through his similarity to Jesus. Asides from identifying himself with things that Christ said and taught in the gospels Simon also performs miracles. Jesus is massively identified in the gospels with the instantaneous healings of those diagnosed with terminal ills. This same case is taken up in the figure of Simon; “But after a tumour on the brain-! He said:"I wanted to ask about Father Simon's work. Does he-"The short man, sitting quite still, began to speak. He said: "yes, sir, a tumour. He put his blessed hands on my head, and cured it. There isn't a man or woman in this house that he hasn't cured. I've never had a pain since, not of any kind. Nor they neither.

We all carry his mark in our bodies, sir, and we're proud of it." ”. Furthermore, the most important proof of Simon’s active opposition to God is in the underlined portion of the selected text. The defining feature of the Christian Anti-Christ is the dispersal and acceptance of a recognized physical mark that would mark one as a follower of the Anti-Christ. Furthermore Simon is later identified with witchcraft, spiritualism and necromancy, all things which the bible identify as false satanic images of the true power of God, and the support base of the Anti-Christ. The central narrative of All Hallows Eve is the journey of Lester through purgatory, implying that the Christian narrative is indeed true, that there is one immutable set of laws that all fall under. Simon resists this in All Hallows eve telling his followers that “You are an exception," and "You are different; you are not under the law; you are particular." There is clearly no ‘blind mechanism’ here calling him to obedience, and there is no opportunity offered by Williams for Simon to gain salvation because of his choices to deceive and delude others.

Furthermore, the main narrative is concerning choice. You have Lester and Evelyn, one who chooses selflessness and thus ascends to heaven and one who chooses herself and thus descends into hell. Lady Wallingford and the unconscious choice to save her child and thus gain the salvation denied to Simon by his choices. Lester and Evelyn start as the same basic type of character in purgatory. They both died without ever performing an act of divine charity or exhibiting some form of selflessness, substitutionary sacrifice. Furthermore, both died without ever having loved anyone other than herself .

Lester progresses on a path where grace is made more and more fully available to her through her increasingly capacity to love others. The fullest sense of this is when Lester is finally made able to love her husband Richard. It finally comes down to, and it finally signifies the full progression of her free choice to choose other than herself in that the last words she utters to her husband are “She said: "Dearest, I did love you. Forgive me. And thank you-Oh Richard, thank you! Good-bye, my blessing!" ” To contrast is the path of Evelyn who gets more and more caught up into herself and makes the free choice at the end to do so. Evelyn’s last words to Lester in any meaningful sense are these “Evelyn said: "I suppose you think that's kind. You think it's clever to be kind, don't you? I always hated being with you, and I daresay eventually I can find someone else there, thank you." ” Following this Evelyn runs out of Lester’s sphere, back to purgatory where she seems to be damned to forever inhabit.

The final contrast between Simone Weils account and Charles Williams is the concept of repentance. Simone Weils account seems to lack this element. Simone Weil is about being moved by the will of God towards a determined direction, the example of this being the seemingly inexplicable movement of those farthest from God direct into his arms and vice versa. If God has already determined your path and all you must do to achieve unity in him is to consent, then what need is there for a concept of repentance? In Charles Williams, there can be no unity with God without repentance. Williams explicitly refers to Richard as “not yet spiritually old enough to repent ” Williams portrays an account of a succession of choices until one has attained sufficient knowledge of God to make the final act of loving another, or substituting oneself for another. Therefore, in the end you have two paths both leading to God, but on adjacent routes.

Copyright: Jeff Doherty,2008

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====References====
<references/>

Essay:Two adjacent paths to unity with God; Simone Weil and Charles Williams

2009-12-23T00:11:56Z

JeffD: ditto

Essay:Two adjacent paths to unity with God; Simone Weil and Charles Williams

2009-12-23T00:11:20Z

JeffD: grammar

Essay:Two adjacent paths to unity with God; Simone Weil and Charles Williams

2009-12-23T00:10:25Z

JeffD: nc

Islam

2009-12-22T23:10:46Z

JeffD: added link to new article [I'm starting a full version of Women in Islam]]

Islam is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]] Ibn Abdallah, a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Because the triconsonantal root of Islam, slm, carries the connotations of surrender, some academics and polemicists argue that slm implies the surrender of a defeated enemy, implying forceful conversion<ref>Weise,Nathan,Islam Under Scrutiny by Ex-Muslims, Acessed Online :http://www.islam-watch.org/Others/NathanIslamBerserk.htm at dec 21st 2009 </ref>.

A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for muslims was limited to the crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam.<ref>For example see the account of Jeremias Cacavelas: The Siege of Vienna,1683</ref>Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from mispelling's of the above.

Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sunnah.The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the prophet", which all muslims are called on to replicate.The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Quran.

Muslims believe that God revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad who was illiterate and uneducated. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Quran is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Quran was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Quran, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.

Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam traces its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over the millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]]
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.5 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Many believe that Islam is, with [[Atheism]], currently the greatest threat to [[Christianity]] and [[Christian values]], <ref>[http://christianblogs.christianet.com/1134840164.htm Is Islam a Threat to Christianity?]</ref><ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/5/8/183305.shtml Islam's Threat to the West]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/stock/050413 Why Islam Hates Christianity]</ref> and the overwhelming majority of modern international [[terrorist|terrorists]] who make headlines are Muslims. It should be noted that only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions. It should also be noted that contrary to popular conception the department of homeland security considers right wing white supremacist terrorist groups to be the most important domestic terror threat<ref>citation needed</ref>.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

See: [[Islam and Women]]

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, some women were treated worse than chattel, bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however dminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce.<ref> Saifur Al Mubarakpuri,Ar-Rahiq Al Makhtum, Trans. Jamie Salafia,Isslam Diab, (Islamic University of Al Madinah : Dar al Salam : Saudi Arabia, 2002) pp 55 </ref> That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little change since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>. However this claim is submerged in the greater reality of the inapplicability of traditional Sharia law in the modern era, producing arguably the greatest crisis in Islam since the sack of Baghdad in 1258; the emancipation of women<ref>Linda Rae Bennett,Women, Islam and Modernity(Routledge-Curzon: New York,2005)</ref>

For the most part, the Qur'an treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.Another issue in the quest for women's rights in Islamic countries is the tribal theme of "honour killing", wherein a woman may be murdered by the family to preserve some sort of sense of family reputation when the woman has committed sexual crimes or apostasy <ref>http://www.canada.com/news/Archive+Honour+killings+females+rise+Canada+Expert/1821831/story.html </ref> <ref>http://www.jihadwatch.org/2009/07/possible-honor-killing-in-canada-three-muslim-sisters-murdered-parents-and-brother-arrested.html</ref>.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

==Prominent Muslims==
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Muhammad Ali]]
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
*[[Yusef Islam]]
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Muhammad Yunus]]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Madhab

2009-12-22T20:59:15Z

JeffD: nc

== Madhab ==
Madhab, or [[Islam]]ic Jurisprudence, refers to the schools of [[Hadith]] and [[sharia]] interpretation that arose in the first 150 years of the Islamicate <ref>Marshall Hodgeson, Venture of Islam</ref> cc 650-800.Literally referring to schools, the Madhabs were formed from the instruction of these early [[Imam]]s who studied Hadiths and interpreted and transmitted them to their students.
Originally in the late 8th and early 9th centuries there were many schools of Hadith interpretation, however they soon became consolidated into four paths of thought , named after the Imams who are credited with starting them.

The four main paths of thought are Hanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbali. Contemporary to these four main paths several Shi'ite variants formed, which are still present to this day. The most well known of the Shi'ite variants are the Jariri's and the Zaidi's.

== Hanafi ==
Formed by the Imam [[Abu Hanifa Ibn Thabit]], who lived from 699-767, the Hanafi Madhab asserts the role of reason and liberal comparison. Hanifa was the first of the four Madhabs to form. Hanifa jurisprudence is most common in those areas formerly ruled by the Ottoman and the Mughal Empires which adopted the Hanafi Madhab as their official school of thought.

== Maliki ==
Formed by the Imam [[Malik Ibn Abbas]], whose [[Al-Mutawanna]] and [[Mudawanna]] are the earliest Islamic legal texts extant, this Madhab relies on the [[Quran]] and authenticated Hadith in a strictly literal and conservative fashion. This Madhab is most predominant in [[North Africa]], [[Morocco]] being the birth place of Ibn Abbas.

== Shafi'i ==
The Shafi'i madhab was formed by Imam Sahfi'i who coincidentally created [["shafi'i's" law]] of hadith interpretation which asserted that only Hadith directly traced to Muhammad were valid. Shafi'i's law is considered the standard in modern [[medieval]] and modern Hadith [[scholarship]]. Shafi'i's madhab asserted the roles of analogy and consensus in reasoning. Ijma, and Qiyas, consensus of the scholars , and analogical reasoning based on Quran and Hadith come from this time. Shafi'i's school attempted to subvert the role of private judgement and replace it by precedent. This Madhab is most commonly found in northeastern Africa, Southeastern Asia, and in Southern Arabia.

== Hanbali ==
The Hanbali Madhab is similar to both the Shafi'i and Maliki paths of thought. The emphasis is on judgement derived from precedents derived from Hadith and Sunnan gathered from the first three generations of Muslims.

== Others : Jariri, Zaidi etc & etc ==

== References ==
</references>

Mutazilah

2009-12-22T20:39:24Z

JeffD: nc

== Mutazilah ==

Mutazilah refers to an [[Islam]]ic sect originating in [[9th century]] [[Abassid]] [[Baghdad]] which attempted to reconcile Islam with newly uncovered and translated Greco-[[Roman]] and [[Persia]]n texts.

== Core Theology ==

Mutazilah [[theology]] was distinguished chiefly by asserting the authority of human [[reason]] over tradition and general [[superstition]]. For example, the Mutazilah theologians asserted that the Quran was a book that was created, written by men, rather than uncreated, the living word of God passed verbatim through the mouths of men.

Mutazilah theology accepted the central truths of Islam; the five pillars of faith, the [[Quran]] as divine, and the [[Sunnah]] as an apropriate frame of reference for daily life. However the Mutazilah's interpolation of hellenic-latinate [[logic]] made more traditional scholars uncomfortable.

There are five central principles in Mutazilah theology. God is one and unified, [[God]] is a perfect judge who enacts perfect universal divine justice, God promises as well as punishes,a true believer shall not sin actively, in addition to advocating religious and social duties while opposing and condemning the opposite.

== Mihna Ordeal ==

The Mihna ordeal was one of the earliest expressions of both heretical behavior and the formation of state funded religious inquisitions. The [[Caliph]] [[Al-Ma'Mun]] attempted to consolidate the authority of the Caliph by asserting one state religion, he chose the Mutazilah theology, which was then current at the [[Bayt Al Hikma]] in [[Baghdad]]. Muslims at the time were fully aware of this naked attempt for the state to assert authority over the theologian jurists. The Minha ordeal refers to the period of Al-Ma-'Mun's reign when he actively persecuted those jurists who did not give lipservice to the state religion. The period of persecution was slight, beginning in 833 and concluding by 845, however the attitude of Al-Ma-Mun was continued by [[Al-Mu'tasim]] (his name being derived from Mutazilah) and [[Al Wathiq.]]

User talk:JeffD

2009-12-22T20:26:35Z

JeffD: g

Islam

2009-12-22T16:20:18Z

JeffD: ditto

Islam is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]] Ibn Abdallah, a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Because the triconsonantal root of Islam, slm, carries the connotations of surrender, some academics and polemicists argue that slm implies the surrender of a defeated enemy, implying forceful conversion<ref>Weise,Nathan,Islam Under Scrutiny by Ex-Muslims, Acessed Online :http://www.islam-watch.org/Others/NathanIslamBerserk.htm at dec 21st 2009 </ref>.

A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for muslims was limited to the crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam.<ref>For example see the account of Jeremias Cacavelas: The Siege of Vienna,1683</ref>Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from mispelling's of the above.

Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sunnah.The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the prophet", which all muslims are called on to replicate.The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Quran.

Muslims believe that God revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad who was illiterate and uneducated. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Quran is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Quran was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Quran, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.

Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam traces its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over the millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]]
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.5 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Many believe that Islam is, with [[Atheism]], currently the greatest threat to [[Christianity]] and [[Christian values]], <ref>[http://christianblogs.christianet.com/1134840164.htm Is Islam a Threat to Christianity?]</ref><ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/5/8/183305.shtml Islam's Threat to the West]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/stock/050413 Why Islam Hates Christianity]</ref> and the overwhelming majority of modern international [[terrorist|terrorists]] who make headlines are Muslims. It should be noted that only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions. It should also be noted that contrary to popular conception the department of homeland security considers right wing white supremacist terrorist groups to be the most important domestic terror threat<ref>citation needed</ref>.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, some women were treated worse than chattel, bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however dminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce.<ref><ref>Saifur Al Mubarakpuri,Ar-Rahiq Al Makhtum, Trans. Jamie Salafia,Isslam Diab, (Islamic University of Al Madinah : Dar al Salam : Saudi Arabia, 2002) pp 55</ref> That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little change since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>. However this claim is submerged in the greater reality of the inapplicability of traditional Sharia law in the modern era, producing arguably the greatest crisis in Islam since the sack of Baghdad in 1258; the emancipation of women<ref>Linda Rae Bennett,Women, Islam and Modernity(Routledge-Curzon: New York,2005)</ref>

For the most part, the Qur'an treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.Another issue in the quest for women's rights in Islamic countries is the tribal theme of "honour killing", wherein a woman may be murdered by the family to preserve some sort of sense of family reputation when the woman has committed sexual crimes or apostasy <ref>http://www.canada.com/news/Archive+Honour+killings+females+rise+Canada+Expert/1821831/story.html </ref> <ref>http://www.jihadwatch.org/2009/07/possible-honor-killing-in-canada-three-muslim-sisters-murdered-parents-and-brother-arrested.html</ref>.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

==Prominent Muslims==
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Muhammad Ali]]
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
*[[Yusef Islam]]
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Muhammad Yunus]]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Islam

2009-12-22T16:19:01Z

JeffD: cites,format

Islam is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]] Ibn Abdallah, a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Because the triconsonantal root of Islam, slm, carries the connotations of surrender, some academics and polemicists argue that slm implies the surrender of a defeated enemy, implying forceful conversion<ref>Weise,Nathan,Islam Under Scrutiny by Ex-Muslims, Acessed Online :http://www.islam-watch.org/Others/NathanIslamBerserk.htm at dec 21st 2009 </ref>.

A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for muslims was limited to the crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam.<ref>For example see the account of Jeremias Cacavelas: The Siege of Vienna,1683</ref>Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from mispelling's of the above.

Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sunnah.The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the prophet", which all muslims are called on to replicate.The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Quran.

Muslims believe that God revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad who was illiterate and uneducated. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Quran is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Quran was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Quran, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.

Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam traces its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over the millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]]
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.5 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Many believe that Islam is, with [[Atheism]], currently the greatest threat to [[Christianity]] and [[Christian values]], <ref>[http://christianblogs.christianet.com/1134840164.htm Is Islam a Threat to Christianity?]</ref><ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/5/8/183305.shtml Islam's Threat to the West]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/stock/050413 Why Islam Hates Christianity]</ref> and the overwhelming majority of modern international [[terrorist|terrorists]] who make headlines are Muslims. It should be noted that only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions. It should also be noted that contrary to popular conception the department of homeland security considers right wing white supremacist terrorist groups to be the most important domestic terror threat<ref>citation needed</ref>.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, some women were treated worse than chattel, bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however dminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce.<ref><ref>Saifur Al Mubarakpuri,Ar-Rahiq Al Makhtum, Trans. Jamie Salafia,Isslam Diab, (Islamic University of Al Madinah : Dar al Salam : Saudi Arabia, 2002) pp 55</ref></ref> That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little change since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>. However this claim is submerged in the greater reality of the inapplicability of traditional Sharia law in the modern era, producing arguably the greatest crisis in Islam since the sack of Baghdad in 1258; the emancipation of women<ref>Linda Rae Bennett,Women, Islam and Modernity(Routledge-Curzon: New York,2005)</ref>

For the most part, the Qur'an treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.Another issue in the quest for women's rights in Islamic countries is the tribal theme of "honour killing", wherein a woman may be murdered by the family to preserve some sort of sense of family reputation when the woman has committed sexual crimes or apostasy <ref>http://www.canada.com/news/Archive+Honour+killings+females+rise+Canada+Expert/1821831/story.html </ref> <ref>http://www.jihadwatch.org/2009/07/possible-honor-killing-in-canada-three-muslim-sisters-murdered-parents-and-brother-arrested.html</ref>.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

==Prominent Muslims==
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Muhammad Ali]]
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
*[[Yusef Islam]]
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Muhammad Yunus]]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Islam

2009-12-22T16:15:57Z

JeffD: format

Islam is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]] Ibn Abdallah, a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Because the triconsonantal root of Islam, slm, carries the connotations of surrender, some academics and polemicists argue that slm implies the surrender of a defeated enemy, implying forceful conversion<ref>Weise,Nathan,Islam Under Scrutiny by Ex-Muslims, Acessed Online :http://www.islam-watch.org/Others/NathanIslamBerserk.htm at dec 21st 2009 </ref>.

A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for muslims was limited to the crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam.<ref>For example see the account of Jeremias Cacavelas: The Siege of Vienna,1683</ref>Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from mispelling's of the above.

Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sunnah.The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the prophet", which all muslims are called on to replicate.The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Quran.

Muslims believe that God revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad who was illiterate and uneducated. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Quran is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Quran was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Quran, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.

Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam traces its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over the millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]]
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.5 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Many believe that Islam is, with [[Atheism]], currently the greatest threat to [[Christianity]] and [[Christian values]], <ref>[http://christianblogs.christianet.com/1134840164.htm Is Islam a Threat to Christianity?]</ref><ref>[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/5/8/183305.shtml Islam's Threat to the West]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/stock/050413 Why Islam Hates Christianity]</ref> and the overwhelming majority of modern international [[terrorist|terrorists]] who make headlines are Muslims. It should be noted that only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions. It should also be noted that contrary to popular conception the department of homeland security considers right wing white supremacist terrorist groups to be the most important domestic terror threat<ref>citation needed</ref>.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, some women were treated worse than chattel, bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however dminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce. That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little progress since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>. However this claim is submerged in the greater reality of the inapplicability of traditional Sharia law in the modern era, producing arguably the greatest crisis in Islam since the sack of Baghdad in 1258; the emancipation of women<ref>Linda Rae Bennett,Women, Islam and Modernity(Routledge-Curzon: New York,2005)</ref>

For the most part, the Qur'an treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.Another issue in the quest for women's rights in Islamic countries is the tribal theme of "honour killing", wherein a woman may be murdered by the family to preserve some sort of sense of family reputation when the woman has committed sexual crimes or apostasy <ref>http://www.canada.com/news/Archive+Honour+killings+females+rise+Canada+Expert/1821831/story.html </ref> <ref>http://www.jihadwatch.org/2009/07/possible-honor-killing-in-canada-three-muslim-sisters-murdered-parents-and-brother-arrested.html</ref>.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.

Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

==Prominent Muslims==
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Muhammad Ali]]
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
*[[Yusef Islam]]
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Muhammad Yunus]]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]