Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Homosexuality and smoking

2010-04-22T00:45:18Z

JClarke: Undo trolling

Two recent studies suggest that [[homosexual]] men and lesbians in the [[United States]] have significantly higher rates of [[cigarette]] smoking than [[heterosexuality|heterosexuals]].<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=15456993&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus Cigarette smoking among lesbians, gays, and bisexuals: how serious a problem? (United States), Cancer Causes & Control, 2004 Oct;15(8):797-803]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17018152&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus Gay/Lesbian sexual orientation increases risk for cigarette smoking and heavy drinking among members of a large Northern California health plan, BMC Public Health. 2006 Oct 3;6:241]</ref>
== See also ==

*[[American Medical Association]]
*[[Doctor]]
*[[Homosexuality]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{homosexualityb}}
[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Health]]

Liberalism

2010-04-22T00:44:22Z

JClarke: Undo revision 771237 by MicIrwin (Talk) Troll

<blockquote>''The following article describes the term "liberalism" as it is used today. For the historical meaning of liberalism, see [[Classical liberalism]].''</blockquote>

'''Liberalism''' can refer to a number of political philosophies. In this article the [[United States of America|American]] political platform referred to as "liberal" within the United States is contrasted with other meanings of the word, particularly in [[Europe]] and in other [[Parliamentary democracy|parliamentary democratic]] systems.

== United States ==

[[Image:Liberal Brain.jpg|thumb|250px|top|<center>A satirical conception of the liberal brain.</center>]]

In the U.S. the word ''liberal'' is usually used to describe the platform espoused by the [[Democratic Party]], that is, support of [[social welfare]] systems, redistribution of wealth, and government regulation of the economy - combined with a certain brand of individual [[libertarianism]], emphasizing social equality, and (to a certain extent) rejection of traditional [[Judaism|Judeo]]-[[Christianity|Christian]] standards of [[morality]] as a proper foundation for [[law]].

The [[economic]] aspects of this ideology are to a large extent a product of the [[New Deal]] policies of the [[Great Depression]] era, as well as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'s "[[Great Society]]." The Democratic Party's idea of social liberty and equality, though, came much later, partly as a result of the [[Civil rights movement|civil rights]] and [[counterculture]] movements of the late 20th century. It continues to be fueled by various youth movements and the interests of numerous special interest groups.

== Europe and elsewhere ==

In Europe, ''liberalism'' refers to a political position that leans toward greater individual liberties and less government intervention in general. In short, this is the philosophy closest to [[classical liberalism]], and is commonly referred to in the United States as [[libertarianism]]. In Europe and elsewhere, then, the opposite of liberalism is not [[conservatism]], but [[authoritarianism]].

Because of this, the terms "conservative liberalism" and "liberal conservatism", which are seen as contradictory in the U.S., are not so in Europe. "Conservative liberalism" simply refers to a less radical libertarian philosophy, and is often referred to as "law-and-order liberalism." Liberal conservatism is simply a variant of conservatism willing to allow for individual liberties, and, in a way, describes the ideology of the American [[Republican Party]]. Such examples of this obvious line of thought include the [[civil rights movement]], when the Republican Party (and a few southern Democrats) just wanted to maintain the African American's right to have the choice of forced segregation.

== See also ==
*[[Progressivism]]

{{liberalism}}
[[Category:Liberalism]]

Abortion

2010-04-22T00:43:54Z

JClarke: Undo revision 771235 by ArthurG (Talk) Troll

[[Image:Hitlerspeech.jpg‎|thumb|300px|right|In 1942, [[Adolf Hitler]] declared: "In view of the large families of the [[Slavic|Slav]] native population, it could only suit us if girls and women there had as many abortions as possible."<ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/sep/07090708.html</ref> After [[World War II]], the War Crimes Tribunal indicted ten [[Nazi]] leaders for "encouraging and compelling abortion," which the tribunal considered a "crime against humanity."<ref>http://www.abortionfacts.com/online_books/love_them_both/why_cant_we_love_them_both_25.asp#But%20didn%E2%80%99t%20Hitler%20oppose%20abortion?</ref> ]]‎
'''Abortion''' is the induced termination of a [[pregnancy]].<ref>American Heritage Dictionary definition, [http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/A0020700.html abortion]</ref> Abortion is a billion-dollar industry<ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2000/HEALTH/03/09/fetal.tissue/index.html</ref><ref>http://www.healthy.net/scr/news.asp?Id=8247</ref><ref>For example, Dr. George Tiller "estimated that he performed 250 to 300 late-term abortions in 2003, each costing an average of $6,000."[http://apnews.myway.com/article/20090327/D976JVSG4.html]</ref> in the United States and Western Europe except for [[Ireland]], [[Malta]] and [[Poland]], where it is generally illegal.<ref>On April 10, 2007, Portugal legalized abortion up until the 10th week of pregnancy, with some conditions placed on the obtaining of consent for the abortion. Abortion remains illegal in Ireland, Malta and Poland. See http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=50451</ref> God warns in His word that a nation that sheds innocent blood will not prosper. (Deuteronomy 19:11-13)

'''About 80% of women who see an ultrasound of their unborn child decide not to abort'''.<ref>http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/145703/abortion_foes_use_ultrasound__focus_on_the_family_budgets/</ref> Millions of women who had an abortion later suffer psychologically or physically from it, and support groups exist to help.<ref>http://www.post-gazette.com/regionstate/20020120abortion0120p3.asp</ref> Many victims of abortion find healing by speaking out against, and discouraging, similar harm to other mothers and their children. "I've noticed that everyone who is for abortion has already been born,"<ref>The quote is by [[Ronald Reagan]]</ref> highlights the [[deceit]] of abortion.

==Health risks from abortion==

Abortion always ends the life of the unborn child, typically by stopping his or her beating heart. Abortion increases the risk of breast cancer, future premature birth, and other long-term health problems for the mother, as detailed below. In very rare cases women still die from abortion; see "Documented Incidents of 365 Women Who Have Been Killed by "Safe" and Legal Abortion." <ref>[http://abortionviolence.com/DEATHS.HTM 365 women who have been killed by 'Legal' abortion] Abortionviolence.com</ref>

=== Abortion and Breast Cancer ===
The vast majority of scientific studies have shown that abortion causes an increase in breast cancer, including 16 out of 17 statistically significant studies.<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref> Studies showing that abortion increases breast cancer predate the political controversy.<ref>http://www.bcpinstitute.org/brochure.htm</ref> It is undisputed that childbirth protects against breast cancer, and thus early termination of pregnancy must increase the risk of cancer for the mother compared to carrying that same pregnancy to birth. Yet the abortion industry conceals this increased risk, just as the tobacco industry concealed its cancer risk for decades.<ref>http://www.mindfully.org/Industry/Tobacco-ChronologyJul98.htm</ref>
[[Image:Abortion Hurts Women.jpg|thumb|right|Walk for Life rally]]
A new study on breast cancer in Turkey published in April 2009 in the peer-reviewed World Journal of Surgical Oncology found, through a surveying process, that induced abortion was a statistically significant cause of breast cancer risk. The study concludes, “Our findings suggest that age and induced abortion were found to be significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk….”<ref>http://wjso.com/content/7/1/37</ref>

Specifically, the study found that Turkish women who received one or more induced abortions had a 66% higher risk of breast cancer than women who never had an abortion.<ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2009/jul/09072903.html</ref> <ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/press_releases/090728/index.htm</ref>

Dr. Janet Daling, who considers herself supportive of a right to perform abortions, brought the abortion-breast cancer link into the mainstream with her federally funded research on the topic. Her report, released in 1994, found a 50% increase in breast cancer risk due to induced abortion.<ref>Janet R. Daling et al., "Risk of Breast Cancer Among Young Women: Relationship to Induced Abortion," 86 Journal of the National Cancer Institute; (1994);1584</ref><ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/032801.htm</ref> She said, "I have three sisters with breast cancer and I resent people messing with the scientific data to further their own agenda, be they pro-choice or pro-life. I would have loved to have found no association between breast cancer and abortion, but our research is rock solid and our data is accurate."<ref>L.A. Daily News, Sept. 1997.</ref> Similarly, an early study published in Japan in 1957 showed that women who have abortions have a much higher risk of breast cancer than those who decide to keep their baby.<ref>Segi M, et al. An epidemiological study on cancer in Japan. GANN. 1957; 48:1-63.</ref>

In a peer-reviewed medical journal, Karen Malec observed that:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/malec.pdf</ref>

:Thirty-eight epidemiological studies exploring an independent link [between abortion and] breast cancer have been published. Twenty-nine report risk elevations. Thirteen out of 15 American studies found risk elevations. Seventeen studies are statistically significant, 16 of which report increased risk.

Dr. Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S., a specialist in breast cancer an a clinical assistant professor of surgery at the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, has explained the physiology and epidemiology of the abortion-breast cancer link. She made the following observation:<ref>Angela Lanfranchi, M.D., F.A.C.S, "The breast physiology and the epidemiology of the abortion breast cancer link," 12 Imago Hominis, No. 3, 228 (2005) (emphasis added).</ref>

:This past August in Minneapolis, Patrick Carroll, director of the Pension and Population Research Institute of London, presented a paper to the largest gathering of statisticians in North America. '''He showed that abortion was the best predictor of breast cancer in Britain.''' Breast cancer is the only cancer in Britain which has its highest incidence and mortality rate among the upper rather than lower social classes. Abortion before a full term pregnancy and late pregnancy were the best explanations for this incidence. He also found that there had been a 70% increase risk of breast cancer between 1971 and 2002 and that for women between 50 and 54 years of age incidence was highly correlated with abortion.

Demographic evidence of abortion causing breast cancer includes the following. Breast cancer rates are far lower in Western countries that prohibited abortion than in those that promoted it. Ireland, which virtually bans abortion, reportedly has a lifetime rate of breast cancer of only 1 in 13, nearly half the rate of 1 in 7.5 in the United States.<ref>"Probability of breast cancer in American Women," National Cancer Institute (Apr. 15, 2005); K. O'Flaherty, R. Oakley, "Self-checks 'useless' in breast cancer fight," Sunday Tribune (Ireland), at 8 (Oct. 6, 2002).</ref> The rate of breast cancer increases steadily as one travels from Ireland, where abortion is illegal, to Northern Ireland, where abortion is legal but rare, to England, where abortion is common. <ref> R. O'Reilly, "New weapon in war against breast cancer," The Press Association Limited (Dec. 17, 1998); "Portugal-abortion referendum," Associated Press Worldstream (June 27, 1998).</ref>

In Romania, abortion was illegal under two decades of rule by the dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, and the country enjoyed one of the lowest breast cancer rates in the entire world during that time, far lower than comparable Western countries. Romania's breast cancer rate was an astounding one-sixth the rate of the United States.<ref>A. Khan, "The role of fat in breast cancer," The Independent (May 18, 1998).</ref> But after the execution of Ceausescu on Christmas Day, 1989, Romania has taken the opposite approach, embracing abortion to the point that Romania now has one of the highest abortion rates in the world.<ref>N. Abdullaev, "Russians are quickest to marry and divorce," Moscow Times (Dec 8, 2004).</ref> One Romanian observer decried, "The liberalization of abortions in Romania in 1990, the significant increase of the number of abortions at relatively short intervals, determined a rise in the incidence of breast and uterine cervix cancer in my country."<ref>Information packet, Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) World Conference on Breast Cancer (July 1997).</ref>

Studies on rats, which are an accepted method for identifying causes of cancer in humans, further confirm that abortion does indeed increase the risk of breast cancer. As Dr. [[Joel Brind]] observed, "Researchers also widely admit to the biological plausibility of abortion as an independent cause of breast cancer, through the estrogen-mediated stimulation of breast growth in the absence of differentiation. This was demonstrated experimentally in rats in the landmark experiments of Russo and Russo."<ref>[[Joel Brind]], "Induced Abortion as an Independent Risk Factor for Breast Cancer: A Critical Review of Recent Studies Based on Prospective Data," J. of Am. Physicians & Surgeons 105 (Winter 2005) [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no4/brind.pdf] (citing Russo J, Russo IH. Susceptibility of the mammary gland to
carcinogenesis. 1980;100:497-512).</ref> Additional scientific information on the abortion-breast cancer link is available [http://www.bcpinstitute.org here].

An expert (Dr. Lynn Rosenberg) hired to defend abortion felt compelled to admit, under cross-examination, that a woman increases her risk for breast cancer by having an abortion compared to carrying her pregnancy to childbirth:<ref>http://www.abortionbreastcancer.com/rosenbergs_testimony.htm</ref>

:Question by the attorney: 'So in other words, a woman who finds herself pregnant at age 15 will have a higher breast cancer risk if she chooses to abort that pregnancy, than if she carries the pregnancy to term, [is that] correct?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'Probably, yes.'

:Question: 'Looking at that another way, let's compare two women. Let's say both got pregnant at age 15-- one terminates the pregnancy, but the other carries the pregnancy to term. And both women go on to get married and have two kids, say, at age 30 and age 35. Is the risk of breast cancer higher for the woman who had an abortion at age 15 or the woman who had a baby at age 15, all other things being equal?'

:Dr. Lynn Rosenberg: 'It's probably higher for the one who had an abortion at age 15.'

Despite the overwhelming evidence -- and inescapable logic -- for abortion increasing breast cancer, promoters of abortion cite flawed articles in an attempt to deny the link.<ref>The flaws in these articles are exposed in [[Harvard abortion study]] and [http://www.jpands.org/vol10no1/aschlafly.pdf].</ref>

As Dr. Lanfranchi has explained:<ref>http://www.jpands.org/vol13no1/lanfranchi.pdf</ref>

:Well-documented breast physiology accounts for the fact that oral contraceptives and abortion are risk factors for breast cancer. There is an effort to suppress this information by federal agencies and those in academic medicine. Without this information, women cannot make a fully informed choice about their method of fertility control or about whether to maintain an unplanned pregnancy. Medical ethics demands that they be informed.

Pro-choice should include ''informed'' choice.<ref>The Archdiocese of St. Louis, for example, remarked about abortions and increased risk for breast cancer: "To dismiss that link is irresponsible." [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/tx/5620863.html]</ref> Yet efforts continue to suppress awareness that abortion increases breast cancer. Pro-life scientists were almost entirely barred from the National Cancer Institute's "study" of the link, and its resulting statements were fatally flawed as explained in [[National Cancer Institute on Abortion]].

[[File:Smelliesdoublecrochet.jpg|right|thumb|250px| The Smellie's double crochet abortion tool was used to grab and rip the baby out.]]

=== Premature Birth and Abortion ===

"At least 49 studies have demonstrated a statistically significant increase in premature births (PB) or low birth weight (LBW) risk in women with prior induced abortions (IAs)."<ref>Brent Rooney and Byron C. Calhoun, "Induced Abortion and Risk of Later Premature Births," 8 J. Am. Physicians & Surgeons 46 (Summer 2003). [http://www.jpands.org/vol8no2/rooney.pdf]</ref> Premature birth tragically causes brain damage, and an array of other severe, lifelong injuries ranging from Cerebral Palsy to blindness, or even death, and few mothers would knowingly increase the risk of that happening. "There are at least seventeen (17) studies that have found that previous induced abortions increase preterm birth risk” and thereby increase debilitating Cerebral Palsy in children."<ref>Brent Rooney, Letter, 96 European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 239 (2001) (citations omitted).</ref>

In 2008, the generally pro-abortion British medical journal, ''The Lancet'', admitted that a procedure often used in abortion increase the risk of premature birth:<ref>Dr, Jay D. Iams, Dr. Robert Romero, Jennifer F. Culhane (PhD), Dr. Robert L. Goldenberg. Primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions to reduce the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth. Lancet 2008;371:164-175. While the text of this article conceals the connection with abortion, it cites as support for its claims two studies showing how abortion increases risk of premature birth: the 2004 'Ancel' study of ten (10) European countries and the 2005 'Moreau' study that used French subjects. Ancel P-Y, Lelong N, Papiernik E, Saurel-Cubizoilles M-J, Kaminski M. History of induced abortion as a risk factor for preterm birth in European countries: results of the EUROPOP survey. Human Reproduction. 2004;112:734-740. Moreau C, Kaminski M, Ancel PY et al. Previous I induced abortions and the risk of very preterm delivery; Results of the EPIPAGE study. British J Obstetrics Gynaecology 2005; 112:430-437.</ref>

:"For example, greater public and professional awareness of evidence that repeated uterine instrumentation--eg, uterine curettage or endometrial biopsy--is associated with increased risk of subsequent preterm birth might over time influence decision-making about the procedure."

Researchers Rooney and Calhoun observed:<ref>''Id.''</ref>

:Large studies have reported a doubling of [early premature birth] EPB risk from two prior IAs. Women who had four or more IAs experienced, on average, nine times the risk of [extremely early premature births] XPB, an increase of 800 percent. These results suggest that women contemplating IA should be informed of this potential risk to subsequent pregnancies, and that physicians should be aware of the potential liability and possible need for intensified prenatal care.

Demographic evidence of how abortion increases premature birth includes the following:

:The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): "[T]he abortion rate for black women has been approximately '''three times''' as high as that for white women (range: 2.6--3.1) since 1991"<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

:''Science Daily'''s report on a study by the Washington University School of Medicine: "African-American women are '''three times''' more likely to deliver babies three to 17 weeks prematurely than Caucasian women"<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070209074144.htm (emphasis added)</ref>

The rate of premature birth is elevated by the same amount as the abortion rate, as expected if abortion increases the risk of premature birth.

=== Other Health Risks from Abortion ===

The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in 2007 that:<ref>''Gonzales v. Carhart'', 127 S. Ct. 1610, 1634 (2007).</ref>

:While we find no reliable data to measure the phenomenon, it seems unexceptionable to conclude some women come to regret their choice to abort the infant life they once created and sustained. See Brief for Sandra Cano ''et al.'' as Amici Curiae in No. 05-380, pp 22-24. Severe depression and loss of esteem can follow. See ''ibid.''

A study published in the Southern Medical Journal observed that there are higher death rates association with women who have abortion, and that these higher death rates persist over time and across socioeconomic boundaries.<ref>D.C. Reardon, P.G. Ney, F.J. Scheuren, J.R. Cougle, P.K. Coleman, T. Strahan, "Deaths associated with pregnancy outcome: a record linkage study of low income women," 95 Southern Medical Journal 8, at 834-41 (August 2002).</ref>

In [[England]], the "Royal College of Psychiatrists says women should not be allowed to have an abortion until they are counselled on the possible risk to their mental health." The medical royal college warned that women who have abortions may be at risk of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article3559486.ece</ref> A New Zealand study found that abortion in young women may be associated with increased risks of mental health problems.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16405636</ref> The researcher in this study, who was not pro-life, was shaken by the study and had to go to four journals before he could find one who would publish it. <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>

The study concludes with the following statement:
{{cquote|These findings are inconsistent with the current consensus on the psychological effects of abortion. In particular, in its 2005 statement on abortion, the [[American Psychological Association]] concluded that “well-designed studies of psychological responses following abortion have consistently shown that risk of psychological harm is low...the percentage of women who experience clinically relevant distress is small and appears to be no greater than in general samples of women of reproductive age” (American Psychological Association, 2005). This relatively strong conclusion about the absence of harm from abortion was based on a relatively small number of studies which had one or more of the following limitations: a) absence of comprehensive assessment of mental disorders; b) lack of comparison groups; and c) limited statistical controls. Furthermore, the statement appears to disregard the findings of a number of studies that had claimed to show negative effects for abortion (Cougle et al., 2003; Gissler et al., 1996; Reardon & Cougle, 2002). <ref>http://www.thinkingchristian.net/C1148465919/E20060224082323/index.html</ref>}}

Professor David Fergusson, lead author of the New Zealand study stated:
{{cquote|It borders on scandalous that one of the most common surgical procedures performed on young women is so poorly researched and evaluated. If this were Prozac or Vioxx, reports of associated harm would be taken much more seriously with more careful research and monitoring procedures." <ref>http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20060120-091648-6456r.htm</ref>}}

Another study published in the OB/GYN Survey detailed long-term physical and psychological health consequences of induced abortions.<ref>J.M. Thorp, Jr., K.E. Hartmann, and E.M. Shadigian, "Long-Term Physical & Psychological Health Consequences of Induced Abortion: Review of the Evidence," 58 OB/GYN Survey 1, at 67-79 (2003)</ref>

Suicide rates among women who had abortions are six times higher than women who gave birth in the prior year.<ref>http://www.abortionrecoverycounseling.com/Page8.html</ref> Overall, deaths from suicide, homicide and accidents were 248% higher after an abortion, as found by a 13-year study in Finland of its entire population.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

In the United States, only one state (Missouri) requires that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles of the abortion.<ref>Mo. Rev. Stat. § 188.080 prohibits an abortion by a physician "who does not have clinical privileges at a hospital which offers obstetrical or gynecological care located within thirty miles of the location at which the abortion is performed or induced."</ref> In the other 49 states, an abortion patient can and often is left without prompt medical care by the treating physician.

One of the largest abortion providers in the United States, the Metropolitan Medical Associates of New Jersey, was shut down in 2007 by state health officials after one of its botched abortions left a 20-year-old woman in a coma for more than four weeks. She "became severely ill following the abortion and was transferred to Newark Beth Israel Medical Center where she needed blood transfusions and had her uterus removed. She also suffered a stroke due to the serious blood loss and had one of her lungs collapse."<ref>http://www.lifenews.com/state2137.html</ref> The State of New Jersey had shut down the same facility in 1993 also.<ref>''Id.''</ref>
__TOC__ 
==Abortion Alternatives==
[[Optionline]] provides consultants that connects individuals to nearby pregnancy centers that offer the following services: free pregnancy tests and pregnancy information; Information about the risks of abortion and the morning after pill; medical services, including [[STD]] tests; early ultrasounds and pregnancy confirmation. <ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref> In addition, some of these centers provide information regarding free housing to women who are facing housing concerns.<ref>http://www.pregnancycenters.org/</ref>

The primary alternative to abortion is adoption. [[Liberty Godparent Foundation]] is a [[Christian]] organization focused on improving the lives of unwed pregnant teens, babies and adoptive families by providing two alternatives, The Liberty Godparent Maternity Home and Family Life Services Adoption Agency.<ref>http://www.godparent.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=59</ref>. [[Catholic Social Services]] provides adoption assistance to people of all beliefs in addition to supporting families in need.

== Abortion Industry and How It Targets Minority Communities ==
[[File:4287336112 d3f9126c99.jpg|right|thumb|325px|According to [[Cybercast News Service]]: "An analysis by the Cybercast News Service compared the location of [[Planned Parenthood]] abortion clinics with population data from the U.S. Census in 2000. The results appear to bolster the charge that the organization targets black communities."<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewSpecialReports.asp?Page=%5CSpecialReports%5Carchive%5C200502%5CSPE20050207a.html</ref>(photo obtained from [http://www.flickr.com/photos/muriel215/4287336112/ Flickr, see Creative commons license agreement)] ]]
"Each day '''1,786''' African American children are aborted." According to the [[U.S.]] Census of 2006, African Americans are at 1.96 birth rate which is beneath the replacement level of 2.1. <ref>[http://www.christiannewswire.com/news/1685410938.html African American Pro-Life Group Holds Protest at NAACP] Christian News Network, July 13, 2009</ref> At the continued rate, [[racism]] by abortion will kill decimate the black populace of the U.S.

According to writer George Grant, the author of ''Killing Angel'':

"During the 1980s when [[Planned Parenthood]] shifted its focus from community-based clinics to school-based clinics, it again targeted inner-city minority neighborhoods...Of the more than 100 school-based clinics that have opened nationwide in the last decade [1980s], none has been at substantially all-white schools....None has been at suburban middle-class schools. All have been at black, minority or ethnic schools.” <ref>http://www.citizenreviewonline.org/special_issues/population/the_negro_project.htm</ref>

Planned Parenthood itself reported that its abortions on minorities in 1991 was 42.7% of its total abortions. <ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>. However, during that time period, minorities comprised only 19.7% of the U.S. population.<ref>http://www.ewtn.com/library/PROLIFE/PPRACISM.TXT</ref>

According to [[Cybercast News Service]]: "An analysis by the Cybercast News Service compared the location of Planned Parenthood abortion clinics with population data from the U.S. Census in 2000. The results appear to bolster the charge that the organization targets black communities."<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewSpecialReports.asp?Page=%5CSpecialReports%5Carchive%5C200502%5CSPE20050207a.html</ref>
== Political Action Committees ==
The most powerful political action committee (PAC) is EMILY’s List.<ref>http://www.emilyslist.org/newsroom/releases/20070201.html</ref>. EMILY's List contributes money to Democratic candidates who support abortion-on-demand, including forced taxpayer funding of abortion. EMILY's List candidates also oppose regulations such as:

:providing health information to abortion patients;

:requiring that the abortionist have admitting privileges at a nearby hospital in case there is a complication; and

:providing parental notification if the patient is a teenager.

Due to the influence of the abortion industry and EMILY's List, nearly every Democratic presidential candidate and senatorial candidate supports abortion-on-demand. "EMILY's List, the nation's largest political action committee, continues to be the dominant financial resource for Democratic candidates," its above-referenced website declares.

There is no comparably funded organization opposing abortion, because there are no monetary rewards to defending human life. Instead, candidates and supporters who oppose abortion are motivated by religious and ethical principles.

== History of Abortion ==

''Please also see:'' [[History of abortion]]

The father of [[medicine]], [[Hippocrates]], expressly prohibited abortion in his ethical [[Oath]] long before [[Christianity]].

Prior to 1973 abortion was illegal in most of the United States, though a few states (such as Hawaii and New York) allowed it with restrictions.<ref>''A Timeline of Reproductive Rights'' [http://ecampus.bentley.edu/org/wc/reproductiverights.html The Women's Center]</ref> The U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 [[Roe v. Wade]]<ref>Online text of [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)]</ref> decision ruled that abortions are lawful under the [[U.S. Constitution]] up to the point at which the fetus becomes able to survive outside the womb, and an accompanying decision issued the same day captioned [[Doe v. Bolton]] essentially legalized abortion in the unlimited discretion of the abortionist at any time during pregnancy, up to and including birth. Conservatives immediately criticized these decisions as examples of [[Judicial Activism]].
=== Adolf Hitler and Abortion ===
''For more information see:'' [[Abortion and Adolf Hitler]]
[[Image:Hitler.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Adolf Hitler]]]]‎In 1942 [[Adolf Hitler]] declared:
{{cquote|In view of the large families of the Slav native population, it could only suit us if girls and women there had as many abortions as possible. We are not interested in seeing the non-[[German]] population multiply…We must use every means to instill in the population the idea that it is harmful to have several children, the expenses that they cause and the dangerous effect on woman's health… It will be necessary to open special institutions for abortions and doctors must be able to help out there in case there is any question of this being a breach of their professional ethics. <ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/sep/07090708.html</ref>}}

After [[World War II]], the War Crimes Tribunal indicted ten [[Nazi]] leaders for "encouraging and compelling abortion," which the tribunal considered a "crime against humanity."<ref>http://www.abortionfacts.com/online_books/love_them_both/why_cant_we_love_them_both_25.asp#But%20didn%E2%80%99t%20Hitler%20oppose%20abortion?</ref>

==American Liberals and Abortion==
According to the Pew Research Center, American [[liberal]]s are more likely to support pro-abortion views. <ref>http://people-press.org/report/283/pragmatic-americans-liberal-and-conservative-on-social-issues</ref>

==Evolutionary Thought and Abortion==
[[Theory of evolution and liberalism|Liberals are more likely to advocate the evolutionary paradigm than conservatives]]. [[Creation Ministries International]] has written that [[evolution|evolutionary]] thinking has contributed to the [[eugenics|eugenic]] idea of aborting babies with defects and has also contributed to erroneous and immoral justifications for abortion.<ref>http://creation.com/abortion-an-indispensable-right-or-violence-against-women-sex-selection-aborting-girls</ref><ref>http://creation.com/human-life-questions-and-answers-abortion-and-euthanasia</ref>

==Ultrasound images==

*http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/frames.htm
*http://www.flickr.com/photos/drakelelane/388759116/
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/13_weeks.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/ultrasound_3d.htm
*http://www.parentingweekly.com/pregnancy/pregnancy_information/ultrasound/triple_jump.htm

[[File:2 61 ultrasound.jpg|right|thumb|350px| When an Ohio woman looked at an ultrasound she expected to see a developing baby.

Instead, she saw what she believes to be an image of Jesus Christ]]

== See Also ==
*[[Conservapedia:Anti-abortion Project|Conservapedia Anti-abortion Project]]
*[http://www.conservapedia.com/Category:Abortion Directory of abortion related articles]
*[http://www.investigatemagazine.com/mar3abrt.htm Abortion and breast cancer in New Zealand]
*[[Abortion and the Bible]]
*[[Abortion and eugenics]]
*[[Abortion Facts]]
*[[Abortion funding]]
*[[Abortion genocide]]
*[[Abortion procedures]]
*[[Abortion rates by US state]]
*[[Abortionist]]
*[[Anti Abortion activism: a personal essay]]
*[[More News/Abortion|Articles about '''Abortion''' from "More News"]]
*[[Culture of life]]
*[[Separate Life|Essay on abortion]]
*[[Eugenics]]
*[[Fetus]]
*[[Harvard abortion study]]
*[[Abortion breast cancer studies]]
*[[Homosexual activists and abortion]]
*[[Margaret Sanger]]
*[http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/abrpt/2006abrpt.pdf Minnesota official abortion statistics]
*[[National Right to Life Committee]]
*[[Partial birth abortion]]
*[[Planned Parenthood]]
*[[Right to life]]
*[[Right to life movement]]
*[[Sanctity of life]]
*[[Silent scream]]
*[[Taxpayer-funded abortion]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.abortionfacts.com/ Abortion Facts]
*[http://www.carm.org/abortion.htm Abortion] by [[Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]]
*[http://www.lifesitenews.com/ LifeSiteNews.com]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/abortion/ What Liberals Say - Category: Abortion], [[Accuracy In Media]]
{{Liberalism}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Abortion]]
[[Category:Sexuality]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Liberal

2010-04-22T00:43:27Z

JClarke: Undo revision 771221 by ArthurG (Talk) Troll

[[Image:Liberal Brain.jpg|thumb|450px|top|<center>A satirical conception of the liberal brain.</center>]]

A '''liberal''' (also '''leftist''') is someone who rejects logical and biblical standards, often for self-centered reasons. There are no coherent liberal standards; often a liberal is merely someone who craves attention, and who uses many words to say nothing.<ref>As one liberal website candidly observes, "Obama is a shallow narcissist, not a believer in any cause higher than himself. Every American president has had a healthy ego, but none has ever been as purely motivated by vanity as the childishly self-loving [[Barack Obama]]."[http://www.opednews.com/articles/Barack-Obama-s-ego-driven-by-Christopher-Calder-091210-804.html]</ref> Liberalism began as a movement for individual liberties, but today is increasingly [[statist]], and like in Europe. [[socialist]]ic.

A liberal generally supports many, if not all of the following political positions and practices:

* Taxpayer-funded and/or legalized [[abortion]]
* [[Censorship]] of teacher-lead [[prayer]] in classrooms and school sponsored events
* Support for [[gun control]]
* Support tolerance of obscenity and pornography as a [[First Amendment]] right<ref>The [[Warren Court]], led by [[liberal]] Justices [[William O. Douglas]], [[Hugo Black]], [[Abe Fortas]], [[William Brennan]] and Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] issued 36 decisions granting [[First Amendment]] rights to obscenity and pornography. These decisions remain fully supported by liberals today.</ref>
* [[Income redistribution]], usually through progressive taxation
* Government-rationed medical care, such as [[Universal Health Care]]
* Taxpayer-funded and government-controlled [[public education]]
* The denial of inherent [[gender differences]]
* Insisting that men and women be placed in the same jobs in the [[military]]
* Legalized [[same-sex marriage]]
* Implementation of [[affirmative action]]
* [[Political correctness]]
* Support of [[labor union]]s
* Teaching acceptance of promiscuity through sexual "education" rather than teaching [[abstinence]] from sex.<ref> [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,286671,00.html Democrats Aim To Kill Abstinence-Only Program Funding], [[Fox News]], Monday, June 25, 2007</ref>
* A "[[living Constitution]]" that is reinterpreted as liberals prefer, rather than how it was intended
* Government programs to [[rehabilitate criminals]]
* Abolition of the death penalty
* [[Environmentalism]]<ref>[[Greenpeace]], for example.</ref>
* [[Disarmament treaties]]
* [[Globalism]]
* Opposition of the [[Bible]].
* Opposition to an interventionalist American foreign policy <ref>Stefaan Walgrave and Joris Verhulst, [http://nicomedia.math.upatras.gr/conf/CAWM2003/Papers/Verhulst.pdf The February 15 Worldwide Protests against a War in Iraq: An Empirical Test of Transnational Opportunities. Outline of a Research Programme](PDF).</ref>
* Opposition to full private property rights<ref>For example, the liberal wing of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] issued the 5-4 [[Kelo v. City of New London]] decision authorizing the taking of private property by government in order to give the property to another private entity rather than convert it to a public use.</ref>
* Reinstating the [[Fairness Doctrine]]
* In 2005, it was reported by CBS News that [[Theory of evolution and liberalism|liberals were the most likely supporters of the theory of evolution]]. The theory of [[evolution]] is a key component of [[atheistic]] ideologies in the [[Western World]].
* Opposition to domestic wire-tapping as authorized in the [[Patriot Act]]
* Calling anyone they agree with a "professor" regardless of whether he earned that distinction based on a real peer review of his work (see, e.g., [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[Barack Obama]]).
* Opposition of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]], a major part of the [[War on Terrorism]].
* "The long romance of Western leftists with some of the bloodiest regimes and political movements in history is a story not told often enough ...."<ref> [http://www.city-journal.org/2009/bc0605bt.html Dupes by Bruce S. Thornton], City Journal - 5 June 2009</ref>

==Liberals and Uncharitableness==
[[Image:228130875 35181424e3.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[United States|American]] liberals give less to charity than American conservatives.<ref>http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/conservatives_more_liberal_giv.html</ref> In addition, [[per capita]] [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] in the United States [[Atheism and Uncharitableness|give significantly less to charity than theists even when church giving is not counted for theists]].[http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/12-faithspirituality/102-atheists-and-agnostics-take-aim-at-christians][http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3647/is_200310/ai_n9340592/][http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Story?id=2682730&page=2] ]]
''For more information please see'': [[Liberals and uncharitableness]]

In March of 2008, [[George Will]] wrote at [[RealClearPolitics]] concerning the [[United States]]:
{{cquote|Sixteen months ago, Arthur C. Brooks, a professor at [[Syracuse University]], published "Who Really Cares: The Surprising Truth About Compassionate Conservatism." The surprise is that liberals are markedly less charitable than [[conservative]]s....

If many conservatives are liberals who have been mugged by reality, Brooks, a registered independent, is, as a reviewer of his book said, a social scientist who has been mugged by data. They include these findings:

-- Although liberal families' incomes average 6 percent higher than those of conservative families, conservative-headed households give, on average, 30 percent more to charity than the average liberal-headed household ($1,600 per year vs. $1,227).

-- Conservatives also donate more time and give more blood.<ref>http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/conservatives_more_liberal_giv.html</ref>}}
[[Atheism|Atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] often reject [[Bible|biblical]] [[morality]] (and therefore [[conservative Christianity]] ) and hold to [[moral relativism]].<ref>http://www.barna.org/FlexPage.aspx?Page=BarnaUpdate&BarnaUpdateID=152</ref> Therefore, it is not surprising that [[per capita]] atheists and agnostics in [[United States|America]] [[Atheism and Uncharitableness|give significantly less to charity than theists even when church giving is not counted for theists]].[http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/12-faithspirituality/102-atheists-and-agnostics-take-aim-at-christians][http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3647/is_200310/ai_n9340592/][http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Story?id=2682730&page=2]

== Liberal politicians and uncharitableness ==
The political magazine the [[American Spectator]] featured an article which focused on [[liberal politicians and uncharitableness]] and the article exposed the hypocrisy of the liberal politicians it featured.<ref>http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=1c5_1238044128&c=1</ref>

In addition, [[Barack Obama]] has been criticized concerning [[Barack Obama and uncharitableness|his charitable giving]].

==Liberals and Superstition==
[[Image:2384975035_230a0eac30.jpg‎‎|thumb|right|150px|The [[Wall Street Journal]] reported: "A comprehensive new study released by Baylor University yesterday, shows that [[Conservative Christianity|traditional Christian religion]] greatly decreases belief in everything from the efficacy of palm readers to the usefulness of [[astrology]]. <ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122178219865054585.html</ref>]]
In September of 2008, the [[Wall Street Journal]] reported:
{{cquote|The reality is that the [[New Atheism|New Atheist]] campaign, by discouraging [[religion]], won't create a new group of intelligent, skeptical, enlightened beings. Far from it: It might actually encourage new levels of mass superstition. And that's not a conclusion to take on faith -- it's what the empirical data tell us.

"What Americans Really Believe," a comprehensive new study released by Baylor University yesterday, shows that [[Conservative Christianity|traditional Christian religion]] greatly decreases belief in everything from the efficacy of palm readers to the usefulness of [[astrology]]. It also shows that the irreligious and the members of more liberal Protestant denominations, far from being resistant to superstition, tend to be much more likely to believe in the paranormal and in pseudoscience than evangelical Christians....

This is not a new finding. In his 1983 book "The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener," skeptic and science writer Martin Gardner cited the decline of traditional religious belief among the better educated as one of the causes for an increase in [[pseudoscience]], cults and superstition. He referenced a 1980 study published in the magazine Skeptical Inquirer that showed irreligious college students to be by far the most likely to embrace paranormal beliefs, while born-again Christian college students were the least likely.<ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122178219865054585.html</ref>}}

== Liberalism in North America today ==
[[Democrats]] and many media outlets in the [[U.S.]] are often [[liberal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mrc.org/biasbasics/biasbasics1.asp|title=Media Bias basics|publisher=Media Research Center}}</ref>
*Some argue that liberals typically support economic policy similar to that of [[fascism]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://fora.tv/2008/01/30/Liberal_Traits_of_Fascism|title=Video discussion about how modern liberalism is actually fascist by author Jonah Goldberg.}}</ref>

* Liberals claimed a monopoly on [[compassion]], [[decency]], and [[social justice]] (as defined by themselves), posing as the sole defenders of [[civic virtue]] against a horde of backwoodsmen, racists, and religious fanatics. [http://www.americanthinker.com/2008/03/the_disgrace_of_liberalism.html]

<blockquote>
''There's another goal, from my point of view, which is to try to lay the groundwork for a radical political force which would conceive of itself as distinctly to the left of moderate, reformist American liberals. And that has two aspects. One is to try to change that liberalism, to transform it by analysis, critique, and activism; the second is to build a radical movement which would be an autonomous force in its own right, which would be distinct from the traditional American liberal consensus. This radical part of the program involves not simply supporting the liberal students against conservative students and conservative professors, but trying to act on them, to push them to the left. It also involves trying to find and support, even trying to help create, networks of radical students in law school and of radical professors around the country — students and teachers who see themselves as wanting to go a lot further than most people want to go.'' <ref> [http://66.218.69.11/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=liberal+teachers&fr=yfp-t-501&fp_ip=MX&u=duncankennedy.net/documents/Liberal%2520Values%2520in%2520Legal%2520Education.pdf&w=liberal+liberals+teachers+teacher&d=BNZFhPReRjC1&icp=1&.intl=us Liberal Values in Legal Education] Duncan Kennedy (professor at Harvard Law School)</ref>
</blockquote>

===Liberal Rankings of Congress Members===

The National Journal compiles the votes of each congress member each year and uses the information to create rankings<ref>http://nationaljournal.com/voteratings/index.htm</ref> of how liberal each member of the United States [[Congress]] is. In addition to showing the voting records of each member and given an overall all ranking of liberalness, the National Journal also ranks congress members by liberalness in the areas of social, economic, and foreign policy.

==Liberalism in Europe today==

In Europe, on the other hand, parties that call themselves ''liberal'' are moderate in outlook, ranging from centre-left to centre-right, promote typically economic and business freedom. The Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe<ref>http://www.alde.eu</ref> is a party of the European Parliament that represents most ''liberal'' parties from European countries. Similar policies are promoted by many ''liberal'' parties throughout the world,<ref>http://www.liberal-international.org/</ref> such as the Liberal Party of Australia.<ref>[http://www.liberal.org.au/]</ref>

Trade unions and socialist parties often criticize politicians for promoting lower taxes on business, or more flexible hiring and firing laws, by calling them "liberals" or [[neoliberal|neoliberals]]. Thus, just as in the US, "liberal" may occasionally be used as a term of abuse. But when someone is called "liberal" in Europe, it has an entirely different meaning than in the US. In fact, the US meaning of liberal is more similar to the politics of European [[socialist]] or [[social democracy|social democratic]] parties.<ref>[http://www.pes.org]</ref>

==Historical Liberalism ==
In history, the word "liberal" has meant different things at different times, and was associated with individual liberty in prior centuries. In the postwar period, liberals supported government intervention in the economy and welfare state policies, as well as peaceful coexistence with the communist block, which are not liberal policies in the sense of classical liberalism. After the end of the cold war, with the demise of socialism and communism, many liberals embraced some ideas from economic neo-liberalism, and coined it the "Third Way". In the area of national security and foreign policy liberals in the [[U.S.]] failed to define a consistent stance, even after the events of 9/11 and the beginning of the war in Iraq. Liberals generally support affirmative action, gay marriage, and abortion.<ref>"Political liberals tend, for whatever reason, to be ardent supporters of both gay rights and pro-choice programs." Greenberg and Bailey [http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Bailey/Greenberg-Bailey/Homosexual%20Eugenics.pdf] </ref>

==Original meaning: Classical Liberalism==
Liberalism is a political philosophy with freedom as its core value. The term was originally applied to supporters of individual liberties and equal rights, but, in America, the term has come to represent a movement of social change that often conflicts with [[conservative]] values such as moral values and tradition.

See [[Classical Liberal|Classical Liberalism]]. Compare [[Libertarianism]].

==Alternative meanings of 'liberal'==

One definition of liberal is anything that is not conservative. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary includes this definition of "liberal":<ref>Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/liberal</ref>
* Not limited to or by established, traditional, orthodox, or authoritarian attitudes, views, or dogmas ...

==Liberal Organizations ==
*[[AARP|AARP - American Association of Retired People]]
*[[ACLU|ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union]]
*[[AFL-CIO|AFL-CIO - American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations]]
*[[Amnesty International|AI - Amnesty International]]
*[[Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism]]
*[[Democratic National Committee]]
*[[Greenpeace]]
*[[NARAL|NARAL - National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League]]
*[[NAACP|NAACP - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]]
*[[National Committee for an Effective Congress]]
*[[National Education Association]]
*[[National Organization of Women]]
*[[Planned Parenthood|Planned Parenthood Federation of America]]
*[[Progressives for Obama]]
*[[Rainbow/PUSH Coalition]]
*[[MoveOn.org]]
*[[A.N.S.W.E.R.]]
*[[U.S. Peace Council]]
Source: [http://www.politixgroup.com/lo.htm The Politix Group]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==

* [[Conservapedia:Articles about liberals|Articles about liberals]]
* [[Classical liberal]]
* [[Drinking Liberally]]
* [[Godless liberal]]
* [[Last wordism]]
* [[Essay:Liberal celebrity obsession|Liberal celebrity obsession]]
* [[Essay:Liberal Behavior on Conservapedia|Liberal Behavior on Conservapedia]]
* [[Liberal Christianity]]
* [[Liberal Democrats]]
* [[Liberal Elite]]
* [[Essay: Liberal Falsehoods|Liberal Falsehoods]]
* [[Liberal Fascism]]
* [[Liberal friendship]]
* [[Liberal Gloss]]
* [[Liberal grading]]
* [[Essay:Liberal hysteria|Liberal hysteria]]
* [[Essay:Liberal Intellectualism|Liberal Intellectualism]]
* [[Liberalism and art]]
* [[Liberal labels]]
* [[Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right|Liberal Lies About the American Right]]
* [[Liberal logic]]
* [[The Liberal Mind: The Psychological Causes of Political Madness|Liberal Mind]]
* [[Liberal Party]]
* [[Liberal supremacist]]
* [[Massachusetts liberal]]
* [[Progressives]]

==Further Information==

* [[Conservative Links]]

{{liberalism}}

[[Category:Political Ideologies]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category: Liberals]]

Overcoming homosexuality

2010-04-22T00:42:54Z

JClarke: Undo trolling

[[Image:St Paul Preaching.jpg|right|thumb|250px|St. [[Paul]] defends his preaching (Giovanni Ricco)]]
'''Overcoming homosexuality''' is definitely possible for those who wish to abandon [[homosexuality]], and the testimonies of [[ex-homosexuals]] attest to this matter. Today people still report overcoming homosexuality and becoming heterosexuals or celibate through their [[Christianity|Christian]] faith. In 1980, a study was published in the ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' and eleven men participated in this study. The aforementioned study stated that eleven homosexual men became heterosexuals "without explicit treatment and/or long-term psychotherapy" through their participation in a [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] church.<ref>E.M. Pattison and M.L. Pattison, "'Ex-Gays': Religiously Mediated Change in Homosexuals," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 137, pp. 1553-1562, 1980</ref> The results of this study are not surprising since Christian faith has shown itself to be effective in combating drug addiction. For example, Christian group [[Teen Challenge]] reported the following:
{{Cquote|Teen Challenge claims of a 70% cure rate for the drug addicts graduating from their program attracted the attention of the U.S. Federal Government in 1973. Most secular drug rehabilitation programs only experienced a cure rate of 1-15% of their graduates. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), part of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, funded the first year of this study to evaluate the long term results of the Teen Challenge program.<ref>http://teenchallengeusa.com/studies2.php</ref>}}

Teen Challenge has a number of studies that indicate the high effectiveness of their drug treatment program compared to other programs.<ref>http://teenchallengeusa.com/studies.php</ref>

Many people do not understand the [[Causes of Homosexuality|causes of homosexuality]] so they mistakenly believe that overcoming homosexuality is not an available option. However, the the [[Apostle Paul]] offered great hope to those who wish to overcome homosexuality when he wrote the following:
{{cquote|Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor male prostitutes nor homosexual offenders nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God. And that is what some of you were. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were [[Justification (theology)|justified]] in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God." - I Corinthians 6:9-11 (NIV)}}
==Testimony of an Ex-Homosexual Pastor Darryl L. Foster==
[[Image:Pastorfostergso1_op_444x600.jpg‎|right|thumb|200px|Pastor [[D.L. Foster]]]]
Pastor [[D. L. Foster]], an [[Ex-homosexuals|ex-homosexual]], states the following regarding overcoming homosexuality:
{{cquote|Former homosexuals joyfully point to one definitive Scripture that mentions them and the redemptive process they are embracing: "Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor homosexuals, nor sodomites ... will inherit the kingdom of God. And such were some of you. But you were washed, but you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus and by the Spirit of our God" ([http://nasb.scripturetext.com/1_corinthians/6.htm 1 Cor. 6:9-11]).

When I met and married my wife, Dee, almost 12 years ago, she and I both were clueless about what my post-homosexual life would be like. As painful as my past sin was to me, my wife was not the cause of my change; rather, she was the fruit of my change...

Our responsibility as Christians is to pour love out without measure on those who struggle to overcome homosexuality. Compassion was the hallmark of the Chief Shepherd, and as His disciples, we should be characterized by it too as we encourage them to embrace the freedom Christ offers.<ref>http://www.charismamag.com/display.php?id=9019</ref>}}

==Testimony of an Ex-Lesbian Jeanette Howard Regarding Overcoming Homosexuality==
Below is a portion of a testimonial from the ex-lesbian Jeanette Howard in regards to her overcoming homosexuality:
{{cquote|Growing up, I felt strangely alienated from other girls. But I couldn't identify with boys either. I didn't seem to belong anywhere. Who was I, anyway?

"Jeanette, stand in front of the mirror every morning and thank God that He's made you a woman." This challenge came from a teacher at the Bible school I attended as a young Christian. What a ridiculous task! I thought, but reluctantly agreed. The next morning I got up and struggled to look at myself in the mirror. Try as I would, I could not acknowledge myself as a female....

Then came a breakthrough during a retreat in February, 1989. "You have believed a lie", [[God]] told me, "but I'm going to change your name". From now on, He showed me, I was to be called "woman". This was God's intention for me from my conception.

In faith I received my new name. Almost immediately I felt a weight fall away from me. In amazement, I looked around at the other women. No longer did I feel distanced from them; we were united by a common bond in Jesus Christ.

That day, the wall I had erected as a child came tumbling down. I entered into my rightful role as a woman of Christ. I felt as though I belonged-at long last.

As I have entered into my identity as a woman, God is healing my views on men. Now I see them as having a major role in my life. We complement each other, and I realize now that my life has been enriched because of them...<ref>http://www.leaderu.com/stonewall/pages/jeanette.html</ref>}}

==Testimony of Ex-Lesbian Luanna Hansberger==
Ex-Lesbian Luanna Hasberger stated the following regarding conquering homosexuality:
{{cquote|I prayed every night for years that God would undo the mistake He had made: "God, please make me a boy."

Most of the people who knew me when I was growing up would probably have a hard time believing what my life was like during my twenties, when I became involved in the seemingly hopeless morass of a lesbian relationship...

My friends encouraged me to contact Regeneration, a local ministry which reaches out to those seeking a way out of homosexuality. Thus, in January 1981, the healing process was accelerated.

When I first came to the ministry I was extremely shy and introverted. I bounced back and forth between a masculine and a feminine identity...

The friends I first shared with continue to be a great help and support for me. That support has carried on literally from around the world as they have moved about with the military. At the end of March 1985, I got out of the Army to go to work for Regeneration. During the time since entering full time Christian service, I can really see the changes the Lord has made in me. Through Him I can now not only accept, but rejoice in, my femininity. I am now joyfully preparing for marriage. I praise the Lord for the work He has done in my life. When I was born female, God didn't make a mistake!<ref>http://www.stonewallrevisited.com/pages/luanna.html</ref>}}

==Concerned Women of American Regarding Overcoming Homosexuality==
The organization [[Concerned Women of America]] states the following regarding overcoming homosexuality:
{{cquote|Homosexual behavior can be conquered, as evidenced by the thousands of people who have completely given up the lifestyle...

If homosexual behavior [[Homosexuality and Genetics|were thought to be inborn]], Scripture would not have said, "Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another." (Romans 1:[http://scripturetext.com/romans/1-26.htm 26]-[http://scripturetext.com/romans/1-27.htm 27]). The clear implication is that the homosexual acts were deliberate choices.

If homosexual behavior were thought to be unchangeable, Scripture would not have said, "And that is what some of you were [past tense]. But you have been washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God." (1 Corinthians 6:[http://scripturetext.com/1_corinthians/6-11.htm 11])<ref>http://www.cwfa.org/articles/3456/CFI/cfreport/index.htm</ref>}}
==Christians and Helping Others in Respect to Overcoming Homosexuality==
[[Image:Mark_copeland.jpg‎|right|thumb|200px|Pastor [[Mark A. Copeland]]]]
Pastor Mark A. Copeland states the following regarding Christians helping others in regards to overcoming homosexuality:
{{cquote|BE READY TO ASSIST THOSE WHO DESIRE TO OVERCOME HOMOSEXUALITY

Even as Jesus was quick to receive sinners and to lead them to the way of righteousness and life
everlasting, so should those who claim to be His disciples. Again, the challenge will be to do it in the
proper way.

Paul's instructions to the Galatians can serve as good beginning:

"Brethren, if a man is overtaken in any trespass, you who are spiritual restore such a one in a spirit of gentleness, considering yourself lest you also be tempted. Bear one another's burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ." (Ga 6:[http://scripturetext.com/galatians/6-1.htm 1]-[http://scripturetext.com/galatians/6-2.htm 2])

In a spirit of gentleness we need to be able to show them how, and to provide the encouragement they will
need along the way.<ref>http://christianlibrary.org/authors/Mark_A_Copeland/hom/hom.pdf</ref>}}

==Television Show Cuts Message of Christian Who Overcame Homosexuality==
[[Image:StephenBennett.jpg‎|left|thumb|150px|[[Stephen Bennett]]]]
The organization [[Concerned Women of America]] states the following regarding an instance of [[Homosexuality in the Media|how the media and covers ex-homosexuals and the homosexuality issue]]:
{{cquote|[[Stephen Bennett]], a former homosexual and Christian recording artist who runs a ministry to free people from homosexuality, saw his testimony cut from an appearance on The Ananda Lewis Show, a syndicated TV talk program that airs on [[WB]], [[NBC]] and [[CBS]] affiliates. The program in question aired on Tuesday (February 19, 2002) in several markets.

Not only was any mention of [[Jesus]] dropped from Bennett's six-minute segment, but he charges that the show had a misleading caption on the screen while he and his wife Irene were featured. The title read: "Says he and his wife pray daily that he doesn't revert to being gay."

This gave the impression that Mr. Bennett had told them he was still struggling with homosexuality. But Bennett, who left homosexuality behind when he accepted Jesus Christ years ago, had said during pre-interviews that he was completely healed and had no homosexual temptations. He said that neither he nor Irene told anyone on the show that he was struggling...

"I just can't get over how this completely misrepresented me," Bennett told C&F Report. He said he knew that the show's lineup would be lopsided, but, "they completely lied about my story" by leaving out how he overcame homosexuality.<ref>http://www.cultureandfamily.org/articledisplay.asp?id=450&department=CFI&categoryid=cfreport</ref>}}

==Criticism==
Some people who claimed to have overcome homosexuality have reverted back or continued to dabble in aspects of the homosexual lifestyle. However, the same can be said of any sin. For example, people with illegal drug use problems who leave that lifestyle can later relapse and start taking illegal drugs again.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==
*[[Ex-Homosexuals]]
*[[Teenager Homosexuality]]
*[[Homosexuality]]

==External Links==
* Faith-based Resources
**[http://www.ccel.org/contrib/exec_outlines/hom/hom_06.htm Homosexuality - A Christian Perspective - Helping Homosexuals To Overcome]
**[http://www.exodusinternational.org/help/?option=com_content&task=view&id=327&Itemid=147 - Exodus International - Thinking of Leaving the Gay Lifestyle?]
* Secular Resources
**[http://betterliving2003.wordpress.com A Conservative Perspective Pointing Toward Celibacy and Friendship]

{{homosexualityb}}
[[Category:Homosexuality]]

Same-sex marriage

2010-04-22T00:42:11Z

JClarke: Undo revision 771224 by ArthurG (Talk) Trolling

'''Same-sex "marriage"''' is a proposed redefinition or variation on the traditional concept of [[marriage]], granting [[same-sex union]]s the same legal status as heterosexual marriage. Like [[polygamy]], it replaces the pattern of "one man, one woman" which is considered a divine mandate by most modern religious people. The proposal is outrageously unacceptable to most adherents of [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] because it uses the force of law to justify what scripture has clearly labelled a sin: i.e., [[homosexual]] relations. [[Hate speech]] rules and laws are already in place which restrict criticism of same-sex unions (see also [[hate crime]]).

Campaigns advocating same-sex marriage are at the forefront of the [[gay rights movement]]'s attempt to normalize the rights of [[homosexual]]s with those of heterosexuals, overturning centuries of established tradition whereby homosexuals were required to keep their sinful acts hidden, protecting society from their immorality. Some opponents of efforts to normalize same-sex marriage claim its purpose is to destroy the [[family]] as an institution, merely to secure a legal basis for [[sexual freedom]]. According to some opponents of same-sex marriage, the primary purpose of marriage is to bring joy to society as much as to safeguard the development of happy families, and it is not for individual glory. They believe that unrelated people living together make each other miserable and harm society. Among the many reasons homosexuals might advocate same-sex marriage are the ability to make emergent healthcare decisions for a loved one in the absence of a durable power of attorney or living will, the alteration of the laws of intestate succession to include gay partners, and equal tax treatment as heterosexual married couples.

[[United States]] [[law]] defines "marriage" as "one man, one woman" for purposes of the federal [[Defense of Marriage Act]], which prohibits the federal government from recognizing same-sex relationships as marriages for any purpose, even if permitted under state law, and permits a state to disregard a same-sex marriage entered into in another state. An interesting consequence of the federal definition of "marriage" is that it specifically rules out [[polygamy]]. 

__TOC__
==Morality==
Social [[conservatives]] regard same-sex marriage as immoral, and argue that use of the word "[[marriage]]" is a misnomer, because the [[Form of Solemnization of Matrimony|marriage services]] of Christian denominations define marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Some social liberals will try to use this debate as a excuse to take the socially-conservative view of marriage out of the law. In some Christian marriage ceremonies,the wedding will begin with a statement along the lines of: "Dearly beloved: We have come together in the presence of God to witness and bless the joining together of this man and this woman in Holy Matrimony." <ref>''The Book of Common Prayer,'' Episcopal Church, The Church Hymnal Corporation and the Seabury Press, 1979: "The Celebration and Blessing of a Marriage," p. 423</ref> a definition which was also written into United States federal law in 1996.<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode01/usc_sec_01_00000007----000-.html US Code - Title 1, section 7]</ref>

Dr. [[James Dobson]]'s [[Focus on the Family]] organization prefers the phrase ''same-sex "marriage,"'' with quotation marks around the word "marriage," to call attention to his belief that marriage—civil as well as religious—is intrinsically a union between a man and a woman, and that that same-sex unions are "counterfeits."<ref>[http://www.family.org/socialissues/A000000464.cfm Same-Sex 'Marriage' and Civil Unions], ''Focus on the Family's'' website</ref>

Use of the term "same-sex marriage" was unheard of a few decades ago; however, these unions are now among a number of issues advocated by [[liberal]] activists.

Some advocates of same-sex marriage view marriage as a purely civil matter, which in the history of the United States is a position taken particularly strongly by Puritan colonists, who viewed the interjection of religion into the franchise of marriage as scandalous to Christ's Church.

== Background ==
In the United States, marriage is primarily governed by each individual state and marriage laws differ from state to state. Several states allow [[civil union]]s between two people of the same sex, and five, [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]], and [[Iowa]], currently issue same-sex marriage licenses. These marriage licenses are not recognized by the Federal government.

In 1996 Congress recognized the likelihood that [[liberal]] activists would soon seek changes to the laws in some states that pertain to homosexuals. It considered the possibility of test cases reaching the Supreme Court, and of the court conceivably ruling that a state—even though it prohibits same-sex marriage itself—must honor same-sex marriages performed in another state pursuant to the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the United States Constitution. The Defense of Marriage act, which was passed and signed by President Clinton, prevents this possibility, and also prevents the Federal Government from recognizing marriage as anything other than a union between a man and a woman. Its Constitutionality has not yet been tested under the Full Faith and Credit Clause, the Equal Protection Clause of the 5th Amendment, or the Due Process Clause of the 5th Amendment.

In 1999 a Vermont court ruled that under its constitution, it was not required to allow same-sex marriage but was required to make provisions to grant same-sex couples legal rights identical to those provided by marriage. Vermont responded by creating "civil unions," which are legally distinct from marriages but convey the same rights. In 2009, the Vermont legislature overrode the governor's veto to pass a bill allowing same-sex marriage.

In 2003 the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that under Massachusetts' constitution, same-sex couples could not be denied Massachusetts marriage licenses, making Massachusetts the first state to issue same-sex marriage licenses. As of April 2009, same-sex marriage was legal in four states, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont, and Iowa. <ref>''Vermont Legislature Makes Same-Sex Marriage Legal'' [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/08/us/08vermont.html?_r=1&hp]</ref><ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081010/ap_on_re_us/connecticut_same_sex_marriage Conn. high court rules gay couples can marry]</ref>

Beginning in 2008, the states of [[Washington]], and [[Oregon]] also provide for same-sex unions. [[Hawaii]] provides certain benefits to same sex couples. <ref>[http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/connecticut/ny-bc-ct--civilunions-optio0531may31,0,341613.story?coll=ny-region-apconnecticut Newsday]</ref> The State of New Hampshire issued civil unions until the summer of 2009, when it passed a bill approving same-sex marriage <ref>"New Hampshire Legalizes Same-Sex Marriage" [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/04/us/04marriage.html]</ref> The state will begin issuing same-sex marriage licenses in January, 2010.

In the fall of 2009, a same-sex marriage bill was introduced to the [[D.C.|Washington, DC]] city council by At-Large Council Member David Catania (who is openly gay.) After two days of testimony involving nearly 250 witnesses <ref>''D.C. Council hears from both sides in gay marriage debate'' [http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/local/D_C_-Council-hears-from-both-sides-in-gay-marriage-debate-8442433-66188647.html]</ref>, the council voted to approve the bill, 11-2. If signed by the Mayor, which he has pledged to do, the bill will then go to Congress for a mandatory [[DC Home Rule|30-day review period]]. While opponents of the bill have vowed to fight it in Congress<ref>"DC Council Approves Same-Sex Marriage" [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/15/AR2009121500945.html]</ref> it is expected to pass, and will become law in 2010.

Same-sex marriages were legal for a brief period in the state of [[California]], but the people of that state voted to repeal the law in the fall of 2008<ref>"California Votes for Prop 8"[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122586056759900673.html]</ref>, through a ballot initiative known as [[Proposition 8]]. The legislature of [[Maine]] approved a same-sex marriage bill in May of 2009 <ref>"Lawmakers approve same-sex marriage in N.H., Maine" [http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/06/maine.same.sex.marriage/index.html]</ref> but opponents lobbied to have the bill put up to a popular vote, and it was defeated by the voters in the fall of 2009.<ref>"Maine rejects same-sex marriage law" [http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/11/04/maine.same.sex/index.html]</ref>

Same-sex marriage is legal in seven countries: [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Canada]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]]. Other countries, such as [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[United Kingdom]], recognize [[civil unions]] and [[domestic partnership]]s.<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-03/05/content_311998.htm Countries worldwide address gay marriage]</ref>

Some opponents of same-sex marriage believe that the religious ceremony of marriage is governed by each denomination and is unaffected by laws passed by civil authority. Same-sex marriage is forbidden in Orthodox Judaism, Catholicism, and most mainstream Protestant denominations. In Massachusetts, however, about 6% of all marriages are same-sex marriages, so this does not appear to be a problem. <ref>[http://www.massequality.org/news/news_story.php?id=273]</ref><ref>http://www.pdfdownload.org/pdf2html/pdf2html.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnchs%2Fdata%2Fnvss%2Fmarriage90_04.pdf&images=yes</ref>

Public attitude toward same-sex marriage parallels attitude toward homosexuality. In general, it is opposed by social conservatives and outside of this group, support is split down the middle leaning to opposition.<ref>[http://www.abcnews.go.com/sections/us/Relationships/same_sex_marriage_poll_040121.html Same Sex Marriage Poll from ABC News]</ref>

== Issues ==
[[Image:Cycle.gif|thumbnail|200px|right|A recent study by the [[Canada|Canadian]] government states that "violence was twice as common among homosexual couples compared with [[heterosexual]] couples".<ref>http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/85-570-XIE/2006001/findings/risk.htm Aforementioned Canadian Study.</ref>]]
[[James Dobson]] cites Stanley Kurtz to argue that the motivation of those advocating same-sex marriage is not to secure the benefits of marriage for gay couples, but to destroy the institution of marriage itself:
:...most gays and lesbians do not want to marry each other. That would entangle them in all sorts of legal constraints. Who needs a lifetime commitment to one person? The intention here is to destroy marriage altogether. With marriage as we know it gone, everyone would enjoy all the legal benefits of marriage (custody rights, tax-free inheritance, joint ownership of property, health care and spousal citizenship, etc.,) without limiting the number of partners or their gender. Nor would "couples" be bound to each other in the eyes of the law. This is clearly where the movement is headed.<ref>Stanley Kurtz, "Beyond Marriage," The Weekly Standard, August 4/August 11, 2003. - cited in [http://www.focusonthefamily.com/docstudy/newsletters/A000000771.cfm Marriage on the Ropes], Dr. James Dobson, retrieved from ''Focus on the Family'', 15 May 2007. </ref>

According to a March, 2007 report, there are 65,000 adopted children in the U.S. being raised by same-sex couples. The same report says 14,100 foster children were being raised by one or more gay or lesbian foster parents.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/06/25/gay.adoption/index.html Gay adoption: A new take on the American family]</ref>

In Great Britain, the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) has expressed its full support to the stand taken by the Catholic Church opposing regulations on gay adoption. The Catholic Church sought to be exempt from the new law. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams of the Church of England, supports the Catholic Church's efforts declaring that the rights of conscience cannot be subject to laws. Catholic leaders have already said that its teachings prevent its agencies placing children with homosexuals and they will have to close if bound by the rules. The MCB, the UK's leading Muslim umbrella group embracing over 400 affiliated organizations, said that while it supported anti-discrimination laws, homosexuality is forbidden in Islam. <ref>[http://www2.irna.com/en/news/view/menu-234/0701266670200554.htm UK Muslim group backs Christian opposition to gay adoption rules London], Islamic republic News Agency, Jan 26, 2007.</ref>

Studies indicate that homosexual couples have higher rates of promiscuity than heterosexual couples.<ref>[http://www.frc.org/get.cfm?i=IS04C02 Comparing the Lifestyles of Homosexual Couples to Married Couples]</ref> Allowing gays to marry would make gays seek more partners.<ref>2004 General Social Survey, Statistics Canada, Canada's National Statistical Agency, July 7, 2005</ref> In addition, studies report that [[Homosexual Couples and Domestic Violence|homosexual couples have significantly higher incidences of violent behavior]].{{fact}} These studies are not surprising given what pathologists have stated regarding the [[Homosexuality and Murders|commonness and brutality of homosexual murders]].{{fact}} The prevalence of violence and emotional abuse in gay domestic partnerships.  One survey found 53% of gays felt if the high incidence of violence against partners in homosexual relationships was known and understood by the heterosexual population, it would hinder the drive for gay rights.

Domestic abuse is divided into two categories, emotional abuse and physical abuse. While gay domestic abuse has not been studied to the extent that heterosexual relationships have, [[Homosexual Couples and Domestic Violence|preliminary studies indicate a much higher level of abuse]].

==See also==
*[[Anti-Defamation League]]
*[[Intimate Partner Violence]]
*[[Homosexuality and the Bible]]
*[[Homosexuality and biblical interpretation]]

==Reference==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.nogaymarriage.com/tenarguments.asp Gay Marriage: Why Would It Affect Me? Ten Arguments Against Same Sex Marriage], NoGayMarriage.com
*[http://www.robgagnon.net/homoPresbyTodayArticle.htm Why “Gay Marriage” Is Wrong, by Robert A. J. Gagnon, Ph.D.]
[[Category:Homosexual Agenda]]

United States of America

2010-04-22T00:41:21Z

JClarke: Undo trolling

{{Country
|name =''United States of America''
|map =US map.PNG
|map2 =Loc of United States.png
|established=1776
|flag =50 star flag.png
|arms =United States arms.png
|capital =Washington, D.C.
|government =Federal Republic
|language =English
|official =n
|president =Barack Hussein Obama
|area =3,718,695 sq mi
|pop =301,554,000 (2007)
|gdp-year =$13.049 trillion (2007
|gdp-pc =$44,333 (2007)
|currency =United States Dollar (USD)
}}
The '''United States of America''' (''conventional short form'': '''United States'''; ''abbreviation'': '''US''' or '''USA'''; sometimes also referred to as '''the States''' or simply as '''America''') is a [[North America|North American]] nation that consists of a federal union of fifty individual states, along with territories and a capital district. Founded originally as 13 colonies in the [[British Empire]], Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country on July 4, 1776 with the [[Declaration of Independence]]. The new nation became recognized as the United States of America following the [[American Revolutionary War|War of Independence]] in 1783. Shortly thereafter, in 1787, the [[United States Constitution]] was written; grounded on Christian values and [[Republican form of government|republican]] political principles, the constitution remains in effect today. The Americans created the world's first political parties and, since abolishing [[slavery]] in a bloody [[American Civil War|civil war]] (1861-65), the federal and State governments in the United States are a representative [[democracy]] committed to a Constitution-based federal republic.

America's capitalist economy grew rapidly, becoming the largest in the world by the 1870s. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. After defeating Communism in the [[Cold War]], the U.S. emerged as the world's only [[superpower]], boasting the largest economy and most powerful military. It exerts enormous cultural and intellectual influence worldwide, and in return is the target of the enemies of democracy and [[capitalism]].

The capital of the United States of America is [[Washington, DC]].

==Geography==
{{main|North America}}

North America, bordering both the North [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific Ocean]], is between [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]]. In addition to the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, the United States is otherwise bounded by the Bering Sea, the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Two of the fifty states, Alaska and Hawaii (an archipelago), are not contiguous with any of the other states. Puerto Rico, which is largely self governing, is part of the U.S., as are several smaller territories in the Pacific Ocean, such as Guam. Each of the 50 states has a large degree of sovereignty, but the boundaries are debated and shift slightly every year.

At over 3.7 million square miles (over 9.6 million km²), the U.S. (including its non-contiguous and overseas states and territories) is the third largest country by total area. It is the world's third most populous nation, with over 350 million people.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html CIA World Factbook], ''North America :: United States'', Updated on February 4, 2010, (Accessed on March 5, 2010).</ref>

==The Constitution and Politics in the United States==

[[Image:76485685i79.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The drafting committee presenting the [[Declaration of Independence]] to the [[Continental Congress]], painted by John Trumbull 1817–1819.]]

Between 1776 and 1788, the United States was governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]]. The [[Founding Fathers]] formally established the current structure of the United States by ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] in 1788. Since 1789, that constitution has been the basic governing document.

Sovereignty in America comes from the citizenry, and the basic political values are called "[[republicanism]]," (not to be confused with the [[Republican Party]],) especially the commitment to civic virtue and civic duty, and opposition to corruption and aristocracy. Popular political parties emerged in the United States in the 1790s; currently the two major political parties are the [[Democratic Party]], and the [[Republican Party]]. Minor parties are of little importance.

=== The Role of Religion in Government ===
see [[Religion and U.S. Government]]

==History==

===Thirteen Colonies===
{{main|Thirteen Colonies}} [[Image:Pop1750.jpg|left|thumb|400px]]

===American Revolution===
{{main|American Revolution}}

The American Revolution exploded from fears the British Empire was trying to restrict the historic rights and liberties of Americans. The British victory in the French and Indian War ended the threat that foreign powers might attack the colonies; Britain's protection was no longer needed. At the same time Britain decided to assert its powers by imposing taxes. The taxes (as on stamps and sugar) were not large but the principle was: Americans insisted their own legislatures could impose taxes but not Parliament, because Americans were not represented there. "No taxation without representation!" became the American catch-word, but the British refused over and over again to accept it. London sent in troops when Boston protested vehemently, amd Americans organized shadow governments in every colony.

Meanwhile the Americans had been adopting a new political philosophy, called [[republicanism]] that stressed civic virtue, fear of corruption, and disdain for aristocracy (there were no aristocrats in America apart from occasional British visitors). Republicanism alerted Americans to their constitutional rights as Englishmen--one right was the people through their elected officials set the taxes. To Americans this meant their colonial legislatures, because they were not represented in the British Parliament. The British replied haughtily that Americans were "virtually represented" somehow. The tax on stamps in 1765 incited near rebellion, as the 13 separate colonies began meeting together and sharing their grievances. The stamp tax was repealed but others followed, especially the tax on tea. Americans boycotted tea and merchants refused to order it, except in Boston. There a well-organized group of patriots dumped the tea in the harbor at the [[Boston Tea Party]]. London was livid and sent troops and stripped Massachusetts of its self government and suspended the historic rights the colonists were so proud of. Now all 13 colonies started organizing shadow governments called "Committees of Correspondence" that prepared for the day "patriots" 9or "Whigs") as they called themselves could assume all functions of local government. That day came when the British sent troops from Boston to seize gunpowder and the patriots gathered there. The American "Minute men" (militia) had trained and planned for the day and they back at Lexington and Concord, and defeated elite British troops. The war had begun.

The 13 colonies, now organized as the "Continental COngress" now became a national government, as the shadow governments in each colony took control and ousted all royal officials. Congress set up a Continental Army and gave command to Virginia leader [[George Washington]]. he took charge in Boston, and forced the British to leave in spring 1776. All 13 colonies were now under Patriot control, and they listened as [[Tom Paine]] explained in ''Common Sense'' that America was a strong and powerful nation in its own right and no longer needed a foreign king. Congress called on the colonies to make themselves states and write new constitutions. On July 4, 1776, Congress unanimously declared the independence of a new nation, the United States of America.

King [[George III]] could not abide the insolent Americans and he sent his small army and large navy to reconquer his lost colonies. They did capture New York City, but little else. The powerful Royal navy gave the British command of the seas and the ability to land troops anywhere and capture any specific place, but the shortage of British soldiers, and the very long 3000 mile supply line, meant that the British could only hold a few points at any one time. Hiring German soldiers (Hessians) was necessary, but they were not enough, for the Patriots always had more available soldiers. The British expectations that Loyalist would rise up and overthrow the Patriots was a chimera; the Loyalists did provide some help to British invasion forces, but were never strong enough to operate on their own or control any territory.

France, humiliated by Britain in the 1760s, was stronger now and wanted revenge. It secretly armed and financed the Americans. In 1777 the British sent a large army to invade New York and cut off the revolutionary states of New England. The plan was a disaster as the American militia captured the entire British invasion force at Saratoga. Encouraged by diplomat [[Benjamin Franklin]], the French now recognized the United States, signed a treaty of alliance, and entered the war against Britain. Later it brought in Span and the Netherlands as allies; Britain's diplomacy was so bad that it had no allies at all, and now was militarily matched or surpassed by the allies. The British invasion of the South in 178-81 was designed to bring out Loyalist support, but it failed and the second major British army was captured at thew [[Battle of Yorktown]]. The British Parliament revolted at their reckless king and his incompetent government and sued for peace, which was achieved on terms favorable to the U.S. in 1783. About 20% of the Loyalists removed to Canada, but the others stayed, and the new peaceful nation resumed its rapid growth.

=== New Nation===

In 1783, when the Treaty of Paris concluded the war of independence, the American population totalled some three million citizens and slaves living on about one million square miles of land. Tens of thousands of [[Native Americans]] also lived in the [[Northwest Territory]] and the Southwest.

The Thirteen original states are [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] (including [[maine]]), [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[North Carolina]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Virginia]]. In 1790, an agreement between supporters of Jefferson and those of [[Alexander Hamilton]] resulted in the creation of the [[District of Columbia]] from part of [[Maryland]]; it has served as the national capital since 1800. The remainder of the 1783 territory was eventually organized as the states of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].

=== Expansion===

In 1803, [[French]] emperor [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] took advantage of a lull in his war with Great Britain to sell the [[Louisiana Territory]] to the United States, more than doubling the nation's land area. This territory would later be organized as the states of [[Minnesota]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[Nebraska]], [[Iowa]], [[Missouri]], [[Arkansas]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Louisiana]] proper. President Jefferson commissioned [[Lewis and Clark]] to explore the new territory from 1802 to 1804.

The U.S. seized, then purchased [[Florida]] from Spain in 1819. [[Texas]] joined the United States in 1845 after winning its revolution against Mexico.

After victory the [[Mexican American War]] of 1846-48, the U.S. purchased via the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] territory that became the states of [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]]. In 1846 the U.S. and Britain agreed that the 49th Parallel (degree of latitude) would serve as the boundary between the U. S. and [[British Columbia]] (now part of Canada). The American portion became the states of [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[Idaho]].

In 1867, the U.S. purchased [[Alaska]] from [[Russia]]. It became a state in 1959.

Hawaii became an independent republic in 1894 and voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898, becoming a state in 1960.

As a result of the [[Spanish-American War]], in which the United States took control of the [[Philippines]] and annexed [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]]. The Phillipines became independent in 1946, after the U.S. reconquered the islands from Japan in World War II. [[Puerto Rico]] has occasionally held referenda that ratified its continuing unique "Commonwealth" status as part of the United States. The residents of Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens. Guam continues as a U.S. owned territory with full citizenship for its inhabitants. The people of Puerto Rico and Guam have a vote in presidential primaries and a voice, but not a vote, in Congress.

==Government==
[[Image:56eugyjnm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[White House]], the official home and workplace of the [[President of the United States]] of America.]]
===Executive Branch===
*Chief of state: The President of the United States is both the chief of state and head of government
*Head of government: President of the United States; Vice President of the United States
*Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with Senate approval
*Elections: The president and vice president serve four-year terms (eligible for a second term)

===Legislative Branch===
The United States legislative branch of government is a bicameral Congress, which consists of the Senate (100 seats, 2 members are elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms; one-third are elected every two years) and the House of Representatives (435 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms).

===Judicial Branch===
The United States [[Supreme Court]] consists of nine justices, nominated by the president and confirmed with the advice and consent of the Senate. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed to serve for life; the judicial branch extends to the United States Courts of Appeal, the United States District Courts, and State and County Courts. The primary role of the nine justices of the Supreme Court is to assure the United States government does not attempt to surrender, sell or transfer the people's unalienable rights given by [[God]]. The Supreme Court has the power to consider the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress.

==2010 Federal Holidays==
The table below lists public holidays for U.S. Federal employees for 2010.<ref>[http://www.opm.gov/Operating_Status_Schedules/fedhol/2010.asp 2010 Federal Holidays], OPM.gov, Federal law (5 U.S.C. 6103).</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date
! Holiday
|-
|Friday, Jan. 1 || [[New Year’s Day]]
|-
|Monday, Jan. 18 || Birthday of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
|-
|Monday, Feb. 15* || Washington’s Birthday
|-
|Monday, May 31 || [[Memorial Day]]
|-
|Monday, July 5** || [[Independence Day]]
|-
|Monday, Sept. 6 || [[Labor Day]]
|-
|Monday, Oct. 11 || [[Columbus Day]]
|-
|Thursday, Nov. 11 || [[Veterans Day]]
|-
|Thursday, Nov. 25 || [[Thanksgiving Day]]
|-
|Friday, Dec. 24*** || [[Christmas|Christmas Day]]
|-
|}

==Flag Description==
[[Image:50 star flag.png|right|thumb|150px|The [[Flag of the United States of America]]]]
{{main|Flag of the United States of America}}

Thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; known as Old Glory; the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including [[Chile]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Puerto Rico]].

== Also See ==
*[[Pledge of Allegiance]]
*[[Famous American artists]]
*[[List of 50 states]]
*[[Americas]]
*[[America (continent)]]
*[[Columbia]]

== External links ==

*[[CIA]] - [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html The World FactBook]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/america.htm America]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/flags_of_us_states.htm Flags of the U.S. States]
*[http://www.pibmug.com/files/map_test.swf Interactive map test of the 50 U.S. states]
*[http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h445.html U.S. History]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{USstates}}
{{Nb US universities}}
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:United States of America]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:United States history]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Balance of power

2010-04-21T23:33:38Z

JClarke:

The '''balance of power''' was an equilibrium of power in [[Europe]] after the [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] wars. The system relied on a system of political alliances that would balance the potential aggression by one nation against the combined power of other nations. This balance of power prevented one nation from imposing its will on other nations. With a few exceptions (such as the [[Franco-Prussian War]]), the system worked to keep the continent generally free of war until the outbreak of the [[First World War]].

==Quotations==
*North writes that historically there have been two ways to consolidate power: integration by empire, that is, by conquest as in the case of the Huns and Mongols; or by consent, as initially in the case of the US. Conquest attempts to break down the notion of balance of power between sovereign states while consent attempts to redefine issues and mutual identity at a global level. [http://www.proutworld.org/ideology/leadership/futunandwg.htm]

==See also==

*[[Globalism]]

[[category:Political Science]]

Stephen Green

2010-04-21T22:10:19Z

JClarke:

'''Stephen Green''' is the leader of the [[UK]] [[evangelical]] [[Christian]] organisation [[Christian Voice]]. He is known for taking strong stances against blasphemy and for Christian values.

==Legal Sanctions==

In the course of his efforts to promote the Gospel, Green has, at times, been subject to legal sanctions. On September 2, 2006, he was arrested for passing out leaflets at a homosexual event. The arrest was made despite the fact that police admitted he was not behaving in a violent or aggressive manner; police further confirmed that he was arrested because his leaflets contained Biblical quotes about [[homosexuality]]. <ref>http://www.christiantoday.com/article/evangelical.alliance.welcomes.case.drop/7832.htm </ref> The case against him was later dismissed due to lack of evidence, a decision hailed as a vindication of free speech rights. <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/5388626.stm</ref>

More recently, Green's efforts to hold broadcasters accountable for the airing of blasphemous material have made headlines. On January 8, 2008, Green sought to prosecute Mark Thompson, Director General of the [[BBC]], and Jonathan Thoday, the producer of ''Jerry Springer: the Opera,'' for broadcasting material of a blasphemous nature. The courts denied him the right to pursue prosecution due to lack of prima facie evidence that a crime had been committed, and because any otherwise-actionable blasphemous content was protected by the 1968 Theatres Act. <ref>http://www.christianvoice.org.uk/Press/press028.html</ref> Following this decision, the court ruled that Green would be held liable for costs totalling 180,000 Pounds...a sum which Green says will bankrupt him, and have a chilling effect on future attempts to hold broadcasters accountable.

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

[[category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British Politics]]

Robert Spencer

2010-04-21T20:54:32Z

JClarke:

[[File:Robert Spencer.jpg|left|100px]]
'''Robert Bruce Spencer''' (b. 1962), is an American blogger and author of articles and books relating to [[Islam]]ic terrorism ([[Jihad]]). He is considered {{who}} a notorious Islam hater. Spencer is the founder director of [[Jihad Watch]], a program of the David Horowitz Freedom Center.

Spencer is author of ten books, including the [[New York Times]] bestsellers ''The Truth About Muhammad and The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (and the Crusades)''. He is also a weekly columnist for Human Events and FrontPage Magazine.

The David Horowitz Freedom Center, was founded in 1988 by David Horowitz (born 1939), who is an American neo-conservative writer (member of the New Left in the late 1960s) who was born to a Jewish family in Forest Hills.

<blockquote>
Spencer has studied Islam for 20 years, largely, it seems, to prove that it is an evil, inherently violent religion. He is a hero of the American right and author of the US bestseller ''The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam''. Like any book written in hatred, his new work is a depressing read. Spencer makes no attempt to explain the historical, political, economic and spiritual circumstances of 7th-century Arabia, without which it is impossible to understand the complexities of [[Muhammad]]’s life. Consequently he makes basic and bad mistakes of fact. Even more damaging, he deliberately manipulates the evidence. <ref> [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/4a05a4a4-f134-11db-838b-000b5df10621.html Balancing the Prophet] Published: April 27 2007 </ref>
</blockquote>

[[Benazir Bhutto]] (1953 - 2007) called Spencer a "radical intellectual" and accused him of "falsely constructing a divide between Islam and West."

== See also ==

*[[John L. Esposito]]
*[[Arab American]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.jihadwatch.org/about-robert-spencer.html About Robert Spencer] Jihad Watch.
*[http://reason.com/archives/2006/06/06/the-jihad-against-muslims The Jihad Against Muslims]
*[http://www.jihadwatch.org/2006/01/what-is-a-moderate-muslim.html What is a moderate Muslim?]
*[http://old.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-spencer121902.asp Islam Soft and Hard] By Robert Spencer.
*[http://www.loonwatch.com/tag/jewish-information-committee/ Robert Spencer Whines and Whimpers After Being Exposed.]

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Writers]]

Charles de Gaulle

2010-04-21T03:50:33Z

JClarke:

'''Charles de Gaulle''' (1890-1970) was the dominant military and political leader of France, 1940-1969. He was a conservative in the traditionalist sense, and helped restore the leadership of conservatives and Catholics while weakening the Communists and socialists. He was notoriously hostile to the "Anglo-Saxons" (that is the British and the Americans), and pulled France out of the NATO military command, while maintaining political ties with the alliance.

Fleeing the victorious German invaders in 1940, he rejected the new [[Vichy regime]] that allied itself to Germany. Général de Gaulle set up his base in London, proclaimed himself the incarnation of France, created the Free French movement, rallied the oversees colonies (especially in Africa), organized the Resistance, and tried, but failed, to gain full recognition from the British and Americans. A firm proponent of democracy, he destroyed the vestiges of the totalitarian [[Vichy regime]]. He retired from office in 1946, but returned in 1958 as France verged on civil war over the Algeria crisis. As president (1958-69) during the Fifth Republic, he revised the constitution to provide for presidential control of foreign and military policy, granted independence to Algeria and the African colonies, and restored the nation's economic health. Forging a close bond with Germany, he sought to dominate the European Common Market by vetoing British entry and holding the U.S. at arms length. Exhausted politically and emotionally, he finally left office in 1969. His reputation as the strongest and greatest of French leaders since [[Napoleon]] continues into the 21st century.
==Career==
De Gaulle was born in Lille on November 22, 1890. His family moved to Paris in 1895, where his father became professor of philosophy in the Jesuit College of Paris. The father inculcated the son with a profound belief in the glory of traditional Catholic France. Charles received a rigorous classical education that included a year 1907-08 at a Jesuit college in Belgium. He matriculated at the Saint Cyr military academy in 1908; in 1911 he was commissioned in the French army.

At the battle of Douaumont in the Verdun campaign in February-March 1916 Captain de Gaulle led the 10th Battalion of the 33d Infantry Regiment; he was then assigned to relieve the 110th Regiment from its position at the Verdun front. On 2 March 1916 his company came under attack from the Germans and despite his much praised bravery, he was badly injured and was captured, spending 32 months in a prisoner of war camp.

After the war France set up a military mission to support [[Poland history|newly independent Poland]] by advising and training its army. In 1919, Captain de Gaulle volunteered for service in Poland and spent a year teaching at the Infantry School of the Polish army; he became strategic adviser to Polish general Edward Rydz-Smigly when France decided to actively aid the Polish counterattack against Russia. Back in France he taught military history at Saint Cyr, served as aide to Marshal [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], and wrote several books on military strategy. His book ''The Army of the Future'' (1934), daringly proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on the wholesale use of tanks. Ironically the German panzer units, so effectively employed in the invasion of France in 1940, utilized similar theories, while the French dispersed and wasted their armor. As the French armies collapsed in spring 1940 de Gaulle was made brigadier general<ref> He wore his uniform with the one-star insignia of a brigadier general for the remainder of his life.</ref> and then undersecretary of war in [[Paul Reynaud]]'s cabinet. The elderly Marshal Pétain now came to power in a regime headquartered in the resort town of Vichy. Pétain, venerated as the great hero of World War I, not only admitted defeat but accepted the idea of permanent subordination to Germany. Pétain wanted France to be welcomed by Berlin as the most useful and collaborationist of the nations of Europe, which he thought Germany would long control.

==Resistance==
De Gaulle refused to accept defeat and subservience to Germany. Resistance was possible because the air force and navy were intact (virtually the entire French Navy having 'surrendered' to Britain), as was the entire overseas empire; Britain was an ally and increasingly so too was the United States. As Pétain's new Vichy government prepared to sign a humiliating armistice on 22 June 1940, de Gaulle flew to London and on 18 June in disobedience of orders. As a rebel he issued his famous "Apple," proclaiming "France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war!" and calling French patriots to resistance.<ref> Jean-Louis Cremieux-Brilhac, ''La France Libre de l'appel du 18 juin a la Liberation'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1996) </ref> De Gaulle's forces by November 1940, numbered 35,000 troops and twenty warships; several overseas colonies had rallied to his banner, although his forces were defeated in September in an attempt, with British aid, to seize Dakar, Senegal.

In London in Sept. 1941 de Gaulle formed the free French National Council, with himself as president. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to Communists.<ref>The Communists were controlled by Moscow, which was allied with Germany in 1940. They came into opposition only when Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. De Gaulle's policy became one of friendship directly with Moscow.</ref> By early 1942, the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base. In November 1942 the Americans invaded French North Africa. They favored General Henri Giraud, the High Commissioner of North Africa. But de Gaulle seized power from Giraud, who resigned in late 1942. De Gaulle took supreme command of all French forces in April 1944. Meanwhile, all the French colonies except Japanese-occupied Indochina came under Gaullist control, as did Corsica. Although Churchill was vacillating, his top aide [[Anthony Eden]] was a strong supporter of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's repeated protests against all violations of French sovereignty, real or imagined, irked the Americans and were largely ignored by the British. His imperial personality and humorless demands especially annoyed President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].

De Gaulle in turn was exasperated at the Americans, who were more willing to work with Vichy or Giraud than with him:
:The United States, delighting in her resources, feeling that she no longer had within herself sufficient scope for her energies, wishing to help those who were in misery or bondage the world over, yielded in her turn to that taste for intervention in which the instinct for domination cloaked itself.<ref> ''The War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle,''(1959) vol. 2, p. 88 </ref>

It turn [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] distrusted him. De Gaulle removed French forces from the planned invasion of Normandy in June 1944. He was not at D-Day and was excluded from all the top-level conferences. The Allies, however, finally gave his regime de jure recognition and allowed his armies to enter France and to be the first to enter Paris after the Germans fled in August 1944. French armies, 1.3 million strong, under de Gaulle as provisional president, thereupon fought alongside the Allies. As a result France was given an occupation zone in Germany, and a permanent seat on the [[United Nations]] Security Council, with a veto.

==Fourth Republic: 1945-1958==
As the war ended the Resistance coalition fell apart. De Gaulle's advocacy of a strong executive power was rejected by the voters, who in late 1945 adopted a constitution for the Fourth Republic that resembled that of the discredited Third Republic. De Gaulle resigned the provisional presidency in January 1946, saying that he did not wish "to preside, powerless, over the powerlessness of the state." In 1947 he resigned all his offices, refusing to be a candidate in the presidential election. "How can anyone govern a nation that has two hundred and forty-six different kinds of cheese?", he quipped.<ref> Quoted in ''Newsweek'' (Oct. 1, 1962)</ref> In retirement at the village of Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, he created a new conservative party, RPF, Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People), which only lasted until 1953. He then focused on his great war memoirs, ''L'Appel'' (1954) (translated into English as "The Call to Honor," 1955); ''L'Unité,'' (1956) (translated as ''Unity'', 1959); and ''Le Salut'', (1959) (translated as "Salvation", 1960).

==Fifth Republic: 1958-1969==
===1958 crisis===
For four years France had fought a civil war in Algeria against the FLN, which demanded independence. The Frenchmen who lived in Algeria, their allies among the Arabs, and powerful elements of the military inside France, rejected the FLN and demanded that Algeria remain integrated into France. They insisted so vehemently they were prepared to overthrow the government in Paris if it wavered.

In May, 1958, Frenchmen in Algeria revolted, throwing France into turmoil that verged on civil war. Rebels comprised young nationalists, supported by the large planters, army officers, and other proponents of integration of the Muslim population with France, feared a new government in Paris would make concessions to the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN). The rebels proclaimed a committee of public safety; the revolt spread to Corsica. In Paris the National Assembly voted emergency powers to newly elected Premier Pierre Pflimlin. However only de Gaulle could solve the crisis, for he had the support of the navy, the police, and such prominent politicians as Socialist Guy Mollet and Moderate Republican chief Georges Bidault. Pflimlin resigned and President René Coty summoned de Gaulle as prime minister. The National Assembly, under threat that parachutists would seize Paris if it refused, voted 329-224 to invest de Gaulle with extraordinary powers for six months beginning June 1, 1958; the National Assembly then went home and de Gaulle took charge. When a new constitution took effect, he became the president of the Fifth Republic.
====Interpretations====
These uprisings provided the long-awaited chance to supporters of Général de Gaulle, who sought a new regime in which the executive power would be strengthened. Underlying the views of Gaullists such as Jacques Soustelle, Michel Debré, and Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a faith in French grandeur, a new nationalism which transformed itself into a desire for order and maintenance of the French Empire. These interests momentarily coincided with those of the Algerian rebels who feared Anglo-American mediation of the Algerian rebellion.

Gaullists have seen this critical episode as the result of the preplanned statesmanship of de Gaulle. Their "grand design" thesis includes three key arguments. First is the claim that de Gaulle decided to give up Algeria because he concluded that keeping in the face of a widespread popular anti-French revolt was too costly economically and against France's ideal policy of a focus on Europe. Second, Gaullists argue his general objective ending the Algerian burden was planned well before his return to power in 1958. Third they claim that what seemed an erratic, slow, and indecisive progress toward Algerian independence was in reality de Gaulle's well-orchestrated, consistent, and deceptive policy calculated to overcome the sentiments of the French people toward Algeria.<ref> Gil Meriam, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999); De Gaulle, ''Memoirs of Hope'' (1971) p. 84; Philip G. Cerny, ''The Politics of Grandeur'' (1980), pp 61, 145; Bernard Ledwidge, ''De Gaulle'' (1982), pp 244-45, 257; Philip M. Williams, ''Politics and Society in de Gaulle's Republic'' (1971), p. 28.</ref>

Other historians argue that the Général had no long-term plan, and probably did not want independence for Algeria. Thus French scholars Raoul Girardet and Jacques Julliard argue de Gaulle's Algerian policy was a set of unanticipated concessions imposed by events. They have an alternative "juggler" thesis that does not attribute harmony or continuity to de Gaulle's policy, nor does it try to explain the lack of discernible consistency in the policy by attributing cunning Machiavelism to de Gaulle. Instead it considers the policy as the result of an erratic improvisation.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref> Merom says Algeria was not doomed by the economic realities because the cost was tolerable--between 50% to 60% of the defense budget, or 10% to 15% percent of the total budget in Paris. White the French indeed hads a severe budget crisis verging on bankruptcy, Algeria was only a small part of it. More important was spending on infrastructure renovation, industrial and agricultural modernization, nuclear energy, and expansion of education, and welfare entitlements. On the other hand military spending was helping the economy. Two years into de Gaulle's new regime, the financial crisis was over and the economy was in fine shape, notes Merom.

Merom says the second argument, that de Gaulle's policy was slow, gradual, and deceptive because he had to overcome a strong public sentiment in favor of keeping Algeria, is likewise invalid according to public opinion polls. They show opinion was evenly split; indeed, over 40% of the French people were alienated from core ideas of the old policy of no-recognition, no-negotiations, and no-compromise with the Arab rebels of the FLN. De Gaulle's policy of negotiation had a firm grounding in public opinion, though not a clear majority.

Merom agrees that de Gaulle's domineering manner and decisive style, the constitutional power he skillfully amassed as President of the Fifth Republic, his reputation as France's wartime savior, and the confidence vested in him by the people and the military, were indispensable qualities for a leader who wished to lead France out of Algeria. Merom concludes that his basic objective in Algeria was moderately conservative. He disliked the harsh military tactics in use and wanted more collaborative relations between France and the Arabs, but he did not want Algeria to become independent. Only when he realized his goals were impossible, Merom argues, did he start to compromise. Even then he tried to preserve as many French interests in Algeria as possible. By 1960, after suppressing another revolt, restoring the health of the national economy, and seeing his army drive the FLN almost to extinction, he realized the only long-term solution was a genuine Algerian independence, and he negotiated it.<ref> Gil Merom, "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999)</ref>

===Domestic politics===
In 1958-59 de Gaulle concentrated on political reform, a new the constitution for the Fifth Republic, financial reform, economic recovery, and search for a solution to the Algerian question. A new constitution that gave the president control of foreign and military policy was adopted in a referendum on Sept. 28, 1958. At last executive power stood above legislative authority. President de Gaulle, inaugurated on Jan. 8, 1959, could rule by decree in emergency, appoint ministers without responsibility to the legislature, and dissolve the legislature whose regular sessions were reduced to five months per year.
====Economy====
De Gaulle's financial and economic program reflected his desire for stability, industrial expansion, and the need to prepare France for membership in the European Common Market. He devalued the franc to 492 to the dollar, raised taxes on high incomes, wines, liquors, and tobacco, and reduced pensions and subsidies. A new franc, at 5 per U.S. dollar, facilitated commercial transactions and international trade; it remained strong. He undertook a 25% increase in state investment in modernizing industry. By mid-1960 the French economy was in better shape than at any time since 1914.
====Algeria====
Against the unyielding Algerian Arab revolution De Gaulle made only slow progress. His middle course between independence and continued colonial status cost him support among those groups that helped to bring him to power, the European settler community and the army. In September 1959, the Général offered Algeria a three-way choice between integration with France, autonomy, and independence. The settlers counterattacked with another uprising in January 1960, which failed to overthrow De Gaulle. In response, de Gaulle assumed extraordinary powers, restored order, and replaced ranking officers in Algeria with Gaullist or apolitical officers. This purge proved insufficient, for in April 1961 some military officers engineered an abortive coup. He once again assumed extraordinary powers and systematically removed disloyal elements from the army command.

Finally the president decided to grant Algerian independence and end the cancer once and for all. Mutual concessions were made and the Evian Accords on Mar. 18, 1962 began a cease-fire with the FLN forces. There emerged an independent Algeria, closely associated with France; in return for certain guarantees for settlers and economic privileges, continued French aid was promised. Large numbers of Algerian Arabs, who had supported Paris, fled to France, and many settlers did so also.

At the same time France gave independence to most of its overseas colonies, although tying them closely to France with economic and military pacts.

===Foreign policy===
====Objectives====
Restoring French greatness was his highest priority. That required a strong army, rockets and a space program, and especially nuclear weapons, explaining, "No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent."<ref>Quoted in ''New York Times Magazine'' (May 12, 1968)</ref>

After a landslide victoiry in parliamentary election in 1962, De Gaulle turned to foreign policy. He held that Western Europe as a whole, with France in the lead, should follow an independent military and economic path, separate specifically from that of the United States and Britain, both of which he distrusted. De Gaulle held that American nuclear weapons in Europe made the area more susceptible to Soviet attack, and he doubted any guarantees that the U.S. would defend Europe. Economically, de Gaulle pressed for the return to the gold standard in international trade and the rejection of sterling and the dollar as reserve currencies, especially because both the U.S. and the British economies suffered severe balance of payments deficits.

====Common Market====
De Gaulle vetoed Britain's application to join the Common Market ([[European Economic Community]] or EEC, a forerunner of the [[European Union]]) in 1963, saying he wanted to avoid a loss of cohesion in the organization and to keep it from becoming a dominion of the United States. He said Britain was not sufficiently European and its entry into the EEC would make the EEC too dependent on the United States. De Gaulle blocked a second petition by Britain in 1967. Britain was finally admitted after de Gaulle's death. Analysts emphasized that de Gaulle saw Britain as insular and maritime rather than continental. De Gaulle was suspicious of British intentions in Europe, yet he admired Britain's political stability and past accomplishments. One military factor in de Gaulle's opposition was Britain's deal with the U.S. through NATO involving Polaris nuclear missile technology. De Gaulle wanted a strong Europe free of any dependence on the United States, while British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] felt Britain's "special relationship" with the United States more important to its future.<ref> Richard Davis, "'Why Did the General Do It?' De Gaulle, Polaris and the French Veto of Britain's Application to Join the Common Market." ''European History Quarterly'' 1998 28(3): 373-397. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

====Military policy====
During the Berlin crisis from 1958 to 1962. De Gaulle took advantage to create an independent force de frappe--that is, nuclear weapons and bombers--in order to reassert France's role as a powerful world leader. De Gaulle enthusiastically supported American General Lauris Norstad's proposal in 1959 to establish a top secret quadripartite Allied military planning group (LIVE OAK), hoping that it would strengthen France's position and weaken US domination of NATO. De Gaulle created a bilateral alliance with West German chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], which tended to upset the delicate diplomatic balance of NATO. His supporters rationalized France's cavalier position by arguing that independent French nuclear capability would provide a second center of deterrence against the Soviet Union.

De Gaulle forced a serious clash with Britain regarding the NATO alliance. By opposing British attempts to incorporate Europe in a broader transatlantic economic, political, and military alliance, de Gaulle hoped to create a chance for France to become what she ceased to be since Waterloo; the first in the world through driving a wedge between Europe, on one hand, and Britain and the United States on the other. Initially successful in isolating Britain, particularly through France's veto power over the European Economic Community (EEC), de Gaulle sought to further his country's status through a critique of, and withdrawal from, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The move backfired, however, allowing British foreign policy to isolate France and de Gaulle, hold NATO together, and eventually led to British inclusion in the EEC by other European members to counter France's disruptive behavior. In 1967, as in 1961-63, the French were determined to preserve their position of leadership within the EEC, and this was the reason for de Gaulle's second veto of Britain's application for membership. French diplomacy was based on the need to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. Leadership within the community was the foundation of France's international status.<ref> James Ellison, "Separated by the Atlantic: the British and De Gaulle, 1958-1967." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2006 17(4): 853-870. Issn: 0959-2296 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Helen Parr, "Saving the Community: the French Response to Britain's Second EEC Application in 1967." ''Cold War History'' 2006 6(4): 425-454. Issn: 1468-2745 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

In 1966 de Gaulle's decision to withdraw French forces from NATO (but to remain nominally a member) paradoxically reinforced the cohesion of NATO, leaving the U.S. wholly dominant in the organization. Meanwhile he rebuilt the French army, restoring morale giving it a new and modern role in the economy and foreign affairs.

His continued deprecations of American involvement in Vietnam and his outspoken support of French-Canadian separatists in Quebec alienated opinion in the U.S. and canada.
===Departure===
De Gaulle was reelected president for seven years by a small margin in 1965, and in 1967 elections his allies won a slimmest majority in the National Assembly. Then, in May 1968, opposition to De Gaulle suddenly crystallized. It was an age of wortldwide student demonstrations, nowhere more serious than in France.<ref> Jeremi Suri, ''Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente'' (2003); Stanley Hoffmann, "Confrontation in May 1968," '' Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 145-86. </ref> Student demonstrations against the government and labor union strikes coalesced to produce a nationwide strike and unrest that very nearly brought the government down. At a critical point the Général disappeared for 24 hours. He was not hiding; rather he was negotiating for army support to retake Paris in case the rebels seized the city. With the army's backing, de Gaulle confidently returned, rallied the conservative middle class, and called immediate elections. Taking a vigorous part in the campaign, De Gaulle defined the issue as a choice between himself and the Communists. Repelled by the violence and disorder, the French electorate returned the Gaullists to power with a large majority in the assembly.

De Gaulle's unexpected loss of power in 1969 was psychological for his temperament was marked by the awareness of national and personal greatness as well as the realization of his old age and failing health. Secondly it was personal regarding [[Georges Pompidou]] because de Gaulle could brook no rival and his initially self-effacing prime minister had grown so powerful that the Général replaced him in 1968 with Maurice Couve de Murville. It was constitutional, for de Gaulle's reliance on a referendum of 27 April 1969 regarding relatively minor issues of regionalization and senate reform was defeated at the polls by 53%-47%. The Général seized the opportunity and resigned for good the next day. He was succeeded by Pompidou, who won 58% of the vote by proclaiming himself de Gaulle's heir.<ref>Charles G. Cogan, "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power" ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199 </ref>

==Ideas and and memory==
The image of de Gaulle in France today is a great national hero--indeed a savior--honored by all parties. His vision of the grandeur of France is the national vision.<ref> Daniel J. Mahoney, "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (1994), pp. 157-173 </ref>

De Gaulle's political philosophy, with its use of concepts such as élan, will, instinct, heroism, and participation, reflected the influences of Charles Péguy (1873-1914), Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), and Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Portier (1997) finds that de Gaulle's central principles derived from his religious devotion to Catholicism. Some scholars have suggested that De Gaulle modeled his authoritarian approach on the political theories of [[Machiavelli]], [[Maurras]], and [[Napoleon]], yet the French president's regard for the sovereignty of the state undermines all such theories. A close comparison of the papal encyclicals of Paul VI, [[Pius XI]], John XXIII, and [[Pius XII]] with De Gaulle's own writings reveals the statesman's close alliance with the political position of the Vatican. Portier concludes that Gaullism is not a rigid authoritarianism; rather it is a profound concern for social justice, a belief in the primacy of central authority in conjunction with intermediary legislative bodies, and respect for popular consensus.<ref> Philippe Portier, "Le General De Gaulle et Le Catholicisme: Pour Une Autre Interpretation De La Pensee Gaullienne," [General De Gaulle and Catholicism: Regarding Another Interpretation of Gaullist Thought]. ''Revue Historique'' 1997 297(2): 533-562. Issn: 0035-3264 </ref>

Kuisel (1992) asks whether de Gaulle was "Anti-American," and answers yes, for the Général consistently and mightily struggled to upend an international order built by and for America. He attacked America's arrogance of power and led his nation toward a less cooperative posture toward Washington. Indeed he incited expressions of anti-Americanism among the French and deep down he shared a stereotype common among French intellectuals of American society as soulless, materialist, and ahistorical.<ref> Richard F. Kuisel, "Was De Gaulle Anti-American?" ''Tocqueville Review'' 1992 13(1): 21-32. Issn: 0730-479x </ref>
==Notable Quotes==
:''Faced with crisis, the man of character falls back on himself. He imposes his own stamp of action, takes responsibility for it, makes it his own.'' <ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-faced-with-crisis-the-man-of-character-070486.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''How can you govern a country with 365 varieties of cheese?''<ref>[http://www.quotatio.com/g/gaulle-charles-de-how-can-anyone-govern-a-nation-070490.html] Quotatio - Charles De Gaulle</ref>

:''France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war!''<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/66/61/15961.html</ref>

:''You start out giving your hat, then you give your coat, then your shirt, then your skin and finally your soul.'' (On dealing with the Soviet Union)<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/59/59.html</ref>

:''You may be sure that the [[Americans]] will commit all the stupidities they can think of, plus some that are beyond imagination.'' (On U.S. entry into the [[Vietnam War]])<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/63/68/68.html</ref>

===Quotes about de Gaulle===
:''The hardest cross I have to bear is the [[Cross of Lorraine]].'' —attributed, falsely, to [[Winston Churchill]] (it was really uttered by Churchill's envoy to France)<ref>http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=112</ref>

==Further reading==
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography,
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]

==Detailed bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Cogan, Charles. ''Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents.'' (1995). 243 pp.
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]; vol 2. ''De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970'' (1993), 700pp, The standard scholarly biography, based on hundreds of interviews.
* Ledwidge, Bernard. ''De Gaulle'' (1982),
* Shennan, Andrew. ''De Gaulle'' (1993) 200pp
* Williams, Charles. ''The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle'' (1997), 560pp [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Great-Frenchman-General-Gaulle/dp/0471180718/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
===Politics===
* Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. ''The Republic of de Gaulle 1958-1969'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Republic-Gaulle-1958-1969-Cambridge-History/dp/0521272394/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076945&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cameron, David R. and Hofferbert, Richard I. "Continuity and Change in Gaullism: the General's Legacy." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 1973 17(1): 77-98. Issn: 0092-5853, a statistcial analysis of the Gaullist voting coalition in elections 1958-73 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0092-5853%28197302%2917%3A1%3C77%3ACACIGT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N
Abstract in Jstor]
* Cogan, Charles G. "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1992), pp. 167-199, re: 1969 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28199201%2927%3A1%3C167%3ATBGDGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Furniss,Edgar J., Jr. ''De Gaulle and the French Army.'' (1964)
* Gough, Hugh and Horne, John, eds. ''De Gaulle and Twentieth-Century France.'' (1994). 158 pp. essays by experts
* Hauss, Charles. ''Politics in Gaullist France: Coping with Chaos'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23380015 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/14783192 online edition]
* Jackson, Julian. "General de Gaulle and His Enemies: Anti-Gaullism in France Since 1940," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 6th Ser., Vol. 9 (1999), pp. 43-65 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0080-4401%281999%296%3A9%3C43%3AGDGAHE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Merom, Gil. "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," ''Armed Forces & Society''(1999), Vol. 25, Issue 2; in [[EBSCO]]
* Northcutt, Wayne. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946-1991'' (1992)
* Pierce, Roy, "De Gaulle and the RPF--A Post-Mortem," ''The Journal of Politics'' Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1954), pp. 96-119 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816%28195402%2916%3A1%3C96%3ADGATRP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Rioux, Jean-Pierre, and Godfrey Rogers. ''The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1989)
* Shepard, Todd. ''The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France.'' (2006). 288 pp.
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
===Foreign policy===
* Bozo, Frédéric. ''Two Strategies for Europe: De Gaulle, the United States and the Atlantic Alliance'' (2000)
* Kolodziej, Edward A. ''French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur'' (1974) [http://www.questia.com/read/9120986 online edition]
* Logevall, Fredrik. "De Gaulle, Neutralization, and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963-1964," ''The Pacific Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp. 69-102 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8684%28199202%2961%3A1%3C69%3ADGNAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Mahan, E. ''Kennedy, De Gaulle and Western Europe.'' (2002). 229 pp.
* Mangold, Peter. ''The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle.'' (2006). 275 pp.
* Paxton, Robert O. and Wahl, Nicholas, eds. ''De Gaulle and the United States: A Centennial Reassessment.'' (1994). 433 pp.
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''The History Teacher'' Vol. 1, No. 4 (May, 1968), pp. 5-15 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745%28196805%291%3A4%3C5%3ADGATUS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Vaïsse, Maurice. ''La Grandeur: Politique Etrangère du Général de Gaulle, 1958-1969'' (1997)
* Varat, Benjamin E. "A Clash of Kings: De Gaulle, Kennedy, and the Battle for Western Europe, 1958-1963." PhD dissertation Boston U. 2006. 356 pp. DAI 2006 67(1): 295-A. DA3202578 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* White, Dorothy Shipley. ''Black Africa and de Gaulle: From the French Empire to Independence.'' (1979). 314 pp.

===Ideas and memory===
* Cerny, Philip G. ''The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy.'' (1980). 319 pp.
* Clague, Monique. "Conceptions of Leadership: Charles de Gaulle and Max Weber," ''Political Theory'' Vol. 3, No. 4 (Nov., 1975), pp. 423-440 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0090-5917%28197511%293%3A4%3C423%3ACOLCDG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Gordon, Philip H. ''A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107405557 online edition]
* Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Hero as History: De Gaulle's War Memoirs" in Hoffman ''Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s'' (1974) pp 187-201 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14783192# online edition]
* Johnson, Douglas. "The Political Principles of General de Gaulle," ''International Affairs'' Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1965), pp. 650-662 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196510%2941%3A4%3C650%3ATPPOGD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Mahoney, Daniel J. ''De Gaulle: Statesmanship, Grandeur, and Modern Democracy.'' (1996). 188 pp. intellectual history
* Mahoney, Daniel J. "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," ''Polity'' Vol. 27, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 157-173 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3497%28199423%2927%3A1%3C157%3AA%22OCTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in JSTOR]
* Pedley, Alan. '' As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle'' (1996) 226pp
===World War II===
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) 482pp
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942-1944," ''The Journal of Military History'' Vol. 61, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 49-64 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718%28199701%2961%3A1%3C49%3AUSMAAF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle

===Primary sources===
* De Gaulle, Charles. '' The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle'' (1998) 1048pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Complete-War-Memoirs-Charles-Gaulle/dp/0786705469/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205076110&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor'' (1971)
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''The Enemy's House Divided'' (2002), translation of ''La Discorde chez l'ennemi'' (1924), analysis of Germany's mistakes in World War I

====notes====
<references/>

==See Also==

[[Gaullism]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaulle, Charles de}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category: World War II Commanders]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Catholic Politicians]]

Vichy regime

2010-04-21T03:48:52Z

JClarke:

'''Vichy France''' can be dated from June 10 1940, when Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] was granted full power to negotiate with the Germans. At this point the military defeat of [[France]] was inevitable so Pétain, a war hero from [[World War I]], suspended democratic government and surrendered to Germany.

Following the French surrender on June 22 1940 a new Government was established at [[Vichy]]. "Vichy France" is used to refer to the unoccupied area of southern France. However, the Vichy regime has administrative control over all France. This regime saw the co-operation with German forces, including deportations during the [[Holocaust]], and a full revolution in state government and French society. The French motto of "Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité" (Liberty, equality, fraternity) was replaced with "Travail, Famille, [[Patrie]]" (Work, family, homeland). [[Trade Unions]] and other political opponents of [[fascism]] were oppressed, [[rugby league]], identified as traditionally anti-fascist was banned - and the sport even remain legally restricted in post-war France.

In 1942 a revolution of the [[French colonies]] in [[Africa]] against the Vichy French was lead by [[Louis DeBois]] but did not gain wide spread support. In September DeBois was captured and sentenced to death.<ref>Martin King (1984). "The outcast Frenchmen". WWII remembrance press, New York. pg 128.</ref>

The [[United States]] granted Vichy full diplomatic recognition, thus acknowledging the puppet regime's [[legitimacy]], and it sent Admiral [[William Leahy]] to its capital as American ambassador. <ref>[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/WorldWar2/leahy.htm President Roosevelt to the Appointed Ambassador to France (Leahy), 20 December 1940], U.S., Department of State, Publication 1983, Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931-1941 (Washington, D.C.: U.S., Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 595-598.</ref>

The great enemy of Vichy was [[Charles de Gaulle]], leader of the [[Free French]]. When they came to power in 1944-45 they systematically eradicated Vichy influence; many Vichy leaders were executed or imprisoned. Petain was given a death sentence, which de Gaulle commuted to life in prison.
==Bibliography==
* Azema, Jean-Pierre. ''From Munich to Liberation 1938-1944'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1985)
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Gildea, Robert. ''Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Marianne-Chains-France-During-Occupation/dp/0312423594/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984332&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Julian. ''France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/France-Years-1940-1944-Julian-Jackson/dp/0199254575/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984384&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990 482pp
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]
* Paxton, Robert O. ''Vichy France'' 2nd ed. (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Vichy-France-Robert-O-Paxton/dp/0231124694/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984423&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:World War II]]

Vichy regime

2010-04-21T03:48:08Z

JClarke: link redirects back to this page.

'''Vichy France''' can be dated from June 10 1940, when Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] was granted full power to negotiate with the Germans. At this point the military defeat of [[France]] was inevitable so Pétain, a war hero from [[World War I]], suspended democratic government and surrendered to Germany.

Following the French surrender on June 22 1940 a new Government was established at [[Vichy]]. "Vichy France" is used to refer to the unoccupied area of southern France. However, the Vichy regime has administrative control over all France. This regime saw the co-operation with German forces, including deportations during the [[Holocaust]], and a full revolution in state government and French society. The French motto of "Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité" (Liberty, equality, fraternity) was replaced with "Travail, Famille, [[Patrie]]" (Work, family, homeland). [[Trade Unions]] and other political opponents of [[fascism]] were oppressed, [[rugby league]], identified as traditionally anti-fascist was banned - and the sport even remain legally restricted in post-war France.

In 1942 a revolution of the [[French colonies]] in [[Africa]] against the Vichy French was lead by [[Louis DeBois]] but did not gain wide spread support. In September DeBois was captured and sentenced to death.<ref>Martin King (1984). "The outcast Frenchmen". WWII remembrance press, New York. pg 128.</ref>

The [[United States]] granted Vichy full diplomatic recognition, thus acknowledging the puppet regime's [[legitimacy]], and it sent Admiral [[William Leahy]] to its capital as American ambassador. <ref>[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/WorldWar2/leahy.htm President Roosevelt to the Appointed Ambassador to France (Leahy), 20 December 1940], U.S., Department of State, Publication 1983, Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931-1941 (Washington, D.C.: U.S., Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 595-598.</ref>

The great enemy of Vichy was [[Charles de Gaulle]], leader of the Free French. When they came to power in 1944-45 they systematically eradicated Vichy influence; many Vichy leaders were executed or imprisoned. Petain was given a death sentence, which de Gaulle commuted to life in prison.
==Bibliography==
* Azema, Jean-Pierre. ''From Munich to Liberation 1938-1944'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1985)
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle.'' (2001). 356 pp.
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943-1944'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* Gildea, Robert. ''Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Marianne-Chains-France-During-Occupation/dp/0312423594/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984332&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jackson, Julian. ''France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/France-Years-1940-1944-Julian-Jackson/dp/0199254575/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984384&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kersaudy, Francois. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990 482pp
* Lacouture, Jean. ''De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890-1944'' (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Gaulle-Rebel-1890-1944-Norton-Paperback/dp/0393309991/ref=pd_sim_b_title_1 excerpt and text search]
* Paxton, Robert O. ''Vichy France'' 2nd ed. (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Vichy-France-Robert-O-Paxton/dp/0231124694/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984423&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:World War II]]

Berkshire

2010-04-21T03:39:57Z

JClarke:

'''Berkshire''' is a [[county]] in central southern [[England]] that has the honorific title of Royal Berkshire. It contains the towns of [[Reading]] and [[Newbury]] and the royal residence of [[Windsor Castle]].

The county's strategic central position has resulted in it being the venue for many historical battles, notably between the [[Vikings]] and the forces of [[Alfred the Great]], and during the [[English Civil War]].

In 1974 a large area of Berkshire, called the [[Vale of the White Horse]], was transferred to the neighbouring county of [[Oxfordshire]].

[[Category:United Kingdom Counties]]

Waffle

2010-04-21T03:38:19Z

JClarke:

[[Image:Waffles.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Waffles in [[France]]]]
A '''waffle''' is a food similar to a [[pancake]]. A basic waffle consists of mixing flour, eggs, water, and milk into a paste, which is then poured into a [[waffle iron]], which cooks the mixture and provides the necessary texture. Waffles can be jazzed up with varying fruits, incorporated directly into the mixture. Waffles are traditionally topped with [[butter]] and [[maple syrup]].
[[Category:Food and Drink]]

Religion in the United Kingdom

2010-04-21T03:37:15Z

JClarke:

{{Country
|name ='''Religion in the United Kingdom'''
|map =Union_jack.jpg
|map2 =UK location.png
}}

'''Religion in the United Kingdom''' is on the decline, with a year-on-year increase of people self-identifying as atheists having continued since at least 1980, with 31% to 44% of the population identifying themselves as an [[atheist]], [[agnostic]], or non-believer.<ref>http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html</ref> Topics like atheist summer camps<ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1202810/Camp-faithless-Is-Britains-atheist-summer-camp-harmless-fun-worried.html</ref> and disgusting adverts on the sides of buses stating "There is probably no god."<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/7698559.stm</ref> are routinely tolerated. Atheists are now protected from discrimination by law and it may be a criminal offence as an act of "hate speech" to say that they will go to Hell, l thus curtailing Christians' right to free speech. According to the ''Daily Mail'', "[This law] claims that dress code may breach the rights of girls who feel compelled to live as boys." Cross-dressing is an abomination in the eyes of God.<ref>Deut.22:5: The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment: for all that do so are abomination unto the LORD thy God.
Handbook of Psychiatry By Michael Shepherd</ref><ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1256264/Harriet-Harmans-equality-law-cover-vegans-teetotallers-atheists.html</ref><ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2009/jul/28/atheist-camp-quest</ref><ref>http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/detail?type=RESOURCES&itemId=1075201493</ref> Christian Adoption Agencies in the UK, run by churches, are not allowed to 'discriminate' against [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]]. If the church wishes to help match orphans with married couples, they must also [[Homosexual Adoption Scandal|help gay couples]] find children.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6289301.stm</ref><ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/5433917/Catholic-charities-breaking-law-on-homosexual-adoption.html</ref> The liberal politicians of the United Kingdom obviously believe that it helps "equality" and "human rights" to discriminate against the church in such a disgusting way. This law will '''increase''' the number of homosexuals adopting and '''decrease''' the number of Christians adopting.

== The Church of England ==
The [[Church of England]] is the official Christian church of England. According to Church publications, there has been a year-on-year decline in Sunday church attendance since 1968. According to their website, only one million people attend mass on a Sunday. The population of the United Kingdom is over sixty million.<ref>http://www.cofe.anglican.org/</ref> 1.7 million people attend a church at least once a month, and this figure has stayed approximately the same since 2000.<ref>http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/thechurchofenglandtoday/</ref>

The Church of England has outgoings of over £900 million and this has stayed the same for many years. With a constantly decreasing congregation, the church has had tragically had to close churches due to financial requirements.<ref>http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/funding/</ref><ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article1362709.ece</ref>

Tragically, the church has had to sell buildings, some hundreds of years old, to continue its religious practice. Disgustingly, a nightclub now exists in a 300 year old church in Leeds.<ref>http://www.clubzone.com/c1/Leeds/Nightclubs.html</ref> The operation of this business is nothing short of blasphemy: The DJs are referred to by the title 'Reverend' in flyers, and the regular monday event being called "Monday Night Mass."<ref>http://uk.tilllate.com/en/event/9638951</ref>

== Atheism Advocacy ==
Atheism advocacy is very active in the United Kingdom.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7813812.stm</ref><ref>http://www.atheistbus.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Cardiff-Merthyr-Road.jpg</ref>Pro-atheist advertising is regularly paid for by the British Humanist Association, which is supported by [[Richard Dawkins]]. Atheists are protected from discrimination by law and their organisations act as lobbying groups. The British Humanist Association claims to have undertaken "significant work" on the new 'Equality Bill' passing Parliament in March 2010.<ref>http://www.humanism.org.uk/news/view/515</ref> The National Secular Society, in the name of "promoting the separation of church and state," actually promotes a complete removal of funding for any religious services. They are against hospital chaplains, despite the significant relief and support ill religious people feel when consoled by a minister. They believe that a civil registrar who is a Christian should perform civil ceremonies for homosexuals, and they believe that Christian schools should be forced to teach sex education.<ref>http://www.secularism.org.uk/islington-registrar-who-refused.html</ref><ref>http://www.secularism.org.uk/sex-education-government-amendme.html</ref><ref>http://www.secularism.org.uk/lets-fight-the-church-on-equalit.html</ref><ref>http://www.secularism.org.uk/state-funding-of-church-building.html</ref>

In 2010, the National Secular Society also forced the government, through threat of legal action, to remove a religious opt-out clause from discrimination law, causing serious problems for the Church.<ref>http://www.secularism.org.uk/nss-forces-government-to-remove1.html</ref>

== Blasphemy ==

In January 2008, Liberal Democrat MP Even Harris, proposed the repeal of the UK's Blasphemy laws. After celebrity support from Philip Pullman and Richard Dawkins, the law eventually passed in May 2008. Evan Harris is a member of the National Secular Society and a gay rights campaigner.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1942668/Blasphemy-laws-are-lifted.html</ref><ref>http://www.evanharris.org.uk/</ref>

The Blasphemy laws have been 'replaced' with equality laws which make religious discrimination akin to racial discrimination. This law, however (also protecting homosexuals), prevents the church from being anti-gay and effectively gag it.

== References ==
<references/>

Water vapor

2010-04-21T03:35:43Z

JClarke:

Water vapor feedback was considered central to the whole [[global warming]] issue from the very beginning.<ref> [http://ecoworld.com/features/2008/10/30/climate-science-is-it-currently-designed-to-answer-questions/ Climate Science: Is It Designed To Answer Questions?]</ref>

==References==
<references/>

== See Also ==
*[[water]]
[[Category:Global Warming]]

Godwin's law

2010-04-21T02:33:41Z

JClarke: Undo revision 770971 by Pletcy (Talk) Trolly McTrollerson, i presume?

'''Godwin's Law''' is a law of [[Usenet]] named after [[Mike Godwin]] concerning Usenet "discussions". <blockquote>
As a Usenet discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving [[Nazi]]s or [[Hitler]] approaches one.
</blockquote>

In modern usage, it applies to all arguments on the [[internet]], and the first side to reference the [[Nazis]] is generally assumed to have lost the argument, unless the conversation topic is about [[Nazis]].

Other Laws of Internet Arguments:

* [[Danth's Law]]
* [[Skarka's Law]]

==Further Reading==
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/usenet/legends/godwin/ How to post about Nazis and get away with it - the Godwin's Law FAQ]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DuafAqAHrc George Soros Compares President Bush to Nazi's]
[[category:internet culture]]
[[Category:Principles]]

Aksum

2010-04-21T01:46:18Z

JClarke:

The Kingdom of '''Aksum''' (alternatively '''Axum'''), located in present-day [[Ethiopia]], traced its roots to the migration of [[Arabs]] across the Red Sea into the Horn of [[Africa]] in 1000 B.C. The kingdom had a written language called "Ge'ez" (a Semitic language using Arabic characters) and controlled the southwestern portion of the [[Arabian Peninsula]].

The peak of its power came under the strong rule of a king named [[Ezana]] in A.D. 325-360. Ezana conquered [[Kush]] and destroyed the city of [[Meroe]]. He also converted to [[Christianity]] and a [[Coptic Church]] formed in the Aksum kingdom.

Aksum developed a coin currency and a unique architectural style based on the "stelae", large stone pillars. But in A.D. 710, the [[Muslims]] conquered Aksum and destroyed its principle trading city of [[Adulis]].

[[Category:African Kingdoms]]

Christianity

2010-04-21T01:21:43Z

JClarke: /* Jesus */

{{Christianity}}
'''Christianity''' is the world's largest [[religion]], having 2.2 billion followers. It is a [[monotheistic]] religion that professes belief in [[Jesus]] as the Son of [[God]]. Christianity takes its name from [[Jesus Christ]] meaning "Jesus the Savior" and "Jesus the Anointed One". Followers of Jesus are called Christians, meaning "of Christ" or "belonging to Christ".<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=2661&dict=CALD Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]</ref>

== Main Christian groups ==
[[Image:Anglican Christ Church.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Anglican Christ Church in Western Australia]]
'''The three largest self-governing bodies of Christians are:'''

* The [[Roman Catholic Church]] (approx. 1.1 billion baptized members) traces its roots back to [[Saint Peter]] whom Catholics believed established the Church and the succession of the [[Pope]]s as the spiritual authority over the Christian body of believers.

* The [[Orthodox Church]]es (approx. 300 million baptized members) also trace their roots back to the beginnings of Christianity, but do not believe in the Primacy of the Pope. Differing theological perspectives led to the [[Great Schism]] between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in A.D. 1054.

* [[Protestantism]]; the largest Communions are the [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]] (approx. 77 million baptized members) and the Lutheran World Federation (approx. 68 million baptized members). Protestantism has its origins in the European [[Reformation]]. It first broke away from the Roman Catholic Church under [[Martin Luther]] when differences over the nature of [[faith]] and works in the role of [[Christianity#salvation|salvation]] as well as other practices that Luther saw in the Catholic Church at that time that he did not agree with could not be adequately reconciled with Papal prescriptions. Other preachers and movements then followed Luther's example and also left the Catholic fold.

== Christian Beliefs ==
Theologians, over two millennia, have debated a definitive summary of the Christian faith. While its interpretations vary drastically, probably the most commonly accepted statement of faith is the [[Nicene Creed| Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed]] below:

<blockquote>I believe in one God, [[God the Father|the Father Almighty]], Maker of [[heaven]] and [[earth]], and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light; true God of true God; begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the [[Holy Spirit]] and the [[Virgin Mary]], and became man. And He was crucified for us under [[Pontius Pilate]], and suffered, and was buried. And the third day He rose again, according to the [[Bible|Scriptures]]; and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; whose Kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. In one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. I look for the [[Resurrection]] of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.</blockquote>

Christians and Christian denominations agree on many points of doctrine and disagree on others. According to an online Harris poll from 2003 99% of all American Christians believe in [[God]], 96% in the [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]], 93% in [[Heaven]], 93% in the virgin birth, 92% in the survival of the soul after death, 82% in [[Hell]], 50% in ghosts, 27% in astrology and 21% in reincarnation. <ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref> Note that the latter two beliefs are in opposition to the religious tenents of most Christian denominations.

Nonetheless, the Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed offers a general overall picture of what Christian theology looks like, and serves as a useful outline.

Other creeds may prove helpful in research. See also: the [[Apostle's Creed]], [[Athanasian Creed]].

===God===
{{main|God}}
God is a triune being. Though there is only one Divine nature there are three Divine Persons: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The three Persons are collectively called the [[Trinity]] or the Holy Trinity. While God is tripartite, this does not imply that Christians are polytheists--the oneness of the divine nature (or essence) is what matters. The doctrine of the Trinity is central to most (but not all) Christian theology.

A major theme of the Bible is [[love]]. In the Hebrew [[Old Testament]] the idea is expressed in the Hebrew word ''hessed'', which is variously translated as loyal love, tender mercy, steadfast love, mercy, goodness, etc. in the [[New Testament]] the same idea is expressed in the Greek word ''agape'', which is variously translated as love, compassion, charity, etc.

The God of the Christians is the creator of all things, is everywhere present, exists in all times, is transcendent, all-knowing (omniscient), just, and all-powerful (omnipotent).

===Jesus===
[[Image:Jesus' Baptism.jpg|180px|left|]]
During the reign of [[Augustus Caesar|Caesar Augustus]] the Son (e.g. the second Person of the Trinity) took flesh from a virgin woman and was incarnate as a man. He was born in the town of [[Bethlehem]] and was given the name [[Jesus]]. At the age of thirty he was baptized by his cousin, the [[John the Baptist|Prophet John]], and began to preach in the area [[Palestine]]. About three years after his baptism, he raised his friend [[Lazarus]] from the dead, prompting the Jewish power establishment to plot Jesus' death. Jesus was [[crucified]]. He came back from the dead and was seen by over 500 people. He ascended to Heaven. The four [[Gospels]] contain the records of some of what Jesus did and said, but he did much more than those four books relate, as the Apostle John said in his Gospel.
{{Clear}}

===Morality===
The fundamental principle in Christian moral teaching is love and forgiveness, as expressed by the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the New Testament. Jesus summarized his teachings in two commandments from the Old Testament:

"'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:37-39; [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] 6:5; Leviticus 19:18)

Constant debate has resulted as to how a person should express love for God in their moral behavior. This moral dialogue found expression in the New Testament, where the [[Apostle Paul]] addressed such controversies as [[circumcision]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 2:25-29), eating meat that was sacrificed to [[pagan]] deities (1 Corinthians 8), speculating about myths and genealogies (1 Timothy 1:3-5), and observing ceremonial dates and seasons (Galatians 4:9-11).

Regardless of a person's ethical interpretations, adherents commonly point to New Testament passages John 3:16 and 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 as scriptural depictions of love. The former states that <blockquote>"God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life."</blockquote> The latter characterizes love, saying <blockquote>"Love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not arrogant, does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take into account a wrong suffered, does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth; bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things."</blockquote>

Jesus Christ affirmed, "By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another." (John 13:35)

In trying to understand the reason for the growth of Christianity in a pagan culture, it has been noted that while love of one's neighbor is not an exclusively Christian virtue, it appears that the primitive Christian church practiced it much more effectively than any other group.<ref>E.R. Dodds, 1970:136-137</ref> This is most likely due to the constant mention of hospitality and generosity to one's "neighbors" in the Bible. Jesus was especially passionate about caring for people in need:

Jesus said to him, "If you want to be perfect, go and sell what you own and give the money to the destitute, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come back and follow me." (Matthew 19:21)

In addition to sacrificially showing care for those within the community as well as to those without, (cf. Gal. 6:10) the Christians elevated the sanctity of life, opposing abortion, infanticide, child abandonment, suicide, and gladiatorial contests.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of Christianity'' p. 244</ref><ref> Ted Cabal, Chad Owen Brand, Paul Copan, The Apologetics Study Bible, 274 </ref> While the primitive church tolerated the existing and pervasive cultural economic institution of slavery in the [[Roman Empire]], the mandate of equal pay and just treatment (Col. 4:1; Eph. 6:9) greatly ameliorated the treatment of slaves, while advising them to seek freedom if possible, (1Cor. 7:21) and requiring that the escape slave Onesimus be received back not "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved". (Philemon 1:6) The Christian ethos of love also motivated a great expansion in the building of hospitals.<ref>Albert John Ochsner, Meyer Joseph Sturm, ''The organization, construction and management of hospitals'', p. 17</ref><ref>Roderick E. McGrew, ''Encyclopaedia of Medical Care'', p. 135</ref> By 500 A.D., most large towns in in the Roman Empire had erected them.<ref>George D. Pozgar, ''Legal aspects of health care administration', p. 2</ref>

===The Atonement of Jesus on the Cross===
[[Image:Dalí The Christ of St. John of the Cross.jpg|thumb|The Christ of St. John of the Cross by [[Salvador Dalí]], 1951.]]
All Christians believe with the New Testament that the death of Jesus, along with His resurrection, is an indispensable proclamation of a crucial event for the reconciliation of lost sinners with God. There are three elements they see to understanding His death on the cross.

# Jesus having the knowledge that His path would lead to his own death, desired and willed that that take place, and persevered in that path though there was opportunity for Him to avoid it. Though there is ample recognition in the New Testament that others desired Him to die, and that the circumstances in which His path took him would bring Him to His end on earth, the mover of all these things was Himself and the will of the Father. "I have power to take my life and I have power to lay down my life. I lay down my life for the sheep."
# Jesus saw that in His death there would be a way for people to be brought back to the God from whom they were alienated and lost because of their sins. This would involve a substitution of Himself to effect that way. "For the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve and give His life as a ransom for many." How this would take place was not new to the Jews of His day from their understanding of contemporary everyday practice of substitute payment - as in redemption of the first-born (Pidyon Ha Ben), or in the understanding of what aggadic stories such as the Binding of [[Isaac]] implied (see [[Midrash]]), but it was not the prevalent view that the Messiah was to be that payment. Though while alive on earth, he had hinted at it in sayings such as "unless a seed falls and dies, it remains alone, but when it dies, it brings forth..", it was only after He had risen from the dead that He explained Scripture (the Old Testament) clearly about the necessity of His death to have taken place. The disciples would henceforth preach, and Peter among them, that the death of Jesus the Messiah and His resurrection was for-planned and for-ordained by God the Father, and foretold in the Scripture (Isaiah 53). And so, "The Just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God".
# It was the belief in Scripture, that in His death a way back to God was made possible for those that were near to God—the Jews. And a way back to God for those that were far away—the Gentiles. That is why the New Testament saw in the requirements of God for Israel a fulfillment in Jesus the Messiah. He was the perfect Israel, taken out of Egypt, to redeem Israel. And that is why the New Testament saw in Jesus, a deepness to the incarnation of the Son of God, deeper than just a Jew of His time of a certain tribe. He was the "Second Adam" to redeem the sons of Adam. This encompassing perspective had further implications.

Christians of all generations have looked to the perfect Atonement, and the hope for reconciliation, accomplished by Jesus on the cross, to provide the means of understanding the solution to the vexing problems of the mind and of life itself - How can I make reconciliation with my enemies, with even the members of my own family, of race with race and people with people?; Does His death for the sins of the world include those who only partially understand, for the baby aborted, the feeble minded, and severely retarded?; For those who have never heard of Jesus, never been "enlightened", distant and remote in place and time?; Does His death for the sins of the world also include a remedy for the ills that have come as a result of those sins—certain sicknesses, ills of the mind, body and the soul? Do they "hold" for today?; Does His death make good, turn to the better, show the way, effect the way, of the illnesses that have befallen the world, not only by sin, but simply by the circumstances of life, of degeneration, of compounded dysfunction? How does the fruit of His death bring in somehow the Kingdom "among us"?

The death of the Son of God on the cross has provided the solution for sin, and it still holds its sway over the imagination and aspirations for the people of our generation.

===Salvation===
The Bible teaches that "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23). This is often interpreted to mean that everyone has displeased God and is now separated from him in a kind of alienation and enmity that results from the fundamental conflict between selfish human interests and God's interests (Romans 8:5-8; James 4:4).

However, Jesus offered a solution to this Biblical dilemma in that by repentance of sins and faith in him (Jesus), their sins would be forgiven. He said that "...the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 2:10) Jesus also said, "I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance." (Mark 2:17, and "Verily I say unto you, All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men" (Mark 2:28)

Jesus Christ taught that "unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God" ([[Gospel of John|John]] 3:3). Protestant Evangelical Christianity often use the terms "saved" and "born again" interchangeably. Other Christians, notably the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church use the phrase ''born again'' as a synonym for [[baptism|baptized]]. "Jesus answered, Amen, amen, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and [of] the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." (John 3:5)

Christians are expected to continue living by Christ's teachings (John 8:31), as is appropriate for "children of Light" (Ephesians 5:8-10). Some believe that this is necessary in order to stay saved. However, this is a common misconception of the text. It is rather referring to proving that one is a child of God by their "fruit" (things that they do and how they behave). Christians in the Reformed tradition (following the teaching of the 16th century French lawyer [[John Calvin]], as well as the faith outlined in the Belgic and Heidleberg Confessions) say that salvation is irrevocable and that it cannot be lost, if it were genuinely part of one's life to begin with. Reformed Christians (often called [[Calvinists]]) often point to Romans 8:38-39 as validation of their belief: "For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 8:38-39; [[NASB]]). According to Calvinists, the reason it cannot be lost by natural things is because salvation was obtained through a supernatural being, namely Jesus Christ. This does not negate Jesus' human side, only that he was both one-hundred percent God and one-hundred percent man, according to the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (A. D. 451). The Bible also makes it clear that mankind cannot earn their salvation, and that it is a free gift.

== Resurrection of Jesus Christ ==
[[Image:Jesus resurrected.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"The Resurrection" by Carl Heinrich Bloch]]
The [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]] is critical to the Christian faith. The Apostle Paul wrote, "if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain" (I Cor:15:14). Traditionally, Christianity has believed in a physical resurrection of Jesus Christ.<ref>http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt</ref>

In recent history Gary Habermas is considered the foremost [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] for defending the resurrection of Jesus.<ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/dialog_rexperience/dialog_rexperiences.htm Experiences of the Risen Jesus: The Foundational Historical Issue in the Early Proclamation of the Resurrection], ''Dialog: A Journal of Theology'', Vol. 45; No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 288-297.</ref><ref>"Wildcat" and Holding, J.P., [http://www.tektonics.org/books/lichabrvw.html Book review of "The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus"], 22nd June, 2004 (Tektonics)</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/NTeSources/NTArticles/CTR-NT/Habermas-Resurrection1-CTR.pdf Jesus' Resurrection and Contemporary Criticism: An Apologetic] ''Criswell Theological Review'' 4.1 (1989) 159-74.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_explainingaway/crj_explainingaway.htm Explaining Away Jesus' Resurrection:
The Recent Revival of Hallucination Theories], Christian Research Journal / vol. 23, no. 4, 2001.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable] (Apologetics.com)</ref>
Other notable defenders of the resurrection include: [[William Lane Craig]],<ref>Craig, William Lane, [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/historical.html Articles: Historical Jesus]</ref> [[Lee Strobel]], [[Josh McDowell]],<ref>McDowell, Josh, [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html Evidence for the Resurrection], 1992.</ref> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]],<ref>Jamauchi, Edwin M., [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/yama.html Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?]</ref> [[N.T. Wright]]<ref>Wright, N.T., [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Early_Traditions.htm Early Traditions and the Origins of Christianity], ''Sewanee Theological Review'' 41.2, 1998.</ref> and [[Michael Horner]].<ref>Horner, Michael, [http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/index.html Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?]</ref>

===The Meaning of the Resurrection for Christians===

The Fact of the Resurrection of Christ is a key element of the preaching of the message about Jesus and an essential of Christian belief. But there are also certain effects that this belief has on the lives of believers.

1. It is because Jesus rose from the dead, that believers now can resort to a living Savior to help and deliver them from sin and from situations overwhelming for them by their own powers.

2. The New Testament sees in the resurrection of Christ a certain vindication of what apparently to the world and to all beings was a failure and an overcoming of Him by His crucifixion. He was "declared to be the Son of God" by His resurrection. This brings believers in Him to a strong confidence in the determined power of God to both vindicate in their own lives and to bring His reign upon earth.

3. The coming of Jesus back to life means to the believer that, indeed, their sins are totally forgiven. This is because believers know that His death was as a payment for sins - a "wage of death" for our sins that He received in our stead. If He remained dead, believers would know that the wage had not been fully paid. His resurrection, carries with it our knowledge that our sin with its attendant death has been totally and finally paid for.

4. It is a now living Savior that Christians know can go before them, can closely lead them through life - as He did when He was on earth. This makes following Him practical and real.

5. The New Testament reveals that it is the Risen Christ who received from the Father the Holy Spirit and He, through Himself ascended to the Father, has given the Holy Spirit to us. This gives the believer in Christ both the knowledge and the power to live a godly life, and live a life that can be an intimately and personally directed one.

6. The resurrected Christ was no mere reassembling of the molecules and particles of the Body that had been crucified. It was, indeed, a physical body, but one that was fully under the Spirit's control, guidance, and empowerment. It was a "spiritual body". Christians know that likewise, they will one day be granted the nature of a spiritual body, and full of health. They therefore are full of hope and consolations, and consider that even now in this life, there is an overcoming through Him, a restoration, and that tears, even now, are wiped away.

== Evangelism ==
In what is called the [[Great Commission]], Jesus sent his disciples out into the world to preach the Gospel (literally "good news") and make disciples.
:'''Great Commission'''
:''But the eleven disciples proceeded to [[Galilee]], to the mountain which Jesus had designated. When they saw Him, they worshiped Him; but some were doubtful. And Jesus came up and spoke to them, saying, "All authority has been given to Me in [[heaven]] and on [[earth]]." Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the [[#God the Father|Father]] and the [[#God the Son|Son]] and the [[#God the Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]], teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."'' --[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:16-20 [[New American Standard Bible|NASB]]

[[Image:Gleyre The Departure of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|240px|The Departure of the Apostles by [[Charles Gleyre]].]]
 

==History of the name "Christian"==
The early Christian faith was sometimes called ''That Way'', (Acts 19:1,9,23; 24:22) and the church its adherents were also called ''Nazarenes'', (Acts 24:5) evidently after the city of [[Nazareth]] where Jesus lived. Probably close to A.D 50 the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts:11:26) records that "the disciples were called Christians first in [[Antioch]]." The title ''Christian'' is also used in Acts 26:28 and 1 Peter 4:16, and likely is referred to in James 2:7, "Do not they blaspheme that worthy name by the which ye are called?"

==Early Church Community and Commitment: The Biblical Period==

The Bible records that that at least initially, the church was a single organic community, in which

:they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. {43} And fear came upon every soul: and many wonders and signs were done by the apostles. {44} And all that believed were together, and had all things common; {45} And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. {46} And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, Praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common."(Acts 2:42-47; 4:32)

This community was soon "scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judaea and Samaria, except the apostles" due to determined persecution, which resulted in the dispersed disciples going "every where preaching the word." (Acts 8:1,4)

Other evidence indicates believers had their own houses and goods. (Acts 10:6; 16:14,15,40; 21:8; 1Cor. 11:22; 1Tim. 6:17; Philemon)

==Early Church Community and Commitment: the Post Biblical Period==

'''Justin martyr 100 A.D. - 165 A.D. From the "First Apology" (Defense)
'''

<blockquote>
But we, after we have thus washed him who has been convinced and has assented to our teaching, bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized [illuminated] person, and for all others in every place, that we may be counted worthy, now that we have learned the truth, by our works also to be found good citizens and keepers of the commandments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. This word Amen answers in the Hebrew language to genoito [so be it]. And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. (Chapt. LXV - administration of the sacraments)</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist = the Thanksgiving], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone... (Chapt. LXVl - of the Eucharist)
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And we afterwards continually remind each other of these things. And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always keep together; and for all things wherewith we are supplied, we bless the Maker of all through His Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Ghost. And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour on the same day rose from the dead...(Chapt.LXVll - weekly worship of the Christians)
</blockquote>

'''Tertullian (A.D. 160 -220), Early ecclesiatical leader and writer, in his ''Apology'' (response to pagan charges) in describing the early church community (197 A.D.): '''

:We are a body knit together by one faith, one discipline and one hope. We meet together as a congregation, uniting together to offer prayer to God. We pray for the emperors and all in authority, for the welfare of the world, for peace and for the delay of the final end. We read our holy scriptures to nourish our faith, hope, steadfastness and good habits. We hear exhortations and rebukes. We take such judging very seriously – as befits those who believe they are in the sight of God – especially seriously when anyone sins so grievously we have to cut them off from our prayer, our congregation and all sacred things. Our elders preside over us, obtaining that honor not by money, but by their established character. There is no buying and selling in the things of God. Though we have a fund, but not because people can buy religion. Once a month, anyone who wants to makes a small donation – but only he who is able and willing; there is no compulsion. It is not spent on feasts, but to support and bury poor people, to provide for orphans, the elderly old persons, victims of shipwreck and those in prison for their faith.<ref>Defense by Tertullian (39), Trans. Rev. S. Thelwall. Modernized, abridged and introduced by Stephen Tomkins. Edited and prepared for the web by Dan Graves.</ref>

'''Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor of Pontus & Bithynia (northern Turkey) from A.D. 111-113, reporting to emperor Trajan of Christians, whom such pagan rulers found intolerable:'''

:...in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

:... Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

:They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food.<ref>Pliny the Younger Letters, 10.96 </ref>

==Also See==
[[Image:Orthodox churches icon artwork.jpg|thumb|Orthodox Church's icon artwork.]]
'''Denominations or branches of Christianity'''
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Orthodox Church]]
*[[Protestantism|Protestant]]
**[[Amish]]
**[[Baptist]]
**[[Church of England]] or ''Anglican Church''
**[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (or ''Episcopal Church'' or ''Episcopalians'') (Non-UK branch of the Anglican Church)
**[[Evangelical Christianity]]
**[[Fundamentalism]]
**[[Liberal Christianity]]
**[[Lutheran]]
**[[Mennonite]]
**[[Methodist]]
**[[Pentecostal]]
**[[Plymouth Brethren]]
**[[Presbyterian]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist]]

'''Disputed'''
*[[Christian Science]]

'''Other articles'''
*[[Aramaic Church]]
*[[Cathedral]]
*[[Catholicism]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (Defense of Christianity)
*[[Christianity and Science]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America (Syro-Chaldean)]]
*[[Gospel reading in the Church: the Turgama]]
*[[Inspiration of Holy Scripture: An Eastern Christian and Jewish Perspective]]
*[[Jesus Christ]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Messiah]]
*[[New Testament understanding through the Jewish perspective]]
*[[Passover Seder]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Red-letter Christian]]
*[[Sign of the Cross]]
*[[Essay: The Way of Salvation]]
*[[Gates of Hell]]
*[[Anti Abortion activism: a personal essay]]

==Further reading==
===Encyclopedias===
* Bodensieck, Julius, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church,'' (3 vol 1965), ECLS perspective
* Brauer, Jerald C. ''The Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' (1971), 880pp
* [http://newadvent.org/cathen/index.html ''The Catholic Encyyclopedia'' (1907-1913)], old but highly detailed and online
** '' New Catholic Encyclopedia'', edited by the Catholic University of America, 17 vol. 1967-1979.
*Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (3rd ed. 1997), 1840pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Dictionary-Christian-Church/dp/0192802909/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
* Elwell, Walter A., ed. ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology‎'' (2001) 1312 pages; articles by over 200 Evangelical or Fundamentalist scholars
*Hastings, Adrian et al. eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought'' (2000) 808pp; 600 articles by 260 Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198600240/ref=sib_dp_pt/105-4292297-2766841#reader-link excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
*''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' (1911), ), major sources of older scholarly articles; mainline Protestant perspective
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.toc.html Vol. 1: Aachen - Basilians]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.toc.html Vol. 2: Basilica - Chambers]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03.toc.html Vol. 3: Chamier - Draendorf]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04.toc.html Vol. 4: Draeseke - Goa]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.toc.html Vol. 5: Goar - Innocent]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc06.toc.html Vol. 6: Innocents - Liudger]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc07.toc.html Vol. 7: Liutprand - Moralities]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc08.toc.html Vol. 8: Morality - Petersen]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc09.toc.html Vol. 9: Petri - Reuchlin]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc10.toc.html Vol. 10: Reutsch - Son]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc11.toc.html Vol. 11: Son of Man - Tremellius]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc12.toc.html Vol. 12: Trench - Zwingli]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc13.toc.html Vol. 13: Index]

===Histories===
*Briggs, J. H. Y., Robert D. Linder, and David F. Wright. ''Introduction to the History of Christianity: First Century to the Present Day'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-History-Christianity-Century-Present/dp/0800638123/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Gonzalez, Justo L. '' A History of Christian Thought: Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon'' (2nd ed. 1987); [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Beginnings-Chalcedon/dp/0687171822/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2: From Augustine to the Eve of the Reformation'' (2nd ed. 1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Augustine-Reformation/dp/0687171830/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 3: From the Protestant Reformation to the Twentieth Century'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Protestant-Reformation/dp/0687171849/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search vol 3]
*Horsley, Richard A. ''Christian Origins: A People's History Of Christianity, Vol. 1'' (2006), 318pp [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Origins-Peoples-History-Christianity/dp/080063411X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200886474&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A History of Christianity'' (2 vol 1975) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christianity-Beginnings-1500-Revised/dp/0060649526/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1, to 1500], by leading Baptist scholar
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A history of the expansion of Christianity'' (7 vol 1939-1970), monumental history of missionary work worldwide
*MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation'' (2005), influential recent survey [http://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Diarmaid-MacCulloch/dp/014303538X/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
*McGonigle, Thomas D., and James F. Quigley. ''A history of the Christian Tradition: From Its Jewish Orgins to the Reformation'' (1988); ''A History of the Christian Tradition, Vol. II: From the Reformation to the Present'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Tradition-Vol-Reformation/dp/0809136481/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-15 excerpt and text search vol 2]
*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine'' (5 vol 1975-91) [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Doctrine-Medieval/dp/0226653757/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search v. 3, 600 AD -1300]]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Reformation-1300-1700/dp/0226653773/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search vol 4, 1300-1700]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-History-Development-Doctrine/dp/0226653803/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 5, 1700-present] This is the standard history of Christian doctrine.
*Ward, Keith. ''Christianity: A Beginner's Guide'' (2008), 195pp

===United States===
* Ahlstrom, Sydney E. ''A religious history of the American people‎'' (1979) 1192 pages; classic history from broad perspective [http://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&dq=inauthor:ahlstrom&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Balmer, Randall. ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' (2nd ed. 2004), 655pp [http://www.questia.com/library/book/encyclopedia-of-evangelicalism-by-randall-balmer.jsp ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' online edition]
* Lippy, Charles H. and Peter W. Williams, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the American religious experience: studies of traditions and movements'' (3 vol 1988) 1872 pages; standard reference work; long essays by scholars
* Noll, Mark A. '' A history of Christianity in the United States and Canada‎'' (1992), by leading Evangelical historian [http://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&dq=intitle:christianity+inauthor:noll&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Queen, Edward L. et al, eds. Encyclopedia of American Religious History'' (3rd ed. 2 vol. 2009) 1200pp
* Reid, Daniel G. et al. eds., ''Dictionary of Christianity in America'' (199)
* Wooley, Davis C. ed. '' Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists‎'' (5 vol 1958-19820; 2565 pages

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/christians/ What Liberals Say - Category: Christians], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[Category:Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Christianity

2010-04-21T01:20:07Z

JClarke:

{{Christianity}}
'''Christianity''' is the world's largest [[religion]], having 2.2 billion followers. It is a [[monotheistic]] religion that professes belief in [[Jesus]] as the Son of [[God]]. Christianity takes its name from [[Jesus Christ]] meaning "Jesus the Savior" and "Jesus the Anointed One". Followers of Jesus are called Christians, meaning "of Christ" or "belonging to Christ".<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=2661&dict=CALD Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]</ref>

== Main Christian groups ==
[[Image:Anglican Christ Church.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Anglican Christ Church in Western Australia]]
'''The three largest self-governing bodies of Christians are:'''

* The [[Roman Catholic Church]] (approx. 1.1 billion baptized members) traces its roots back to [[Saint Peter]] whom Catholics believed established the Church and the succession of the [[Pope]]s as the spiritual authority over the Christian body of believers.

* The [[Orthodox Church]]es (approx. 300 million baptized members) also trace their roots back to the beginnings of Christianity, but do not believe in the Primacy of the Pope. Differing theological perspectives led to the [[Great Schism]] between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in A.D. 1054.

* [[Protestantism]]; the largest Communions are the [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]] (approx. 77 million baptized members) and the Lutheran World Federation (approx. 68 million baptized members). Protestantism has its origins in the European [[Reformation]]. It first broke away from the Roman Catholic Church under [[Martin Luther]] when differences over the nature of [[faith]] and works in the role of [[Christianity#salvation|salvation]] as well as other practices that Luther saw in the Catholic Church at that time that he did not agree with could not be adequately reconciled with Papal prescriptions. Other preachers and movements then followed Luther's example and also left the Catholic fold.

== Christian Beliefs ==
Theologians, over two millennia, have debated a definitive summary of the Christian faith. While its interpretations vary drastically, probably the most commonly accepted statement of faith is the [[Nicene Creed| Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed]] below:

<blockquote>I believe in one God, [[God the Father|the Father Almighty]], Maker of [[heaven]] and [[earth]], and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light; true God of true God; begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the [[Holy Spirit]] and the [[Virgin Mary]], and became man. And He was crucified for us under [[Pontius Pilate]], and suffered, and was buried. And the third day He rose again, according to the [[Bible|Scriptures]]; and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; whose Kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. In one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. I look for the [[Resurrection]] of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.</blockquote>

Christians and Christian denominations agree on many points of doctrine and disagree on others. According to an online Harris poll from 2003 99% of all American Christians believe in [[God]], 96% in the [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]], 93% in [[Heaven]], 93% in the virgin birth, 92% in the survival of the soul after death, 82% in [[Hell]], 50% in ghosts, 27% in astrology and 21% in reincarnation. <ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref> Note that the latter two beliefs are in opposition to the religious tenents of most Christian denominations.

Nonetheless, the Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed offers a general overall picture of what Christian theology looks like, and serves as a useful outline.

Other creeds may prove helpful in research. See also: the [[Apostle's Creed]], [[Athanasian Creed]].

===God===
{{main|God}}
God is a triune being. Though there is only one Divine nature there are three Divine Persons: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The three Persons are collectively called the [[Trinity]] or the Holy Trinity. While God is tripartite, this does not imply that Christians are polytheists--the oneness of the divine nature (or essence) is what matters. The doctrine of the Trinity is central to most (but not all) Christian theology.

A major theme of the Bible is [[love]]. In the Hebrew [[Old Testament]] the idea is expressed in the Hebrew word ''hessed'', which is variously translated as loyal love, tender mercy, steadfast love, mercy, goodness, etc. in the [[New Testament]] the same idea is expressed in the Greek word ''agape'', which is variously translated as love, compassion, charity, etc.

The God of the Christians is the creator of all things, is everywhere present, exists in all times, is transcendent, all-knowing (omniscient), just, and all-powerful (omnipotent).

===Jesus===
[[Image:Jesus' Baptism.jpg|180px|left|]]
During the reign of [[Caeser Augustus]] the Son (e.g. the second Person of the Trinity) took flesh from a virgin woman and was incarnate as a man. He was born in the town of [[Bethlehem]] and was given the name [[Jesus]]. At the age of thirty he was baptized by his cousin, the [[John the Baptist|Prophet John]], and began to preach in the area [[Palestine]]. About three years after his baptism, he raised his friend Lazarus from the dead, prompting the Jewish power establishment to plot Jesus death. Jesus was [[crucified]]. He came back from the dead and was seen by over 500 people. He ascended to heaven. The four [[Gospels]] contain the records of some of what Jesus did and said, but he did much more than those four books relate, as the Apostle John said in his Gospel.
{{Clear}}

===Morality===
The fundamental principle in Christian moral teaching is love and forgiveness, as expressed by the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the New Testament. Jesus summarized his teachings in two commandments from the Old Testament:

"'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:37-39; [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] 6:5; Leviticus 19:18)

Constant debate has resulted as to how a person should express love for God in their moral behavior. This moral dialogue found expression in the New Testament, where the [[Apostle Paul]] addressed such controversies as [[circumcision]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 2:25-29), eating meat that was sacrificed to [[pagan]] deities (1 Corinthians 8), speculating about myths and genealogies (1 Timothy 1:3-5), and observing ceremonial dates and seasons (Galatians 4:9-11).

Regardless of a person's ethical interpretations, adherents commonly point to New Testament passages John 3:16 and 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 as scriptural depictions of love. The former states that <blockquote>"God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life."</blockquote> The latter characterizes love, saying <blockquote>"Love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not arrogant, does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take into account a wrong suffered, does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth; bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things."</blockquote>

Jesus Christ affirmed, "By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another." (John 13:35)

In trying to understand the reason for the growth of Christianity in a pagan culture, it has been noted that while love of one's neighbor is not an exclusively Christian virtue, it appears that the primitive Christian church practiced it much more effectively than any other group.<ref>E.R. Dodds, 1970:136-137</ref> This is most likely due to the constant mention of hospitality and generosity to one's "neighbors" in the Bible. Jesus was especially passionate about caring for people in need:

Jesus said to him, "If you want to be perfect, go and sell what you own and give the money to the destitute, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come back and follow me." (Matthew 19:21)

In addition to sacrificially showing care for those within the community as well as to those without, (cf. Gal. 6:10) the Christians elevated the sanctity of life, opposing abortion, infanticide, child abandonment, suicide, and gladiatorial contests.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of Christianity'' p. 244</ref><ref> Ted Cabal, Chad Owen Brand, Paul Copan, The Apologetics Study Bible, 274 </ref> While the primitive church tolerated the existing and pervasive cultural economic institution of slavery in the [[Roman Empire]], the mandate of equal pay and just treatment (Col. 4:1; Eph. 6:9) greatly ameliorated the treatment of slaves, while advising them to seek freedom if possible, (1Cor. 7:21) and requiring that the escape slave Onesimus be received back not "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved". (Philemon 1:6) The Christian ethos of love also motivated a great expansion in the building of hospitals.<ref>Albert John Ochsner, Meyer Joseph Sturm, ''The organization, construction and management of hospitals'', p. 17</ref><ref>Roderick E. McGrew, ''Encyclopaedia of Medical Care'', p. 135</ref> By 500 A.D., most large towns in in the Roman Empire had erected them.<ref>George D. Pozgar, ''Legal aspects of health care administration', p. 2</ref>

===The Atonement of Jesus on the Cross===
[[Image:Dalí The Christ of St. John of the Cross.jpg|thumb|The Christ of St. John of the Cross by [[Salvador Dalí]], 1951.]]
All Christians believe with the New Testament that the death of Jesus, along with His resurrection, is an indispensable proclamation of a crucial event for the reconciliation of lost sinners with God. There are three elements they see to understanding His death on the cross.

# Jesus having the knowledge that His path would lead to his own death, desired and willed that that take place, and persevered in that path though there was opportunity for Him to avoid it. Though there is ample recognition in the New Testament that others desired Him to die, and that the circumstances in which His path took him would bring Him to His end on earth, the mover of all these things was Himself and the will of the Father. "I have power to take my life and I have power to lay down my life. I lay down my life for the sheep."
# Jesus saw that in His death there would be a way for people to be brought back to the God from whom they were alienated and lost because of their sins. This would involve a substitution of Himself to effect that way. "For the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve and give His life as a ransom for many." How this would take place was not new to the Jews of His day from their understanding of contemporary everyday practice of substitute payment - as in redemption of the first-born (Pidyon Ha Ben), or in the understanding of what aggadic stories such as the Binding of [[Isaac]] implied (see [[Midrash]]), but it was not the prevalent view that the Messiah was to be that payment. Though while alive on earth, he had hinted at it in sayings such as "unless a seed falls and dies, it remains alone, but when it dies, it brings forth..", it was only after He had risen from the dead that He explained Scripture (the Old Testament) clearly about the necessity of His death to have taken place. The disciples would henceforth preach, and Peter among them, that the death of Jesus the Messiah and His resurrection was for-planned and for-ordained by God the Father, and foretold in the Scripture (Isaiah 53). And so, "The Just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God".
# It was the belief in Scripture, that in His death a way back to God was made possible for those that were near to God—the Jews. And a way back to God for those that were far away—the Gentiles. That is why the New Testament saw in the requirements of God for Israel a fulfillment in Jesus the Messiah. He was the perfect Israel, taken out of Egypt, to redeem Israel. And that is why the New Testament saw in Jesus, a deepness to the incarnation of the Son of God, deeper than just a Jew of His time of a certain tribe. He was the "Second Adam" to redeem the sons of Adam. This encompassing perspective had further implications.

Christians of all generations have looked to the perfect Atonement, and the hope for reconciliation, accomplished by Jesus on the cross, to provide the means of understanding the solution to the vexing problems of the mind and of life itself - How can I make reconciliation with my enemies, with even the members of my own family, of race with race and people with people?; Does His death for the sins of the world include those who only partially understand, for the baby aborted, the feeble minded, and severely retarded?; For those who have never heard of Jesus, never been "enlightened", distant and remote in place and time?; Does His death for the sins of the world also include a remedy for the ills that have come as a result of those sins—certain sicknesses, ills of the mind, body and the soul? Do they "hold" for today?; Does His death make good, turn to the better, show the way, effect the way, of the illnesses that have befallen the world, not only by sin, but simply by the circumstances of life, of degeneration, of compounded dysfunction? How does the fruit of His death bring in somehow the Kingdom "among us"?

The death of the Son of God on the cross has provided the solution for sin, and it still holds its sway over the imagination and aspirations for the people of our generation.

===Salvation===
The Bible teaches that "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23). This is often interpreted to mean that everyone has displeased God and is now separated from him in a kind of alienation and enmity that results from the fundamental conflict between selfish human interests and God's interests (Romans 8:5-8; James 4:4).

However, Jesus offered a solution to this Biblical dilemma in that by repentance of sins and faith in him (Jesus), their sins would be forgiven. He said that "...the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 2:10) Jesus also said, "I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance." (Mark 2:17, and "Verily I say unto you, All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men" (Mark 2:28)

Jesus Christ taught that "unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God" ([[Gospel of John|John]] 3:3). Protestant Evangelical Christianity often use the terms "saved" and "born again" interchangeably. Other Christians, notably the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church use the phrase ''born again'' as a synonym for [[baptism|baptized]]. "Jesus answered, Amen, amen, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and [of] the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." (John 3:5)

Christians are expected to continue living by Christ's teachings (John 8:31), as is appropriate for "children of Light" (Ephesians 5:8-10). Some believe that this is necessary in order to stay saved. However, this is a common misconception of the text. It is rather referring to proving that one is a child of God by their "fruit" (things that they do and how they behave). Christians in the Reformed tradition (following the teaching of the 16th century French lawyer [[John Calvin]], as well as the faith outlined in the Belgic and Heidleberg Confessions) say that salvation is irrevocable and that it cannot be lost, if it were genuinely part of one's life to begin with. Reformed Christians (often called [[Calvinists]]) often point to Romans 8:38-39 as validation of their belief: "For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 8:38-39; [[NASB]]). According to Calvinists, the reason it cannot be lost by natural things is because salvation was obtained through a supernatural being, namely Jesus Christ. This does not negate Jesus' human side, only that he was both one-hundred percent God and one-hundred percent man, according to the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (A. D. 451). The Bible also makes it clear that mankind cannot earn their salvation, and that it is a free gift.

== Resurrection of Jesus Christ ==
[[Image:Jesus resurrected.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"The Resurrection" by Carl Heinrich Bloch]]
The [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]] is critical to the Christian faith. The Apostle Paul wrote, "if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain" (I Cor:15:14). Traditionally, Christianity has believed in a physical resurrection of Jesus Christ.<ref>http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt</ref>

In recent history Gary Habermas is considered the foremost [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] for defending the resurrection of Jesus.<ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/dialog_rexperience/dialog_rexperiences.htm Experiences of the Risen Jesus: The Foundational Historical Issue in the Early Proclamation of the Resurrection], ''Dialog: A Journal of Theology'', Vol. 45; No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 288-297.</ref><ref>"Wildcat" and Holding, J.P., [http://www.tektonics.org/books/lichabrvw.html Book review of "The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus"], 22nd June, 2004 (Tektonics)</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/NTeSources/NTArticles/CTR-NT/Habermas-Resurrection1-CTR.pdf Jesus' Resurrection and Contemporary Criticism: An Apologetic] ''Criswell Theological Review'' 4.1 (1989) 159-74.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_explainingaway/crj_explainingaway.htm Explaining Away Jesus' Resurrection:
The Recent Revival of Hallucination Theories], Christian Research Journal / vol. 23, no. 4, 2001.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable] (Apologetics.com)</ref>
Other notable defenders of the resurrection include: [[William Lane Craig]],<ref>Craig, William Lane, [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/historical.html Articles: Historical Jesus]</ref> [[Lee Strobel]], [[Josh McDowell]],<ref>McDowell, Josh, [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html Evidence for the Resurrection], 1992.</ref> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]],<ref>Jamauchi, Edwin M., [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/yama.html Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?]</ref> [[N.T. Wright]]<ref>Wright, N.T., [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Early_Traditions.htm Early Traditions and the Origins of Christianity], ''Sewanee Theological Review'' 41.2, 1998.</ref> and [[Michael Horner]].<ref>Horner, Michael, [http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/index.html Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?]</ref>

===The Meaning of the Resurrection for Christians===

The Fact of the Resurrection of Christ is a key element of the preaching of the message about Jesus and an essential of Christian belief. But there are also certain effects that this belief has on the lives of believers.

1. It is because Jesus rose from the dead, that believers now can resort to a living Savior to help and deliver them from sin and from situations overwhelming for them by their own powers.

2. The New Testament sees in the resurrection of Christ a certain vindication of what apparently to the world and to all beings was a failure and an overcoming of Him by His crucifixion. He was "declared to be the Son of God" by His resurrection. This brings believers in Him to a strong confidence in the determined power of God to both vindicate in their own lives and to bring His reign upon earth.

3. The coming of Jesus back to life means to the believer that, indeed, their sins are totally forgiven. This is because believers know that His death was as a payment for sins - a "wage of death" for our sins that He received in our stead. If He remained dead, believers would know that the wage had not been fully paid. His resurrection, carries with it our knowledge that our sin with its attendant death has been totally and finally paid for.

4. It is a now living Savior that Christians know can go before them, can closely lead them through life - as He did when He was on earth. This makes following Him practical and real.

5. The New Testament reveals that it is the Risen Christ who received from the Father the Holy Spirit and He, through Himself ascended to the Father, has given the Holy Spirit to us. This gives the believer in Christ both the knowledge and the power to live a godly life, and live a life that can be an intimately and personally directed one.

6. The resurrected Christ was no mere reassembling of the molecules and particles of the Body that had been crucified. It was, indeed, a physical body, but one that was fully under the Spirit's control, guidance, and empowerment. It was a "spiritual body". Christians know that likewise, they will one day be granted the nature of a spiritual body, and full of health. They therefore are full of hope and consolations, and consider that even now in this life, there is an overcoming through Him, a restoration, and that tears, even now, are wiped away.

== Evangelism ==
In what is called the [[Great Commission]], Jesus sent his disciples out into the world to preach the Gospel (literally "good news") and make disciples.
:'''Great Commission'''
:''But the eleven disciples proceeded to [[Galilee]], to the mountain which Jesus had designated. When they saw Him, they worshiped Him; but some were doubtful. And Jesus came up and spoke to them, saying, "All authority has been given to Me in [[heaven]] and on [[earth]]." Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the [[#God the Father|Father]] and the [[#God the Son|Son]] and the [[#God the Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]], teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."'' --[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:16-20 [[New American Standard Bible|NASB]]

[[Image:Gleyre The Departure of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|240px|The Departure of the Apostles by [[Charles Gleyre]].]]
 

==History of the name "Christian"==
The early Christian faith was sometimes called ''That Way'', (Acts 19:1,9,23; 24:22) and the church its adherents were also called ''Nazarenes'', (Acts 24:5) evidently after the city of [[Nazareth]] where Jesus lived. Probably close to A.D 50 the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts:11:26) records that "the disciples were called Christians first in [[Antioch]]." The title ''Christian'' is also used in Acts 26:28 and 1 Peter 4:16, and likely is referred to in James 2:7, "Do not they blaspheme that worthy name by the which ye are called?"

==Early Church Community and Commitment: The Biblical Period==

The Bible records that that at least initially, the church was a single organic community, in which

:they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. {43} And fear came upon every soul: and many wonders and signs were done by the apostles. {44} And all that believed were together, and had all things common; {45} And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. {46} And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, Praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common."(Acts 2:42-47; 4:32)

This community was soon "scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judaea and Samaria, except the apostles" due to determined persecution, which resulted in the dispersed disciples going "every where preaching the word." (Acts 8:1,4)

Other evidence indicates believers had their own houses and goods. (Acts 10:6; 16:14,15,40; 21:8; 1Cor. 11:22; 1Tim. 6:17; Philemon)

==Early Church Community and Commitment: the Post Biblical Period==

'''Justin martyr 100 A.D. - 165 A.D. From the "First Apology" (Defense)
'''

<blockquote>
But we, after we have thus washed him who has been convinced and has assented to our teaching, bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized [illuminated] person, and for all others in every place, that we may be counted worthy, now that we have learned the truth, by our works also to be found good citizens and keepers of the commandments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. This word Amen answers in the Hebrew language to genoito [so be it]. And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. (Chapt. LXV - administration of the sacraments)</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist = the Thanksgiving], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone... (Chapt. LXVl - of the Eucharist)
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And we afterwards continually remind each other of these things. And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always keep together; and for all things wherewith we are supplied, we bless the Maker of all through His Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Ghost. And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour on the same day rose from the dead...(Chapt.LXVll - weekly worship of the Christians)
</blockquote>

'''Tertullian (A.D. 160 -220), Early ecclesiatical leader and writer, in his ''Apology'' (response to pagan charges) in describing the early church community (197 A.D.): '''

:We are a body knit together by one faith, one discipline and one hope. We meet together as a congregation, uniting together to offer prayer to God. We pray for the emperors and all in authority, for the welfare of the world, for peace and for the delay of the final end. We read our holy scriptures to nourish our faith, hope, steadfastness and good habits. We hear exhortations and rebukes. We take such judging very seriously – as befits those who believe they are in the sight of God – especially seriously when anyone sins so grievously we have to cut them off from our prayer, our congregation and all sacred things. Our elders preside over us, obtaining that honor not by money, but by their established character. There is no buying and selling in the things of God. Though we have a fund, but not because people can buy religion. Once a month, anyone who wants to makes a small donation – but only he who is able and willing; there is no compulsion. It is not spent on feasts, but to support and bury poor people, to provide for orphans, the elderly old persons, victims of shipwreck and those in prison for their faith.<ref>Defense by Tertullian (39), Trans. Rev. S. Thelwall. Modernized, abridged and introduced by Stephen Tomkins. Edited and prepared for the web by Dan Graves.</ref>

'''Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor of Pontus & Bithynia (northern Turkey) from A.D. 111-113, reporting to emperor Trajan of Christians, whom such pagan rulers found intolerable:'''

:...in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

:... Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

:They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food.<ref>Pliny the Younger Letters, 10.96 </ref>

==Also See==
[[Image:Orthodox churches icon artwork.jpg|thumb|Orthodox Church's icon artwork.]]
'''Denominations or branches of Christianity'''
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Orthodox Church]]
*[[Protestantism|Protestant]]
**[[Amish]]
**[[Baptist]]
**[[Church of England]] or ''Anglican Church''
**[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (or ''Episcopal Church'' or ''Episcopalians'') (Non-UK branch of the Anglican Church)
**[[Evangelical Christianity]]
**[[Fundamentalism]]
**[[Liberal Christianity]]
**[[Lutheran]]
**[[Mennonite]]
**[[Methodist]]
**[[Pentecostal]]
**[[Plymouth Brethren]]
**[[Presbyterian]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist]]

'''Disputed'''
*[[Christian Science]]

'''Other articles'''
*[[Aramaic Church]]
*[[Cathedral]]
*[[Catholicism]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (Defense of Christianity)
*[[Christianity and Science]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America (Syro-Chaldean)]]
*[[Gospel reading in the Church: the Turgama]]
*[[Inspiration of Holy Scripture: An Eastern Christian and Jewish Perspective]]
*[[Jesus Christ]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Messiah]]
*[[New Testament understanding through the Jewish perspective]]
*[[Passover Seder]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Red-letter Christian]]
*[[Sign of the Cross]]
*[[Essay: The Way of Salvation]]
*[[Gates of Hell]]
*[[Anti Abortion activism: a personal essay]]

==Further reading==
===Encyclopedias===
* Bodensieck, Julius, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church,'' (3 vol 1965), ECLS perspective
* Brauer, Jerald C. ''The Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' (1971), 880pp
* [http://newadvent.org/cathen/index.html ''The Catholic Encyyclopedia'' (1907-1913)], old but highly detailed and online
** '' New Catholic Encyclopedia'', edited by the Catholic University of America, 17 vol. 1967-1979.
*Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (3rd ed. 1997), 1840pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Dictionary-Christian-Church/dp/0192802909/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
* Elwell, Walter A., ed. ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology‎'' (2001) 1312 pages; articles by over 200 Evangelical or Fundamentalist scholars
*Hastings, Adrian et al. eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought'' (2000) 808pp; 600 articles by 260 Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198600240/ref=sib_dp_pt/105-4292297-2766841#reader-link excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
*''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' (1911), ), major sources of older scholarly articles; mainline Protestant perspective
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.toc.html Vol. 1: Aachen - Basilians]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.toc.html Vol. 2: Basilica - Chambers]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03.toc.html Vol. 3: Chamier - Draendorf]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04.toc.html Vol. 4: Draeseke - Goa]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.toc.html Vol. 5: Goar - Innocent]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc06.toc.html Vol. 6: Innocents - Liudger]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc07.toc.html Vol. 7: Liutprand - Moralities]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc08.toc.html Vol. 8: Morality - Petersen]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc09.toc.html Vol. 9: Petri - Reuchlin]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc10.toc.html Vol. 10: Reutsch - Son]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc11.toc.html Vol. 11: Son of Man - Tremellius]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc12.toc.html Vol. 12: Trench - Zwingli]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc13.toc.html Vol. 13: Index]

===Histories===
*Briggs, J. H. Y., Robert D. Linder, and David F. Wright. ''Introduction to the History of Christianity: First Century to the Present Day'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-History-Christianity-Century-Present/dp/0800638123/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Gonzalez, Justo L. '' A History of Christian Thought: Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon'' (2nd ed. 1987); [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Beginnings-Chalcedon/dp/0687171822/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2: From Augustine to the Eve of the Reformation'' (2nd ed. 1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Augustine-Reformation/dp/0687171830/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 3: From the Protestant Reformation to the Twentieth Century'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Protestant-Reformation/dp/0687171849/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search vol 3]
*Horsley, Richard A. ''Christian Origins: A People's History Of Christianity, Vol. 1'' (2006), 318pp [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Origins-Peoples-History-Christianity/dp/080063411X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200886474&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A History of Christianity'' (2 vol 1975) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christianity-Beginnings-1500-Revised/dp/0060649526/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1, to 1500], by leading Baptist scholar
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A history of the expansion of Christianity'' (7 vol 1939-1970), monumental history of missionary work worldwide
*MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation'' (2005), influential recent survey [http://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Diarmaid-MacCulloch/dp/014303538X/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
*McGonigle, Thomas D., and James F. Quigley. ''A history of the Christian Tradition: From Its Jewish Orgins to the Reformation'' (1988); ''A History of the Christian Tradition, Vol. II: From the Reformation to the Present'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Tradition-Vol-Reformation/dp/0809136481/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-15 excerpt and text search vol 2]
*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine'' (5 vol 1975-91) [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Doctrine-Medieval/dp/0226653757/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search v. 3, 600 AD -1300]]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Reformation-1300-1700/dp/0226653773/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search vol 4, 1300-1700]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-History-Development-Doctrine/dp/0226653803/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 5, 1700-present] This is the standard history of Christian doctrine.
*Ward, Keith. ''Christianity: A Beginner's Guide'' (2008), 195pp

===United States===
* Ahlstrom, Sydney E. ''A religious history of the American people‎'' (1979) 1192 pages; classic history from broad perspective [http://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&dq=inauthor:ahlstrom&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Balmer, Randall. ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' (2nd ed. 2004), 655pp [http://www.questia.com/library/book/encyclopedia-of-evangelicalism-by-randall-balmer.jsp ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' online edition]
* Lippy, Charles H. and Peter W. Williams, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the American religious experience: studies of traditions and movements'' (3 vol 1988) 1872 pages; standard reference work; long essays by scholars
* Noll, Mark A. '' A history of Christianity in the United States and Canada‎'' (1992), by leading Evangelical historian [http://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&dq=intitle:christianity+inauthor:noll&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Queen, Edward L. et al, eds. Encyclopedia of American Religious History'' (3rd ed. 2 vol. 2009) 1200pp
* Reid, Daniel G. et al. eds., ''Dictionary of Christianity in America'' (199)
* Wooley, Davis C. ed. '' Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists‎'' (5 vol 1958-19820; 2565 pages

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/christians/ What Liberals Say - Category: Christians], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[Category:Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

George Gordon, Lord Byron

2010-04-21T01:14:38Z

JClarke:

[[Image:Lord Byron.png|left|140px]]
'''George Gordon, Lord Byron''' lived from January 22, 1788 ([[London]], England,) to April 19, 1824 (Missolonghi, [[Greece]]). He was an [[English]] Romantic poet and satirist.

One of his most important works was [http://website.lineone.net/~ssiggeman/poem1.html Don Juan], a book-length narrative poem. (In Byron's poem, "Juan" is pronounced in its Anglicized form; the opening stanza rhymes "Juan" with "new one" and "true one.").

'''Canto 1'''

''I want a hero, an uncommon want,

''When every year and month sends forth a new one,

''Till after cloying the gazettes with cant,

''The age discovers he is not the true one.

''Of such as these I should not care to vaunt;

''I'll therefore take our ancient friend Don Juan.

''We all have seen him in the pantomime,

''Sent to the devil somewhat ere his time.''

One of his most familiar poems, ''She Walks in Beauty,'' opens:

  She walks in beauty, like the night 
      Of cloudless climes and starry skies; 
  And all that's best of dark and bright 
      Meet in her aspect and her eyes. 

In his personal life Byron was notorious for his numerous romantic affairs, both with women and [[homosexuality|men]]; his lover, Lady Caroline Lamb, described him as "mad, bad, and dangerous to know."

''Byron went into self-imposed exile in Italy (''he assisted the Italian freedom fighters working for democracy'')... Depressed by both his daughter's death and the drowning of [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], Byron took up a new cause - that of Greek independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Summoning support, he arrived in [[Greece]] with weapons and supplies, but before he could join the fight, went down with a deadly fever ''(malaria)''.'' <ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0126406/bio Lord Byron] IMDb. </ref>

He was buried in the Parish Church of St. [[Mary Magdalene]] in the town of [[Hucknall]], near [[Nottingham]], in the [[United Kingdom]].

== External links ==

*[http://website.lineone.net/~ssiggeman/biography.html Lord Byron, 1788-1824] Biography.

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Authors]]
[[Category:Poets]]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Byron, Lord George Gordon}}

Alfred Thayer Mahan

2010-04-21T01:13:56Z

JClarke:

'''Alfred Thayer Mahan''' (1840 - 1914), an American sailor and writer, was the world's leading [[Military history|military historian]] in the era before [[World War I]]. His concept of "sea power" had an enormous influence in shaping the strategic thought of naval officials around the world, especially in the [[American naval history|American navy]], as well as the [[navy|navies]] of [[Germany]], [[Japan]] and [[Britain]]. His ideas still permeate the [[United States Navy]].

==Career==
Mahan was born in West Point, New York; his father, [[Denis Mahan]] was an influential professor of military tactics at West Point, where he taught many of the generals who commanded in the [[American Civil War]]. After attending Columbia College in New York, the son entered the U.S. Naval Academy, graduating in 1859, second in a class of twenty. His career as a line officer on blockade duty during the Civil War was uneventful. Mahan was considered below par for seamanship; he became commander in 1872 and captain in 1885, and with that rank retired in 1896 after forty years of service. A decade later he was promoted to rear admiral on the retired list, but signed his many books and articles, "Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan." By the 1890s he had achieved international acclaim, particularly in Britain, where he had been given honorary degrees by Oxford and Cambridge. American recognition followed, with honorary degrees from Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Dartmouth. He was called from retirement to serve as a member of the Naval War Board for the [[Spanish-American War]], as a delegate to the first [[Peace Conference]] at The Hague, as an occasional lecturer at the Naval War College, and as witness before several congressional committees. He was well known in military and naval circles, and was a friend and advisor of fellow naval historian President [[Theodore Roosevelt]].

==Historian==
The turning point in Mahan's career came when Superintendent Stephen B. Luce (1827-1917) called him in 1884 to lecture in naval history and strategy at the newly established Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. Mahan plunged into the library and wrote lectures that drew heavily on standard classics and the ideas of work of [[Henri Jomini]]. The lectures became his sea-power studies: ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783'' (1890); ''The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812'' (2 vols., 1892); and ''Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812'' (2 vols., 1905). ''The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain'' (2 vols., 1897) supplemented the series. Mahan stresses the importance of the individual in shaping history, and extols the traditional values of loyalty, courage, and service to the state. Mahan sought to resurrect [[Horatio Nelson]] as a national hero in Britain and used the book as a platform for expressing his views on naval strategy and tactics. Criticisms of the work focused on Mahan's handling of Nelson's love affair with Lady Emma Hamilton, but it remains the standard biography. In addition to these works, Mahan wrote more than a hundred articles on international politics and related topics, which were closely read by policy makers.

==Sea Power==
Mahan used history as a stock of lessons to be learned--or more exactly, as a pool of examples that exemplified his theories. Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial usage in peace and its control in war. His goal was to discover the laws of history that determined who controlled the seas. His theoretical framework came from Jomini, with an emphasis on strategic locations (such as chokepoints, canals. and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. The primary mission of a navy was to secure the command of the sea. This not only permitted the maintenance of sea communications for one's own ships while denying their use to the enemy but also, if necessary, provided the means for close supervision of neutral trade. This control of the sea could not be achieved by destruction of commerce but only by destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet. This called for concentration of naval forces composed of capital ships, not overly large but numerous, well manned with crews thoroughly trained, and operating under the principle that the best defense is an aggressive offense.

Mahan contended that with command of the sea, even if local and temporary, naval operations in support of land forces can be of decisive importance and that naval supremacy can be exercised by a transnational consortium acting in defense of a multinational system of free trade. His theories--written before the submarine became a factor in warfare against shipping--delayed the introduction of convoys as a defense against German U=Boats in World War I. By the 1930s the U.S. Navy was building long-range submarines to raid Japanese shipping, but the Japanese, still tied to Mahan, designed their submarines as ancillaries to the fleet and failed to attack American supply lines in the pacific in World War II.

Mahan argued that radical technological change does not eliminate uncertainty from the conduct of war, and therefore a rigorous study of history should be the basis of naval officer education.

Sumida (2000) argues Mahan believed that good political and naval leadership was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, his unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium rather than the single nation-state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarchy. Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes.

Mahan prepared a secret contingency plan of 1890 in case war should break out between Britain and the United States. Mahan concluded that the British would attempt to blockade the eastern ports, so the American Navy should be concentrated in one of these ports, preferably New York with its two widely separated exits, while torpedo boats should defend the other harbors. This concentration of the U.S. fleet would force the British to tie down such a large proportion of their navy to watch the New York exits that the other American ports would be relatively safe. Detached American cruisers should wage "constant offensive action" against the enemy's exposed positions, and if the British were to weaken their blockade force off New York to attack another American port, the concentrated U.S. fleet should seize the opportunity to escort an invasion fleet to capture the British coaling ports in Nova Scotia, thereby seriously weakening the British ability to engage in naval operations off the American coast. This contingency plan is a clear example of the application of Mahan's principles of naval war, with a clear reliance on Jomini's principal of controlling strategic points.<ref>Kenneth Bourne, and Carl Boyd, "Captain Mahan's 'War' with Great Britain." ''U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings'' 1968 94(7): 71-78. Issn: 0041-798x </ref>

Mahan was a frequent commentator on world naval, strategic and diplomatic affairs. In the 1890s he argues that the United States should concentrate its naval fleet and obtain Hawaii as a hedge against Japanese eastward expansion and that the U.S. should help maintain a balance of power in the region in order to advance the principle of the Open Door policy both commercially and culturally. Mahan represented the U.S. at the first international conference on arms control was initiated by Russia in 1899. Russia sought a "freeze" to keep from falling behind in Europe's arms race. Other countries attended in order to mollify various peace groups. No significant arms limitations agreements were reached. A proposal on neutral trade rights was debated but ruled out of order by the Russians. The only significant result of the conference was the establishment of an ineffective Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.

==Impact on naval thought==
Timeliness contributed no small part to the widespread acceptance and resultant influence of Mahan's views. Although his history was relatively thin (he relied on secondary sources), the vigorous style and clear theory won widespread acceptance of navalists across the world. Sea power supported the the new colonialism which was asserting itself in Africa and Asia. Given the very rapid technological changes underway in propulsion (from coal to oil, from boilers to turbines), ordnance (with better fire directors, and new high explosives) and armor and emergence of new craft such as destroyers and submarines, Mahan's emphasis on the capital ship and the command of the sea came at an opportune moment.

Mahan's name became a household word in the German navy, as Kaiser [[William II]] ordered his officers to read Mahan, and Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]] (1849-1930) used Mahan's reputation to finance a powerful surface fleet.

Between 1890 and 1915, Mahan and British admiral [[John Fisher]] (1841-1920) faced the problem of how to dominate home waters and distant seas with naval forces not strong enough to do both. Mahan argued for a universal principle of concentration of powerful ships in home waters and minimized strength in distant seas, while Fisher reversed Mahan by utilizing technological change to propose submarines for defense of home waters and mobile battle cruisers for protection of distant imperial interests.<ref> Jon Tetsuro Sumida, "Geography, Technology, and British Naval Strategy in the Dreadnought Era." ''Naval War College Review'' 2006 59(3): 89-102. Issn: 0028-1484 Fulltext: [[ Ebsco]]</ref>

The French were less susceptible to Mahan's theories. French naval doctrine in 1914 was dominated by Mahan's theory of sea power and therefore geared toward winning decisive battles and gaining mastery of the seas. But the course of [[World War I]] changed ideas about the place of the navy, as the refusal of the German fleet to engage in a decisive battle, the Dardanelles expedition of 1915, the development of submarine warfare, and the organization of convoys all showed the navy's new role in combined operations with the army. The navy's part in securing victory was not fully understood by French public opinion in 1918, but a synthesis of old and new ideas arose from the lessons of the war, especially by admiral Raoul Castex (1878-1968), from 1927 to 1935, who synthesized in his five-volume ''Théories Stratégiques'' the classical and materialist schools of naval theory. He reversed Mahan's theory that command of the sea precedes maritime communications and foresaw the enlarged roles of aircraft and submarines in naval warfare. Castex enlarged strategic theory to include nonmilitary factors (policy, geography, coalitions, public opinion, and constraints) and internal factors (economy of force, offense and defense, communications, operational plans, morale, and command) to conceive a general strategy to attain final victory.<ref> Martin Motte, "L'epreuve des Faits: ou la Pensee Navale Française face a la Grande Guerre ," ''Revue Historique Des Armées'' 1996 (2): 97-106. Issn: 0035-3299 </ref>

Although Mahan's influence on foreign powers has been generally recognized, only rather recently have scholars called attention to his role as significant in the growth of American overseas possessions, the rise of the new American navy, and the adoption of the strategic principles upon which it operated. He died in Washington a few months after the outbreak of World War I.

==see also==
* [[American naval history]]
* [[Naval warfare]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[United States Navy]]
==Bibliography==

* Bowling, Roland Alfred. "The Negative Influence of Mahan on the Protection of Shipping in Wartime: The Convoy Controversy in the Twentieth Century." PhD dissertation U. of Maine 1980. 689 pp. DAI 1980 41(5): 2241-A. 8024828 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Hattendorf, John B., ed. ''The Influence of History on Mahan.'' Naval War College Press, 1991. 208 pp.
* Karsten, Peter. "The Nature of 'Influence': Roosevelt, Mahan and the Concept of Sea Power." ''American Quarterly]] 1971 23(4): 585-600. Issn: 0003-0678 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0678%28197110%2923%3A4%3C585%3ATNO%22RM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in Jstor]
* LaFeber, Walter. "A Note on the "Mercantilistic Imperialism" of Alfred Thayer Mahan," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 48, No. 4 (Mar., 1962), pp. 674-685 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X(196203)48%3A4%3C674%3AANOT%22I%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N online at JSTOR]
* Paret, Peter, Gordon A. Craig, and Felix Gilbert, eds. ''Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age'' (1986), chapter on Mahan
* Puleston, W. D. ''Mahan: The Life and Work of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, U.S.N'' 1939 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10530575 online edition]
* St. John, Ronald B. "European Naval Expansion and Mahan, 1889-1906." ''Naval War College Review'' 1971 23(7): 74-83. Issn: 0028-1484. Argues that key Europeans were already set to expand their navies and that Mahan crystallized their ideas and generate broad support.
* Schluter, Randall Craig. "Looking Outward for America: An Ideological Criticism of the Rhetoric of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, USN, in American Magazines of the 1890s." PhD dissertation U. of Iowa 1995. 261 pp. DAI 1995 56(6): 2045-A. DA9536247 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Schurman, Donald M. ''The Education of a Navy'' (1965), on British Royal Navy
* Seager II, Robert. ''Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters'' (Annapolis, 1977). 713 pp.
* Shulman, Mark Russell. "The Influence of Mahan upon Sea Power." ''Reviews in American History]] 1991 19(4): 522-527. Issn: 0048-7511 [http://www.jstor.org.proxy.cc.uic.edu/view/00487511/dm980076/98p0087x/0 in Jstor]
* Sumida, Jon Tetsuro. ''Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (2000) 184 pages [http://www.amazon.com/Inventing-Grand-Strategy-Teaching-Command/dp/0801863406/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189978486&sr=8-2 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
* Turk, Richard W. ''The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (1987) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15126676 online edition]
* Zimmermann, Warren. ''First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power.'' (2002). 562 pp., chapter on Mahan
===Primary sources===
* Seager II, Robert, ed. ''Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (3 vol 1975) v. 1. 1847-1889.--v. 2. 1890-1901.--v. 3. 1902-1914
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783'' (1890) [http://books.google.com/books?id=xv8AAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812'' (2 vols., 1892) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54720207 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812'' (2 vols., 1905). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YowsAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain'' (2 vols., 1897) [http://books.google.com/books?id=CMogAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

====notes====
<references/>
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Naval History]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahan, Alfred Thayer}}

Alfred Thayer Mahan

2010-04-21T01:13:08Z

JClarke:

'''Alfred Thayer Mahan''' (1840 - 1914), an American sailor and writer, was the world's leading [[Military history|military historian]] in the era before [[World War I]]. His concept of "sea power" had an enormous influence in shaping the strategic thought of naval officials around the world, especially in the [[American naval history|American navy]], Germany, Japan and Britain. His ideas still permeate the [[United States Navy]].

==Career==
Mahan was born in West Point, New York; his father, [[Denis Mahan]] was an influential professor of military tactics at West Point, where he taught many of the generals who commanded in the [[American Civil War]]. After attending Columbia College in New York, the son entered the U.S. Naval Academy, graduating in 1859, second in a class of twenty. His career as a line officer on blockade duty during the Civil War was uneventful. Mahan was considered below par for seamanship; he became commander in 1872 and captain in 1885, and with that rank retired in 1896 after forty years of service. A decade later he was promoted to rear admiral on the retired list, but signed his many books and articles, "Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan." By the 1890s he had achieved international acclaim, particularly in Britain, where he had been given honorary degrees by Oxford and Cambridge. American recognition followed, with honorary degrees from Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Dartmouth. He was called from retirement to serve as a member of the Naval War Board for the [[Spanish-American War]], as a delegate to the first [[Peace Conference]] at The Hague, as an occasional lecturer at the Naval War College, and as witness before several congressional committees. He was well known in military and naval circles, and was a friend and advisor of fellow naval historian President [[Theodore Roosevelt]].

==Historian==
The turning point in Mahan's career came when Superintendent Stephen B. Luce (1827-1917) called him in 1884 to lecture in naval history and strategy at the newly established Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. Mahan plunged into the library and wrote lectures that drew heavily on standard classics and the ideas of work of [[Henri Jomini]]. The lectures became his sea-power studies: ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783'' (1890); ''The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812'' (2 vols., 1892); and ''Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812'' (2 vols., 1905). ''The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain'' (2 vols., 1897) supplemented the series. Mahan stresses the importance of the individual in shaping history, and extols the traditional values of loyalty, courage, and service to the state. Mahan sought to resurrect [[Horatio Nelson]] as a national hero in Britain and used the book as a platform for expressing his views on naval strategy and tactics. Criticisms of the work focused on Mahan's handling of Nelson's love affair with Lady Emma Hamilton, but it remains the standard biography. In addition to these works, Mahan wrote more than a hundred articles on international politics and related topics, which were closely read by policy makers.

==Sea Power==
Mahan used history as a stock of lessons to be learned--or more exactly, as a pool of examples that exemplified his theories. Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial usage in peace and its control in war. His goal was to discover the laws of history that determined who controlled the seas. His theoretical framework came from Jomini, with an emphasis on strategic locations (such as chokepoints, canals. and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. The primary mission of a navy was to secure the command of the sea. This not only permitted the maintenance of sea communications for one's own ships while denying their use to the enemy but also, if necessary, provided the means for close supervision of neutral trade. This control of the sea could not be achieved by destruction of commerce but only by destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet. This called for concentration of naval forces composed of capital ships, not overly large but numerous, well manned with crews thoroughly trained, and operating under the principle that the best defense is an aggressive offense.

Mahan contended that with command of the sea, even if local and temporary, naval operations in support of land forces can be of decisive importance and that naval supremacy can be exercised by a transnational consortium acting in defense of a multinational system of free trade. His theories--written before the submarine became a factor in warfare against shipping--delayed the introduction of convoys as a defense against German U=Boats in World War I. By the 1930s the U.S. Navy was building long-range submarines to raid Japanese shipping, but the Japanese, still tied to Mahan, designed their submarines as ancillaries to the fleet and failed to attack American supply lines in the pacific in World War II.

Mahan argued that radical technological change does not eliminate uncertainty from the conduct of war, and therefore a rigorous study of history should be the basis of naval officer education.

Sumida (2000) argues Mahan believed that good political and naval leadership was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, his unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium rather than the single nation-state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarchy. Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes.

Mahan prepared a secret contingency plan of 1890 in case war should break out between Britain and the United States. Mahan concluded that the British would attempt to blockade the eastern ports, so the American Navy should be concentrated in one of these ports, preferably New York with its two widely separated exits, while torpedo boats should defend the other harbors. This concentration of the U.S. fleet would force the British to tie down such a large proportion of their navy to watch the New York exits that the other American ports would be relatively safe. Detached American cruisers should wage "constant offensive action" against the enemy's exposed positions, and if the British were to weaken their blockade force off New York to attack another American port, the concentrated U.S. fleet should seize the opportunity to escort an invasion fleet to capture the British coaling ports in Nova Scotia, thereby seriously weakening the British ability to engage in naval operations off the American coast. This contingency plan is a clear example of the application of Mahan's principles of naval war, with a clear reliance on Jomini's principal of controlling strategic points.<ref>Kenneth Bourne, and Carl Boyd, "Captain Mahan's 'War' with Great Britain." ''U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings'' 1968 94(7): 71-78. Issn: 0041-798x </ref>

Mahan was a frequent commentator on world naval, strategic and diplomatic affairs. In the 1890s he argues that the United States should concentrate its naval fleet and obtain Hawaii as a hedge against Japanese eastward expansion and that the U.S. should help maintain a balance of power in the region in order to advance the principle of the Open Door policy both commercially and culturally. Mahan represented the U.S. at the first international conference on arms control was initiated by Russia in 1899. Russia sought a "freeze" to keep from falling behind in Europe's arms race. Other countries attended in order to mollify various peace groups. No significant arms limitations agreements were reached. A proposal on neutral trade rights was debated but ruled out of order by the Russians. The only significant result of the conference was the establishment of an ineffective Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.

==Impact on naval thought==
Timeliness contributed no small part to the widespread acceptance and resultant influence of Mahan's views. Although his history was relatively thin (he relied on secondary sources), the vigorous style and clear theory won widespread acceptance of navalists across the world. Sea power supported the the new colonialism which was asserting itself in Africa and Asia. Given the very rapid technological changes underway in propulsion (from coal to oil, from boilers to turbines), ordnance (with better fire directors, and new high explosives) and armor and emergence of new craft such as destroyers and submarines, Mahan's emphasis on the capital ship and the command of the sea came at an opportune moment.

Mahan's name became a household word in the German navy, as Kaiser [[William II]] ordered his officers to read Mahan, and Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]] (1849-1930) used Mahan's reputation to finance a powerful surface fleet.

Between 1890 and 1915, Mahan and British admiral [[John Fisher]] (1841-1920) faced the problem of how to dominate home waters and distant seas with naval forces not strong enough to do both. Mahan argued for a universal principle of concentration of powerful ships in home waters and minimized strength in distant seas, while Fisher reversed Mahan by utilizing technological change to propose submarines for defense of home waters and mobile battle cruisers for protection of distant imperial interests.<ref> Jon Tetsuro Sumida, "Geography, Technology, and British Naval Strategy in the Dreadnought Era." ''Naval War College Review'' 2006 59(3): 89-102. Issn: 0028-1484 Fulltext: [[ Ebsco]]</ref>

The French were less susceptible to Mahan's theories. French naval doctrine in 1914 was dominated by Mahan's theory of sea power and therefore geared toward winning decisive battles and gaining mastery of the seas. But the course of [[World War I]] changed ideas about the place of the navy, as the refusal of the German fleet to engage in a decisive battle, the Dardanelles expedition of 1915, the development of submarine warfare, and the organization of convoys all showed the navy's new role in combined operations with the army. The navy's part in securing victory was not fully understood by French public opinion in 1918, but a synthesis of old and new ideas arose from the lessons of the war, especially by admiral Raoul Castex (1878-1968), from 1927 to 1935, who synthesized in his five-volume ''Théories Stratégiques'' the classical and materialist schools of naval theory. He reversed Mahan's theory that command of the sea precedes maritime communications and foresaw the enlarged roles of aircraft and submarines in naval warfare. Castex enlarged strategic theory to include nonmilitary factors (policy, geography, coalitions, public opinion, and constraints) and internal factors (economy of force, offense and defense, communications, operational plans, morale, and command) to conceive a general strategy to attain final victory.<ref> Martin Motte, "L'epreuve des Faits: ou la Pensee Navale Française face a la Grande Guerre ," ''Revue Historique Des Armées'' 1996 (2): 97-106. Issn: 0035-3299 </ref>

Although Mahan's influence on foreign powers has been generally recognized, only rather recently have scholars called attention to his role as significant in the growth of American overseas possessions, the rise of the new American navy, and the adoption of the strategic principles upon which it operated. He died in Washington a few months after the outbreak of World War I.

==see also==
* [[American naval history]]
* [[Naval warfare]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[United States Navy]]
==Bibliography==

* Bowling, Roland Alfred. "The Negative Influence of Mahan on the Protection of Shipping in Wartime: The Convoy Controversy in the Twentieth Century." PhD dissertation U. of Maine 1980. 689 pp. DAI 1980 41(5): 2241-A. 8024828 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Hattendorf, John B., ed. ''The Influence of History on Mahan.'' Naval War College Press, 1991. 208 pp.
* Karsten, Peter. "The Nature of 'Influence': Roosevelt, Mahan and the Concept of Sea Power." ''American Quarterly]] 1971 23(4): 585-600. Issn: 0003-0678 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0678%28197110%2923%3A4%3C585%3ATNO%22RM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in Jstor]
* LaFeber, Walter. "A Note on the "Mercantilistic Imperialism" of Alfred Thayer Mahan," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 48, No. 4 (Mar., 1962), pp. 674-685 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X(196203)48%3A4%3C674%3AANOT%22I%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N online at JSTOR]
* Paret, Peter, Gordon A. Craig, and Felix Gilbert, eds. ''Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age'' (1986), chapter on Mahan
* Puleston, W. D. ''Mahan: The Life and Work of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, U.S.N'' 1939 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10530575 online edition]
* St. John, Ronald B. "European Naval Expansion and Mahan, 1889-1906." ''Naval War College Review'' 1971 23(7): 74-83. Issn: 0028-1484. Argues that key Europeans were already set to expand their navies and that Mahan crystallized their ideas and generate broad support.
* Schluter, Randall Craig. "Looking Outward for America: An Ideological Criticism of the Rhetoric of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, USN, in American Magazines of the 1890s." PhD dissertation U. of Iowa 1995. 261 pp. DAI 1995 56(6): 2045-A. DA9536247 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Schurman, Donald M. ''The Education of a Navy'' (1965), on British Royal Navy
* Seager II, Robert. ''Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters'' (Annapolis, 1977). 713 pp.
* Shulman, Mark Russell. "The Influence of Mahan upon Sea Power." ''Reviews in American History]] 1991 19(4): 522-527. Issn: 0048-7511 [http://www.jstor.org.proxy.cc.uic.edu/view/00487511/dm980076/98p0087x/0 in Jstor]
* Sumida, Jon Tetsuro. ''Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (2000) 184 pages [http://www.amazon.com/Inventing-Grand-Strategy-Teaching-Command/dp/0801863406/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189978486&sr=8-2 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
* Turk, Richard W. ''The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (1987) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15126676 online edition]
* Zimmermann, Warren. ''First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power.'' (2002). 562 pp., chapter on Mahan
===Primary sources===
* Seager II, Robert, ed. ''Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan'' (3 vol 1975) v. 1. 1847-1889.--v. 2. 1890-1901.--v. 3. 1902-1914
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783'' (1890) [http://books.google.com/books?id=xv8AAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812'' (2 vols., 1892) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54720207 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812'' (2 vols., 1905). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YowsAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Mahan, Alfred Thayer. ''The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain'' (2 vols., 1897) [http://books.google.com/books?id=CMogAAAAMAAJ&dq=inauthor:alfred+inauthor:thayer+inauthor:mahan&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

====notes====
<references/>
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Naval History]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahan, Alfred Thayer}}

Siege of Ladysmith

2010-04-21T01:11:15Z

JClarke:

'''The Siege of Ladysmith''' (October 30, 1899 to February 20 1900) was a central part of the second [[Boer War]].

The Boers attempted a lengthy siege of the town of Ladysmith located in the southern portion of the [[South Africa]]n Orange Free State, which was held by the British.

The British successfully defended the city despite overwhelming odds and a severe outbreak of [[cholera]].

[[Category:Africa]]
[[Category:Wars]]

Bloc Quebecois

2010-04-20T20:09:40Z

JClarke: French nationalism? You understand that France is a different country, right?

The '''Bloc Québécois''' is a [[Socialism|democratic socialist]] separatist party in [[Canada]] that only runs in the province of [[Quebec]] during elections.

Some people {{who}} relate them to the [[Front de libération du Québec]], which was responsible for over 200 bombings, kidnappings (including James Richard Cross, a British trade representative) and the deaths of 5 people, including Pierre Laporte, a provincial cabinet minister. The FLQ is now history and was far apart from the founding members of the bloc in the political spectrum.

The party was created after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, a pan-Canadian agreement on the recognition of Quebec as a distinct society, according the province a constitutional veto and other cultural rights. The treaty was signed in 1987 but was not ratified by enough provincial legislatures. Their first members of parliament were dissident Quebec Members of Parliament(MP) from the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] who had abandoned the federalist option after the failure of the Meech Lake Accords.

The is currently lead by [[Gilles Duceppe]] who was the first elected Bloc Québécois Member of Parliament in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] through a by-election in August 1990. He was elected leader of the party in 1997.

At their first general election, in 1993, the Bloc elected 54 MPs out of 75 seats in Québec. As of November 2009, they have 51 elected MPs at the Canadian parliament.

In Québec they run against the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[New Democratic Party]]. They are largely ignored by the rest of Canada, except maybe by the thousands of French-speaking Canadians living outside of Quebec.

It is now using its seats to further Quebec's political agendas. Its provincial equivalant is the [[Parti Québécois]].

[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

Bloc Quebecois

2010-04-20T20:09:04Z

JClarke:

The '''Bloc Québécois''' is a [[Socialism|democratic socialist]] separatist party in [[Canada]] that only runs in the province of [[Quebec]] during elections.

Some people {{who}} relate them to the [[Front de libération du Québec]], which was responsible for over 200 bombings, kidnappings (including James Richard Cross, a British trade representative) and the deaths of 5 people, including Pierre Laporte, a provincial cabinet minister. The FLQ is now history and was far apart from the founding members of the bloc in the political spectrum.

The party was created after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, a pan-Canadian agreement on the recognition of Quebec as a distinct society, according the province a constitutional veto and other cultural rights. The treaty was signed in 1987 but was not ratified by enough provincial legislatures. Their first members of parliament were dissident Quebec Members of Parliament(MP) from the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] who had abandoned the federalist option after the failure of the Meech Lake Accords.

The is currently lead by [[Gilles Duceppe]] who was the first elected Bloc Québécois Member of Parliament in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] through a by-election in August 1990. He was elected leader of the party in 1997.

At their first general election, in 1993, the Bloc elected 54 MPs out of 75 seats in Québec. As of November 2009, they have 51 elected MPs at the Canadian parliament.

In Québec they run against the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[New Democratic Party]]. They are largely ignored by the rest of Canada, except maybe by the thousands of French-speaking Canadians living outside of Quebec.

It is now using its seats to further the French Nationalist political agendas. Its provincial equivalant is the [[Parti Québécois]].

[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

Bloc Quebecois

2010-04-20T20:06:08Z

JClarke: You're confusing Meech w/the Charlottetown Accords, which came three years later. Meech was not subject to a referendum, it failed in the Man. and NFLD. assemblies.

The '''Bloc Québécois''' is a [[Socialism|democratic socialist]] separatist party in [[Canada]] that only runs in the province of [[Quebec]] during elections.

Some people {{who}} relate them to the [[Front de libération du Québec]], which was responsible for over 200 bombings, kidnappings (including James Richard Cross, a British trade representative) and the deaths of 5 people, including Pierre Laporte, a provincial cabinet minister. The FLQ is now history and was far apart from the founding members of the bloc in the political spectrum.

The party was created after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, a pan-Canadian agreement on the recognition of Québec as a distinct society, according the province a constitutional veto and other cultural rights. The treaty was signed in 1987 but dwas not ratifed by enough provincial legislatures. Their first members of parliament were dissident french Canadian member of parliamant(MP) from the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] who left the federalist option after the failed Meech referendum.

It is currently lead by [[Gilles Duceppe]] who was the first elected Bloc Québécois Member of Parliament in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] through a by-election in August 1990. He was elected leader of the party in 1997.

At their first general election, in 1993, the Bloc elected 54 MPs out of 75 seats in Québec. As November 2009, they have 51 elected MPs at the Canadian parliament.

In Québec they run against the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[New Democratic Party]]. They are largely ignored by the rest of Canada, except maybe by the thousands of french speaking Canadians living outside of Quebec.

It is now using its seats to further the French Nationalist political agendas. Its provincial equivalant is the [[Parti Québécois]].

[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

Bloc Quebecois

2010-04-20T20:03:59Z

JClarke: Cross not killed by the FLQ

The '''Bloc Québécois''' is a [[Socialism|democratic socialist]] separatist party in [[Canada]] that only runs in the province of [[Quebec]] during elections.

Some people {{who}} relate them to the [[Front de libération du Québec]], which was responsible for over 200 bombings, kidnappings (including James Richard Cross, a British trade representative) and the deaths of 5 people, including Pierre Laporte, a provincial cabinet minister. The FLQ is now history and was far apart from the founding members of the bloc in the political spectrum.

The party was created after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, a pan-canadian agreement on the recognition of Québec as a distinct society, according it a constitutional veto and other cultural rights. The treaty was signed in 1987 but did not pass the june 1990 Canadian referendum on the matter. Their first members of parliament were dissident french Canadian member of parliamant(MP) from the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] who left the federalist option after the failed Meech referendum.

It is currently lead by [[Gilles Duceppe]] who was the first elected Bloc Québécois Member of Parliament in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] through a by-election in August 1990. He was elected leader of the party in 1997.

At their first general election, in 1993, the Bloc elected 54 MPs out of 75 seats in Québec. As November 2009, they have 51 elected MPs at the Canadian parliament.

In Québec they run against the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[New Democratic Party]]. They are largely ignored by the rest of Canada, except maybe by the thousands of french speaking Canadians living outside of Quebec.

It is now using its seats to further the French Nationalist political agendas. Its provincial equivalant is the [[Parti Québécois]].

[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

Bloc Quebecois

2010-04-20T20:02:07Z

JClarke:

The '''Bloc Québécois''' is a [[Socialism|democratic socialist]] separatist party in [[Canada]] that only runs in the province of [[Quebec]] during elections.

Some people {{who}} relate them to the [[Front de libération du Québec]], which is responsible for over 200 bombings, kidnapping and the death of 5 people. Among them Pierre Laporte, a provincial minister and James Richard Cross, a British Ambassador. The FLQ is now history and was far apart from the founding members of the bloc in the political spectrum.

The party was created after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, a pan-canadian agreement on the recognition of Québec as a distinct society, according it a constitutional veto and other cultural rights. The treaty was signed in 1987 but did not pass the june 1990 Canadian referendum on the matter. Their first members of parliament were dissident french Canadian member of parliamant(MP) from the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] who left the federalist option after the failed Meech referendum.

It is currently lead by [[Gilles Duceppe]] who was the first elected Bloc Québécois Member of Parliament in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] through a by-election in August 1990. He was elected leader of the party in 1997.

At their first general election, in 1993, the Bloc elected 54 MPs out of 75 seats in Québec. As November 2009, they have 51 elected MPs at the Canadian parliament.

In Québec they run against the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[New Democratic Party]]. They are largely ignored by the rest of Canada, except maybe by the thousands of french speaking Canadians living outside of Quebec.

It is now using its seats to further the French Nationalist political agendas. Its provincial equivalant is the [[Parti Québécois]].

[[Category:Canadian Political Parties]]

Michael Ignatieff

2010-04-20T19:59:19Z

JClarke:

[[Image:Michael Ignatieff.jpg|right|thumb|Michael Ignatieff]]'''Michael Ignatieff''' is the current leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the previous majority [[political party]] in [[Canada]]. He is an academic and was a university professor in both [[Great Britain]], and in the [[United States]] at the Kennedy School of Government at [[Harvard]] University. Ignatieff has been continuously sited as a opportunist due to his many personal and political ambitions.

In 2005, while still working outside the country, the Liberal Party of Canada successfully drafted him to run for Member of [[Parliament]] in an [[Ontario]] riding for an upcoming federal election. Ignatieff moved back to Canada after he had spent the last twenty years working outside the country. The Liberals believed that if they were defeated in the 2006 federal election (which they were) that Ignatieff could provide a sense of renewal to the party. He enter the 2006 Liberal leadership race but was defeated by [[Stephane Dion]], most notably because of Bob Rae's decision to not drop out and support Ignatieff to prevent Stephane Dion from winning. Rae also supported no candidate after being eliminated, this is said to have cause Ignatieff to lose.

In December of 2008, after Dion was ousted as leader, Ignatieff served as interim leader of the party. In 2009 he was successful in pressuring the two other candidates for the May 2009 leadership convention to drop out. His lead him to become leader of the party by acclamation. As leader he has twice tried to force unpopular and unwanted federal elections, and has continuously worked at trying to force non-confidence votes against the government.

''Blood and Belonging'', a book by Ignatieff has also been criticized for its anti-Ukrainian sentiment. In the book, Ignatieff openly discusses Russian stereotypes towards Ukrainians.

It is also believed that during the 2010 Winter Olympics he may have cheered for and supported Russia over Canada. {{fact}}

[[Category:Canadian Political People]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Ignatieff, Michael}}

Michael Ignatieff

2010-04-20T19:58:53Z

JClarke: Say what you will about Dion, he's neither French nor a Separatist. The man is a proud Canadian.

[[Image:Michael Ignatieff.jpg|right|thumb|Michael Ignatieff]]'''Michael Ignatieff''' is the current leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the previous majority [[political party]] in [[Canada]]. He is an academic and was a university professor in both [[Great Britain]], and in the [[United States]] at the Kennedy School of Government at [[Harvard]] University. Ignatieff has been continuously sited as a opportunist due to his many personal and political ambitions.

In 2005, while still working outside the country, the Liberal Party of Canada successfully drafted him to run for Member of [[Parliament]] in an [[Ontario]] riding for an upcoming federal election. Ignatieff moved back to Canada after he had spent the last twenty years working outside the country. The Liberals believed that if they were defeated in the 2006 federal election (which they were) that Ignatieff could provide a sense of renewal to the party. He enter the 2006 Liberal leadership race but was defeated by [[Stephane Dion]], most notably because of Bob Rae's decision to not drop out and support Ignatieff to prevent Stephane Dion from winning. Rae also supported no candidate after being eliminated, this is said to have cause Ignatieff to lose.

In December of 2008 after [[Stephane Dion]] was ousted as leader, Ignatieff served as interim leader of the party. In 2009 he was successful in pressuring the two other candidates for the May 2009 leadership convention to drop out. His lead him to become leader of the party by acclamation. As leader he has twice tried to force unpopular and unwanted federal elections, and has continuously worked at trying to force non-confidence votes against the government.

''Blood and Belonging'', a book by Ignatieff has also been criticized for its anti-Ukrainian sentiment. In the book, Ignatieff openly discusses Russian stereotypes towards Ukrainians.

It is also believed that during the 2010 Winter Olympics he may have cheered for and supported Russia over Canada. {{fact}}

[[Category:Canadian Political People]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Ignatieff, Michael}}

Michael Ignatieff

2010-04-20T19:55:32Z

JClarke:

[[Image:Michael Ignatieff.jpg|right|thumb|Michael Ignatieff]]'''Michael Ignatieff''' is the current leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the previous majority [[political party]] in [[Canada]]. He is an academic and was a University Professor in [[Great Britain]], [[United States]]. Ignatieff has been continuously sited as a opportunist after many personal and political decisions of his to try to gain power in Canada.

In 2005 while still working outside the country the Liberal Party of Canada successfully drafted him to run for Member of [[Parliament]] for a [[Ontario]] riding for the upcoming the 2006 federal election. This led Ignatieff to move back to Canada after he had spent the last 20 years working outside the country. The Liberals believed that if they were defeated in the 2006 federal election (which they were) that Ignatieff could provide renewal to the party. He enter the 2006 Liberal leadership race but was defeated by [[Stephane Dion]]. Most notable because of Bob Rae's decision to not drop out and support Ignatieff to prevent Stephane Dion a french separatist from winning. Rae also supported no candidate after being eliminated, this is said to have cause Ignatieff to lose.

In December of 2008 after [[Stephane Dion]] was ousted as leader, Ignatieff served as interim leader of the party. In 2009 he was successful in pressuring the two other candidates for the May 2009 leadership convention to drop out. His lead him to become leader of the party by acclamation. As leader he has twice tried to force unpopular and unwanted federal elections, and has continuously worked at trying to force non-confidence votes against the government.

''Blood and Belonging'', a book by Ignatieff has also been criticized for its anti-Ukrainian sentiment. In the book, Ignatieff openly discusses Russian stereotypes towards Ukrainians.

It is also believed that during the 2010 Winter Olympics he may have cheered for and supported Russia over Canada. {{fact}}

[[Category:Canadian Political People]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Ignatieff, Michael}}

Michael Ignatieff

2010-04-20T19:54:06Z

JClarke: Really? Can we get a citation for that?

[[Image:Michael Ignatieff.jpg|right|thumb|Michael Ignatieff]]'''Michael Ignatieff''' is the current leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the previous majority [[political party]] in [[Canada]]. He is an academic and was a University Professor in [[Great Britain]], [[United States]]. Ignatieff has been continuously sited as a opportunist after many personal and political decisions of his to try to gain power in Canada.

In 2005 while still working outside the country the Liberal Party of Canada successfully drafted him to run for Member of [[Parliament]] for a [[Ontario]] riding for the upcoming the 2006 federal election. This led Ignatieff to move back to Canada after he had spent the last 20 years working outside the country. The Liberals believed that if they were defeated in the 2006 federal election (which they were) that Ignatieff could provide renewal to the party. He enter the 2006 Liberal leadership race but was defeated by [[Stephane Dion]]. Most notable because of Bob Rae's decision to not drop out and support Ignatieff to prevent Stephane Dion a french separatist from winning. Rae also supported no candidate after being eliminated, this is said to have cause Ignatieff to lose.

In December of 2008 after [[Stephane Dion]] was ousted as leader Ignatieff served as leader on a interim basis. In 2009 he was successful in pressuring the two other candidates for the May 2009 leadership convention to drop out. His lead him to become leader of the party by acclaimation. As leader he has twice tried to force unpopular and unwanted federal elections, and has continuously worked at trying to force non-confidence votes in the goverment.

"Blood and Belonginga" a book by Ignatieff has also been criticised for it's anti-Ukrainian sentiment in which he openly discusses Russian stereotypes towards Ukrainians.

It is also believed that during the 2010 Winter Olympics he may have cheered for and supported Russia over Canada. {{fact}}

[[Category:Canadian Political People]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
{{DEFAULTSORT: Ignatieff, Michael}}

Oath of Hippocrates

2010-04-20T19:40:07Z

JClarke:

The '''Oath of Hippocrates''' or '''Hippocratic Oath''' is an oath traditionally taken by doctors setting down certain guidelines about how they will use their medical skills. The oath dates back to ancient Greece but it is uncertain if it is actually due to [[Hippocrates]]. Taking the oath is not a requirement to practice medicine, and has no legal status.

== Translation of the Classical Oath ==
I SWEAR by Apollo the physician and Æsculapius, and Health, and All-heal, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment,

I will keep this Oath and this stipulation — to reckon him who taught me this Art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture and every other mode of instruction,

I will impart a knowledge of the Art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others.

I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous.

I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce [[abortion]]. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my Art.

I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further, from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional service, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad.

I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times. But should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot.<ref>http://www.cirp.org/library/ethics/hippocrates/</ref>

==Criticism of the oath==
The oath requires a doctor to swear on the names of [[Apollo (mythology)|Apollo]], [[Æsculapius]], and all the "gods" and "goddesses" of the [[Pagan]] Greek pantheon. Since this oath contradicts fundamental Christian principles by requiring a Christian to swear by Pagan gods, devout Christian doctors may refuse to take this oath.

== The Oath in Modern Times ==

Due to pressure from [[abortionists]] and promoters of [[abortion]], many medical schools now drop the prohibition on abortion and [[euthanasia]] from "modernized" versions of the Oath.<ref>http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19970328/ai_n14096334</ref><ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/doctors/oath_today.html</ref><ref>http://www.cmdahome.org/index.cgi?CONTEXT=art&art=313&cat=100102</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Abortion]]

Disinformation

2010-04-20T14:29:00Z

JClarke: Angola? Parody, I fear.

'''Disinformation''' is deliberately spread false information. <ref>Disinformation refers to false or misleading information that is deliberately spread by a government, organized political group, an individual or other entity. The issue of intent is key; if the intent is to spread false or misleading information, it is disinformation. [http://usinfo.state.gov/media/Archive/2005/Jan/26-288268.html State Department] </ref> The term comes from the Russian ''disinformatsiya'', referring to Soviet propaganda campaigns.

The [[USSR]]'s disinformation campaign on [[AIDS]] is a classic example. The Soviet intelligence and security service, the [[KGB]], had a special service, Service A, for spreading false information. Soon after AIDS was recognized as a new disease, Service A concocted the story that the AIDS virus had been developed as a biological weapon by the Pentagon at Fort Detrick, Maryland, and was used in experiments on prisoners, which was allegedly why it initially appeared in New York, described as the largest big city near Fort Detrick. Non-Americans would be unlikely to realize that several major U.S. cities are actually much closer to Fort Detrick than New York, including Washington, DC, Baltimore, and Philadelphia.

Another example of disinformation is the [[Climategate]] conspiracy, where results from weather satellites were doctored in order to support the theory of [[global warming]]. This was brought to light when the University of East Anglia released several emails written by the perpetrators of the tampering.

During the [[Korean War]], [[Wilfred Burchett]] of the [[extremist|extreme]] [[leftist]] New York ''[[Guardian]]'' newspaper made false reports on American use of [[germ warfare]]. Burchett accused the Americans of perpetrating "the most monstrous crimes against humanity." He said that in germ warfare the Americans had launched upon mankind a weapon more frightful than the [[atomic bomb]]. In 1998, however, news reports noted, "...documents from Russia's Presidential Archive finally prove, more than four decades after the fact, that the United States was the victim of a disinformation campaign scripted by [[North Korea]], [[China]], and the Soviet Union." A report by [[Lavernti Beria]], head of [[Soviet intelligence]], outlined the deception: "False plague regions were created, burials . . . were organized, measures were taken to receive the plague and cholera bacillus."<ref>Bruce B. Auster, [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/981116/archive_005192.htm ''Unmasking An Old Lie: A Korean War Charge Is Exposed As a Hoax''], U. S. News & World Report (16 November 1998), p. 52.</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:espionage]]
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Political Terms]]
[[Category:Liberal Traits]]

Adolf Hitler

2010-04-20T14:27:55Z

JClarke: Undo revision 770795 by Tyl110 (Talk)

[[Image:Hitler7.JPG|right|300px|thumb|The [[Evolution|evolutionary]] [[racism|racist]] Adolf Hitler in the 1930s.]]
'''Adolf Hitler''' was the Austrian-born Chancellor and President of [[Germany]] from January 30, 1933 until his death on April 30, 1945. He was also the leader (German: ''Der Führer'') of the [[National Socialist German Workers Party]] (''National-sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'', or [[Nazi]] Party) which gained political power through threat, intimidation, and outright violence throughout Germany in the aftermath of the [[First World War]]. Adolf Hitler was an [[Evolution|evolutionary]] [[racist]].<ref>http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=268</ref> Hitler’s policies and beliefs resulted in the [[Genocide|mass extermination]] of the [[Jews]], [[Gypsies]], and other peoples he considered “[[Racial Supremacy|inferior]]” throughout central and eastern [[Europe]] and were directly responsible for the outbreak of [[World War II]], which caused the deaths of untold millions on and off the battlefield and ended only after Hitler's [[suicide]] in his Berlin bunker.

==Early life==
[[File:Hitler Roses.jpg|thumb|Roses by Adolf Hitler.]]
Hitler was born on April 20, 1889, in Braunau am Inn, [[Austria]]. Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was a customs official who was himself born illegitimate, carrying for a time his mother's name, Schicklgruber. By 1876 he had his baptismal entry corrected in his church records, establishing his father as Johan Heidler, which was altered slightly to Hitler.

When his father retired the family moved to Linz, Austria, where it remained a favorite for young Adolf for the rest of his life, and where he gave his wish to be buried. When Alois died in 1903 he left enough of a pension to support his wife and children; Adolf would take his and live off of it in Vienna after leaving school, dreaming of becoming an artist. Although somewhat competent as a painter of landscapes and architecture, his renderings of humans were considered “lifeless” and “crude” by the standards of the Academy of Fine Arts, and his application was rejected twice. Remaining in [[Vienna]], he moved from one cheap flop house to another, painting postcards and advertisements to earn a meager living after his allowance had dried up. By then he had developed traits which characterized his life as a whole: secretiveness, loneliness, a Spartan mode of everyday life, and a hatred of the cosmopolitan, multinational character that was the makeup of Vienna. ''He never sought a proper job or regular employment. Instead he immersed himself in the works of [[Hegel]], [[Nietzsche]], and the anti-Semitic writings of the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain. He loved the operas of Wagner, and the stories of the Nordic Gods... In early 1910, he entered a shelter for the homeless, populated in the main by poor Jews, on Meldemenstrasse, and was eating at soup kitchens. By this time he had pawned all his belongings. '' <ref> [http://socyberty.com/history/young-adolf-the-adolescent-hitler-and-beyond/ Young Adolf: The Adolescent Hitler and Beyond.] </ref>

==Who And What He Was==
[[Elie Wiesel]] wrote famously, and most eloquently about Hitler in 1998:
<blockquote>At the same time that he terrorized his adversaries, he knew how to please, impress and charm the very interlocutors from whom he wanted support. Diplomats and journalists insist as much on his charm as they do on his temper tantrums. The savior admired by his own as he dragged them into his madness, the Satan and exterminating angel feared and hated by all others, Hitler led his people to a shameful defeat without precedent. That his political and strategic ambitions have created a dividing line in the history of this turbulent and tormented century is undeniable: there is a before and an after. By the breadth of his crimes, which have attained a quasi-ontological dimension, he surpasses all his predecessors: as a result of Hitler, man is defined by what makes him inhuman. With Hitler at the head of a gigantic laboratory, life itself seems to have changed.</blockquote>

<blockquote>How did this Austrian without title or position manage to get himself elected head of a German nation renowned for its civilizing mission? How to explain the success of his cheap demagogy in the heart of a people so proud of having inherited the genius of a Wolfgang von Goethe and an Immanuel Kant?</blockquote>

<blockquote>Was there no resistance to his disastrous projects? There was. But it was too feeble, too weak and too late to succeed. German society had rallied behind him: the judicial, the educational, the industrial and the economic establishments gave him their support. Few politicians of this century have aroused, in their lifetime, such love and so much hate; few have inspired so much historical and psychological research after their death. Even today, works on his enigmatic personality and his cursed career are best sellers everywhere. Some are good, others are less good, but all seem to respond to an authentic curiosity on the part of a public haunted by memory and the desire to understand.</blockquote>

<blockquote>We think we know everything about the nefarious forces that shaped his destiny: his unhappy childhood, his frustrated adolescence; his artistic disappointments; his wound received on the front during World War I; his taste for spectacle, his constant disdain for social and military aristocracies; his relationship with [[Eva Braun]], who adored him; the cult of the very death he feared; his lack of scruples with regard to his former comrades of the SA, whom he had assassinated in 1934; his endless hatred of [[Jews]], whose survival enraged him — each and every phase of his official and private life has found its chroniclers, its biographers.</blockquote>

<blockquote>And yet. There are, in all these givens, elements that escape us. How did this unstable paranoid find it within himself to impose gigantic hope as an immutable ideal that motivated his nation almost until the end? Would he have come to power if Germany were not going through endless economic crises, or if the winners in 1918 had not imposed on it conditions that represented a national humiliation against which the German patriotic fiber could only revolt? We would be wrong to forget: Hitler came to power in January 1933 by the most legitimate means. His [[Nationalist Socialist Party]] won a majority in the parliamentary elections. The aging [[Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg]] had no choice but to allow him, at age 43, to form the new government, marking the end of the Weimar Republic. And the beginning of the [[Third Reich]], which, according to Hitler, would last 1,000 years.</blockquote>

<blockquote>From that moment on, events cascaded. The burning of the [[Reichstag]] came only a little before the openings of the first concentration camps, established for members of the opposition. Fear descended on the country and squeezed it in a vise. Great writers, musicians and painters went into exile to France and the U.S. Jews with foresight emigrated toward Palestine. The air of Hitler's Germany was becoming more and more suffocating. Those who preferred to wait, thinking that the Nazi regime would not last, could not last, would regret it later, when it was too late.</blockquote>

<blockquote>The fact is that Hitler was beloved by his people — not the military, at least not in the beginning, but by the average Germans who pledged to him an affection, a tenderness and a fidelity that bordered on the irrational. It was idolatry on a national scale. One had to see the crowds who acclaimed him. And the women who were attracted to him. And the young who in his presence went into ecstasy. Did they not see the hateful mask that covered his face? Did they not divine the catastrophe he bore within himself?<ref name="time">http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/hitler.html</ref></blockquote>

[[Image:Cupid Complaining to Venus by Lucas Cranach.jpg|120px|left]]''One of the best-loved paintings in the National Gallery - an exquisite vision of Venus and Cupid by the greatest artist of the Reformation - once belonged to Hitler, it has been revealed. New evidence has come to light that Lucas Cranach's Cupid Complaining to Venus, currently on loan to an exhibition in Bristol, hung on the sitting-room wall of his flat in Munich.'' <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/mar/28/art.secondworldwar Hitler owned painting now in National Gallery]</ref>

{{Clear}}

===War===
[[Image:Hitler munich1914.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Hitler in the crowd in Munich, 1914, reacting to the news of Germany's entry in the First World War.]]
By 1913 Hitler was in Munich, Germany, with war clouds on the horizon. Classified as unfit for service in the Austrian army (possibly by faking, as he did not like the thought of serving Austria) in 1914, he volunteered for the German army, joining the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment, greeting the war with enthusiasm, and finding the military discipline and comradeship satisfying. He served during the entire [[First World War]] as a messenger carrying dispatches between units, and often at the front lines under fire; he was wounded in 1916, and gassed in 1918. His bravery during this time earned him the [[Iron Cross]], 2nd Class, in December, 1914, and in August 1918 he was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st Class – a rare decoration for a corporal. But the gassing would take him out of the war and into a hospital, where he would be told the heart-wrenching news of Germany’s defeat the following November.

==Path to power==
After the war ended, Hitler's future seemed uncertain. There was much discontent among demobilized veterans because of the lack of employment. The German military had felt it had not been defeated; indeed, the German Army stood on foreign soil when the Armistice was signed November 11, 1918 and not a square inch of German soil had been occupied. This was despite the fact that the German Army's strongest position, the Hindenburg line, had been broken by the Allies, and the German Army itself was in full retreat. However, the Army felt they had done their job, and the nation had been "stabbed in the back" by a gang of traitors who sought to lay hands on the Fatherland. The "myth" that Germany had been defeated was the "big lie" Hitler spoke of, as if repeating it often enough would cause people to believe it.

After his discharge from the hospital, Hitler acted as an army political agent, assigned in Munich to gather information on the various political parties which had spring up amid the social chaos following Germany’s defeat. In September, 1919, he was given orders to investigate the relatively-minor German Workers’ Party (''Deutsche Arbeiterpartei''); intrigued by the party’s apparatus and its racial, pan-German nationalism, he joined, becoming its 55th member; he left the army soon after and devoted himself to improving the party’s propaganda, as well as his own position within.

Conditions in Germany fostered the development of the party. Economic woes brought widespread discontent, added to the furor surrounding the loss of the war and the harsh terms heaped upon Germany by the Allied Powers in the Versailles Peace Treaty. Bavaria’s traditional separatism from the central government in Berlin made current conditions especially sharp, and Hitler was savvy enough to take full advantage of them. When he joined, he found the party ineffective in leadership and uncertain as to its aims; he accepted the party program, but regarded it as a means to an end. He caused friction with other members of the party, and their attempts to control him caused a threat of resignation; realizing that the future of the party now depended on Hitler, who clearly had a talent of organization, fund collecting, and above all, speaking, they declined to accept it; from July, 1921 Hitler was regarded as the party leader with nearly unlimited power. From his party newspaper, ''Völkischer Beobachter'' (“Popular Observer”), he spewed out endless propaganda. His meetings where he spoke grew from handfuls to hundreds, and then on to thousands. A man of charismatic personality, he quickly attracted a circle of loyal and devoted followers: Julius Streicher, Alfred Rosenberg, Hermann Göring, and Rudolf Hess.

Munich was also a gathering place for former servicemen dissatisfied with conditions in the country; members of the Freikorps, which had been organized after the war from army units that refused to return to civilian life; and those civilians who plotted against the republic. Many of these men joined the Nazi Party. Among them was a staff member of the district command who had joined the German Workers’ Party before Hitler, Ernst Röhm, a pudgy man with a scared face who saw his own ambition in helping further Hitler’s rise within the party. Röhm recruited what came to be known as the “Brown Shirts”, the violent squads used to attack socialists and communists, and to protect party meetings whenever Hitler was speaking. By 1921 they were organized into a private army called the ''Sturmabteilung'', abbreviated to S.A.

==The Beer Hall Putsch==
Germany in 1923 was marked by social and political unrest caused by hyperinflation. In this time Hitler was able convince [[Erich Ludendorff]], an accomplished general and leader of the German forces in the first World War, to join him in a coup d'etat (''Putsch'' in German). When Hitler learned that the nationalist prime minister of Bavaria was giving a speech to 3000 officials in one of Munich's biggest beer halls (the Haufbrau Haus), he ordered his paramilitaries to surround the building. Hitler went inside and took the prime minister hostage, announced a revolution, and attempted to convince him to join the coup against Berlin and become member in his new administration. The Bavarian prime minister agreed under pressure, but informed the nation via radio later that night that he did not support Hitler. The prime minister also informed the federal government in Berlin; the putsch had begun to fail.

The next morning, 9 November 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff were marching with approximately 2000 partly armed supporters through Munich in a show of strength to regain the momentum. In the ensuing fight between Hitler's marchers and a cordon of police and army units at least 14 Nazi supporters and three policemen were killed and hundreds wounded. Ludendorff handed himself over to the authorities, while Hitler fled soon after the fighting began. Hitler was arrested a few days later at a friend's house, were had been in hiding since the failed coup. Ludendorff was acquitted of all charges, while Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in prison (he would do eight months). <ref>http://history1900s.about.com/cs/thirdreich/a/beerhallputsch_2.htm</ref><ref>http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/putsch2.htm</ref> The Bavarian prime minister, who foiled the plan, was killed in 1934 in the "Night of the Long Knives".

===''Mein Kampf''===

Hitler had his inner circle as frequent visitors in his prison cell, which was made more comfortable due to his celebrity. While there, he dictated to Rudolf Hess the first volume of ''Mein Kampf'' (“My Struggle”), his political autobiography and a compendium of his many ideas.

Hitler believed in the inequality of the races, nations, and individuals as part of the natural order of mankind, and chief among them was the exalted “Aryan race”, and the greatest of the Aryans were the Germans. It was the German, according to Hitler, that gave the world civilization and the arts; to safeguard the German people as a race (the “Volk”), they would need to be united under a single leader (the Führer), where they would be protected from their three principle enemies: Marxism, which included social democracy as well as communism; democracy and its mob-rule, as shown by the failings of the Weimar Republic; and above all what Hitler called the poisoners of humanity, the Jews. “Rational anti-Semitism must lead to systematic legal opposition,” he wrote in 1919. “Its final objective must be the removal of the Jews altogether.” In Mein Kampf, he told the world that the Jew was the “destroyer of culture,” “a parasite within the nation,” and “a menace.”

From "My Struggle":
{{cquote|The Jew "... he blares out his merits to the rest of the world until people really begin to believe in them. Anyone who does not believe in them is doing him a bitter injustice. In a short time he begins to twist things around to make it look as if all the injustice in the world had always been done to him and not the other way around." <ref> [http://www.hitler.org/writings/Mein_Kampf/mkv1ch11.html Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler.]</ref> }}

{{cquote| Hitler portrays Jews as leaders in politics and banking, both groups seeking to strengthen their cause, [[Zionism]], to ensure Jewish domination. From his Social Darwinist perspective, Hitler perceived a racial war as inevitable and he sought to halt the "[[Jewish]] drive towards world conquest"... As Berlin collapsed around him, Adolf asserted: "Out of the ruins of our towns and monuments hatred will grow against those finally responsible for everything, International Jewry." <ref> [http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=32043&amid=30237234 Mein Kampf – The Text, its Themes and Hitler’s Vision] Robert Carr dissects a book frequently referred to but seldom read. </ref>
}}

==Rebuilding the Nazi Party==
[[Image:Hitler.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hitler speaking; he would often employ physical gesturing to emphasize a point.]]
[[Image:Hitler-3.jpg‎ |right|200px|thumb|Hitler in car, saluting passing S.A. at one of many parades.]]
Internal dissension within the party caused it to languish while Hitler was in prison. When he was released he saw difficulties in the country that had not existed before the Putsch, namely currency reform that brought economic stability, and the scaling back of the war reparations as a result of the Dawes Plan. Hitler was also forbidden to speak in public, which remained in force until 1928; however, he wasn’t about to stop his rebuilding of the party nor of his re-establishing his own position within it as leader, despite Gregor Strasser’s opposition in northern Germany. By 1927 the number of Nazis was in the hundreds of thousands.

A new period of political and economic instability with the onset of the Great Depression which threw millions out of work in Europe and North America. To campaign against the [[Young Plan]] (a second renegotiation of war reparations payments) Hitler made an alliance with one of Germany’s leading nationalists, Alfred Hugenberg, whose newspapers enabled Hitler to reach a national audience for the first time. The alliance also had another advantage: it enabled him to seek support from many in business and industry who controlled funds going into politics, and who themselves were desirous of seeing Germany under the control of a strong anti-Soviet and anti-Communist regime. The subsidies Hitler received placed the Nazy Party on a strong financial footing, enabling him to make his emotional appeal to the lower middle class and the unemployed in his faith that Germany would recover from its suffering and be a great nation once more. The alliance with the industrialists also demonstrated another aspect of Hitler, a skill of effectively using those that would use him, which many would discover when it was too late.

The electoral strength of the Nazis grew during the Depression, as unceasing propaganda accused the government of failing to improve conditions for the working man. By the fall of 1930 the Nazis captured more than 18 percent of the vote, compared to just 2.6 percent in 1928. Hitler captured 36.8 percent of the vote when he opposed Paul von Hindenburg in the 1932 presidential election; his mass following put him in such a strong position that he entered a series of closed-door intrigues with Franz von Papen, Oskar Hindenburg, and Otto Meissner, all sharing a fear and loathing of a communist government. Despite the party losing votes in the November, 1932 election, Hitler insisted on nothing less than the office of chancellor for himself. For him, it was all or nothing. Hindenburg offered it to him on January 30, 1933.

==In power==
Almost immediately, Hitler established himself as dictator. Less than a month after taking office, on February 27 the Reichstag building was set on fire under mysterious circumstances (but officially blamed on a feeble-minded Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe); Hitler soon after succeeded in getting several decrees passed removing much of the guarantees of freedom in the name of state security, and which also allowed an intensified campaign of violence against dissidents. Incredibly, in a special election set in those conditions on March 5, the Nazis pulled 43.9 percent of the vote. On March 21, the new Reichstag assembled at the Potsdam Church, as much a show of unity between the old guard under Hindenburg and the Nazis as it was a show of peace. Two days later the Enabling Act was passed, giving Hitler full powers; with the exception of the Nazis, all other political parties, including those which had helped pass the Enabling Act, ceased to exist within three months. Many of their leaders were tossed in concentration camps.

===Night of the Long Knives===
[[Image:HitlerRohm1933.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Hitler with Ernst Röhm in 1933]]
Hitler, however, did not wish to start an immediate revolution. He still needed the support of the one agency he needed to implement his ideas: the army. But he did have one growing problem that was a thorn in the army’s side, the million-plus men of the S.A. and their leader, Ernst Röhm, who wanted nothing less than the merger of the S.A. into the army, with himself in overall command. At first, Hitler tried getting Röhm’s support by persuasion, but Hitler’s inner circle was for removing him by any means possible. On June 29, 1934, Hitler ordered a purge, flew towards a resort near Munich where a number of S.A. leaders were vacationing, and had them all arrested; many would be shot without trial. Refusing to shoot himself when offered, Röhm was killed in his cell at Dachau, his last words, ironically, “Mein Führer, mein Führer!” <ref>http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/roehm.htm</ref><ref>http://www.adolfhitler.ws/lib/nsdap/Rohm.html</ref><ref>http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/roehm/index.html</ref>
On July 13, Hitler gave speech in the Reichstag, announcing that some seventy-four individuals had been shot for threatening the stability of the Reich.
:''"If anyone reproaches me and asks why I did not resort to the regular courts of justice, then all I can say is this: In this hour I was responsible for the fate of the German people, and thereby I became the supreme judge of the German people…It was no secret that this time the revolution would have to be bloody; when we spoke of it we called it 'The Night of the Long Knives.' Everyone must know for all future time that if he raises his hand to strike the State, then certain death is his lot." ''
Hitler also used this event to settle his account with other opponents, such as Georg Strasser, who stood for a more socialist and less racist national socialism, and the former Bavarian prime minister who foiled the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. Satisfied that the S.A. leadership was thoroughly broken up (thousands of S.A. members were either arrested or killed that night), the army approved of Hitler’s actions. Hindenburg died a few days later on August 2, and Hitler merged the office of president with the chancellorship, and with it the supreme command of the German armed forces. During this time the world was slowly recovering economically from the Depression, but it quickened in Germany, coincidently with Hitler’s rise to power. Taking credit for the recovery made him very popular, bringing him a 90 percent approval rating in a voter plebiscite that year.

===Beginnings of expansion===
In matters of state, the running of domestic affairs was left to subordinates, which was something Hitler had little attention for. Foreign policy always peaked his interest, in so much as to the advantages of a “Greater Germany”, which was his chief ambition. The first part of realizing this, according to ''Mein Kampf'', was to be a reunion of the German peoples within Europe; the second would be an expansion of Germany to the east (lebensraum). Expanding would mean a renewed conflict with the Slavic peoples, whom Hitler intended to serve as slaves to the “New German Order.” To follow through on his ambitions, he would have to remove Poland and the Soviet Union as countries; France also would have to be stabilized in the west, as she was Germany’s enemy for more than a century. He counted as possible allies Italy, with its fascist government under [[Benito Mussolini]], and Britain, whom he regarded as having a similar, Teutonic heritage.
[[Image:Hitler6-thumb.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Hitler with his dog, Blondie.]]
Before any of his ambitions could take place, there was one thing he detested which needed immediate removal: the restrictions placed upon Germany by the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I. Posing as a man of peace to allay suspicions, he insisted that he was a champion of Europe wishing only for the removal of the inequalities leveled by the treaty, and posturing as a shield against Bolshevism. In October, 1933, he had Germany withdraw from the [[League of Nations]]. The following January he signed a non-aggression treaty with Poland. His individual repudiations of parts of the treaty were followed by offers of negotiations for new agreements, while maintaining Germany’s limited ambitious nature.

While this was going on, Germany was steadily building up the armed forces. Rigorous training using wooden guns and trucks marked as “tanks” got needed battlefield training for officers. Potential fighter pilots began their training in gliders at public demonstrations – Germany, under terms of the treaty, was not allowed an air force – and later they would fly in new civilian stunt planes and transports, which on the drawing board were designed to be rapidly turned into fighters and bombers. Conscription was introduced in January, 1935, and in June of that year Hitler successfully signed a naval treaty with Britain, giving him rights to a respectable navy; but even while the ink was drying, Germany was secretly building a large U-boat fleet.

The matter of reuniting the German peoples came into being in July, 1934, and here Hitler overreached. German organizations were covertly aiding Austrian Nazis in the overthrow of their government, culminating in an attempted revolt as well as murdering Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. When the attempt clearly failed, Hitler denied involvement. In January, 1935, a plebecite was introduced in the Saarland; more than 90 percent voted to return the territory to Germany. Then in March, 1936, came his greatest slap to the Versailles Treaty: against the advice of his generals, and in open defiance of France and Britain, he ordered troops into the demilitarized Rhineland. Germany was once again becoming the leading power in continental Europe. By October, 1936, Germany had signed an alliance with Italy, proclaiming a “Rome-Berlin axis,” followed by the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. All three countries would sign a single, mutual alliance pact, the following year.

===Health care in Nazi Germany===

According to Michael H. Kater "physicians became Nazified more thoroughly and much sooner than any other profession, and as Nazis they did more in the service of the nefarious regime than any of their extra-professional peers."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lDMIHDTLEN4C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=Reich+Minister+of+the+Interior%2Bhealth%2Bcivilian+patient&source=bl&ots=2lLhun_7PE&sig=olfzxYKJAswVjjIEqjBcZPKhCXM&hl=en&ei=3D2MSsrZAZGeMLeq7JMO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#v=onepage&q=&f=false Doctors Under Hitler] By Michael H. Kater, pp. 4-5.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NnPBlkKk8AQC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=physicains+became+nazified+much+thoroughly+and+sooner&source=bl&ots=sWUPklUojC&sig=fAJrGFwHYn-0gJDKPWLERHikAY4&hl=en&ei=GUaMStjmKIfaNb66rZMO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false Atrocities on trial: historical perspectives on the politics of prosecuting war crimes]
By Patricia Heberer, Jürgen Matthäus], p. 110.</ref><ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v073/73.1marrus.html The Nuremberg Doctors' Trial in Historical Context] Michael Robert Marrus, Bulletin of the History of Medicine,Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 106-123, E-ISSN: 1086-3176 Print ISSN: 0007-5140 [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Moral%20Issues%20in%20Medicine/Human%20Experimentation/Nuremberg%20Doctors%27%20Trial.html]</ref> After 1933, physicians joined the Nazi Party in greater numbers than did any other profession. By 1935, almost a third of the non-Jewish German physicians belonged to the Nazi Party. From 1925 to 1944, the per cent of doctors in the party was almost three times as high as in the population as a whole. <ref>Michael H. Kater, ‘’The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders 1919-1945’’. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.</ref>

The National Association of Sickness Fund Physicians [http://healthcare-economist.com/2008/04/24/health-care-around-the-world-germany/] was established in 1933 as a national bargaining unit to replace the numerous, more local, associations with which sickness funds had negotiated in the past. Thus, several thousand sickness funds were forced to deal with a single organization, or [[single payer]], that held a legal monopoly over medical services. The drive by the medical profession to transform the organization and delivery of [[health care]] services from self-governing sickness funds to physician-controlled services was complete.<ref>[http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/76/1/78.pdf Social Medicine vs Professional Dominance: The German Experience], Donald W. Light, PhD, Stephan Liebfried, PhD, and Floran Tennstedt, PhD.</ref>

==Anschluss==

Removed from their offices in January 1938 were Hjalmar Schacht (economic ministry); Werner von Fritsch (soldiers’ representative); and Konstantin von Neurath (foreign office); the reason being was they were not fully accepting of Nazism. Beginning his plans of German conquest, he started with Austria. Kurt von Schuschnigg, the Austrian chancellor, was invited to Berchtesgaden in February, where he was browbeaten and forced to sign an agreement placing Austrian Nazis in the government. When Schuschnigg resisted and announced a plebiscite for Austrian voters concerning independence, Hitler ordered German troops into Austria, completely taking over the country within days. His return to Vienna was in triumph; enthusiastic crowds greeted him by the tens of thousands, in sharp contrast to the scenes of privation he had gone through there in his youth. Austria was annexed (Anschluss) to the Reich a short time later.

While the Anschluss was going on, Hitler was speaking in friendly terms with Czechoslovakia; nearly as soon as Austria ceased to exist, Hitler proceeded with his plans against the Czechs. The northwestern region of Czechoslovakia was the Sudetenland, inhabited by a German minority, and the leader of them, Konrad Henlein, was instructed to make impossible demands for those Germans on the Czech government. In the interest of preventing a general war (which Hitler wanted), Mussolini and British prime minister Neville Chamberlain concluded a peaceful agreement in Munich on September 30, giving Hitler the Sudetenland without firing a shot. Chamberlain would return to Britain, waving the agreement signed between himself and Hitler, declaring it to be “peace for our time”, but his act of appeasement would ensure the peace would last only a few more months. Despite assurances that the Sudetenland was his last territorial demands, “Czechia”, as the remainder of Czechoslovakia was called, became a German protectorate on March 15, 1939, when Hitler ordered it occupied. Just over a week later, Lithuania was forced to cede to Germany the territory of Memel (Klaipeda), on the border of East Prussia.

==Poland==
Poland’s turn was next, and listening to the rumblings was France and Britain, which signed guarantees of mutual assistance to the Polish nation should it be attacked by Germany. Hitler also signed pacts: a “Pact of Steel” with Italy, strengthening the alliance between Rome and Berlin, and then a treaty that caught many off-guard: a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union on August 23. A secret clause in the pact allowed for the simultaneous invasion of Poland, and the division of the country in the center from north to south. Poland was invaded on September 1; two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

Hitler assumed his own war strategy. Poland was conquered within weeks, and when a desired peace accord with Britain failed to materialize, he ordered the army to prepare for a western offensive. Norway was invaded and occupied, forestalling a British move on that country; Denmark was occupied by April, 1940. Hitler than adopted General Erich von Manstien’s plan for an offensive against France itself, which would move through neutral Belgium’s Ardenne Forest on May 10, taking that country as a matter of convenience, as well as avoiding the static fortifications of France’s Maginot Line. The German forces, extremely successful in their operations, reached the coastal ports on the English Channel in 10 days; Holland and Belgium both surrendered within days. But south of Dunkirk was where the army was ordered to halt. Hitler had hoped even at this stage in the battle that Britain would commit to peace; instead, the halting of the German army allowed the British to remove 170,000 fighting men.

On June 10, Italy entered the war as German tanks were sweeping across northern France. Hitler signed an armistice with France on June 22, the signing taking place in the same rail car at the same site where the Germans surrendered in 1918.

Having failed in getting the British to sign an armistice, Hitler prepared his forces for “Operation Sea Lion,” the invasion of Britain. However, the Luftwaffe was defeated in its attempt to gain air superiority over British airspace, also known as the Battle Of Britain, which forced the permanent postponement of Sealion.

Facing the failure of the British to give in, Hitler started to prepare to double-cross his erstwhile partner in the Poland conquest, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union. Then Mussolini invaded Greece, got bogged down in the Balkans, and the threat loomed that he would lose his whole army there. Hitler found it necessary to come to his aid, while at the same time taking direct control of Yugoslavia in the wake of the overthrow of the pro-Nazi government.

==Barbarossa==
The attack on Soviet Russia began June 22, 1941. Rapid in its advancement, the German army captured a large swath of territory between the Baltic and Black seas, and captured close to 3,000,000 prisoners. But Hitler, already micro-managing military operations, became overbearing to his generals; he preferred to go after many targets, while his generals argued for a single objective. A few miles in front of Moscow, the German army was halted by a Russian offensive in December, as well as something he had absolutely no control over: the severe Russian winter.

In the lands already occupied by German forces, S.S. chief Heinrich Himmler was preparing the ground for Hitler’s new German order. Expelling the Jews from Germany was the first step, and this was carried out by laws and decrees beginning in 1933; the Germans would switch to outright force in 1939, as Jews were first deported en-masse to Poland, then walled into ghettos after the occupation began. By 1941, a policy crafted under S.S. general Reinhard Heydrich had changed expulsion for extermination in what was called "a final solution to the Jewish question" (''die Endlösung der Judenfrage''). The system of concentration camps was supplemented by the creation of specialized killing centers in the occupied countries, especially in Poland, where camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor, and Belzac “processed” thousands of victims daily. Some six million Jews died during what was called the [[Holocaust]], as well as an additional five million Slavs, Gypsies, the handicapped, the aged, and many others that the Nazis considered “subhuman” in accordance with German racial policies.<ref>http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/riseofhitler/burns.htm</ref>

==Beginning of the end==
[[Image:Adolf_hitler6.jpg‎ |right|200px|thumb|Hitler in 1944, by now looking tired and strained.]]
Hitler grew increasingly strained by the end of 1942, depending on large amounts of drugs supplied by his physician, Theodor Morell, as a result of the twin defeats of El Alamein (which he lost the bulk of his Afrika corps to British general Montgomery), and Stalingrad (where he lost an entire army of 250,000 men to the Russians). He spent more time in his headquarters in East Prussia, and his time in the public eye ceased to exist. He refused to visit bombed German cities, and, as with Stalingrad, refused to allow German armies to withdraw from the battlefield when the situation was lost. Still, he could make stunning, decisive decisions when called for, such as the commando raid that resulted in the rescue of Benito Mussolini from Italian partisans in July, 1943.

But the defeat of Germany in the war was looming closer. Hitler’s relations with his leading commanders grew strained, the more so as he allowed units of the S.S. to take positions traditionally held by the army. The line at the eastern front was slowly being pushed back by the Soviets, while in the Atlantic his U-boats campaign had faltered. German cities were constantly being bombed, and a successful invasion on the Normandy coast of France in June, 1944 marked the beginning of the end.

===Assassination attempt===
[[Image:NWT Hitler dead.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Hitler's death as covered by the ''New York Times'', May 2, 1945.]]
Seeing Germany’s chances of surviving the war were desperate, a group of officers plotted to assassinate Hitler, planning several attempts in 1943-44, but nearly successful on July 20, 1944, when a bomb hidden in a briefcase by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg went off under a table that Hitler and others were leaning over; four were killed outright, several suffered injuries, but Hitler escaped relatively unharmed (the bomb itself was set down away from Hitler behind a solid oak table leg, saving him). The conspirators were quickly rounded up; Stauffenberg was shot. The remainder were put on show trials and condemned to hang on meat hooks with piano wire. It was said that Hitler enjoyed watching film of their executions. As a result of the bomb, Nazi members were employed at key positions within the army, removing any trace of the army’s independence.

Within months nearly all of the territory occupied by Germany was now in Allied hands. A last offensive in December, 1944 to take the port of Antwerp, Belgium, failed. Hitler had by them grown ill; his hopes for a German victory bordered on the fantastical and the imagination. By January, 1945 he had moved into his command bunker in Berlin, where he gave orders deploying fictional divisions to counter the ever-closer Soviets. When all seemed lost, he gave out his final orders: first, appointing Admiral Karl Dönitz as head of the state and his successor, and Josef Goebbels as chancellor; and second, dictating his last political will which was an attempt to justify his life’s work.

On April 29, he committed the one truly-chivalrous act of his life: he married Eva Braun, his long-time mistress. After retiring to his room in the bunker the next day, Eva took poison, and Hitler put a bullet in his head. In accordance with his wishes, both bodies were burned. His Third Reich would outlive him for another week.

[[Elie Wiesel]] wrote the following in [[Time Magazine]] regarding Hitler:
{{cquote|Adolf Hitler or the incarnation of absolute evil; this is how future generations will remember the all-powerful Fuehrer of the criminal Third Reich. Compared with him, his peers [[Mussolini]] and [[Franco]] were novices. Under his hypnotic gaze, humanity crossed a threshold from which one could see the abyss. "Before Hitler, we thought we had sounded the depths of human nature," argues Ron Rosenbaum, author of "Explaining Hitler." "He showed how much lower we could go, and that's what was so horrifying. It gets us wondering not just at the depths he showed us but whether there is worse to come. The power of Hitler was to confound the modernist notion that judgments about good and [[evil]] were little more than matters of taste, reflections of social class and power and status. Although some modern scholars drive past the notion of evil and instead explain Hitler's conduct as a reflection of his childhood and self-esteem issues, for most survivors of the 20th century he is confirmation of our instinctive sense that evil does exist. It moves among us; it leads us astray and deploys powerful, subtle weapons against even the sturdiest souls." <ref name="time" />}}

==Hitler and the Theory of Evolution==
''For more information please see:'' [[Evolutionary racism]]

[[Image:Hitlerrisetopower.jpg|right|225px|thumb]]
The staunch [[evolution|evolutionist]] Stephen Gould admitted the following:
{{cquote|[[Ernst Haeckel|[Ernst] Haeckel]] was the chief apostle of evolution in [[Germany]].... His evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a "just" state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others; the irrational mysticism that had always stood in strange communion with his brave words about objective science - all contributed to the rise of Nazism. - Stephen J. Gould, "Ontogeny and Phylogeny," Belknap Press: Cambridge MA, 1977, pp.77-78).<ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/social.html</ref>}}

In regards to evolutionary racism, Hitler wrote the following in his work ''[[Mein Kampf]]'':
{{cquote|The Germans were the higher race, destined for a glorious evolutionary future. For this reason it was essential that the [[Jew]]s should be segregated, otherwise mixed marriages would take place. Were this to happen, all nature’s efforts “to establish an evolutionary higher stage of being may thus be rendered futile.”<ref>http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1675</ref>}}<ref>[http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200601.txt ''Mein Kampf,'' from Project Gutenberg Australia]</ref>

Hitler also wrote in ''Mein Kampf'':
{{cquote|The stronger must dominate and not blend with the weaker, thus sacrificing his own greatness. Only the born weakling can view this as cruel, but he, after all, is only a weak and limited man; for if this law did not prevail, any conceivable higher development (Hoherentwicklung) of organic living beings would be unthinkable.<ref>http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=268</ref>}}

Dr. Robert E.D. Clark wrote in his work ''Darwin, Before and After'' the following regarding Hitler and the theory of evolution: “Adolf Hitler’s mind was captivated by evolutionary teaching — probably since the time he was a boy. Evolutionary ideas — quite undisguised — lie at the basis of all that is worst in Mein Kampf — and in his public speeches”.<ref name="courier">http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_holocaust_why_did_it_happen</ref>
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|alt=Richard Dawkins|right|thumbnail|200px|[[Richard Dawkins]] is a prominent [[atheism|atheist]] and [[evolution|evolutionist]]. [[Richard Dawkins]] stated in an interview: “What’s to prevent us from saying Hitler wasn’t right? I mean, that is a genuinely difficult question."<ref>http://byfaithonline.com/page/in-the-world/richard-dawkins-the-atheist-evangelist</ref> ]]
Richard Hickman in his work ''Biocreation'' concurs and wrote the following:
{{cquote|It is perhaps no coincidence that Adolf Hitler was a firm believer in and preacher of evolutionism. Whatever the deeper, profound, complexities of his [[psychosis]], it is certain that [the concept of struggle was important for]. . . his book, Mein Kampf clearly set forth a number of evolutionary ideas, particularly those emphasizing struggle, survival of the fittest and extermination of the weak to produce a better society. <ref>http://www.creationism.org/csshs/v08n3p24.htm</ref>}}

Noted evolutionary [[anthropology|anthropologist]] Sir [[Arthur Keith]] conceded the following in regards to Hitler: “The German Fuhrer, as I have consistently maintained, is an evolutionist; he has consciously sought to make the practices of Germany conform to the theory of evolution”.<ref name="courier" />

[[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning author [[Marilynne Robinson]] wrote the following regarding Hitler's racism in the November 2006 issue of ''[[Harper’s]]'' magazine:
{{cquote|While it is true that persecution of the Jews has a very long history in [[Europe]], it is also true that science in the twentieth century revived and absolutized persecution by giving it a fresh rationale — Jewishness was not religious or cultural, but genetic. Therefore no appeal could be made against the brute fact of a Jewish grandparent.

[[Richard Dawkins|[Richard] Dawkins]] deals with all this in one sentence. Hitler did his evil "in the name of ... an insane and unscientific [[eugenics]] theory." But eugenics is science as surely as totemism is religion. That either is in error is beside the point. Science quite appropriately acknowledges that error should be assumed, and at best it proceeds by a continuous process of criticism meant to isolate and identify error. So bad science is still science in more or less the same sense that bad religion is still religion. That both of them can do damage on a huge scale is clear. The prestige of both is a great part of the problem, and in the modern period the credibility of anything called science is enormous. As the history of eugenics proves, science at the highest levels is no reliable corrective to the influence of cultural prejudice but is in fact profoundly vulnerable to it.

There is indeed historical precedent in the [[Spanish Inquisition]] for the notion of hereditary Judaism. But the fact that the worst religious thought of the sixteenth century can be likened to the worst scientific thought of the twentieth century hardly redounds to the credit of science.<ref>http://solutions.synearth.net/2006/10/20</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/intelligent-design/someone-finally-said-it-dawkinss-hysterical-scientism/</ref>}}

[[Evolution|Evolutionist]] and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Richard Dawkins]] stated in an interview: “What’s to prevent us from saying Hitler wasn’t right? I mean, that is a genuinely difficult question."<ref>http://byfaithonline.com/page/in-the-world/richard-dawkins-the-atheist-evangelist</ref> The interviewer wrote, regarding the Hitler comment, "I was stupefied. He had readily conceded that his own [[philosophy|philosophical]] position did not offer a rational basis for moral judgments. His intellectual honesty was refreshing, if somewhat disturbing on this point."<ref>http://byfaithonline.com/page/in-the-world/richard-dawkins-the-atheist-evangelist</ref>

== Adolf Hitler and Abortion ==

''For more information see:'' [[Abortion and Adolf Hitler]]

In 1942 Adolf Hitler declared:
{{cquote|In view of the large families of the Slav native population, it could only suit us if girls and women there had as many abortions as possible. We are not interested in seeing the non-[[German]] population multiply…We must use every means to instill in the population the idea that it is harmful to have several children, the expenses that they cause and the dangerous effect on woman's health… It will be necessary to open special institutions for abortions and doctors must be able to help out there in case there is any question of this being a breach of their professional ethics. <ref>http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/sep/07090708.html</ref>}}

== External links ==
[[File:Hitler Siegestor Munich Victory Gate.jpg|thumb|Watercolor of the Arch of Triumph in Munich by Hitler.]]
*[http://www.eucontest.org/go.php?pdf=www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%201994.pdf Extracts From Mein Kampf by Hitler]
*[http://www.hitler.org/writings/Mein_Kampf/ Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler.] Full text.
*[http://www.snyderstreasures.com/pages/hartworks.htm Adolf Hitler ORIGINAL Watercolor Artworks.]

==Further reading==
*[http://www.ushmm.org/research/doctors/medical.htm STATE MEDICAL SERVICES OF THE THIRD REICH], FROM THE OPENING STATEMENT BY TELFORD TAYLOR, Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10. Nuremberg, October 1946–April 1949. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O, 1949–1953.] Retrieved from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
*[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/h/hitler-adolf/oss-papers/text/profile-index.htmlA Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler, His Life and Legend], Walter C. Langer, Office of Strategic Services, Washington, D.C.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Hitler, Adolf}}

[[Category:Dictators]]
[[Category:Mass Murderers]]
[[Category:Nazis]]
[[Category:Evolutionists]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:German History]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Evolutionary Racists]]

Axe

2010-04-20T03:35:09Z

JClarke:

[[Image:1a-axe.gif|thumb|A standard axe's varied components]]

An '''axe''' is a tool for chopping [[wood]] and felling trees, based on the [[wedge]]. In many [[Nordic]] countries, the axe was so common that it also became a [[weapon]], in the form of a battle axe, which could be in the single-edged or double-edged varieties, and would be heaved in large sweeping motions by skilled [[warrior]]s. In some eastern [[American Indian]] cultures, they preferred smaller throwing axes. The word "tomahawk" is an Americanization of an [[Algonquian]] word for this small axe.

[[Category:Tools]]
[[Category:Weapons]]
[[Category:Forestry]]

Thatcherite

2010-04-20T02:49:42Z

JClarke:

A '''Thatcherite''' is a [[Great Britain|British]] [[Conservative]] who supports the political approach spearheaded by former Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]. The UK Conservative Party is largely split between two groups - Liberals who want to move the party closer to the center and more in line with European 'Christian Democratic' parties and Thatcherites who want to the see the former Prime Minister's ethos re-inserted into the party. The party's current leader, [[David Cameron]] is very much from the modernist, [[William Hague]] school of thought and many conservatives have thus been driven from the party. It is generally accepted that the [[UK Independence Party]] is a more accurate representation of British Conservative principles.

[[Category:British Politics]]

Liberty University

2010-04-20T01:12:03Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=Liberty University
|image=
|text=#AF0000
|background=#0A254E
|type=Private
|city=Lynchburg, Virginia
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, softball, tennis, track and field, volleyball, wrestling<ref>http://www.libertyflames.com/</ref>
|colors=red, blue
|mascot=Flames
|website=http://www.liberty.edu/
}}
'''Liberty University''' is a [[Christ]]-centered [[University]] located in Lynchburg, [[Virginia]]. Liberty was founded in 1971 by then Chancellor the late [[Jerry Falwell|Dr. Jerry Falwell]]. Reverend Falwell created the school to provide an opportunity for students to gain the benefits of a rich and [[diverse]] academic environment while simultaneously offering the opportunity to become closer to God.

Liberty has many opportunities for both [[undergraduate]] and [[graduate]] students. The school also shines in extra-curricular pursuits. The school's [[debate]] team has been recently ranked #1 in the country, and the Quiz Bowl team recently finished fifth in a national competition. Athletically, a Liberty track member ran a mile in 3:57, and the [[Title IX|women]]'s [[basketball]] team made it to the NCAA tournament in 2005. <ref>http://www.ncaasports.com/basketball/womens/brackets/viewable/2005/DI</ref>

Liberty has faced criticism from conservatives for allowing, and even funding, the advocacy of [[abortion]] by its debate team. <ref>http://www.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=590</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== External Links ==
*[http://www.liberty.edu/ Official Website]
{{Nb_US_universities|Virginia‎}}

University of Kentucky

2010-04-20T01:11:20Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=University of Kentucky
|image=
|text=white
|background=#005DAA
|type=Public
|city=Lexington, Kentucky
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, gymnastics, rifle, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track, volleyball<ref name="sports">http://www.ukathletics.com/</ref>
|colors=blue, white
|mascot=Wildcats
|website=http://www.uky.edu/
}}
The '''University of Kentucky''', the flagship university of the Commonwealth of [[Kentucky]], is located in [[Lexington, Kentucky]], the second-largest city in the state. The Wildcat is mascot of the University, and their colors are royal blue and white. The University is most known for its men's [[basketball]] teams, which have the most wins in the history of [[NCAA]] athletics, and have brought home the 2nd most titles in NCAA history, with 7. Past alumni of the basketball team include Dan Issel, Pat Riley, Jamal Mashburn, Kenny Walker, and Tayshaun Prince. In total, the school has 10 men's and 11 [[Title IX|women]]'s sports teams.<ref name="sports"/>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== External Links ==
*[http://www.uky.edu Official Website]

{{Nb_US_universities‎}}
[[Category:Kentucky]]

James Madison University

2010-04-20T01:09:55Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=James Madison University
|image=
|text=#C2A14D
|background=#450084
|type=Public
|city=Harrisonburg, Virginia
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, field hockey, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball<ref>http://www.jmusports.com/</ref>
|colors=purple, gold
|mascot=Duke Dog (Dukes)
|website=http://www.jmu.edu/
}}
'''James Madison University''' is a public institution founded in 1908 in the Shenandoah Valley of western [[Virginia]], about 100 miles southwest of Washington, D.C. It is ranked as a top public university in the South and is known in academics for its programs relating to the study of plants and agriculture. It has over 15,000 students, 61% female and 39% male.<ref>http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/other/2007-04-19-title-ix-jmu-cover_N.htm?csp=34</ref>

For budgetary reasons, JMU announced on September 29, 2006 that it would reduce its large number of sports teams. Due to operation of the [[proportionality test]] under [[Title IX]], JMU eliminated men's archery, cross country, gymnastics, indoor track, outdoor track, swimming, and wrestling, as well as [[Title IX|women]]'s archery, fencing, and gymnastics. JMU stated that its motivation for cutting far more male teams than female teams was to make the ratio of female-to-male student athletes 61% to 39%, just as the overall student population is. "After the cuts, 61% of its athletes will be women, 39% men. That's called proportionality, one of three ways schools can comply with Title IX's participation requirements."<ref>''Id.''</ref>

On October 12, the United States Olympic Committee sent a letter to JMU asking it to reconsider its elimination of the ten teams.

USA Today reported that "[f]or freshman gymnast Elly Hart, it's a bitter pill. 'My dream was to come to college and compete,' she says. 'I thought Title IX would help me.'"<ref>''Id.''</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

{{Nb_US_universities|Virginia}}

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

2010-04-20T01:08:49Z

JClarke: /* Athletics */

{{University
|name=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
|image=
|text=#F47F24
|background=#003C7D
|type=Public
|city=Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
|sports=baseball, basketball, cheerleading, cross country, football, golf, gymnastics, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, wrestling<ref name='sports'>http://fightingillini.cstv.com/sports/w-baskbl/thinkpink.html</ref>
|colors=orange, blue
|mascot=
|website=http://www.uiuc.edu/
}}
The '''University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign''' (commonly referred to as just University of Illinois) is a [[public schools|public]] [[university]]. It is located in Urbana and Champaign [[Illinois]]. It ranked #38 in US News's 2008 "National Universities: Top Schools" list.<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php</ref> It was ranked the #6 school in PC Magazine's Top 20 Wired Colleges.<ref>{{cite web|title=#6 University of Illinois|work=PC Magazine|format=HTML|language=English|url=http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2704,2073501,00.asp}}</ref>
==Athletics==
Illinois has 10 men's and 11 [[Title IX|women]]'s sports teams.<ref name='sports' /> The football program has won 6 bowl games (while losing 8), including 4 national championships.<ref>http://www.nationalchamps.net/NCAA/database/illinois_database.htm</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Nb_US_universities‎|Illinois}}

Humboldt State University

2010-04-20T01:08:11Z

JClarke:

{{University
|image=
|name=Humboldt State University
|text=gold
|background=green;
|type=Public
|city=Arcata, California
|sports=
|degrees=[[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[BS]], [[MA]], [[MBA]], [[MFA]], [[MS]]
|colors=Green and Gold
|mascot=Lucky Logger
|website=http://www.humboldt.edu/
}}

'''Humboldt State University''' is a public [[California State University]] that is noted for its programs in the life sciences. Originally founded as a teacher's college, it has grown over the years into a bachelor and master degree granting institution.
==Controversies==
===MBA Accreditation Controversy===
The Chair of the School of Business, Professor [[Saeed Mortazavi (academic)|Saeed Mortazavi]] caused a controversy when he mentioned in October 2009 that the MBA program was not accredited by the AACSB, potentially harming graduates when applying for jobs. While the School is looking into accreditation, the low numbers of graduate students and lack of accreditation could lead to it being dismantled in the expected budget cuts.

[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:California]]

{{Nb_US_universities}}

University of Houston

2010-04-20T01:07:08Z

JClarke: /* Athletics */

{{University
|name=University of Houston
|image=
|text=rgb(204,33,39)
|background=rgb(0,50,99)
|type=Public
|city=[[Houston, Texas]]
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball<ref name="sports">http://uhcougars.cstv.com/</ref>
|colors=red, blue
|mascot=Shasta (Cougars)
|website=http://www.uh.edu/
}}
'''University of Houston''' is a [[Texas]] [[public schools|public]] [[university]] founded in 1927.<ref>http://www.uh.edu/about/history/</ref> It was ranked a fourth tier school in US News's 2008 "National Universities: Top Schools" list.<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t4natudoc_brief.php</ref>

==Athletics==
Houston currently has 6 men's and 8 [[Title IX|women]]'s [[sport]]s teams.<ref name="sports" /> The football program has won 6 bowl games (while losing 9 and tying 1).<Ref>http://www.nationalchamps.net/NCAA/database/houston_database.htm</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{Nb_US_universities|Texas‎}}

Nationalization

2010-04-20T01:03:14Z

JClarke:

'''Nationalization''' means the permanent takeover of a private business by the government. Sometimes it is voluntary with full payment to the previous owners, and sometimes it is involuntary with no payment or worthless bonds.

[[Socialist]] governments nationalized industry in [[Great Britain]], [[France]] and other countries after [[World War II]]. In most cases they have subsequently been privatized, that is returned to private ownership.

Temporary seizures of business interests during an emergency--such as turning a shopping mall into a temporary shelter--is not usually considered nationalization.

==History==
After World War II socialist governments came to power in several countries and set about nationalizing heavy industry, especially coal. The goal was not efficiency but to put the union leaders (who had a loud voice in socialist parties) in a position to dictate terms for the benefit of the workers, rather than the nation as a whole. In no case were the workers put in control, though [[Tito]] talked of that in [[Yugoslavia]].

After World War II many Europeans wanted strong state action to insure economic development since they blamed the timidity and conservatism of private capital for the economic dislocations of the 1930s. Nationalization in Britain, concerted economic planning in France, and a low-key economic management in Germany all grew out of this same impulse. Many of the smaller nations also utilized central economic planning in some form. The common features of all the planning systems were an increase in cooperation between government and the private sector, and the guiding of the economy along selected growth lines. Economic planning became the province of the technocrats rather than of the political <ref> Sima Lieberman, "The Ideological Foundations of Western European Planning" ''Journal of European Economic History'' 1981 10(2): 343-371. </ref>

===Britain===
The history of British nationalization began with 1) program formation during the 1930s and World War II; 2) widespread implementation in 1945-47; 3) scaled-back activities in 1947-51; 4) stagnation and program retreat in 1951-79; 5) privatization under [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s government after 1979-1990; 6) Labour acceptance of privitization under [[Tony Blair]].
====Planning====
:''Main article : '''[[Economic planning]]'''''
In the years 1900-18 demands for nationalization were a byword of the British Left, especially socialist organizations. The dominant influences were Fabianism and syndicalism. The interwar period saw a number of demands for nationalization and redefinitions of proposals. However, the Labour governments of 1924 and 1929-31 failed to implement nationalization.

Since the end of the 19th century, British miners had loudly advocated the nationalization of mines. Before the 1930s the Miners' Federation supported a workers' control model; however, between 1931 and 1936, it abandoned this model of nationalization and adopted a public corporation model. Political pragmatism, efficiency, and the existence of a public corporation model induced the Miners' Federation to favor such a switch.

====World War II and after====
The mobilization of the national economy during World War II was immediately followed by the ascendancy of the Labour Party from 1945 to 1951. The Labour platform of nationalization, planning, and creation of a welfare state was translated into the nationalization of national and local transport, coal, oil and gas, electricity generation and distribution, iron and steel, automotive industries, aerospace, air and sea ports, and many other less high profile industries such as sugar distribution, hotel chains and the then fledgling semiconductor industry in the mid to late 1970s.

This program led to stagnation and inefficiencies in the economy that led to nationalized industries requiring grater and grater subsidies to stay in business, often despite the same sector in free-market countries booming at the same time. Such subsidies were sometimes disguised as market loans or investments. These inefficiencies played a large part in the labour defeat, and the beginning of conservative rule and Margaret Thatchers reforms at the close of the 1970's.

===Nationalization===
The guiding principle in [[nationalization]] was that industry would be operated just like a private business using "public corporations" and not directly by government departments. The old pre-1930 ideas of workers' control were rejected. The old management remained in place. The old owners received treasury bonds covering the full market value of their holdings. The role of labour was unchanged; collective bargaining remained the basis of negotiation with management and the right to strike was unaffected.

Nationalization was voted by Parliament for the Bank of England, the coal mining industry, hospitals, the iron and steel industry, communications, gas and electricity production, and railways. The owners were compensated. He began a comprehensive system of social security in 1948 with the National Insurance Act; the Industrial Injuries Act; the National Assistance Act (ending the old Poor Law); and the National Health Service Act, which provided free medical care for all.

The debate over iron and steel in 1947, however, marked the start of a retreat for the idea of nationalization. It confirmed the government's reluctance to move into manufacturing industry. Thereafter, there were no major new proposals until 1951, and the question did not return to the forefront of politics until after 1974. British nationalization operated in a very different political context and arose from somewhat different ideological roots than that in France or Austria for example, although in each country it was much affected by external financial pressures after 1945.

The postwar nationalization programme fell far short of the ideals of the leftists.

From 1951 to 1979 Britain experienced an economic decline while nationalizations increased and the [[welfare state]] was expanded. Significantly, however, a number of denationalizations also occurred during this time.

===Coal===
Most of Europe's coal mines passed into effective government control, with the British coal mines being nationalised under the control of the National Coal Board. The plan to nationalize the coal mines had been accepted in principle by owners and miners alike before the elections of 1945. The owners were paid £165,000,000. The government set up the National Coal Board to manage the coal mines; and it loaned it £150,000,000 to modernize the system.

The general condition of the coal industry has been unsatisfactory for many years, with poor productivity. In 1945 there were 28% more workers in the coal mines than in 1890, but the annual output was only 8% greater. Young people avoided the pits; between 1931 and 1945 the percentage of miners more than 40 years old rose from 35% to 43%, and 24,000 over 65 years old. The number of surface workers decreased between 1938 and 1945 by only 3,200, but in that same time the number of underground workers declined by 69,600, substantially altering the balance of labor in the mines. That accidents, breakdowns, and repairs in the mines were nearly twice as costly in terms of production in 1945 as they had been in 1939 was probably a by-product of the war.

Output in 1946 averaged 3,300,000 tons weekly. By summer 1946 it was clear that Britain was facing a coal shortage for the upcoming winter with stock piles 5 million tons too low. Nationalization exposed both a lack of preparation for public ownership and a failure to stabilize the industry in advance of the change. Also lacking were any significant incentives to maintain or increase coal production to meet demand.<ref>Mark Tookey, "Three's a Crowd? Government, Owners, and Workers During the Nationalization of the British Coalmining Industry 1945-47." ''Twentieth Century British History'' 2001 12(4): 486-510. Issn: 0955-2359 </ref>
===West Germany===
In Eastern Europe, the Communist governments nationalized all the mines and factories after 1945.

West Germany did not nationalize industry after 1945, even though the Labour party in Britain favored it and Britain controlled much of the industrial region. The American military governor, General Lucius Clay, apart from a basic distaste for socialization, opposed nationalization of the coal mines and of other basic industries on pragmatic grounds. One german state, controlled by the Socialists (SPD) passed a bill in North Rhine-Westphalia in 1948 to nationalize basic industries. The occupation powers vetoed it, reserving the decision for a future German parliament. But it was not only the Americans who stopped socialization. There was no overwhelming German popular support for nationalization. During the federal election of 1949 Socialist advocates could not offer a concept which was able to secure a national majority for their ideas, because of fears that they would hinder recovery. The ability to meet this concern - "Recovery Now!" - is what made the neo-liberalism of Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] and his economics minister [[Ludwig Erhard]] so appealing at the end of the forties.

Co-operation on coal trading was the impetus for forming the "European Coal and Steel Community" in 1951. Integrationists like French foreign minister [[Robert Schuman]] realized that coordinating the coal and steel markets of Germany, France, Italy and the Low Countries could lead to "spillover" in other policy areas; the ECSC indeed morphed into the [[EEC]] and [[European Union]].<ref> J. Gillingham, ''Coal, steel, and the rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955'' (1991); Derek W. Urwin, ''The Community of Europe: A History of European Integration since 1945.'' (1995)</ref>

==Privitization==
Privatization has been one of the central planks of economic and industrial policy pursued by British Conservative governments since 1979, and endorsed by [[Tony Blair]]'s Labour party as well.
===Railways===
see [[British Rail]]
===Shipbuilding===
The privatization on the state-owned entity British Shipbuilders (BS) was a major event. With the huge expansion of maritime industries between 1945 and 1975, British shipbuilding endured a sustained period of competitive and comparative failure, so that during the slump of the mid-1970s the industry was only saved from total failure by nationalization. British policy, however, had to act within the parameters of broader European Community (EC) legislation which was often contradictory, supporting the industry in the expectation of an upturn in demand while reducing capacity as markets remained weak. Subsidy and capacity reduction were supported by the Shipbuilding Intervention Fund (SIF), which attempted to bridge the price gap between European and Asian prices, and Counterpart Funding, designed to assist those areas where shipbuilding closed, but only on condition that no future shipbuilding be conducted.

In 1971 the Conservative government decided to close the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders Company and laid off 6,000 workers. Led by Communists, the workers continued to work, running the company themselves from July 1971 to November 1972. This strike-in-reverse, a work-in, became a powerful form of class struggle. It forced the government to reject plans for mass layoffs. All of the workers were able to keep their jobs. In 1975 the [[Labour Party]] under [[Harold Wilson]] nationalized the shipbuilding industry in response to the demands of the workers.

In the wake of nationalization BS established a tripartite divisional structure serving the merchant, warship, and offshore sectors. With the weak market continuing into the 1980s, both the merchant and offshore sectors were heavy loss-makers, whereas the warship sector enjoyed reasonable profits.

By 1984 privatization had been decided upon - initially, the warship yards were put up for sale - and BS had decided to pull out of the unprofitable offshore sector. Seven yards were privatized as warship yards; although this seemed (and did) meet a major criteria of injecting competitive tendering into the naval sector, the combined impact of the end of the Cold War and the inability of designated warship yards to access the SIF led to the closure of four of the yards by 1994. The merchant sector fared little better; under a tight financial regime a program of closures and dispersals was carried through between 1984 and 1989. This process was conducted against a background of criticism that the government favored closure. Moreover, there was concern that it had accepted EC Counterpart Funding as its only policy and had made little attempt to forecast either the size or nature of the market for British shipbuilding in the future. Of the 17 extant shipbuilding companies on the British mainland in 1979, only six remain open in 1996, while shipbuilding employment has fallen from 65,063 in 1979 to 12,100 in 1996. The stated aims of privatization - increasing efficiency, wider share ownership, and a reduction in public borrowing - have proven tenuous gains for British shipbuilding. <ref> Johnman, Lewis, "The Privatisation of British Shipbuilders" ''International Journal of Maritime History'' 1996 8(2): 1-31.</Ref>
====Airlines====
In the airline industry there was a mix of the two nationalized corporations (BOAC and BEA) and numerous privately owned operations that had evolved by late 1951. The planning includes the Civil Aviation Act of 1946, the Swinton Plan, the Labour blueprint "Wings for Peace", and the implications for independent airlines of the formation of British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), British European Airways Corporation (BEA), and British South American Airways (BSAA). The widespread participation of the independent airlines in the Berlin airlift persuaded the Labour government of the value of the privately owned airlines as a military transport reserve. The government thus allowed them to operate selected scheduled services as associates of BEA. Through 1949 and early 1950 the charter market, hampered by the inability to obtain more modern equipment, was unable to receive sufficient work at economic rates. By late 1950, however, with increased government use of charters for troop transports, the market began to recover.<ref> B. K. Humphreys, "Nationalization and the Independent Airlines in the United Kingdom, 1945-51." ''Journal of Transport History'' 1976 3(4): 265-281. </Ref>

In 1974 the Labour government nationalized all the airlines and merged them into British Airways. It was privatized by Thatcher in 1987.

{{Liberalism}}

==Further reading==
* Abromeit, Heidrun. ''British Steel: An Industry Between the State and the Private Sector.'' (1986). 328 pp.
* Ashworth, William. ''The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 5, 1946-1982: The Nationalised Industry'' (1986)
* Foreman-Peck, James. ''Public and Private Ownership of British Industry, 1820-1990.'' (1994). 386 pp.
* Gourvish, Terry, and Mike Anson, ''British Rail, 1974-1997: From Integration To Privatisation,'' (2004) 700 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=vAlCWxoV1NYC&dq=%22british+rail%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Hannah, Leslie. ''Engineers, Managers, and Politicians: The First Fifteen Years of Nationalised Electricity Supply in Britain.'' (1982). 336 pp.
* Millward, Robert. "The 1940s Nationalizations in Britain: Means to an End or the Means of Production?" ''Economic History Review'' 1997 50 (2): 209-234.
* Millward, Robert and Singleton, John, eds. ''The Political Economy of Nationalisation in Britain, 1920-1950.'' (1995). 325 pp.
* Webster, Charles. ''The Health Services since the War. Vol. 1: Problems of Health Care: The National Health Service before 1957'' (1988), on nationalizing medicine in britain
====references====
<references/>

[[category:Economics]]
[[category:Socialism]]
[[category:Labor Unions]]
[[category:Business History]]

Georgia Institute of Technology

2010-04-18T02:28:33Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=Georgia Institute of Technology
|image=
|text=rgb(234,178,0)
|background=
|type=Public
|city=Atlanta, Georgia
|sports=football, basketball, baseball, cross country, golf, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball<ref name="sports">http://ramblinwreck.cstv.com/</ref>
|colors=yellow, white, (also occasionally blue and black)
|mascot=Yellow Jackets
|website=http://www.gatech.edu/
}}
The '''Georgia Institute of Technology''' (or Georgia Tech) is a [[Georgia]] [[public schools|public]] [[university]] founded in 1885.<ref>http://www.gatech.edu/about-tech/history-traditions.php</ref> It ranked #35 in US News's 2008 "National [[University|Universities]]: Top Schools" list.<ref>http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php</ref>
==Athletics==
Georgia Tech and 8 men's and 7 [[Title IX|women]]'s [[sport]]s teams.<ref name="sports"/> The football program has won 23 bowl games (while losing 13), including 3 national championships.
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{Nb_US_universities|Georgia‎}}

Emory University

2010-04-18T02:27:00Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=Emory University
|image=Emoryseal.gif
|text=#CC9900
|background=#000066
|type=Private
|city=Atlanta, Georgia
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball<ref>http://www.go.emory.edu/</ref>
|colors=blue, gold
|mascot=Swoop (Eagles)
|website=http://www.emory.edu/
}}
'''Emory University''' is a prestigious private university founded in 1836 and now located in [[Atlanta]], Georgia. The school is named after John Emory, a [[Methodist Episcopal Church, South|Methodist pastor]] who inspired by his broad vision for an American education that would mold character as well as mind.<ref>{{cite web|work=Emory University|title=A Brief history|url=http://emoryhistory.emory.edu/history/index.html|format=HTML|language=English}}</ref>

Emory made the transition from a regional Methodist college to a major national research university after 1980 thanks to a combination of external trends and circumstances and internal decisions and strategies. The growth of Atlanta's population and wealth helped end a legacy of poverty and lack of research scientists that had hindered the development of research and graduate programs in Southern universities. The Atlanta-based [[Coca-Cola]] Corporation and its owners provided endowments throughout the 20th century that provided significant financial support to the university, although a $105 million Candler bequest in 1979 got the most attention. In addition to the advantage of a key benefactor, Emory had a succession of university presidents committed to making it one of the nation's leading research facilities. Finally, a policy of moderate expansion and careful fiscal management sustained it through an uneven course from the 1950s through the 1990s - although it did not achieve national research status until the late 1980s and 1990s.<ref> Nancy Diamond, "Catching Up: The Advance of Emory University since World War II." ''History of Higher Education Annual'' (1999) 19: 149-183. 0737-2698 </ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{Nb_US_universities|Georgia‎}}

Duke University

2010-04-18T02:26:29Z

JClarke: /* Sports */

{{University
|name=Duke University
|image=
|text=white
|background=rgb(12,34,119)
|type=Private
|city=Durham, North Carolina
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, wrestling<ref>http://www.goduke.com/</ref>
|colors=blue, white
|mascot=Blue Devils
|website=http://www.duke.edu/
}}
'''Duke University''' is a private university located in Durham, [[North Carolina]] and stands as one of the most respected universities in the world. It is currently ranked eighth in the ''US News and World Report'' guide to America's best colleges, down from its historical high of third in 1998. Despite its longstanding status as a liberal bastion in a relatively conservative state, Duke counts among its graduates a number of noteworthy conservatives, such as [[Richard Nixon]], [[Henry Hyde]], and [[Elizabeth Dole]].

==Sports==
Duke's sports teams, namely its basketball and lacrosse programs, are widely recognized as consistently being among the best in those sports, and they have several championships between them. The team also plays several other sports, but those do not get nearly the recognition of the basketball and lacrosse teams.
===2006 Lacrosse case===
In 2006, three Duke players were falsely accused of raping an [[African-American]] woman. The lead prosecutor, Michael Nifong (who has since been disbarred) insinuated that this could have been a hate crime. Before the media convergence on the trial, problems began appearing within the woman's story, as she began to contradict herself. [[Ann Coulter]] wrote several columns in the players' defense. Soon, the players proved their innocence with a negative DNA test and with electronic evidence that they were elsewhere, but a corrupt judge refused to dismiss the charges. The 2006 season was canceled, and the players lost their reputations. Eventually the charges were dropped.
:[[New York Times]] sports reporter Joe Drape could have been an early hero for the truth, but when Drape began to divert from the favored storyline of Times editors, he was replaced by another reporter, Duff Wilson, who hewed more closely to the pro-prosecution slant preferred by the liberal editors at the Times ...<ref> [http://newsbusters.org/blogs/clay-waters/2007/09/19/new-book-destroys-credibility-nyts-duke-lacrosse-rape-coverage News Busters]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Links==
*[http://lashawnbarber.com/archives/2007/05/22/duke-case-journalists-rush-to-judgment/ Journalists Rush to Judgment] - excellent media analysis of how the politically-motivated charges were supported by ideological bias

{{Nb_US_universities|North Carolina}}

Duke University

2010-04-18T02:26:03Z

JClarke:

{{University
|name=Duke University
|image=
|text=white
|background=rgb(12,34,119)
|type=Private
|city=Durham, North Carolina
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, football, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, wrestling<ref>http://www.goduke.com/</ref>
|colors=blue, white
|mascot=Blue Devils
|website=http://www.duke.edu/
}}
'''Duke University''' is a private university located in Durham, [[North Carolina]] and stands as one of the most respected universities in the world. It is currently ranked eighth in the ''US News and World Report'' guide to America's best colleges, down from its historical high of third in 1998. Despite its longstanding status as a liberal bastion in a relatively conservative state, Duke counts among its graduates a number of noteworthy conservatives, such as [[Richard Nixon]], [[Henry Hyde]], and [[Elizabeth Dole]].

==Sports==
Duke's sports teams, namely its basketball and lacrosse programs, are widely recognized as consistently being among the best in those sports, and they have several championships between them. The team also plays several other sports, but those do not get nearly the recognition of the basketball and lacrosse teams.
===2006 Lacrosse case===
In 2006, three Duke players were falsely accused of raping an [[African-American woman]]. The lead prosecutor, Michael Nifong (who has since been disbarred) insinuated that this could have been a hate crime. Before the media convergence on the trial, problems began appearing within the woman's story, as she began to contradict herself. [[Ann Coulter]] wrote several columns in the players' defense. Soon, the players proved their innocence with a negative DNA test and with electronic evidence that they were elsewhere, but a corrupt judge refused to dismiss the charges. The 2006 season was canceled, and the players lost their reputations. Eventually the charges were dropped.
:[[New York Times]] sports reporter Joe Drape could have been an early hero for the truth, but when Drape began to divert from the favored storyline of Times editors, he was replaced by another reporter, Duff Wilson, who hewed more closely to the pro-prosecution slant preferred by the liberal editors at the Times ...<ref> [http://newsbusters.org/blogs/clay-waters/2007/09/19/new-book-destroys-credibility-nyts-duke-lacrosse-rape-coverage News Busters]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Links==
*[http://lashawnbarber.com/archives/2007/05/22/duke-case-journalists-rush-to-judgment/ Journalists Rush to Judgment] - excellent media analysis of how the politically-motivated charges were supported by ideological bias

{{Nb_US_universities|North Carolina}}