Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Andrew Sullivan

2014-09-25T22:47:48Z

IraE: correction - can anybody here actually write coherent English?

'''Andrew Sullivan''' is a [[libertarian]] leaning and self-described [[conservative]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/2009/01/forbes-definition-of-liberal/206413/|author=Andrew Sullivan|title=Forbes' Definition Of "Liberal"|date=Jan 24, 2009|newspaper=The Atlantic}}</ref> (in the tradition of Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott) blogger. He is known for his independent views and an inquiring mind. His [[blog]] has become quite popular.

Sullivan was born in the [[United Kingdom]] and moved to the [[United States]] in the 1980s. He was educated at [[Oxford University]]. ''In 1984, he won a Harkness Fellowship to Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government, and earned a Masters degree in Public Administration in 1986.'' <ref> [http://andrewsullivan.theatlantic.com/the_daily_dish/bio.html Andrew's Bio.] </ref>

He is a staunch proponent of [[gay marriage]]. Although he supported the election of President [[George W. Bush]] and the invasion of [[Iraq]], he was subsequently very critical of the Bush administration, and opposed the policies of President Bush in Iraq.

Andrew Sullivan is known for having publicly described himself as both a [[homosexual]]<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/by/andrew_sullivan theatlantic.com]</ref> and a [[Catholic]]. For example, Sullivan's public statements led to this question and answer:<ref>[http://www.rightwingnews.com/interviews/sullivan.php Interview]</ref>

:John Hawkins: What do you say to people who think that being gay and wanting to be a Catholic in good standing are two incompatible things?

:Andrew Sullivan: I'd say they have a point. I've tried hard. But the real tragedy is that the hierarchy will not even discuss the issue. It's closed. Over. ...

In 2007, a purported [[lesbian]] wrote to Andrew Sullivan concerning [[lesbianism and obesity]]:
{{Cquote|And - oh heck, I'll admit it - aesthetics have value, too! As a woman, I may not be as focused on looks as men are predisposed to be, but I sure am tired of seeing so many queer ladies out there who are way past 200 pounds. Way, way past. Sorry, but no amount of "fat acceptance" is going to make that a pleasant sight - gay, straight, butch, femme, male or female.<ref>http://andrewsullivan.theatlantic.com/the_daily_dish/2007/05/obesity_and_les.html</ref>}}

== References ==

<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sullivan, Andrew}}

[[Category:Journalists]]
[[Category:liberals]]

Talk:There Are No Atheists In Foxholes

2014-09-25T22:46:03Z

IraE: /* Battle of Stalingrad */

What's the point of this, aside from being an ad homenim attack on atheists? [[User:JecklynH|JecklynH]] 02:03, 16 June 2008 (EDT)
:That IS the point. [[User:Jros83|Jros83]] 23:41, 8 October 2008 (EDT)

So has anyone ever heard "'There are no atheists in foxholes' is not an argument against atheism, it's an argument against foxholes?'" I love that line (by the way I'm not an atheist). [[User:Jros83|Jros83]] 23:41, 8 October 2008 (EDT) I'm also in the Army...

I am going to add in here that the Battle of Stalingrad was fought by an explicitly atheistic army. [[User:Basel|Basel]]

== Battle of Stalingrad ==

State atheism was not very effective in Russia: [http://www.thedivineconspiracy.org/Z3211C.pdf Forced Secularization in Soviet Russia: Why an Atheistic Monopoly Failed]. It is doubtful that a high percentage of the Russian troops were atheists as far as the Battle of Stalingrad. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 15:57, 2 June 2014 (EDT)

:I have read the article you listed.

:I am unsure if you want to discuss the Russian SSR or the Soviet Union. Your article discusses the USSR in general, but there is a important difference. The article you listed stated that there was a distinct difference between the religious beliefs held and the region of the USSR. (45) The urban areas of the USSR were in the Russian SSR and were strongholds of the Red Army very early in the earlier revolution and civil war. In contrast, the rural areas, particularly in Ukraine, were strongholds of the white movement.

:According to your own source, there were 5.6 million people listed as members in "The League of Godless" in 1932 (38), which is a significant number of people. At that time there were appx. 100 million people in the Soviet Union.

:The source seems to come to some interesting conclusions. On page 37 it pronounces suspicion on how the League could have more members than the communist party. This is explained by the fact that "full" membership does not include partial membership or the other forms of membership.

:"Realizing in 1931 that approximately half its members resided in Moscow and Leningrad..." (37) supports the idea that half of the 5.6 million people were in a very geographically small part of the Soviet Union which was directly involved in the fighting of the battles which I listed.

:If you observe table 4 on page 45 many of the atheists were also included as Irreligious (the author notes this). The report summarizes that only 12% of the Soviet Union claimed to be religious.

:I further believe that the decline in anti-religious propaganda was not due to a lack of success, but that it was not successful. It is more probable that Stalin and the Politburo became very interested in recruiting soldiers from the religious areas of the USSR, which by that time were ravished by the brutal civil war, and by the famine.

:A careful observer of history will not that “Godless League"'s was dissolved in 1941. This was the first year of Operation Barbarossa. The article you provided does not even mention Operation Barbarossa or any mention of the invasion of the Soviet Union. I was fairly surprised that the article did not mention WWII for its analysis. That was fairly disappointing.

:At any rate, it is clear that atheists fought in foxholes in the battle of Stalingrad. Stalingrad was listed as a highly atheistic part of the USSR and of the Russian SSR in the article.
-Basel
::I will ask someone versed in Soviet atheism to review your comments within the next 20 days. Personally, I am not sure that bona fide atheists even exists. See: [[Denials that atheists exist]].

::One thing for certain though: Simo Häyhä (who reportedly was a Christian)[https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080201102218AAhS5qI] was a better sniper than Vasily Zaytsev. :) [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 16:54, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

:::The Soviet army was wimpy just like modern atheism!

:::I cite:

:::"Simo Häyhä aka “The White Death” is widely regarded as the most hardcore sniper there ever was, with over 500 kills to his name. He helped defend his homeland from the Soviets during World War II...

:::In 1939, the Soviet Union attempted to invade Finland. Being a member of the Civil Guard, Häyhä was called into service, serving under the 6th Company of JR 34 on the Kollaa River. Commanded by Major General Uiluo Tuompo, the Finns faced both the 9th and 14th Soviet Armies, and at one point were fighting against as many as 12 divisions— about 160,000 soldiers. Also at one point in the same area, there only 32 Finns fighting against over 4,000 Soviets!

:::Despite being outnumbered, however, the Finns were still victorious at the end of the day." [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 17:04, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

::::Yeah, the Soviet Army was very incompetent during the early stages of the war. A lot of that, but not all, was related to the purges of army officers after the civil war. I believe that nearly half of the officer corps was executed, with the rest becoming understandably paranoid. They also had significant problems in other areas, such as supply problems and really horrendous biplanes. [[User:Basel|Basel]]
:::::Your point was incorporated into the article. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 17:52, 3 June 2014 (EDT)
::::::My grandfather, who was a devout atheist fought in WW2 on the eastern front. [[User:Brenden|brenden]] 20:39, 3 June 2014 (EDT)
Devout atheist is an oxymoron. From what I have seen, most atheists are Darwinist/atheist poseurs.[http://questionevolution.blogspot.com/2012/10/evolutionist-posers-naive-evolutionists.html] And when so called atheists are cross-examined in debates, they usually back down to the position of agnosticism because atheism lacks proof and evidence that it is true. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 23:09, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

"The Soviet Union atheistic communists and Nazis both advocated evolution and neither were Bible believers." So the Nazi soldiers, mostly raised Catholic or Lutheran, were not Bible believers? [[User:IraE|IraE]] 18:46, 25 September 2014 (EDT)

== Encyclopedic? ==

In what way is this an encyclopedia entry? [[User:IraE|IraE]] 18:42, 25 September 2014 (EDT)

Talk:There Are No Atheists In Foxholes

2014-09-25T22:42:47Z

IraE: /* Encyclopedic? */ new section

What's the point of this, aside from being an ad homenim attack on atheists? [[User:JecklynH|JecklynH]] 02:03, 16 June 2008 (EDT)
:That IS the point. [[User:Jros83|Jros83]] 23:41, 8 October 2008 (EDT)

So has anyone ever heard "'There are no atheists in foxholes' is not an argument against atheism, it's an argument against foxholes?'" I love that line (by the way I'm not an atheist). [[User:Jros83|Jros83]] 23:41, 8 October 2008 (EDT) I'm also in the Army...

I am going to add in here that the Battle of Stalingrad was fought by an explicitly atheistic army. [[User:Basel|Basel]]

== Battle of Stalingrad ==

State atheism was not very effective in Russia: [http://www.thedivineconspiracy.org/Z3211C.pdf Forced Secularization in Soviet Russia: Why an Atheistic Monopoly Failed]. It is doubtful that a high percentage of the Russian troops were atheists as far as the Battle of Stalingrad. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 15:57, 2 June 2014 (EDT)

:I have read the article you listed.

:I am unsure if you want to discuss the Russian SSR or the Soviet Union. Your article discusses the USSR in general, but there is a important difference. The article you listed stated that there was a distinct difference between the religious beliefs held and the region of the USSR. (45) The urban areas of the USSR were in the Russian SSR and were strongholds of the Red Army very early in the earlier revolution and civil war. In contrast, the rural areas, particularly in Ukraine, were strongholds of the white movement.

:According to your own source, there were 5.6 million people listed as members in "The League of Godless" in 1932 (38), which is a significant number of people. At that time there were appx. 100 million people in the Soviet Union.

:The source seems to come to some interesting conclusions. On page 37 it pronounces suspicion on how the League could have more members than the communist party. This is explained by the fact that "full" membership does not include partial membership or the other forms of membership.

:"Realizing in 1931 that approximately half its members resided in Moscow and Leningrad..." (37) supports the idea that half of the 5.6 million people were in a very geographically small part of the Soviet Union which was directly involved in the fighting of the battles which I listed.

:If you observe table 4 on page 45 many of the atheists were also included as Irreligious (the author notes this). The report summarizes that only 12% of the Soviet Union claimed to be religious.

:I further believe that the decline in anti-religious propaganda was not due to a lack of success, but that it was not successful. It is more probable that Stalin and the Politburo became very interested in recruiting soldiers from the religious areas of the USSR, which by that time were ravished by the brutal civil war, and by the famine.

:A careful observer of history will not that “Godless League"'s was dissolved in 1941. This was the first year of Operation Barbarossa. The article you provided does not even mention Operation Barbarossa or any mention of the invasion of the Soviet Union. I was fairly surprised that the article did not mention WWII for its analysis. That was fairly disappointing.

:At any rate, it is clear that atheists fought in foxholes in the battle of Stalingrad. Stalingrad was listed as a highly atheistic part of the USSR and of the Russian SSR in the article.
-Basel
::I will ask someone versed in Soviet atheism to review your comments within the next 20 days. Personally, I am not sure that bona fide atheists even exists. See: [[Denials that atheists exist]].

::One thing for certain though: Simo Häyhä (who reportedly was a Christian)[https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080201102218AAhS5qI] was a better sniper than Vasily Zaytsev. :) [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 16:54, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

:::The Soviet army was wimpy just like modern atheism!

:::I cite:

:::"Simo Häyhä aka “The White Death” is widely regarded as the most hardcore sniper there ever was, with over 500 kills to his name. He helped defend his homeland from the Soviets during World War II...

:::In 1939, the Soviet Union attempted to invade Finland. Being a member of the Civil Guard, Häyhä was called into service, serving under the 6th Company of JR 34 on the Kollaa River. Commanded by Major General Uiluo Tuompo, the Finns faced both the 9th and 14th Soviet Armies, and at one point were fighting against as many as 12 divisions— about 160,000 soldiers. Also at one point in the same area, there only 32 Finns fighting against over 4,000 Soviets!

:::Despite being outnumbered, however, the Finns were still victorious at the end of the day." [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 17:04, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

::::Yeah, the Soviet Army was very incompetent during the early stages of the war. A lot of that, but not all, was related to the purges of army officers after the civil war. I believe that nearly half of the officer corps was executed, with the rest becoming understandably paranoid. They also had significant problems in other areas, such as supply problems and really horrendous biplanes. [[User:Basel|Basel]]
:::::Your point was incorporated into the article. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 17:52, 3 June 2014 (EDT)
::::::My grandfather, who was a devout atheist fought in WW2 on the eastern front. [[User:Brenden|brenden]] 20:39, 3 June 2014 (EDT)
Devout atheist is an oxymoron. From what I have seen, most atheists are Darwinist/atheist poseurs.[http://questionevolution.blogspot.com/2012/10/evolutionist-posers-naive-evolutionists.html] And when so called atheists are cross-examined in debates, they usually back down to the position of agnosticism because atheism lacks proof and evidence that it is true. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 23:09, 3 June 2014 (EDT)

== Encyclopedic? ==

In what way is this an encyclopedia entry? [[User:IraE|IraE]] 18:42, 25 September 2014 (EDT)

Party Platform

2014-09-25T21:57:18Z

IraE:

A '''party platform''' is a list of beliefs and ideas which a party promises to work towards and accomplish if elected. The platform positions generally reflect the political leanings of the party's base. For example, [[Republicans]] generally run with a low-tax platform; whereas [[Democrat]]s generally run on a platform calling for increased taxes to pay for social programs.

Most Americans do not read party platforms before voting.

The individual issues that make up a platform are called [[plank]]s.

[[Category:Election Terms]]

Armenia

2014-09-25T21:55:29Z

IraE: improve quality of writing

{{Country
|name =''Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն<br/>Hayastani Hanrapetowt’yown''
|map =Armenia rel 2002.jpg
|flag =Flag of Armenia.jpg
|arms =Arms of Armenia.png
|capital =Yerevan
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Armenian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Serzh Sargsyan
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Tigran Sargsyan
|pm-raw =
|area =11,506 sq mi
|pop =3,215,800 (2005)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$14.17 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$4,270 (2005)
|currency =Dram
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Armenia''' is a small, rugged, mountainous, landlocked nation in the Caucasus, the crossroads of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]], which gained its independence in the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1989. Although it is in Asia geographically (located on the Asian side of the Caucasus, the Border between Europe and Asia), it is considered European because of its strong and ancient links with [[Europe]]. Present-day Armenia comprises Eastern Armenia, only half the historic homeland. The Armenians in Western Armenia, with its iconic Mount Ararat, were driven out and mostly killed by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1915 in a genocide that to this day chills relations between Armenia and Turkey. In addition, many Armenians live in other countries, in the "Armenian Diaspora." Armenia was the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as its state religion in AD 301.

==Cities==
[[Yerevan]] (pop. 1,100,000 in 2006), founded in the eighth century BC, is the capital and has always been the chief city. Gyumri, or Kumayri (called Leninakan from 1924 to 1992), with a population of 120,000 in 1989, was the second largest city until it was devastated by an earthquake in December 1988; it has now recovered with a population of 148,000. Vanadzor (formerly Kirovakan) is third with a population of 106,000.

==People==
Birth rates are low, at 11.7 births per 1000 population and a total fertility rate (births per childbearing woman) of only 1.33
===Diaspora===
The Armenian diaspora over many centuries has created Armenian settlements in many parts of Russia, Poland and the Balkans, as well as in the cities of the former [[Ottoman Empire]] and in the United States.
===Religion===
After decades of eclipse, religion has become an increasingly important part of life, and many religious groups have emerged.

Except perhaps for the Soviet era (1920-1989), religion was central to Armenian identity. Since the rise of Islam in 700 AD, Armenia has seen itself as the Christian outpost in the sea of Islam. The traditions of Eastern Christianity, as opposed to those of both Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christianity, have been preserved in virtual isolation and account for the survival of the Armenian people between their loss of independence in 1375 and the emergence of Armenian nationalism in the 19th century. Christianity has caused the Armenians to look toward Europe for cultural inspiration, especially--since the 18th century--to Italy, then France, then Russia (an indirect route for Western ideas), and finally to the United States.

In Armenia itself 98% of the population is ethnic Armenian. The link between Armenian ethnicity and the Armenian Orthodox Church is strong. An estimated 90% of citizens nominally belong to the Armenian Church, one of six ancient autocephalous Eastern churches with its spiritual center (Mother See) located at the Etchmiadzin cathedral and monastery near the capital of Yerevan.

There are small communities of other religious groups, which constitute less than 5% of the population and include Roman Catholics, Armenian Uniate (Mekhitarist) Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Armenian Evangelical Christians, Molokans, Pentecostals, Seventh-day Adventists, Baptists, various groups of charismatic Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Yezidis (non-Muslim Kurds who practice Yezidism), Jews, Sunni Muslim Kurds, Shi'ite Muslims, Baha'is, and others.

Yezidis are concentrated primarily in agricultural areas around Mount Aragats, northwest of Yerevan. Armenian Catholics live mainly in the north, while most Jews, Mormons, Baha'is, and Orthodox Christians reside in Yerevan, along with a small community of mostly Shi'ite Muslims, including Iranians, and temporary residents from the Middle East.

Although the law prohibits foreign funding of foreign-based denominations, the Government did not enforce the ban. Indeed, the Government generally does not enforce existing legal restrictions on religious freedom.

==History==

Armenia was traditionally a border state that was kept independent by the [[Roman Empire]] against frequent [[Parthian]] and later [[Persian]] invasions. It served as a buffer state between the empires. Armenia was the first nation to convert to Christianity, in 301 before Christianity was even legal in Rome. Armenia then flourished and its capital Ani was called the "city of a thousand and one churches."

Armenia was converted to Christianity by Saint Gregory the Illuminator, traditionally in 314 AD. Armenia thus became the first nation to embrace Christianity as its state religion. Always an autonomous church, the Armenian Apostolic Church was in communion with the rest of the Christian Church until 555 AD. After that it was communion only with the Monophysite churches, such as the Coptic Church of Egypt, the Ethiopic Church, and the Syrian Jacobite Church.

The Armenian Apostolic Church is headed by the catholicos of all Armenians, whose see has been at the monastery of Echmiadzin, near Yerevan, since 1441. Under his primacy the church is divided into four autonomous jurisdictions: the catholicosate of Echmiadzin; the catholicosate of Cilicia, at Sis (now Kozan, Turkey) from 1293 to 1930 and at Antelias, Lebanon, since 1930; the patriarchate of Jerusalem, created in 1311; and the patriarchate of Constantinople (Istanbul), created in the 16th century.

By 1200 AD some Armenians came to accept the authority of the Roman Catholic pope. In 1742 they formed the Armenian Catholic Church, with a patriarch residing at Beirut, Lebanon. Armenian Protestantism began with the arrival of American Congregationalist missionaries from Boston in 1830.

==Ottoman control of Western Armenia==
Following victory over [[Persia]] at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, the [[Ottoman Empire]] extended its rule over western Armenia. In 1555 Armenia was divided between the Shahs of Persia and the Sultans of Turkey.

In traditional Ottoman society the Armenians were defined, as were other Christians and the Jews, as a "dhimmi millet", a non-Muslim religious community of the empire. Their actual treatment by the state varied to some extent with the military fortunes of the empire, the religious passions of its elites, and the encroachment upon their land by Muslim refugees from the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as by Kurdish pastoralists. Normally dhimmis were free to practice their religion, but they were distinctively inferior to Muslims in status. In the nineteenth century the Armenians challenged the traditional hierarchy of Ottoman society as they became better educated, wealthier, and more urban. In response—despite attempts at reforms—the empire became more repressive toward Armenians, who more than any other Christian minority bore the brunt of persecution

===Conflict with Ottoman Empire===
Conflict between Turks and Armenians resulted from dissimilar cultural elements and social organization. By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman authorities justified their attacks on Armenians by accusing them of being "revolutionaries, terrorists, and troublemakers acting on behalf of Russia or other foreign powers." Even with the demise of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, the conflict between Turks and Armenians remained unresolved, resulting in contemporary Armenian terrorist attacks on Turkish targets.

The Armenians expected outside assistance in their efforts to break away from Ottoman rule and were led to carry out a number of rash terror actions, including bombing and assassinations. The Russians therefore discouraged the Armenian liberation movement from establishing an independent Armenia on the southern borders of Russia. But the Russian government also took active steps to prevent the massacres of Armenians by Sultan Abdul Hamid.

When Sultan Abdul Hamid II came to power in 1876, he steered a course of political and social repression and technological modernization. But the Empire was the "sick man of Europe" and nationalist revolts among Christian minorities led to the loss of Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Romania and large parts of Bulgaria, which comprised 40% of the territory. Some 400,000 Muslim refugees were expelled; the Empire became more Muslim and hatred of Christians intensified. The old program of using Christian minorities to speed the modernization process had failed. The Empire was bankrupt and the Christians wanted autonomy, not participation.

In August and September 1894, a series of massacres occurred in the vicinity of Sassun as a result of an uprising that was put down with ferocity by Kurdish irregular cavalry (Hamidieh regiments). The massacres soon spread, and in October and November 1895 there were pogroms at Trabzon, Erzurum, Bitlis, Kurun, Maras, and elsewhere. The essential cause of the massacres lay in the failure of the European powers to secure the reforms envisaged by the Treaty of Berlin for the Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In August 1896 after an attack on the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople a massacre of Armenians occurred in the Ottoman capital; 4,000 to 6,000 Armenians were killed. By the end of 1896 over 80,000 Armenians lad dead in the eastern provinces.
===Genocide===
see [[Armenian genocide]]

With the advent of [[World War I]] the situation became much worse. As Christians in an Empire of Muslims that was now at war with Christian nations, especially Russia, the Armenians were viewed by the Ottoman government as a threat and potential subversive allies of the Russians. The Ottomans first disarmed the Armenian population, and then sought to destroy them starting in 1915. A massive [[genocide]] occurred, consisting of the deaths of 600,000 or more Armenian men, women and children. Most died by starvation in the desert. Turkey has never admitted the deaths were a premeditated genocide, and the topic is generally not discussed in Turkey.
==Russian control of Eastern Armenia==
The Armenians, divided under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and Persia and ravaged by the fighting between them, turned for military assistance and political protection in the 18th and 19th centuries to [[History of Russia|Russia]]. The Russian advance along the Caspian and the expansion into Georgia encouraged requests for help. When a 70,000 strong Persian army entered Transcaucasia in 1804, the Russian general Tsitsianov began his advance on Erevan. Many Armenians joined the Russians captured in 1808. In 1810 the Turks and Persians invaded the area, but the Russian commander M. I. Kutuzov routed the Ottoman army on the Danube. Turkey recognized Russian rule in Transcaucasia in the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812. Resounding defeats imposed on the Persians forced the shah to agree in 1813 to the incorporation of a large part of Transcaucasia into the Russian Empire. Russian victories over renewed war with Persia led to the unification of Transcaucasia with Russia, 1829.

After 1828 many Armenians remained in Persia but 45,000 were allowed to migrate to Eastern Armenia on condition they leave behind their houses, property and wares. Following the 1828-29 Russo-Turkish War, about 100,000 Armenians migrated from Turkey to Transcaucasia.

Under Russia, the number of Armenians in the area now represented by present-day Armenia increased from 46,000 in 1827 to 511,000 in 1897. Thus by joining Russia, Eastern Armenia became the home of the national survival of the Armenian people. Despite tsarist restrictions and oppression, the Armenians developed a cultural renaissance and a national awareness which surpassed that of their co-nationals in the Ottoman and Persian empires. During the 19th century the Eastern Armenians (those in Russia) strove for regional autonomy and for the repartition of Transcaucasia into distinct ethnic provinces as well as for personal and collective security. They did not seek national independence but identified with oppositional Russia in an attempt to effect internal reforms.

Being part of Russia opened up new market opportunities and allowed the emergence of capitalism, which brought about socioeconomic changes in almost all the regions of Eastern Armenia, including Zangezur and Kazakh. By the end of the 19th century both Zangezur and Kazakh had become major grain producers, and while Zangezur was also engaged in sericulture, an important occupation in Kazakh was hog raising. The rising class of Armenian businessmen and bankers were centered not so much in Yerevan but in Baku and Tiflis (Tbilisi, Georgia), and sent younger sons to set up business connections in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, Russians occupied the six Armenian vilayets, and Armenian nationalism was stimulated. In 1880, a revolutionary organization known as the Defenders of the Fatherland was organized in Erzurum. A few years later, in 1885, the Armenakan society was organized, and in 1887 the Hunchagian Party appeared. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktzutun) was formed in 1890. The Dashnaks were socialists who sought to overthrow the Tsarist system and create an independent state. They also wanted to acquire the Armenian areas in the Ottoman Empire by force.
===Independence===
Amidst the chaos of Russia in 1918, period the Armenian National Council, with German help, declared the establishment of the Republic of Armenia (May 1918) on the territory of Russian Armenia. While most Armenians desired a democracy in their first chance at independence in 1918-20, for practical reasons they settled for a benevolent dictatorship instead. The government sought a mandate status with Armenia under the control of the United States, but the U.S. Senate rejected the idea, and Armenia was taken over by Soviet Russia in December 1920. Several hundred thousand Armenian refugees at the end of the war were scattered, and most emigrated to California.

[[File:Armenia2.jpg|thumb|550px|Ethnicity in Armenia and Caucasus]]
The most serious problem between the short-lived Transcaucasian republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan was over the control of a mountainous region called Nagorno-Karabakh, located inside Azerbaijan but with a 75% Armenian population. Britain, which occupied Transcaucasia after World War I, decided in favor of Azerbaijan in the summer of 1919. The settlement remained in force after the Red army took over both republics in 1920, but the Soviets were never able to resolve the dispute, which exploded into war as soon as both nations became independent. <ref> Artin H. Arslanian, "Britain and the Question of Mountainous Karabagh," ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 1980 16(1): 92-104. </ref>

Armenia regained its independence with the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1989. Communism was overthrown but there were tensions with neighboring [[Georgia]] and a war broke out with the Muslim nation of [[Azerbaijan]]. The '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh War]]''' was fought over the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. It is a small region inside Azerbaijan, but the population was three-fourths Armenian and they refused to be ruled by Azerbaijan. The war lasted from February 1988 to May 1994, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the spring of 1992. Some 17,000 people were killed in the conflict. The region, now 95% Armenian, is controlled by Armenia and has a population of 140,000.<ref> see [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict], and [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_280.shtml Air War over Nagorniy-Kharabakh, 1988-1994]</ref>

Relations with Turkey (a [[NATO]] member) remain tense, primarily because Armenia demands, and Turkey refuses, to admit that Turkey was guilty of genocide in 1915. (Turkey says it was not genocide and that the Ottoman Empire was in charge.) As a candidate, President Obama said he would acknowledge the gencide. However, he visited Turkey in 2009 without using the word, which would offend Turkey, an important American ally. The White House released a statement on Armenian Remembrance Day in April that paid tribute to those who died but did not explicitly use the word "genocide".

==Culture==
===Cultural trends in Western Armenia (Ottoman)===
Armenian names followed traditional formulas. During the 5th-15th centuries the clergy, being traditionalists, used names of two components: Christian and birthplace (George Garnetsi, meaning George of Garni). The nobility could have names of several components: individual's, father's, family's, birthplace, title, and profession. The humbler classes used three-component names: individual's, father's, and family's, like those in Armenia today. The usual surname ending -ian was replaced by -ov or -ev in Russia, by -oghlou or -chi in Western Armenia, and by -ovitch in Poland. Other suffixes denoting surname were -iants, -ents, -onts, and -ounts.

Lives of saints and martyrologies were prevalent Armenian literary genres. Initially martyrology had three components: conflict between the Christian and his heathen torturer; interrogation between judge and defendant; and martyrdom. As political conditions changed, historical truth replaced idealization, superhuman saints became humanized, and visions and miracles gave way to stories of hardships suffered by ordinary individuals as under the Turks.

Of the many 17th-century Armenian poets, the best known was Nerses Mokats'i (d. 1625), who studied at the Amrdolu monastery in Bitlis and the Mets Anapat in Siunik'; later he founded a monastic order on the island of Lim in Lake Van. Many works focused on the exile forced on many Armenians and the destruction wrought in Armenia by foreign forces, comparing this with the fate of Jerusalem. The destruction of the Armenian city of T'okhat' in 1602 by the Jalalis was lamented by Step'anos and Hakob T'okhat'ts'i. Simeon Lehats'i (1584-1637) criticized the educational level of the clergy in his historical poem Vipasanut'iun Nikolakan [Nikolian epic]. Many works eulogized cities and monasteries. Others were historical, such as the ''History of the Ottoman Kings'' and odes to John III Sobieski and [[Louis XIV]] by Eremia Ch'elepi K'eomiurchyan (1637-95).

The religious meditational poem Matyan Oghbergut'yan [Book of lamentations] by the medieval Armenian cleric Grigor Narekats'i (951-1003) was published widely in the 18th century and inspired contemporary poets such as Petros Nakhijevants'i (d. 1784) and Movses Jughayets'i.

The writer, poet, and critic from western Armenia Artashes Harut'iunyan (1874-1915) belonged to the "provincial" school, which took its inspiration directly from the people. In his view the Armenian writing of Constantinople was derivative, being inspired by French romanticism. He corresponded with French and Belgian writers, translated works by Maxim Gorky and Leo Tolstoy, and wrote articles for the French press. His novels portray Armenian village life, one of the best being ''Zghjume'' [The regret]. Together with other Armenian intellectuals, he was arrested in April 1915 and murdered.

===Cultural trends in Eastern Armenia (Russia)===
The making of a modern Armenian nation was an intellectual event that took place largely outside the Armenian heartland in the Armenian communities of Western Turkey, Russia, India, and Europe. It was here that the first generation of patriotic intellectuals emerged. By the 18th century the Armenian language had fragmented into numerous mutually incomprehensible dialects, while any knowledge of Armenian history had been effectively wiped out except among a small group of monks, who copied and recopied the ancient texts. The first modern generation of Armenian patriots undertook a revival of Armenian letters and spread the new nationalism to the next generation of patriotic intellectuals from Western Anatolia and the Armenian colonies of the Russian Empire.<ref> Ronald Grigor Suny, "The Formation of the Armenian Patriotic Intelligentsia in Russia: The First Generations." ''Armenian Review'' 1983 36(3): 18-34. </ref>

The new literature of the Eastern Armenians which emerged in the mid-19th century resulted in a shift from the antiquated church language, which had dominated the literature of both parts of the country, to the currently used vernacular. The eastern center of its development was finally Yerevan, whose dialect became the adopted literary language of the east. The literature ranged from a romantic to a realist approach.

Despite his short and difficult life, Armenian poet Petros Durian (1851-72) left a rich literary legacy: plays, poetry, and journalistic articles. His historical plays are the first examples of the romantic drama in Armenian literature, and express a deeply democratic mood of the writer; his journalistic writings show that Durian was concerned about contemporary social issues. But his poetry was his greatest contribution, rejecting classicism and descriptiveness, and full of deep feelings. Durian's lyrical hero, with few exceptions, is the poet himself, but his poems express mankind's thoughts and aspirations, and possess great social meaning.

Alexander Yeritsian (1841-1902) was a major Armenian public and literary figure who wrote on historical, archaeological, ethnic, and socioeconomic matters from a national-conservative viewpoint. Yeritsian was well read in European economics, and his views, as expressed in the economic weekly ''Vacharakan'', which started publication in Tiflis in 1866, cover commerce, speculative finance, silver and gold currency, paper money, rise and fall in the value of money, free trade, competition, supply and demand, industry and savings, and other aspects of the world economy of his day.

The Armenian journalist Grigor Artsruni (1845-92) published the first European-style Armenian magazine, ''Mshak'' in Tbilisi. As editor and proprietor from 1872 to 1892, he published views on a wide range of contemporary national and international issues: the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the rise of the Eastern Question, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878, especially as they affected the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The newspaper has played an important role in Armenian social and intellectual life, consistently promoting solidarity among Armenians, Russians, and the people of the Caucasus, and promoting economic and cultural ties. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, convinced that the liberation of the Armenian people was possible only with Russia's help, Mshak supported the western Armenians' liberation movement. Encouraging the development of Armenian literature, the newspaper championed critical realism. It broadened the world view of the Armenian press by covering all major events and cultural phenomena. Many Armenian intellectuals contributed to ''Mshak''; the most prominent was the novelist Raffi (pseud. for Hakob Melik` Hakobyan, 1835-88). .

A. Araskhanian (1857-1912), editor of the Armenian monthly ''Moorch'' published in Tiflis, 1889-1907, resolved to foster literary cultural progress through the press. Philologists, literary critics, and intellectuals wrote on the history and theory of literature for Moorch and encouraged young writers and initiators of the literature of village life. Moorch enhanced understanding between writers in Eastern Armenia (in Russia) and Western Armenia (in the Ottoman Empire), emphasized the interaction between life and literature, and consistently observed progressive principles in literary criticism.
====Painting====
Gevorg Bashinjaghian (1857-1925) was a leading Armenian landscape painter. Educated at the Petersburg Academy of Art, Bashinjaghian was acquainted with European, Russian, Oriental, and classical Greek and Roman art. His 1883 exhibition in Tiflis of 16 landscapes of Armenia and the Caucasus established Armenian realistic landscape painting as a distinct genre of art. In Italy in 1884, he admired Renaissance art, and in Paris, 1899-1901, he participated in exhibitions with contemporary European artists. He painted several views of Ararat, Lake Sevan, and other Armenian landscapes combining peacefulness, simplicity, and majesty.

Hakob Kochoyan (1883-1959), was a prominent Armenian painter, professor, and lecturer in the Yerevan Institute of Fine Arts, famed as an innovator in his style of drawing. Receiving his artistic education and living in Europe before settling in Yerevan in 1922, he expressed the artistic traditions of East and West. His work represents a rich variety of style, theme, genre, and technique in oil, watercolor, gouache, engravings, pencil drawings, and sketches on canvas, stamps, crystal, and china. His paintings and illustrations in books and periodicals deal with Armenian history, natural scenery, folklore, and contemporary life. They express the nation's vitality and durability. His paintings have been exhibited internationally.

====Music and song====
Valuable poetry and songs were written by Bishop Petros Berdoumian Nakhichevantsi, (d. 1784) erudite theologian and poet. He represents the revival and renovation of 18th-century national religious songs, which were meant to combat the weakening in traditional Armenian piety and morals due to the plans of the sultans to assimilate subject nations. Nakhichevantsi witnessed the siege of Nakhichevan in 1740 by the tyrant Tahmaz, and his Elegy expressed the nation's sufferings and the misery of the church. His message to the people is to struggle against tyranny and live a meaningful life.

Armenian folk songs emerged when minstrels transmitted mythological and epic songs orally from generation to generation. Later folk songs reflected every aspect of life: love, religion, humor, patriotism, aspiration for freedom, emigrants' nostalgia, wedding songs, lullabies, dances, and festivities. In 1891 Komitas (1869-1935) started collecting and setting them to music, a program that folklorists have continued. After World War I, floklorists traveled across Europe to systematically collect, set to music, and save thousands of folk songs from permanent loss.

Spiridon Melikian (1880-1933) a student of Komitas, composer, conductor and lecturer, devoted his life to Armenian music. While studying music in Berlin (1905-08) he had his copy of Komitas's collection of Armenian folk songs, which he published in 1931. His expeditions into Armenian villages yielded more than 1,000 folk songs which he set to music. In Tiflis (1909-21) and Erevan Conservatory (1923-33) he conducted choirs, taught theory, trained musicians, and prepared textbooks for music teachers. Apart from his compositions, he published ''Analysis of Komitas's Work,'' ''Scales of Armenian Folk-songs,'' and ''Outline of Armenian Music''. Two volumes of his folk songs were published posthumously (1949, 1952).

The classical musician Genari Korganov (1858-90) was known as a pianist, composer, and critic. He was the music critic for the Tiflis (Tbilisi) ''Kavkaz'' (''Caucasus'') newspaper, his principal interest being operatic and symphonic works, and gave a number of recitals from 1884 to his sudden death in 1890. The Russian composer Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935) dedicated his Armenian Rhapsody to him.

A leading musician of the 20th century was Armen Tigranian (1879-1950) of Yerevan. In 1912 he composed his opera "Anush", based on Hovhannes Toumanian's dramatic ballad reflecting Armenian village life. Reedited in its final form in 1939, Anush has been popular with Armenians everywhere. Tigranian's second opera, "Davit-Bek" (started during World War II and finished in 1949) was inspired by an 18th-century national freedom fighter. Tigranian's music is melodious, lyric, and closely linked with traditional Armenian secular and church songs, truly the music of the people, composed with inspiration, talent, and technical skill.

The most important Armenian composer was [[Aram Khachaturian]] (1903-78). Born in Tiflis, he moved to Moscow in 1924 and built his careeer there. he was an enthusiastic Communist until his music was condemned by the Party in 1948.<ref> Victor Yuzefovich, ''Aram Ilych Khachaturyan,'' (1985) 283 pp.</ref>

In the Armenian diaspora, important cultural leaders have included writers Michael Arlen (1895-1956) in Britain, Arthur Adamov (1911-70) and Henri Troyat in France, and William Saroyan (1908-1981) in California. The prolific composer [[Alan Hovhannes]] (1908-2000), based in Boston and New York, drew upon Armenian church music to produce major classical compositions.

===Historiography===
Stepan Malkhassiants (1857-1947) was a philologist, lexicographer, prolific author on Armenology, and founding member of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. His philological works and translations from ancient to modern Armenian made national classics accessible to the masses. His ''Armenian Explanatory Dictionary,'' explaining all words of ancient, middle, and modern Armenian in all dialects as well as loan words, is a model work of its kind.

Garo Sassouni (1889-1977), intellectual, author, journalist, educator, and public figure, was born in western Armenia. He received a law degree from the University of Constantinople. He became a member of the parliament of the Independent Republic of Armenia and a provincial governor. After the fall of the republic he went abroad and became a leader of the Armenian Revolutionary Committee. He wrote a large number of Armenian-language historical and cultural studies.

The historian Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887-1972) studied in Germany where he received his doctorate in 1913. In 1920 he was a member of the Soviet Russian delegation sent to negotiate with the government of Armenia. Subsequently he held a number of educational and political posts. Arrested in 1937, he resumed his historical studies in 1954 and was appointed director of the Historical Section of the Armenian Academy of Sciences in 1961. During this period he published several important works, the principal one being his ''Drvagner Hay Azatagrakan Mtk'i Patmut'yan'' [Episodes in the history of the concept of Armenian liberation].

Under the totalitarian Soviet regime, historiographical policy was laid down by the Party authorities and imposed through the Academy of Sciences. As a consequence, 19th-20th-century Armenian history could not be analyzed critically. The events of 1917-21 had to be discussed purely from a class point of view, suppressing national aspects. In medieval studies, Armenian history of the 12th and 13th centuries could not be based on primary evidence; the religious T'ondrakian movement had to be presented purely as a social phenomenon. Nevertheless, many good studies were published, especially on the ancient and medieval periods. There were also some positive aspects of Soviet policy, such as the establishment of the Academy of Sciences of Armenia in 1943.

==Further reading==
[[File:Armenia1.jpg|thumb|350px]]
===Guide books===
* ''Armenia with Nagorno Karabagh'' (2nd ed. 2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Armenia-Nagorno-Karabagh-2nd-Travel/dp/1841621633/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Armenia & Karabagh'' (The Stone Garden Guide) by Matthew Karanian and Robert Kurkjian (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Armenia-Karabagh-Stone-Garden-Guide/dp/096721209X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''Georgia Armenia & Azerbaijan'' by John Noble (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Georgia-Armenia-Azerbaijan-Multi-Country/dp/1741044774/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242980296&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

===Surveys===
* Adalian, Rouben P. ''Historical Dictionary of Armenia'' (2002).
* Chahin, M. ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History‎'' (2001) 350pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=OR_PHoKZ6ycC&pg=PP1&dq=intitle:armenia+intitle:history&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2000&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Herzig, Edmund, and Marina Kurkchiyan. ''The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/110137949 online edition]
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ed. ''The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. Vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century.'' 1997. 493 pp.
* Oshagan, Vahe, ed. ''Armenia.'' (Review of National Literatures) (1984). 264 pp.
* Panossian, Razmik. ''The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars.'' 2006. 442 pp.
* Payaslian, Simon. ''The History of Armenia‎'' (2007) 304pp
* Somakian, Manoug Joseph. ''Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895-1920.'' 1995. 276 pp.
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. ''Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History.'' (1993). 289 pp.
* Thierry, Jean Michael and Donabédian, Patrick. ''Armenian Art'' (1989). 624 pp.
* Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: The Survival of a Nation.'' (1990). 476 pp.

===Specialty studies===
* Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian, Patrick; and Mutafian, Claude. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh.'' (1994). 198 pp.
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''Armenia on the road to independance 1918'' (1967)
* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''The republic of Armenia. Vol. 1, The first year, 1918-1919'' (1971); ''Vol. 2, From Versailles to London, 1919-1920'' (1982); ''Vol. 3, From London to Sèvres, February-August 1920'' (1997); ''Vol. 4, Between crescent and sickle: partition and Sovietization'' (1997)
* Mitra, Saumya, et al. '' The Caucasian tiger: sustaining economic growth in Armenia‎'' (2007) 610pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWAwYSslb7UC full text online free from World Bank]
* Villa, Susie Hoogasian and Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. ''Armenian Village Life Before 1914.'' (1982). 197 pp.
===Genocide===
* Bloxham, Donald. ''The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians'' (2005), scholarly history of the wartime massacres; 344 pages [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&mkt=en-us&scope=books&FORM=LIVSOP#q=bryce%20toynbee&filter=all&start=1&t=H6WeD-pdFZ8QQ5kq6p5CJw&sq=bryce%20toynbee excerpt and text search]
* Bloxham, Donald. "Rethinking the Armenian Genocide." ''History Today'' 2005 55(6): 28-30. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78126590 online edition]
* Papazian, Bertha S. ''The Tragedy of Armenia: A Brief Study and Interpretation'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=TJgLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=intitle:armenia+date:1910-2007&num=100&as_brr=1#PPA160,M1 full text online]

==References==
<references/>
{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Genocide]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Turkey]]
[[Category:Armenia]]

Belarus

2014-09-25T21:52:26Z

IraE: rewrite in coherent English

{{Country
|name =''Рэспубліка Беларусь<br/>Республика Беларусь''
|map =Belarus rel 97.jpg
|map2 =Belarus location.png
|flag =Flag of Belarus.jpg
|arms =Arms of Belarus.png
|capital =Minsk
|capital-raw =
|government =
|government-raw =Presidential dictatorship
|language =[[Belarusian]], [[Russian]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Alexander Lukashenko
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Mikhail Myasnikovich
|pm-raw =
|area =80,100 sq mi
|pop =9,648,533
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =$150.4 billion<ref name=cia/>
|gdp-year =2013
|gdp-pc =$16,100<ref name=cia/>
|currency =Belarusian ruble
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Belarus''' is a country in Eastern [[Europe]] and former constituent republic of the [[USSR]]. The capital of Belarus is [[Minsk]]. [[Alexander Lukashenko]] rules this country as a dictator. During a visit in [[Warsaw]], the Republican candidate for the [[Presidential Election 2012]] [[Mitt Romney]] said:
{{Cquote|'''Unfortunately, there are parts of the world today where the desire to be free is met with brutal oppression: Just to the east of here, the people of Belarus suffer under the oppressive weight of dictatorship.'''<ref>Mitt Romney [http://charter97.org/en/news/2012/7/31/56016/]</ref>}}
==History==
While archeological evidence points to settlement in today's Belarus at least 10,000 years ago, recorded history begins with settlement by Baltic and Slavic tribes in the early centuries A.D. With distinctive features by the ninth century, the emerging Belarusian state was then absorbed by Kievan Rus' in the ninth century. Belarus was later an integral part of what was called Litva, which included today's Belarus as well as today's Lithuania. Belarus was the birthplace of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Belarusian was the state language of the Grand Duchy until 1697, in part owing to the strong flowering of Belarusian culture during the Renaissance through the works of leading Belarusian humanists such as Frantzisk Skaryna. Belarus was the site of the Union of Brest in 1597, which created the Greek Catholic Church, for long the majority church in Belarus until suppressed by the Russian empire, and the birthplace of [[Thaddeus Kosciuszko]], who played a key role in the American Revolution. Occupied by the Russian empire from the end of the 18th century until 1918, Belarus declared its short-lived National Republic on March 25, 1918, only to be forcibly absorbed by the Bolsheviks into what became the Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.). Suffering devastating population losses under Soviet leader Josif Stalin and the German Nazi occupation, including mass executions of 800,000 Jews, Belarus was retaken by the Soviets in 1944.

After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus declared its sovereignty on July 27, 1990, and independence from the Soviet Union on August 25, 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than have any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out the accord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since his election in July 1994 as the country's first directly elected president, [[Alexander Lukashenko]] has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarian means and a centralized economic system. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press, peaceful assembly, and religion remain in place. Lukashenko has made Russian the second official language of the nation in addition to the [[Belarusian language]].<ref name=cia/>

==Geography==
Belarus is a land-locked country, sharing a common border with the Baltic States of Latvia and Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine. The country is generally low-lying, with marshes and thick wooded areas. The Dnieper, Prypyats, and Nyoman rivers are its major waterways.
*Area: 207,600 sq. km. (80,100 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than Kansas.
*Cities: Capital--Minsk.
*Terrain: Landlocked, low-lying with thick forests, flat marshes and fields.
*Climate: Cold winters, cool and moist summers, transitional between continental and maritime.

==People==
*Population (July 2009 est.): 9,648,533 (urban 73%; rural 27%).
*Population decline (2009 est.): -0.378%.
*Ethnic groups (1999 census): Belarusian (81.2%), Russian (11.4%), Polish (3.9%), Ukrainian (2.4%), Jewish (0.3%), other (0.8%).
*Religions (2004 est.): Eastern Orthodox 80%, Catholic 14%, Protestant 2%, other (including Autocephalous Orthodox, Jewish, Muslim, and Krishna) 4%.
*Languages: Belarusian and Russian (official).
*Education: Literacy--99.6%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2009 est.)--6.43/1,000. Life expectancy (2009 est.)--70.63 years (men 64.95 years, women 76.67 years).
*Work force (4.3 million as of December 31, 2005): Industry—34.7%; agriculture and forestry--14%; construction--7.9%; transportation, communications--7.6%; trade, catering--12.2%; education--10.7%; other--24.3%.

==Government==
[[File:FreeBelarus.svg|thumb|The flag of the belarusian opposition]]
The constitution provides for a directly elected president who serves a 5-year term. The bicameral parliament consists of the 64-seat Council of the Republic and the 110-seat House of Representatives. The Council of the Republic is the house of territorial representation. Eight members of the Council are appointed directly by the president of the Republic of Belarus, while local regional councils elect the rest. The deputies to the House of Representatives are elected directly by the voters. The president appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government.

===Political Conditions===
Since his election in July 1994 as the country's first President, Alyaksander Lukashenka has consolidated power steadily in the executive branch through authoritarian means and has dominated all branches of government. He used a non-democratic referendum in November 1996 to amend the 1994 constitution to broaden his powers and illegally extend his term in office. He began to count his 5-year term in 1996, thereby adding 2 years to his first term in office. Based on the unrecognized 1996 constitution, Lukashenka announced that presidential elections were to be held in 2001. In 2004, he engineered a fraudulent referendum that removed term limits on the presidency. Independent exit polling of the referendum showed results far different from those officially announced. In 2006, Lukashenka "won" another term in an undemocratic election. In January 2007, he further consolidated his rule through local elections that failed to meet international standards.

In October 2000, parliamentary elections occurred for the first time since the disputed referendum of 1996. According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR), these elections failed to meet international democratic standards. International monitors noted sweeping human rights violations and undemocratic practices throughout the election period, including massive vote-counting fraud. These irregularities led the OSCE/ODIHR to find that these elections failed to meet Belarus' OSCE commitments for democratic elections. March 2003 local elections and October 2004 parliamentary elections also failed to meet international standards of freedom and fairness. OSCE/ODIHR observers declared that the parliamentary elections fell far short of international standards, citing abuses in the campaign period and the vote counting.

The March 19, 2006 presidential election marked another low point in the government's treatment of its own citizens. OSCE/ODIHR observers noted that the election failed to meet international standards, was characterized by a disregard for the basic rights of freedom of assembly, association, and expression, and included a highly problematic vote count. Authorities detained many opposition and civic activists during the campaign and used force against demonstrators protesting the fraudulent election. Opposition presidential candidate Alyaksandr Kazulin was beaten and arrested during post-election protests. He was sentenced to a 5-year jail term. The Belarusian authorities released Kazulin on August 16, 2008.

Belarus held parliamentary elections in late September 2008. Despite Belarusian authorities’ public assurances that the elections would be “unprecedentedly” democratic and transparent, the OSCE/ODIHR election observation mission determined the elections fell short of OSCE standards. The authorities denied registration for approximately 20% of opposition candidates as well as candidates overall. While candidates were allotted their mandatory campaign airtime on various media outlets, restrictions on this access made it difficult for candidates to adequately present their platforms to the public. OSCE/ODIHR observers noted good access to polling stations during early voting and election day. However, the Belarusian authorities fell short on access for OSCE/ODIHR and other observers to the vote count, a crucial aspect for determining the transparency of the elections. OSCE/ODIHR observers assessed transparency of the vote count to have been bad or very bad in 48% of observed cases. The OSCE recognized minor improvements in the conduct of the elections, but the lack of a transparent vote count made it impossible to determine the validity of the elections. The Department of State issued a statement following OSCE/ODIHR’s preliminary assessment, expressing disappointment with the failure of the Belarusian elections to meet international standards.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Alexander Lukashenko
*Prime Minister--Mikhail Myasnikovich
*Foreign Minister--Uladzimir Makei
*Ambassador to the U.S.--Mikhail Khvostov
*Ambassador to the UN--Andrey Dapkiunis

===Foreign Relations===
Under an arrangement with the former U.S.S.R., Belarus was an original member of the United Nations. It also is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS - a group of 12 former Soviet republics) and its customs union, the Belarusian and Russian Union State, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the Non-Aligned Movement, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank.

Following the recognition of Belarus as an independent state in December 1991 by the European Community, EU-Belarus relations initially experienced a steady progression. The signature of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) in 1995 signaled a commitment to political, economic, and trade cooperation. Significant assistance was provided to Belarus within the framework of the TACIS technical assistance program and also through various aid programs and loans. However, progress in EU-Belarus relations stalled in 1996 after serious setbacks in the development of democracy. The EU did not recognize the 1996 constitution that replaced the 1994 constitution. Neither the PCA nor its trade-related elements were implemented, and Belarus was not invited to join the EU's Neighborhood Policy. Belarusian membership in the Council of Europe was not supported, bilateral relations at the ministerial level were suspended, and EU technical assistance programs were frozen. In 1998, relations were further worsened when President Lukashenka evicted several western ambassadors from their homes in the Drozdy area of Minsk. In 2004, the Council of Europe adopted a report written by special rapporteur Christos Pourgourides calling on Belarusian authorities to suspend various high-level officials after conducting a thorough investigation of the cases of several prominent Belarusian political figures who have disappeared and remain unaccounted for. In line with the U.S., the EU spoke strongly against the government's conduct of the 2006 election, noting that additional restrictive measures would be imposed against those officials responsible for abuses. After the election, the U.S. and EU imposed travel restrictions and financial sanctions against those responsible for abuses. The EU also launched a two-year, two million Euro project to support Belarusian access to independent information, which complements U.S. assistance programs. In June 2007, the EU announced the withdrawal of GSP trade preferences for Belarus, following an assessment by the International Labor Organization that Belarus had not acted to ensure the protection of labor rights and freedom of association. After the September 2008 parliamentary elections, the EU issued a statement expressing its concern about the conduct of the elections, which despite some progress did not correspond to the OSCE’s democratic standards. In October 2008, the EU suspended its visa sanctions for six months on numerous Belarusian officials, including President Lukashenka, in response to Belarus’ release of political prisoners in August; this suspension has been extended until December 2009. In May 2009, the EU invited Belarus to take part in the Eastern Partnership Initiative.

Acknowledging the lack of progress in relation to bilateral relations and the internal situation following the position adopted in 1997, the EU adopted a benchmark approach in 1999, whereby relations would be gradually improved upon fulfillment of the four benchmarks set by the OSCE. In 2000, some moderately positive developments toward the implementation of recommendations made by the OSCE Advisory and Monitoring Group (AMG) were observed, but were not sufficient in the realm of access to fair and free elections. The Belarusian authorities, objecting to the OSCE AMG's activities, forced it to shutdown by failing to renew visas or extend accreditation of its professional staff. The Belarusian authorities agreed to a successor OSCE presence after 14 EU member countries and the U.S. imposed visa restrictions on the travel of high-ranking Belarusian officials. The OSCE Office in Minsk formally came into existence on January 1, 2003 with a mandate to "assist the Belarusian authorities in further promoting institution-building, in further consolidating the Rule of Law and in developing relations with civil society, in accordance with OSCE principles and commitments."

Russia is the largest partner for Belarus in the economic and political fields. In terms of trade, over one-third of Belarusian exports go to Russia. Due to the structure of Belarusian industry, Belarus relies heavily on other CIS countries, and Russia in particular, both for export markets and for the supply of raw materials, subsidized energy, and components. The steep increase in the price of natural gas in 2007, as well as higher tariffs on Russian-sourced oil and oil products, has contributed to a crisis in the Belarusian economy, forcing the regime to cut popular subsidies and to borrow from outside sources to finance the budget. Belarus received a $1.5 billion stabilization loan in late 2007 and a $2 billion loan in late 2008 from Russia.

The framework for the Russia-Belarusian Union was set out in the Treaty on the Formation of a Community of Russia and Belarus (1996), the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union, the Union Charter (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999). The integration treaties contain commitments to monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy. They also have established a range of institutions modeled after the EU. After protracted disputes and setbacks, the two countries' customs duties were unified as of March 2001. Belarus has made progress in monetary stabilization in the context of ongoing negotiation with the Russian Central Bank on monetary union. However, Belarus has repeatedly pushed back the date for implementing a monetary union. A dispute with Russia in late 2006 and early 2007 over gas prices and oil import duties raised further doubts about the future of the union, and many of the provisions of the union have yet to be implemented. Most recently, talks in October 2008 focused on plans to move forward with unification of customs rates for the Union State, supposedly to be completed by the end of the year, and the use of the Russian ruble for mutual payments. South Ossetia and Abkhazia have both expressed interest in joining the Union State, and in order for them to do so, their application must first be approved by the Union Parliament, and then the presidents of Belarus and Russia must approve the Parliament’s resolution to accept Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

[[Condoleezza Rice]] counted Belarus as a part of the [[Outposts of tyranny]].

==Defense==
The United States continues to support Belarus' adherence to arms control agreements and treaties into which it has previously entered, including the Open Skies Treaty, which Belarus ratified in 2001. Cooperation in all such agreements has been exemplary.

Humanitarian aid continues to be the primary engagement between the U.S. military and Belarus. Humanitarian assistance programs have provided a tangible, long-lasting service and have encouraged goodwill toward the U.S. Government and the U.S. military. Humanitarian assistance has two principal elements--the Humanitarian Assistance Program-Excess Property donates non-lethal goods and technical assistance for humanitarian purposes while other assistance focuses on projects such as the refurbishment of medical facilities and the construction of school buildings.

Direct military to military cooperation continues to be minimal. Belarus currently has no International Military Education and Training (IMET) program, and bilateral exercises and cooperation are nonexistent. There is a great desire on the Belarusian side to re-establish such cooperation and contacts, but it has not been possible due to the political situation. The only program that is still functional within this category is the attendance of Belarusian military officers at George C. Marshall Center programs.

Belarus is currently cooperating with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, through the Partnership for Peace Trust Fund, to destroy a total of 700,000 conventional landmines. Belarus also has a stockpile of over 3 million non-conventional anti-personnel mines, which it pledged to destroy by March 2008. However, the bidding process for the project of destroying the mines is still ongoing. In addition, there are numerous World War II-vintage minefields, which are still in place and kill or injure several Belarusians every year.

The Ministry of Defense is experiencing success in the area of military reform. Planned changes include combining the Air and Air Defense Forces, downsizing the force structure about 30% from 83,000 to 60,000, transitioning from a conscript to a contract force, and modernizing the command and control structure by creating a Ground Forces Command between the Ministry of Defense and the units in the field. Implementation of these reforms will take an unspecified amount of time.

There have been numerous reports of Belarusian sales or delivery of weapons or weapons-related technologies to states of concern, including state sponsors of terrorism. In April and September 2004, the United States imposed sanctions on a Belarusian entity, Belvneshpromservice, pursuant to the Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000 for the transfer to Iran of items on a multilateral export control list, or items having the potential of making a material contribution to weapons of mass destruction (WMD), or cruise or ballistic missile systems.

==Economy==
As part of the former Soviet Union, Belarus had a relatively well-developed industrial base; it retained this industrial base following the breakup of the U.S.S.R. The country also has a broad agricultural base and a high education level. Among the former republics of the Soviet Union, it had one of the highest standards of living. But Belarusians now face the difficult challenge of moving from a state-run economy with a high priority on military production and heavy industry to a civilian, free-market system.

After an initial outburst of capitalist reform from 1991-94, including privatization of state enterprises, creation of institutions of private property, and development of entrepreneurship, Belarus has greatly slowed under Lukashenka, and in many cases, reversed its pace of privatization and other market reforms while emphasizing the need for a "socially oriented market economy." About 80% of all industry remains in state hands, and foreign investment has been hindered by a climate hostile to business. The banks, which had been privatized after independence, were renationalized under Lukashenka. The government has also renationalized companies using the "Golden Share" mechanism, which allows government control in all companies with foreign investment, as well as through other administrative means.

Economic output, which declined for several years, revived in the late 1990s and early 2000s, but the economy has been dependent on heavy discounts in oil and natural gas prices from Russia. Belarus has historically re-exported the oil and oil products at world market prices, using the windfall profits to subsidize state enterprises. In December 2006, Belarus and Russian gas giant Gazprom signed a deal which will eventually end Russia's subsidies of gas for Belarus. Under the deal, Gazprom raised prices for Belarus gas deliveries in 2007 to $100 per 1,000 cubic meters, a significant rise from the subsidized previous price of $46, but still far less than the price paid by EU member states. The price for Russian gas will continue to increase incrementally until 2011, when it will equal the price paid by EU members. However, Belarusian officials stated in late 2008 and early 2009 Belarus’ interest in postponing the rise to EU prices until 2014-2015. Under the 2006 agreement, Gazprom will also gradually acquire a 50% stake in Beltransgaz, the Belarusian gas pipeline firm. In January 2007, Russia followed up with a steep duty on oil deliveries, which caused a significant drop in revenue from exports of oil products and Russian-sourced crude oil. The increase in gas prices and simultaneous moves by Moscow to reduce the profitability of refining Russian oil in Belarus for re-export disrupted plans to upgrade industries ranging from oil refining to cement production.

Peat, the country's most valuable mineral resource, is used for fuel, for fertilizer, and in the chemical industry. Belarus also has deposits of clay, sand, chalk, dolomite, phosphorite, and rock and potassium salt. Forests cover about a third of the land, and lumbering is an important occupation. Potatoes, flax, hemp, sugar beets, rye, oats, and wheat are the chief agricultural products. Dairy and beef cattle, pigs, and chickens are raised. Belarus has only small reserves of petroleum and natural gas, and it imports most of its oil and gas from Russia. The main branches of industry produce tractors and trucks, earthmovers for use in construction and mining, metal-cutting machine tools, agricultural equipment, motorcycles, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, and consumer goods. The chief trading partners are Russia, [[Germany]], Ukraine, and [[Poland]].

As of 2010, Belarus produces an estimated 32.82 billion kWh of electricity (99% from fossil fuels) and exports 5.067 billion kWh and imports 7.767 billion kWh.<ref name=cia>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bo.html CIA Yearbook]</ref> Belarus has a crude oil reserve of 198 million bbl (1 January 2013 est.)<ref name=cia/>, and proven natural gas reserves of 2.832 billion cu m (1 January 2013 est.)<ref name=cia/>

The massive April 26, 1986 nuclear accident at the Chernobyl power plant, across the border in Ukraine, had a devastating effect on Belarus. As a result of the radiation released, agriculture in a large part of the country was destroyed and many villages were abandoned. Resettlement and medical costs were substantial and long-term. Many living in Chernobyl afflicted zones have infrequent access to medical treatment due to remoteness, inadequate equipment, and substantial costs. Although the Belarusian authorities claim otherwise, many radiation monitoring stations, especially in rural areas, are either ill-equipped, poorly staffed, and/or no longer in operation. Resettlement of those in affected areas remains incomplete.

Due to the economic and political climate, little new foreign investment has occurred in recent years. In 2002, two major companies, the Swedish furniture firm Ikea and Russian beer producer Baltika, ended operations in Belarus due to unrealized government commitments or unwelcome interference. Ford Motors did the same in 1999. Economic pressures in 2007 may have led to the unexpected and non-transparent sale of a state telecommunications company to an Austrian firm.

Growth continued to be robust in 2007. Consumer price inflation averaged about 8.3% in 2007, but higher energy import prices are expected to drive up inflation for 2008 and subsequent years. Large wage increases, which were typical in the 1990s and early 2000s, fueled some increased consumption but also made Belarusian firms less competitive. Close to 20% of enterprises and a majority of collective farms currently operate at a loss, a percentage that has remained steady since 2002. Beginning in late 2008, Belarus increasingly felt the effects of the global financial crisis, as exports decreased to other severely impacted economies, notably Russia. In light of the crisis, Belarus secured a $2 billion loan from Russia in November 2008 and a $2.5 billion stand-by arrangement from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in January 2009.

Belarus continues to be heavily dependent on Russia, with the potential for greater economic dependency in a long-proposed EU-style union between the two states. Prospects for an eventual union state remain weak, however, largely due to the apparent lack of interest on the part of the leadership of both countries. However, Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan have announced plans to move ahead with the formation of a customs union that they expect to be completed by 2010.

In the 2000s, Belarus and Russia had proposed to have a common currency, and the value of the Belarusian ruble was tied to the Russian ruble as an interim step. However, the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus announced that, starting in 2008, the Belarusian ruble would be tied to the [[United States dollar]] instead of the Russian ruble. By 2011, it was tied to a market basket of currencies that include the dollar.

The World Bank announced a new 4-year country assistance strategy for Belarus in December 2007, which focuses on global environment and energy challenges, enhances the competitiveness of the Belarusian economy to assure rising incomes, and protects the welfare of the most vulnerable. As part of the strategy, the World Bank is financing improvements to schools, hospitals, and homes for orphans, the elderly, and the disabled throughout Belarus, with particular emphasis on improving the energy efficiency of those facilities. In 2004, Belarus rejected a World Bank loan to help fight AIDS and tuberculosis. IMF cooperation is currently limited to policy and technical consultations.
*GDP (2006 est.): $36.99 billion (2006 IMF estimate).
*GDP growth rate (2007 est.): 5.5%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $3,700.
*Natural resources: Forest land, peat deposits, potash, small amounts of oil and natural gas.
*Agriculture: Products--grain, potatoes, vegetables, flax, beef, milk.
*Industry: Types--machinery and transport equipment, chemical products, fabrics, and consumer goods.
*Trade (2005): Exports--$16.0 billion (refined petroleum, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, metals, and textiles). Major markets--Russia, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Great Britain, Ukraine, and Lithuania. Imports--$16.7 billion (mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, crude oil and natural gas, chemicals, foodstuffs). Major suppliers--Russia, Germany, Ukraine, Poland, Italy, Lithuania.
*Exchange rate (April 2007): 2,145 BYR (Belarusian rubles)=U.S. $1.

===Environmental Issues===
[[Image:Chornobyl radiation96.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Radiation-affected areas from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant as of 1996]]
Belarus has established ministries of energy, forestry, land reclamation, and water resources, as well as state committees to deal with ecology and safety procedures in the nuclear power industry. The most serious environmental issue in Belarus results from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. About 70% of the nuclear fallout from the plant landed on Belarusian territory and about 20% of the land remains contaminated. Government restrictions on residence and use of contaminated land are not strictly enforced, and the government even announced plans in 2004 to increase agricultural production in the contaminated regions. The government receives U.S. assistance in its efforts to deal with the consequences of the radiation. Belarus also faces growing air, land, and water pollution levels from potash mining in the south of the country.

==External links==
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5371.htm Background Note: Belarus] - U.S. State Department
*[http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=17970 U.N. Revises Chernobyl Assessment]
==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5371.htm] and [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bo.html]

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Dictatorships]]

Frank Gaffney

2014-09-24T23:39:15Z

IraE: fixing the usual abysmal quality of writing found at Conservapedia

'''Frank Gaffney''' held several defense and security positions under President [[Ronald Reagan]] having previously served as an aide to Senator [[Henry M. Jackson]]. In 1988 Gaffney founded the [[Center for Security Policy]] in Washington, D.C., and currently holds the position of president. His recent work centers on exposing the threat of radical Islam. He cowrote ''Shariah: The Threat to America.'' He routinely publishes articles for many conservative journals and is a frequent guest on conservative radio and television.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/1231.xml|title=Frank Gaffney|publisher=Center for Security Policy}}</ref>

==References==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaffney, Frank}}
[[Category:Conservatives]]