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Napoleon Bonaparte

2008-10-19T14:59:53Z

Hugjan:

'''Napoleon''' ('''Napoleon Bonaparte''' or, after 1804, '''Napoleon I, Emperor of the French''') was a world historic figure and First Consul of France of [[France]] from 1799 to 1804 and Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814 and from 1 March to 22 June 1815 and King of Italy. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended it when he became dictator in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804 He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

He fought an unending series of wars against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies and abdicated in 1814. In 1815 he returned from exile, took control of France, built a new army, and in 100 days almost succeeded--but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to a remote island. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]

==Origins==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa ([[Italy]]). He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer with some claim to noble rank; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility.

Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, a pauper even among the aristocratic poor, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in [[Paris]] to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made 5 extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]

==Rise to Power==
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off [[Egypt]]. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Marmelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref>

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), and closed down the council of five hundred. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

The treaty of Tilsit in 1807 ended the War of the Third Coalition--in which Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated in turn and Napoleon gained control of most of the continent.

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a [[combined arms]] formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for [[military synchronization|synchronizing]] operations, than had previous military commanders.

His failure in [[Russia]] was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The corps was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated logistics (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight. At the same time the British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancien régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

[[Religion]] had been a major issue during the [[Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>

The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible. He kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personalities neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by J. L. David]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

== See also ==

*[[Horatio Nelson]]
*[[George C. Marshall]]
*[[Porfirio Diaz]]

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The Wars of Napoleon'' (1995)
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812-14)." ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 2006 7(2): 283-308. Issn: 1531-023x Fulltext: in Project Muse. Argues Alexander's successful strategy has been neglected
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}}

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French People]]

Talk:Bourgeoisie

2008-10-08T21:37:35Z

Hugjan:

Do u think this is an Encyclopedia's sentence? "''term has strong connotations with communism.''"......? [[User:Hugjan]]

Talk:Bourgeoisie

2008-10-08T21:37:04Z

Hugjan:

Do u think this is an Encyclopedia's sentence? "term has strong connotations with communism."......? [[User:Hugjan]]

Talk:Bourgeoisie

2008-10-08T21:36:34Z

Hugjan: New page: Do u think this is an Encyclopedia's sentence? "term has strong connotations with communism."......?

Do u think this is an Encyclopedia's sentence? "term has strong connotations with communism."......?

French Revolution

2008-10-08T21:30:43Z

Hugjan:

[[Image:Delacroix La liberte guidant le peuple.jpg|250px|right|La liberte guidant le peuple]]
'''The French Revolution''' is one of the most famous revolutions in all of history. It started out with hope and promise, but then there was a "[[Reign of Terror]]", a chaos wherein anyone could be killed at any time. At least 18,000 people were executed on the [[guillotine]], and perhaps as many as 40,000 were. The cause was "the overthrow of religion, government and human society ... Murder, butchery and war ... are declared by them to be completely justifiable ...."<ref>Yale President Timothy Dwight (the grandson of [[Jonathan Edwards]]), http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-22&view=View</ref> Anyway the main goal of the French Revolution is the changemment of the European absolutistic system. Revolutionary ideals became the seed of Democracy and Liberalism in Europe.

Before the Revolution, [[France]] had three levels in its social system: The First, Second, and Third Estates. The [[First Estate]] was about 1% of the population, but it controlled 10% of the land. The First Estate consisted of the clergy, and they did not pay any taxes. The [[Second Estate]] was about 2% of the population and they controlled 20% of the land. These were the nobility, and they too payed very little taxes. The [[Third Estate]] was everyone else, and they were badly overtaxed by the monarch. This overtaxing was a major cause of the [[French]] Revolution.

The leaders of the Third Estate were the middle class, called the [[bourgeoisie]]. They were educated in the ideas of the [[Enlightenment]], most importantly [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]. Rousseau's book, "The Social Contract" supported a [[direct democracy]], rather that the republican government that had been adopted in [[America]]. The social contract spoke against titles for nobility and demanded complete equality for all people.

French Revolutionary ideals, especially thanks to Napoleon, later inspired the Liberal and Democratic movements in XIX Century.

==Chronology of the French Revolution==

In 1785 a drought led to the poorest harvest in France for many years. Realizing the need to increase taxes, the [[King]] imposed measures such as building a wall around [[Paris]] to act as a customs post. In 1787 he called a meeting of 144 leading nobles to attempt to persuade them to pay tax in return for increased powers. The nobles refused his requests and were supported by the local assembly; the Parlement de Paris.

The King withdrew his demands at this challenge to his authority, which was greeted by thousands taking to the street to celebrate. When troops were ordered to "Get some lead into the bastards' backsides", they fired into the air instead. In hindsight this can be seen as the start of dissent. It is notable that the initiators of this unrest were the upper classes, who had little reason to think there was any thirst for revolution. In April 1787, [[Calonne]] resigned in disgrace and the middle classes, strengthened by the protests, began to demand an Estates-Generale, a Parliament in which they would be represented.

==1789 - Year of Revolution==

With growing unrest and France nearing bankruptcy, the King agreed to call the Estates-Generale in May 1789. The [[Estate-Generale]] was divided into the three estates, with the first two estates (nobility and clergy) electing their representatives. The third estate representation required a series of elections in which all property owners over the age of twenty-five were eligible to take part. They elected a group of electors, who in turn chose delegates. The delegates themselves were overwhelmingly middle class, including the young lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]]. Furthermore, the Third Estate was required to produce a list of grievances.

Between 25,000 and 60,000 documents were filed with grievances. Thousands demanded a constitution, reorganization of the clergy, lessening of the tax burden and an end to [[Royal]] waste. Few of these demands could be resolved without challenging the basis of [[Absolute Monarchy]]. However, not one of these document has been found to advocate abolition of the monarchy, with the large majority requesting moderate reform and many including expression of adoration towards the King.

The Estates-General had not met in 175 years and retained many of its former characteristics. Each Estate had one vote in the Assembly, such that the First and Second Estates could always outvote the Third Estate. That was acceptable in the early 1600s, but the Third Estate would not allow this in 1789 after learning the Enlightenment ideas. By this time the alliance between the nobility and the third estate had broken down; the nobles may have called a march, but they drew the line at burning down tax offices. The Third Estate wanted a system of one vote per delegate, which would have given the Third Estate the same number of votes as the First and Second Estate combined.

The opening of the Estates-Generale did not bode well. The opening session was in an open coach house, which meant that the Third Estate struggled to hear the proceedings as they were on wooden benches at the far end of the room. Upon the entry of the King, the first and second estates were expected to remove their hats and sit down after the King, before replacing their hats. The Third Estate were expected to remain standing until after the first and second estates had replaced their hats, however, they chose to sit at the same time as the first and second estates. The First Estate were to wear glittering robes, the second estate were to wear silk coats, whilst the third estate were required to wear black coats. There was no question at this point of rudeness towards the King himself, and at this point none of the delegates (including Robespierre) was a republican in their beliefs. There then followed a speech by [[Necker]] on possible solutions to the economic crisis, that was of such length and dullness that Necker had to pass it on to a delegate to complete.

The Third Estate began to win votes in the Estates-Generale by attracting poorer clergy to their side. In an attempt to reassert his control, the king announced on 14 June that Estates-Generale was postponed. However, news of the postponement did not reach the delegates of the Third Estate, who arrived on the 20 June to find the room locked.

Following a period of confusion, Dr [[Guillotin]] (one of the Third Estate delegates) suggested it might be possible to convene at a nearby indoor tennis court and the group of over 500 delegate proceeded to meet at the court. The session was chaired by Bailly (a celebrity astronomer) and Mirabeau proposed that the delegation should not break up until a constitution was passed, which was opposed by only one delegate (Martin d'Auch). In effect the delegates had declared themselves the Government of France, pending a constitution to be organized by [[Mirabeau]].

The [[National Assembly]] approved the “[[Declaration of the Rights of Man]],” which combined ideas of the [[American Declaration of Independence]] with some Enlightenment concepts. The result of this combination had many debatable claims. The entire document is short and worth reading in full: [http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html] .

The King responded by ordering the delegates to disperse, however this had little effect. The following week the King sent a messenger, the Marquis de Breze, to order the finishing of the session. Mirabeau ordered the messenger to leave.
[[Image:David OathHoratti.jpg|left]]
In the last week of June the royal [[Government]] ordered 20,000 troops to march on Paris. It became apparent that compromise was not working. This was emphasized with the replacement of Necker by the hard line [[Baron de Breteuil]]. Thousands took to the streets to demand the reinstatement of [[Necker]], possibly one of the most boring men in history to have ever prompted such a reaction. Mirabeau spoke to the assembly, invoking the oath taken at the tennis court. [[Camille Desmoulins]] had ridden to Versailles to report on events and galloped back to Paris to report on the replacement of Necker.

Crowds marched to [[Abbaye]] prison to demand the release of the soldiers who had been arrested for not firing on the crowds. Troops were offered drinks by the crowd if they shouted 'Viva le tiers-etat'. Dummies of [[Necker]] and [[Duc d'Orleans]] were stolen to be paraded as heroes.

The deputies were now faced with a dilemma, requiring a mass movement for defence of the National Assembly, but fearing crowds getting out of control. Militia were therefore established, that excluded all unemployed and vagrants, and many districts demanded employers' references before admission. Admission varied enormously across districts, with 1,200 being recruited in [[Le Petit-St-Antoine]], but [[Les Minimes]] mustering four.

==Storming of the [[Bastille]]==

With the militia formed to repel the royal troops, there was an urgent need for weapons. The royalist [[Swiss Guard]]s had stored 30,000 pounds in the Bastille, to be used against the National Assembly. On the morning of July 14, 1789 (“[[Bastille Day]]”), a crowd of about a thousand people made up predominantly of small tradesmen arrived at the prison to demand the gun powder be handed over. The prison Governor invited a delegation in for breakfast, which proceeded for three and a half hours. Meanwhile, rumours circulated that royalist troops were committing atrocities across Paris.

A demonstrator outside the Bastille realized he would be able to get to the chains of the drawbridge by climbing from a nearby perfume shop. At this point the prison Governor, [[De Launay]], broke off negotiations and late in the afternoon cannon shots were aimed at the crowd. Two companies of French Guards were persuaded to the Bastille to the defend protesters being killed by cannon fire.

A Swiss Guard handed over the keys to the second drawbridge, leading to a moat. A clerk from a pawn office visited a carpenter and returned with eleven pieces of wood, one of which was able to span the moat. Once inside, seven prisoners were freed, though contrary to what is widely though, this did not include the [[Marquis de Sade]] (he had been moved as he had shouting at passers by through a pipe he had been given to urinate through. This took time however, as the keys to release the cells were the same as the keys to open the first draw bridge and the man with the keys had gone home.

In total six defenders of the Bastille were killed, including De launay, and ninety protestors.

The aftermath was one of euphoria throughout much of [[Paris]]. Much of the nobility proclaimed support for the act, realizing that it was not healthy to oppose public opinion on the matter. [[Louis XVI]] recalled Necker to his job and agreed to recognise the National Assembly, which included the Third Estate delegates, poorer clergy and nobility sympathetic to the Third Estate cause. [[Lafayette]] was appointed head of the police and the army, which was to be known as the National Guard. Bailly became the Mayor of Paris.

The King agreed to come to Paris and accept the gift of a cockade that had become a symbol of the revolution, which the king fastened to his hat, whilst the crowd cheered "Vive le Roi!". Whilst the significance of the day was evident, that it would produce a republic was far from clear. The plan of the King to take Paris with 20,000 troops had failed, but he was able to satisfy the populace that it was not intended and a peaceful resolution was reached. The changes that had so far occurred in a brief period of time were so dramatic that the thought that things could change further was difficult to conceive.

==The Great Fear==

During the week following the storming of the Bastille, news of events spread to the rest of France. This led to a panic as to what the response of the nobility would be to the events, The [[Great Fear]] or panic resulted. Many villages defended themselves against imaginary threats by forming peasant militias; riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes.

The rural uprising prompted the National Assembly to pass a motion to 'destroy the [[feudal]] regime entirely', on August 4th. However, in order to release himself a peasant would have to pay twenty times his annual rent to the landlord, making the measure ineffectual.

==Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen==

The Assembly also passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on the 4th August. This annulled the right of nobles to demand taxes, tithes and labor from peasants working on their family land. The declaration was inspired by the American Revolution and was partially written by LaFayette.

Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.”

Whilst the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”

Some declarations were troublesome; “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law” left questions of definition. Also, the rights of French people to rebel were enshrined in the very constitution itself.

The water wheel was abolished as the method of execution in place of the more humane [[guillotine]]. It is notable that the only delegate to vote for the abolition of the [[death penalty]] was [[Robespierre]].

==A New Government==

France remained a republic. Although a republic has been established in North America at this time and a previous English republic, a European republic was still alien to the thoughts of most French people, including revolutionaries. Negotiations over the new constitution continued, with Mirabeau and Lafayette appealing for calm less the King withdraw from negotiation. [[Jean Paul Marat]] took a less moderate line. Marat argued for universal suffrage and for the King to retain only an advisory role, a constitutional monarchy such as those seen in the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Sweden]] to this day.

==Royal Faux Pas==

On 1st October, 1789, a party was thrown at the [[Palace of Versailles]]. Louis XVI took the cap he had been presented with following the storming of the Bastille and trampled it underfoot. The king later denied this, however several witnesses recalled the incident and news of the incident spread to Paris. A contingent of women raided the Town Hall was raided for weapons and set off from Paris to Versailles, becoming a crowd of 10,000, who were later joined by the National Guard to ensure good order.

Upon the arrival for the group at the palace two guards opened fire, but were interrupted by decapitation. A small delegation of women were permitted to meet the Queen, however one fainted upon witnessing the beauty of the Palace of Versailles. The crowd became impatient by six o'clock the following morning and a militant group of fishwives broke in with a cry of "We are going to cut off her head, tear out her heart, fry her liver and that will not be the end of it"(Documents of the French Revolution, page 62). It was a forceful enough argument to force the Royal family back to Paris, where it was felt it would be possible to keep closer watch. It was also clear by now that the King was in no position to demand a veto.

Antoinette is reputed to have responded unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!” Historians doubt she ever actually said that.

==Anniversary Pledge==

On the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille a large ceremony was held in Paris at which members of the Government and the King pledges themselves to uphold the 'law, the nation and the King'. This represents a compromise in that the King was still seen as central, however all pledges had previously been to the King alone, and the King was required to make no pledge.

==1791 - The King Strikes Back==

In the two years following the storming of the Bastille French society had been transformed. There were an estimated 133 political journals in Paris, Parish priests had been dismissed and replaced by elected Priests. Robespierre had advanced plans for the emancipation of [[Jews]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]], equal treatment of all military ranks and the abolition of the property qualification for the National Guard. Robespierre remained incorruptible at this point, refusing to be the Duc d'Orleans let the luxury affect his judgement.

This situation was intolerable for the Royal Family, who began to organize a foreign force to invade France and restore their power. In December 1790 Louis wrote a secret note to the King of Prussia requesting a European army invade France. Furthermore, the King and Queen (herself Austrian) decided to flee Paris to help organise the invasion force from without France, let their presence in Paris compromise the invasion.

The royal couple decided to disguise themselves and flee across the border, which they did at night setting off at at a seven miles in part due to the weight requirements for the Queen to travel in the least luxury that she expected. The next morning the Kings letter to the National Assembly was found condemning all the measure which he had claimed to support for the previous two years.

The royal party reached [[Ste-Menehould]], where the papers of the party were checked by Drouet, who had been a staunch supporter of the revolution. Despite having seen the servant in the corner and 'struck by the resemblance of his face to the likeness of the King printed on the bank note', in disbelief he allowed the party to continue. Having discussed the incident with his colleague, Guillaume, the two raced to catch up with the party and spread word through the surrounding villages that the Royal family were attempting to flee. The family were captured and returned to Paris, with posters informing the gathering crowd "Whoever applauds the King will be flogged; whoever insults him will be hanged".

Most delegates wished to hold together a compromise, but the Head of State fleeing to lead a hostile invasion of the nation had created difficulties. Many insisted that the King must have been kidnapped. General Bouille wrote a statement confessing his involvement, but many insisted he was lying to implicate the King. While the only punishment towards the King was stripping of his powers of veto on laws and finance, talk began to emerge for the first time of the possibility of a republic. At this point Robespierre and most of the Paris commune strongly opposed the republic, whilst Lafayette rallied to the slogan 'The Revolution is Over'. By then the French Revolution was in full swing.

==Declaration of the Rights of Woman==

In 1791, a French journalist named [[Olympe de Gouges]] proposed a “[[Declaration of the Rights of Woman]],” (inspired by the writings of [[Mary Woolstonecraft]]) but the National Assembly rejected her proposal. She, like many other leaders of that time, was eventually executed by guillotine. Other sans-culotte groups were established including the [[Society of Revolutionary Women]]

==New Start==

Politics in France became divided between the moderate [[Girondins]] and the more radical [[Jacobins]]. At this point the Girondins appeared to be in the stronger position, however the Jacobins were growing in strength. At this point the Jacobins were led by [[Robespierre]], who made a strong speech in favor of a republic.

The French National Assembly established a [[constitutional monarchy]] and, in 1791, adopted a new constitution that created a Legislative Assembly. Three factions quickly formed in the new Legislative Assembly, known as the radicals (liberals), moderates (centrists) and conservatives, similar to those political movements today in the United States. The three factions sat in different sections of the large assembly hall, with the radicals (liberals) sitting on the left, the moderates sitting in the center, and the conservatives sitting on the right. That gave rise to the left-center-right terminology that we still use today in the United States to describe these three political groups.

==German Invasion==

A large number of noblemen had gathered in [[Koblenz]] to form an army to invade France and restore the King to full rule. The emigrants carried stories of atrocities and encouraged reaction against the National Assembly and atrocities associated with lower class democracy. The Duke of Brunswick declared "We will soon be marching on Paris".

This was a matter of some concern in France, as many of the officers that had been in the French army in 1789 had joined the emigrant army in Germany. The Girondins remained confident, but Robespierre saw little cause for initial optimism. The Royal Family strongly supported war with the Prussian and Austrian force in the hope that the French would be defeated and they be restored.

On April 1792, the King declared war on the [[Hapsburg Empire]], who wished to restore his power. The French army suffered a series of defeats along the border, creating optimism in the Royal house. The National Assembly ordered the dispersal of the Kings bodyguard who were supporting the foreign invasion, but this was vetoed by the King. The Assembly then voted for 20,000 French patriots to come from across France to protect Paris, but this was also vetoed by the King.

The use of the royal veto to undermine the defense of France prompted a strong reaction, with demonstrators managing to pour into the royal apartments. The King was forced to wear a red cap while being taunted for several hours with taunts of "Fat Louis" and "Tyrants must Tremble". The time of compromise was nearing an end.

Lafayette planned a coup to restore the old order to as it was in 1787, using the National Guard. This force was resisted by a volunteer group of citizens. Traditionally this latter group are portrayed as ne'er-do-well criminals, however it is questionable whether such groups would march typically 800 miles. The volunteer groups were greeted as heroes in towns they passed through and [[Rouget de Lisle]] composed 'La Marseillaise' as a call to arms.

The war started badly for the French and on 25th July the Duke of Brunswick prepared to March on Paris and pledged to restore the French Royal Family to their original statue, but that he had no intention of meddling in the internal affairs of France. He demanded total surrender or the Prussian and Austrian armies would "take an exemplary and never-to-be-forgotten vengeance, by giving up the town of Paris to military execution..and the guilty rebels to the death they deserve".

==Second Revolution==

Paris was divided, with 20,000 signing a petition to support the full restoration of an absolute monarchy and a foreign army was invading France rapidly. Moderates such as Mme Roland supported withdrawal from Paris, whereas Maton would accept no backward step. On 10th August a larger demonstration marched on the palace demanding the removal of the King.

==Valmy==

The National Assembly called for volunteers to defend the state, with assurances that this army would be different to the one that had gone before and collapsed before the troops of the Duke of Brunswick. The soldiers would sing Les Maseillaise into battle and officers and men would wear similar uniforms. The majority of the officers would be voted for by the soldiers.

The army was formed, and the Duke of Brunswick brought his army round to meet the French on by the village of [[Valmy]]. The French were grouped around a windmill in an area of uncommon tranquillity. The battle involved a day long exchange of cannon fire with little result. The significance of the battle is that the French volunteer troops remained firm.

[[Johann Goethe]] was present at the battle, as one of the troops of the Duke of Brunswick; "In the morning we had been talking of spitting and eating the French. Now everyone was thinking again. Almost everyone remained silent. Only a few men spoke and their reflections seemed illogical or frivolous".

In the opinion of Goethe, what had changed in the French was their spirit. They had won their freedom and did not wish to return to the days before the revolution, they had debated and were politically active. They were therefore able to stand firm. The news of the battle had a strong effect on French national morale, as the French came to believe they could win.

==Republic==

On the day following the [[Battle of Valmy]], the newly elected French Government (the Convention). The Convention declared France to be an 'Indivisible Republic'. The Convention was made of three factions; the [[Girondins]], the [[Montagnards]] Including Robespierre, Danton and Marat) and the [[Grenouilles de la Marais]]. Robespierre won an argument to allow a public gallery for debates.

All factions favored deposing the King, but were far from united beyond that point. The Montannards saw this as the first step to greater social equality, as opined by Robespierre, "Royalty has been destroyed, not the reign of equality is beginning". He attacked the wealthiest businessmen "those goods which are necessary to keep people alive as nothing more than an ordinary item of trade" - a sentiment echoed later by [[Karl Marx]]'s assertion that businessmen see objects not for their usefulness but for their value as commodities.

However, the Jocobin position was far from modern [[Socialism]], as they sought a nation of small property owners. The Government would be elected by property owners. Support for a republic was recently and had little idea of how to progress with the power they now found they had.

The Girdondins accused the Montagnards of preparing a dictatorship. However, the Girdondins had lost credibility by suggesting retreat from Paris and furthermore lacked the social roots that enabled the Montagnards to motivate thousands of volunteers. It reflects on the differing social backgrounds of the delegates that it was at this point Robespirre met a cabinet maker, M. {{Duplay]]. Duplay invited Robespierre back to his flat to meet his family and, finding that the family had been trying to let a spare room, Robespierre moved in. It is worth considering the contrast between the setting of the reign of Louis XVI to Robespierre who, whilst the most powerful man in France, has to queue behind his landlord to use the toilet in the morning.

==Trial of the King==

The King and family were detained in the Temple prison, but retained the trappings of luxury. The King had a library of 1,500 books, still ordered his shoes from his preferred cobbler and the family was provided with servants. The majority of servants remained utterly devoted to the family, feeling their employment to be a sacred duty.

This loyalty was not universal however, a former locksmith of the King revealed to the Paris Commune that there is secret cupboard containing correspondence between the King and invading powers showing collusion. Mirabeau and Lafayette were also implicated, though Mirabeau had no died and Lafayette had fled to [[Austria]].

The trial was debated by a number of key speakers. [[Louis St-Just]] debated the very validity of Kings, that to try the King as a bad King suggested it was possible to be a good, legal King, which was not acceptable. He was opposed by [[Thomas Paine]] who wished the King to be exiled to the [[USA]]. The vote was won for death by 387 to 334.

Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.

==Dechristianization movement==

The measures taken by the Convention to substitute the Revolutionary calendar for the old Christian calendar, and the decrees ordering the municipalities to seize and melt down the bells and treasures of the churches, proved that certain currents prevailed tending to the [[dechristianization]] of France.

The rest of décadi, every tenth day, replaced the Sunday rest. The "missionary representatives", sent to the provinces, closed churches, hunted down citizens suspected of religious practices. Persecution of all religious ideas began. Many churches were forcibly closed and converted into [[Cult of Reason|Temples of Reason]] <ref>John Hall Stewart, ''A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution'', Macmillan, New York, 1963.</ref>

During the first days of the Republic, provision had been made for dating public documents from "the first year of the French Republic," but no definite plan for a revised calendar had been proposed. A decree of 2 January, 1793, provided for the second year of the Republic to begin on 1 January, 1793. The new calendar took form in October and November, and lasted until 1806.

A vital force intended to sustain the political and economic terror was the creation of an ideology based on love of '' la Patrie'', "the Country" or "fatherland", and the subjugation of the individual to the collective will of whole. The Church of Notre-Dame-de-Paris became a temple of Reason, and the feast of Reason was celebrated on 10 November. The idea of honouring the fatherland, which had its origin in the festival of the Federation in 1790 gave rise to successive cults. Chamber Deputy Laloi commented they had "wiped out eighteen centuries of error".

Robespierre adopted the position that from the religious and Republican standpoint the idea of a Supreme Being was advantageous to the State, that religion should dispense with a priesthood, and that priests were to religion what charlatans were to medicine, and that the true priest of the Supreme Being was Nature. The Convention adopted a decree of which the first article was: "The French people recognize the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul". The same decree states that freedom of worship is maintained but adds that in the case of disturbances caused by the exercise of a religion those who "excite them by fanatical preaching or by counter Revolutionary innovations", shall be punished according to the rigour of the law. Thus the condition of the Catholic Church remained equally precarious and the first festival of the Supreme Being was celebrated throughout France on 8 June, 1794. with aggressive splendour. Whereas the Exagérés wished simply to destroy Catholicism, and in the temples of Reason political rather than moral doctrines were taught. Robespierre desired that the civic religion should have a moral code which he based on the two dogmas of God and the immortality of the soul. He was of the opinion that the idea of God had a social value, that public morality depended on it and that Catholics would more readily support the republic under the auspices of a Supreme Being. <ref>Catholic Encyclopdeia, [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13009a.htm French Revolution]</ref>

==Committee of Public Safety==

The Committee of Public Safety was formed in 1793, and passed a rule that Generals were to live in camp with the army. This had the practical effect of testing the belief in equality of the many Nobles in the army. [[General Dumouriez]] made overtures to the Prince of Coburg for the invasion of France and have Louis XVI's son proclaimed King Louis XVII.

By this time many countries, including [[Great Britain]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], had formed a First Coalition to invade France and restore monarchy. The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army. Historians claim women were drafted, but such a politically inspired claim is worth investigating before accepting it. The war lasted for several years, on several fronts, but the First Coalition was eventually defeated.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the [[Reign of Terror]]. [[Maximilian Robespierre]], head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette. In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders [[Georges Danton]] (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and [[Jean-Paul Marat]] (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub. Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory. The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named [[Napoleon]] to lead the French army. The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its [[dictator]], in November 1799.

==Economic controls==

On 29 September, 1793, in the Law of the Maximum was formulated to deal with the steady rise in prices of the necessities of life. Committees of experts had been appointed to study the whole subject. Prices were set at one and one-third its price in 1790, transportation costs were regulated at a fixed rate, a 5 per cent markup was allowed the wholesaler and 10 per cent to the retailer. Bertrand Barrere declared, "The needs of the people will no longer be spied upon in order that the commercial classes may arbitrarily take advantage".

The first result was farmers produced as little as they possibly could. Scarcity increased, and the people of the large cities were put on an rationing. Many shopkeepers went out of business, and the remainder forced buyers to pay enormous charges under the very natural excuse that the seller risked his life in trading at all. That this excuse was valid is easily seen by the daily lists of those condemned to the guillotine, in which not infrequently figure the names of men charged with violating the Maximum laws. Manufactures were crippled and frequently destroyed.

To detect goods concealed by farmers and shopkeepers, a spy system was established with a reward to the informer of one-third of the value of the goods discovered. To spread terror, the Criminal Tribunal at Strassburg was ordered to destroy the dwelling of anyone found guilty of selling goods above the price set by law. The farmer often found that he could not raise his products at anything like the price required by the new law; and when he tried to hold back his crops or cattle, alleging that he could not afford to sell them at the prices fixed by law, they were frequently taken from him by force and he was fortunate if he was paid in the depreciated fiat currency or escaped execution.

The Convention decreed that any person selling gold or silver coin, or making any difference in any transaction between paper banknotes (assignats), and precious metal coin (specie) should be imprisoned in irons for six years; that anyone who refused to accept a payment in assignats, or accepted assignats at a discount, should pay a fine of 3,000 francs; and that anyone committing this crime a second time shou1d pay a fine of 6,000 francs and suffer imprisonment 20 years in irons. Later, on 8 September, 1793, the penalty for such offences was made death, with confiscation of the property of the heirs, and a reward offered to any person informing the authorities regarding any such transaction. The Convention decreed, in May 1794, that the death penalty should be inflicted on any person convicted of 'having asked, before a bargain was concluded, in what money payment was to be made".

Georges Couthon, in August 1793, proposed and won passage of a law punishing any person who should sell assignats at less than their fixed value with imprisonment for 20 years in chains, and later passed a law making investment in foreign countries punishable by death. Prisons, guillotines, enactments inflicting 20 years' imprisonment in chains upon persons twice convicted of buying or selling paper money at less than its nominal value, and death upon investors in foreign securities, still did not stop people from procuring the necessities of life by bargaining and exchange; on 1 August, 1795, the gold louis of 25 francs was worth in paper, 920 francs; on 1 September, 1,200 francs; on 1 November, 2,600 francs; on 1 December, 3,050 francs. In February 1796, it was worth 7,200 francs or one franc in gold was worth 288 francs in paper. Prices of all commodities went up nearly in proportion. <ref>Andrew Dickson White, Fiat Money: Inflation in France, Foundation for Economic Education, Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, 1959, pp. 75-89; first published in 1912 as revised version of 1876 lecture. Reproduced in ''Choice in Currency'', F. A. Hayek, The Institute of Economic Affairs 1976, "A Note on Government Monopoly of Money in Theory and History", [http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-book409pdf?.pdf France, 1789], pgs. 34 - 38.</ref>

==Legacy of the Revolution==

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy. But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror. Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards [[Christianity]] that continues to this day in France.

==References==
<references/>
* [[Simon Schama]], 'Citizens', London 1989.
* 'The French Revolution'
* [[William Doyle]]. ''Oxford history of the French Revolution'', 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X

== See also ==

*[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]

[[Category:French Revolution| ]]
[[Category:French History]]

French Revolution

2008-10-08T21:20:36Z

Hugjan:

[[Image:Delacroix La liberte guidant le peuple.jpg|250px|right|La liberte guidant le peuple]]
'''The French Revolution''' is one of the most famous revolutions in all of history. It started out with hope and promise, but then there was a "[[Reign of Terror]]", a chaos wherein anyone could be killed at any time. At least 18,000 people were executed on the [[guillotine]], and perhaps as many as 40,000 were. The cause was "the overthrow of religion, government and human society ... Murder, butchery and war ... are declared by them to be completely justifiable ...."<ref>Yale President Timothy Dwight (the grandson of [[Jonathan Edwards]]), http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-22&view=View</ref> Anyway the main goal of the French Revolution is the changemment of the European absolutistic system. Revolutionary ideals became the seed of Democracy and Liberalism in Europe.

Before the Revolution, [[France]] had three levels in its social system: The First, Second, and Third Estates. The [[First Estate]] was about 1% of the population, but it controlled 10% of the land. The First Estate consisted of the clergy, and they did not pay any taxes. The [[Second Estate]] was about 2% of the population and they controlled 20% of the land. These were the nobility, and they too payed very little taxes. The [[Third Estate]] was everyone else, and they were badly overtaxed by the monarch. This overtaxing was a major cause of the [[French]] Revolution.

The leaders of the Third Estate were the middle class, called the [[bourgeoisie]]. They were educated in the ideas of the [[Enlightenment]], most importantly [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]. Rousseau's book, "The Social Contract" supported a [[direct democracy]], rather that the republican government that had been adopted in [[America]]. The social contract spoke against titles for nobility and demanded complete equality for all people.

French Revolutionary ideals later inspired the Liberal and Democratic movements in XIX Century.

==Chronology of the French Revolution==

In 1785 a drought led to the poorest harvest in France for many years. Realizing the need to increase taxes, the [[King]] imposed measures such as building a wall around [[Paris]] to act as a customs post. In 1787 he called a meeting of 144 leading nobles to attempt to persuade them to pay tax in return for increased powers. The nobles refused his requests and were supported by the local assembly; the Parlement de Paris.

The King withdrew his demands at this challenge to his authority, which was greeted by thousands taking to the street to celebrate. When troops were ordered to "Get some lead into the bastards' backsides", they fired into the air instead. In hindsight this can be seen as the start of dissent. It is notable that the initiators of this unrest were the upper classes, who had little reason to think there was any thirst for revolution. In April 1787, [[Calonne]] resigned in disgrace and the middle classes, strengthened by the protests, began to demand an Estates-Generale, a Parliament in which they would be represented.

==1789 - Year of Revolution==

With growing unrest and France nearing bankruptcy, the King agreed to call the Estates-Generale in May 1789. The [[Estate-Generale]] was divided into the three estates, with the first two estates (nobility and clergy) electing their representatives. The third estate representation required a series of elections in which all property owners over the age of twenty-five were eligible to take part. They elected a group of electors, who in turn chose delegates. The delegates themselves were overwhelmingly middle class, including the young lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]]. Furthermore, the Third Estate was required to produce a list of grievances.

Between 25,000 and 60,000 documents were filed with grievances. Thousands demanded a constitution, reorganization of the clergy, lessening of the tax burden and an end to [[Royal]] waste. Few of these demands could be resolved without challenging the basis of [[Absolute Monarchy]]. However, not one of these document has been found to advocate abolition of the monarchy, with the large majority requesting moderate reform and many including expression of adoration towards the King.

The Estates-General had not met in 175 years and retained many of its former characteristics. Each Estate had one vote in the Assembly, such that the First and Second Estates could always outvote the Third Estate. That was acceptable in the early 1600s, but the Third Estate would not allow this in 1789 after learning the Enlightenment ideas. By this time the alliance between the nobility and the third estate had broken down; the nobles may have called a march, but they drew the line at burning down tax offices. The Third Estate wanted a system of one vote per delegate, which would have given the Third Estate the same number of votes as the First and Second Estate combined.

The opening of the Estates-Generale did not bode well. The opening session was in an open coach house, which meant that the Third Estate struggled to hear the proceedings as they were on wooden benches at the far end of the room. Upon the entry of the King, the first and second estates were expected to remove their hats and sit down after the King, before replacing their hats. The Third Estate were expected to remain standing until after the first and second estates had replaced their hats, however, they chose to sit at the same time as the first and second estates. The First Estate were to wear glittering robes, the second estate were to wear silk coats, whilst the third estate were required to wear black coats. There was no question at this point of rudeness towards the King himself, and at this point none of the delegates (including Robespierre) was a republican in their beliefs. There then followed a speech by [[Necker]] on possible solutions to the economic crisis, that was of such length and dullness that Necker had to pass it on to a delegate to complete.

The Third Estate began to win votes in the Estates-Generale by attracting poorer clergy to their side. In an attempt to reassert his control, the king announced on 14 June that Estates-Generale was postponed. However, news of the postponement did not reach the delegates of the Third Estate, who arrived on the 20 June to find the room locked.

Following a period of confusion, Dr [[Guillotin]] (one of the Third Estate delegates) suggested it might be possible to convene at a nearby indoor tennis court and the group of over 500 delegate proceeded to meet at the court. The session was chaired by Bailly (a celebrity astronomer) and Mirabeau proposed that the delegation should not break up until a constitution was passed, which was opposed by only one delegate (Martin d'Auch). In effect the delegates had declared themselves the Government of France, pending a constitution to be organized by [[Mirabeau]].

The [[National Assembly]] approved the “[[Declaration of the Rights of Man]],” which combined ideas of the [[American Declaration of Independence]] with some Enlightenment concepts. The result of this combination had many debatable claims. The entire document is short and worth reading in full: [http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html] .

The King responded by ordering the delegates to disperse, however this had little effect. The following week the King sent a messenger, the Marquis de Breze, to order the finishing of the session. Mirabeau ordered the messenger to leave.
[[Image:David OathHoratti.jpg|left]]
In the last week of June the royal [[Government]] ordered 20,000 troops to march on Paris. It became apparent that compromise was not working. This was emphasized with the replacement of Necker by the hard line [[Baron de Breteuil]]. Thousands took to the streets to demand the reinstatement of [[Necker]], possibly one of the most boring men in history to have ever prompted such a reaction. Mirabeau spoke to the assembly, invoking the oath taken at the tennis court. [[Camille Desmoulins]] had ridden to Versailles to report on events and galloped back to Paris to report on the replacement of Necker.

Crowds marched to [[Abbaye]] prison to demand the release of the soldiers who had been arrested for not firing on the crowds. Troops were offered drinks by the crowd if they shouted 'Viva le tiers-etat'. Dummies of [[Necker]] and [[Duc d'Orleans]] were stolen to be paraded as heroes.

The deputies were now faced with a dilemma, requiring a mass movement for defence of the National Assembly, but fearing crowds getting out of control. Militia were therefore established, that excluded all unemployed and vagrants, and many districts demanded employers' references before admission. Admission varied enormously across districts, with 1,200 being recruited in [[Le Petit-St-Antoine]], but [[Les Minimes]] mustering four.

==Storming of the [[Bastille]]==

With the militia formed to repel the royal troops, there was an urgent need for weapons. The royalist [[Swiss Guard]]s had stored 30,000 pounds in the Bastille, to be used against the National Assembly. On the morning of July 14, 1789 (“[[Bastille Day]]”), a crowd of about a thousand people made up predominantly of small tradesmen arrived at the prison to demand the gun powder be handed over. The prison Governor invited a delegation in for breakfast, which proceeded for three and a half hours. Meanwhile, rumours circulated that royalist troops were committing atrocities across Paris.

A demonstrator outside the Bastille realized he would be able to get to the chains of the drawbridge by climbing from a nearby perfume shop. At this point the prison Governor, [[De Launay]], broke off negotiations and late in the afternoon cannon shots were aimed at the crowd. Two companies of French Guards were persuaded to the Bastille to the defend protesters being killed by cannon fire.

A Swiss Guard handed over the keys to the second drawbridge, leading to a moat. A clerk from a pawn office visited a carpenter and returned with eleven pieces of wood, one of which was able to span the moat. Once inside, seven prisoners were freed, though contrary to what is widely though, this did not include the [[Marquis de Sade]] (he had been moved as he had shouting at passers by through a pipe he had been given to urinate through. This took time however, as the keys to release the cells were the same as the keys to open the first draw bridge and the man with the keys had gone home.

In total six defenders of the Bastille were killed, including De launay, and ninety protestors.

The aftermath was one of euphoria throughout much of [[Paris]]. Much of the nobility proclaimed support for the act, realizing that it was not healthy to oppose public opinion on the matter. [[Louis XVI]] recalled Necker to his job and agreed to recognise the National Assembly, which included the Third Estate delegates, poorer clergy and nobility sympathetic to the Third Estate cause. [[Lafayette]] was appointed head of the police and the army, which was to be known as the National Guard. Bailly became the Mayor of Paris.

The King agreed to come to Paris and accept the gift of a cockade that had become a symbol of the revolution, which the king fastened to his hat, whilst the crowd cheered "Vive le Roi!". Whilst the significance of the day was evident, that it would produce a republic was far from clear. The plan of the King to take Paris with 20,000 troops had failed, but he was able to satisfy the populace that it was not intended and a peaceful resolution was reached. The changes that had so far occurred in a brief period of time were so dramatic that the thought that things could change further was difficult to conceive.

==The Great Fear==

During the week following the storming of the Bastille, news of events spread to the rest of France. This led to a panic as to what the response of the nobility would be to the events, The [[Great Fear]] or panic resulted. Many villages defended themselves against imaginary threats by forming peasant militias; riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes.

The rural uprising prompted the National Assembly to pass a motion to 'destroy the [[feudal]] regime entirely', on August 4th. However, in order to release himself a peasant would have to pay twenty times his annual rent to the landlord, making the measure ineffectual.

==Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen==

The Assembly also passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on the 4th August. This annulled the right of nobles to demand taxes, tithes and labor from peasants working on their family land. The declaration was inspired by the American Revolution and was partially written by LaFayette.

Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.”

Whilst the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”

Some declarations were troublesome; “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law” left questions of definition. Also, the rights of French people to rebel were enshrined in the very constitution itself.

The water wheel was abolished as the method of execution in place of the more humane [[guillotine]]. It is notable that the only delegate to vote for the abolition of the [[death penalty]] was [[Robespierre]].

==A New Government==

France remained a republic. Although a republic has been established in North America at this time and a previous English republic, a European republic was still alien to the thoughts of most French people, including revolutionaries. Negotiations over the new constitution continued, with Mirabeau and Lafayette appealing for calm less the King withdraw from negotiation. [[Jean Paul Marat]] took a less moderate line. Marat argued for universal suffrage and for the King to retain only an advisory role, a constitutional monarchy such as those seen in the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Sweden]] to this day.

==Royal Faux Pas==

On 1st October, 1789, a party was thrown at the [[Palace of Versailles]]. Louis XVI took the cap he had been presented with following the storming of the Bastille and trampled it underfoot. The king later denied this, however several witnesses recalled the incident and news of the incident spread to Paris. A contingent of women raided the Town Hall was raided for weapons and set off from Paris to Versailles, becoming a crowd of 10,000, who were later joined by the National Guard to ensure good order.

Upon the arrival for the group at the palace two guards opened fire, but were interrupted by decapitation. A small delegation of women were permitted to meet the Queen, however one fainted upon witnessing the beauty of the Palace of Versailles. The crowd became impatient by six o'clock the following morning and a militant group of fishwives broke in with a cry of "We are going to cut off her head, tear out her heart, fry her liver and that will not be the end of it"(Documents of the French Revolution, page 62). It was a forceful enough argument to force the Royal family back to Paris, where it was felt it would be possible to keep closer watch. It was also clear by now that the King was in no position to demand a veto.

Antoinette is reputed to have responded unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!” Historians doubt she ever actually said that.

==Anniversary Pledge==

On the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille a large ceremony was held in Paris at which members of the Government and the King pledges themselves to uphold the 'law, the nation and the King'. This represents a compromise in that the King was still seen as central, however all pledges had previously been to the King alone, and the King was required to make no pledge.

==1791 - The King Strikes Back==

In the two years following the storming of the Bastille French society had been transformed. There were an estimated 133 political journals in Paris, Parish priests had been dismissed and replaced by elected Priests. Robespierre had advanced plans for the emancipation of [[Jews]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]], equal treatment of all military ranks and the abolition of the property qualification for the National Guard. Robespierre remained incorruptible at this point, refusing to be the Duc d'Orleans let the luxury affect his judgement.

This situation was intolerable for the Royal Family, who began to organize a foreign force to invade France and restore their power. In December 1790 Louis wrote a secret note to the King of Prussia requesting a European army invade France. Furthermore, the King and Queen (herself Austrian) decided to flee Paris to help organise the invasion force from without France, let their presence in Paris compromise the invasion.

The royal couple decided to disguise themselves and flee across the border, which they did at night setting off at at a seven miles in part due to the weight requirements for the Queen to travel in the least luxury that she expected. The next morning the Kings letter to the National Assembly was found condemning all the measure which he had claimed to support for the previous two years.

The royal party reached [[Ste-Menehould]], where the papers of the party were checked by Drouet, who had been a staunch supporter of the revolution. Despite having seen the servant in the corner and 'struck by the resemblance of his face to the likeness of the King printed on the bank note', in disbelief he allowed the party to continue. Having discussed the incident with his colleague, Guillaume, the two raced to catch up with the party and spread word through the surrounding villages that the Royal family were attempting to flee. The family were captured and returned to Paris, with posters informing the gathering crowd "Whoever applauds the King will be flogged; whoever insults him will be hanged".

Most delegates wished to hold together a compromise, but the Head of State fleeing to lead a hostile invasion of the nation had created difficulties. Many insisted that the King must have been kidnapped. General Bouille wrote a statement confessing his involvement, but many insisted he was lying to implicate the King. While the only punishment towards the King was stripping of his powers of veto on laws and finance, talk began to emerge for the first time of the possibility of a republic. At this point Robespierre and most of the Paris commune strongly opposed the republic, whilst Lafayette rallied to the slogan 'The Revolution is Over'. By then the French Revolution was in full swing.

==Declaration of the Rights of Woman==

In 1791, a French journalist named [[Olympe de Gouges]] proposed a “[[Declaration of the Rights of Woman]],” (inspired by the writings of [[Mary Woolstonecraft]]) but the National Assembly rejected her proposal. She, like many other leaders of that time, was eventually executed by guillotine. Other sans-culotte groups were established including the [[Society of Revolutionary Women]]

==New Start==

Politics in France became divided between the moderate [[Girondins]] and the more radical [[Jacobins]]. At this point the Girondins appeared to be in the stronger position, however the Jacobins were growing in strength. At this point the Jacobins were led by [[Robespierre]], who made a strong speech in favor of a republic.

The French National Assembly established a [[constitutional monarchy]] and, in 1791, adopted a new constitution that created a Legislative Assembly. Three factions quickly formed in the new Legislative Assembly, known as the radicals (liberals), moderates (centrists) and conservatives, similar to those political movements today in the United States. The three factions sat in different sections of the large assembly hall, with the radicals (liberals) sitting on the left, the moderates sitting in the center, and the conservatives sitting on the right. That gave rise to the left-center-right terminology that we still use today in the United States to describe these three political groups.

==German Invasion==

A large number of noblemen had gathered in [[Koblenz]] to form an army to invade France and restore the King to full rule. The emigrants carried stories of atrocities and encouraged reaction against the National Assembly and atrocities associated with lower class democracy. The Duke of Brunswick declared "We will soon be marching on Paris".

This was a matter of some concern in France, as many of the officers that had been in the French army in 1789 had joined the emigrant army in Germany. The Girondins remained confident, but Robespierre saw little cause for initial optimism. The Royal Family strongly supported war with the Prussian and Austrian force in the hope that the French would be defeated and they be restored.

On April 1792, the King declared war on the [[Hapsburg Empire]], who wished to restore his power. The French army suffered a series of defeats along the border, creating optimism in the Royal house. The National Assembly ordered the dispersal of the Kings bodyguard who were supporting the foreign invasion, but this was vetoed by the King. The Assembly then voted for 20,000 French patriots to come from across France to protect Paris, but this was also vetoed by the King.

The use of the royal veto to undermine the defense of France prompted a strong reaction, with demonstrators managing to pour into the royal apartments. The King was forced to wear a red cap while being taunted for several hours with taunts of "Fat Louis" and "Tyrants must Tremble". The time of compromise was nearing an end.

Lafayette planned a coup to restore the old order to as it was in 1787, using the National Guard. This force was resisted by a volunteer group of citizens. Traditionally this latter group are portrayed as ne'er-do-well criminals, however it is questionable whether such groups would march typically 800 miles. The volunteer groups were greeted as heroes in towns they passed through and [[Rouget de Lisle]] composed 'La Marseillaise' as a call to arms.

The war started badly for the French and on 25th July the Duke of Brunswick prepared to March on Paris and pledged to restore the French Royal Family to their original statue, but that he had no intention of meddling in the internal affairs of France. He demanded total surrender or the Prussian and Austrian armies would "take an exemplary and never-to-be-forgotten vengeance, by giving up the town of Paris to military execution..and the guilty rebels to the death they deserve".

==Second Revolution==

Paris was divided, with 20,000 signing a petition to support the full restoration of an absolute monarchy and a foreign army was invading France rapidly. Moderates such as Mme Roland supported withdrawal from Paris, whereas Maton would accept no backward step. On 10th August a larger demonstration marched on the palace demanding the removal of the King.

==Valmy==

The National Assembly called for volunteers to defend the state, with assurances that this army would be different to the one that had gone before and collapsed before the troops of the Duke of Brunswick. The soldiers would sing Les Maseillaise into battle and officers and men would wear similar uniforms. The majority of the officers would be voted for by the soldiers.

The army was formed, and the Duke of Brunswick brought his army round to meet the French on by the village of [[Valmy]]. The French were grouped around a windmill in an area of uncommon tranquillity. The battle involved a day long exchange of cannon fire with little result. The significance of the battle is that the French volunteer troops remained firm.

[[Johann Goethe]] was present at the battle, as one of the troops of the Duke of Brunswick; "In the morning we had been talking of spitting and eating the French. Now everyone was thinking again. Almost everyone remained silent. Only a few men spoke and their reflections seemed illogical or frivolous".

In the opinion of Goethe, what had changed in the French was their spirit. They had won their freedom and did not wish to return to the days before the revolution, they had debated and were politically active. They were therefore able to stand firm. The news of the battle had a strong effect on French national morale, as the French came to believe they could win.

==Republic==

On the day following the [[Battle of Valmy]], the newly elected French Government (the Convention). The Convention declared France to be an 'Indivisible Republic'. The Convention was made of three factions; the [[Girondins]], the [[Montagnards]] Including Robespierre, Danton and Marat) and the [[Grenouilles de la Marais]]. Robespierre won an argument to allow a public gallery for debates.

All factions favored deposing the King, but were far from united beyond that point. The Montannards saw this as the first step to greater social equality, as opined by Robespierre, "Royalty has been destroyed, not the reign of equality is beginning". He attacked the wealthiest businessmen "those goods which are necessary to keep people alive as nothing more than an ordinary item of trade" - a sentiment echoed later by [[Karl Marx]]'s assertion that businessmen see objects not for their usefulness but for their value as commodities.

However, the Jocobin position was far from modern [[Socialism]], as they sought a nation of small property owners. The Government would be elected by property owners. Support for a republic was recently and had little idea of how to progress with the power they now found they had.

The Girdondins accused the Montagnards of preparing a dictatorship. However, the Girdondins had lost credibility by suggesting retreat from Paris and furthermore lacked the social roots that enabled the Montagnards to motivate thousands of volunteers. It reflects on the differing social backgrounds of the delegates that it was at this point Robespirre met a cabinet maker, M. {{Duplay]]. Duplay invited Robespierre back to his flat to meet his family and, finding that the family had been trying to let a spare room, Robespierre moved in. It is worth considering the contrast between the setting of the reign of Louis XVI to Robespierre who, whilst the most powerful man in France, has to queue behind his landlord to use the toilet in the morning.

==Trial of the King==

The King and family were detained in the Temple prison, but retained the trappings of luxury. The King had a library of 1,500 books, still ordered his shoes from his preferred cobbler and the family was provided with servants. The majority of servants remained utterly devoted to the family, feeling their employment to be a sacred duty.

This loyalty was not universal however, a former locksmith of the King revealed to the Paris Commune that there is secret cupboard containing correspondence between the King and invading powers showing collusion. Mirabeau and Lafayette were also implicated, though Mirabeau had no died and Lafayette had fled to [[Austria]].

The trial was debated by a number of key speakers. [[Louis St-Just]] debated the very validity of Kings, that to try the King as a bad King suggested it was possible to be a good, legal King, which was not acceptable. He was opposed by [[Thomas Paine]] who wished the King to be exiled to the [[USA]]. The vote was won for death by 387 to 334.

Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.

==Dechristianization movement==

The measures taken by the Convention to substitute the Revolutionary calendar for the old Christian calendar, and the decrees ordering the municipalities to seize and melt down the bells and treasures of the churches, proved that certain currents prevailed tending to the [[dechristianization]] of France.

The rest of décadi, every tenth day, replaced the Sunday rest. The "missionary representatives", sent to the provinces, closed churches, hunted down citizens suspected of religious practices. Persecution of all religious ideas began. Many churches were forcibly closed and converted into [[Cult of Reason|Temples of Reason]] <ref>John Hall Stewart, ''A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution'', Macmillan, New York, 1963.</ref>

During the first days of the Republic, provision had been made for dating public documents from "the first year of the French Republic," but no definite plan for a revised calendar had been proposed. A decree of 2 January, 1793, provided for the second year of the Republic to begin on 1 January, 1793. The new calendar took form in October and November, and lasted until 1806.

A vital force intended to sustain the political and economic terror was the creation of an ideology based on love of '' la Patrie'', "the Country" or "fatherland", and the subjugation of the individual to the collective will of whole. The Church of Notre-Dame-de-Paris became a temple of Reason, and the feast of Reason was celebrated on 10 November. The idea of honouring the fatherland, which had its origin in the festival of the Federation in 1790 gave rise to successive cults. Chamber Deputy Laloi commented they had "wiped out eighteen centuries of error".

Robespierre adopted the position that from the religious and Republican standpoint the idea of a Supreme Being was advantageous to the State, that religion should dispense with a priesthood, and that priests were to religion what charlatans were to medicine, and that the true priest of the Supreme Being was Nature. The Convention adopted a decree of which the first article was: "The French people recognize the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul". The same decree states that freedom of worship is maintained but adds that in the case of disturbances caused by the exercise of a religion those who "excite them by fanatical preaching or by counter Revolutionary innovations", shall be punished according to the rigour of the law. Thus the condition of the Catholic Church remained equally precarious and the first festival of the Supreme Being was celebrated throughout France on 8 June, 1794. with aggressive splendour. Whereas the Exagérés wished simply to destroy Catholicism, and in the temples of Reason political rather than moral doctrines were taught. Robespierre desired that the civic religion should have a moral code which he based on the two dogmas of God and the immortality of the soul. He was of the opinion that the idea of God had a social value, that public morality depended on it and that Catholics would more readily support the republic under the auspices of a Supreme Being. <ref>Catholic Encyclopdeia, [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13009a.htm French Revolution]</ref>

==Committee of Public Safety==

The Committee of Public Safety was formed in 1793, and passed a rule that Generals were to live in camp with the army. This had the practical effect of testing the belief in equality of the many Nobles in the army. [[General Dumouriez]] made overtures to the Prince of Coburg for the invasion of France and have Louis XVI's son proclaimed King Louis XVII.

By this time many countries, including [[Great Britain]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], had formed a First Coalition to invade France and restore monarchy. The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army. Historians claim women were drafted, but such a politically inspired claim is worth investigating before accepting it. The war lasted for several years, on several fronts, but the First Coalition was eventually defeated.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the [[Reign of Terror]]. [[Maximilian Robespierre]], head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette. In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders [[Georges Danton]] (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and [[Jean-Paul Marat]] (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub. Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory. The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named [[Napoleon]] to lead the French army. The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its [[dictator]], in November 1799.

==Economic controls==

On 29 September, 1793, in the Law of the Maximum was formulated to deal with the steady rise in prices of the necessities of life. Committees of experts had been appointed to study the whole subject. Prices were set at one and one-third its price in 1790, transportation costs were regulated at a fixed rate, a 5 per cent markup was allowed the wholesaler and 10 per cent to the retailer. Bertrand Barrere declared, "The needs of the people will no longer be spied upon in order that the commercial classes may arbitrarily take advantage".

The first result was farmers produced as little as they possibly could. Scarcity increased, and the people of the large cities were put on an rationing. Many shopkeepers went out of business, and the remainder forced buyers to pay enormous charges under the very natural excuse that the seller risked his life in trading at all. That this excuse was valid is easily seen by the daily lists of those condemned to the guillotine, in which not infrequently figure the names of men charged with violating the Maximum laws. Manufactures were crippled and frequently destroyed.

To detect goods concealed by farmers and shopkeepers, a spy system was established with a reward to the informer of one-third of the value of the goods discovered. To spread terror, the Criminal Tribunal at Strassburg was ordered to destroy the dwelling of anyone found guilty of selling goods above the price set by law. The farmer often found that he could not raise his products at anything like the price required by the new law; and when he tried to hold back his crops or cattle, alleging that he could not afford to sell them at the prices fixed by law, they were frequently taken from him by force and he was fortunate if he was paid in the depreciated fiat currency or escaped execution.

The Convention decreed that any person selling gold or silver coin, or making any difference in any transaction between paper banknotes (assignats), and precious metal coin (specie) should be imprisoned in irons for six years; that anyone who refused to accept a payment in assignats, or accepted assignats at a discount, should pay a fine of 3,000 francs; and that anyone committing this crime a second time shou1d pay a fine of 6,000 francs and suffer imprisonment 20 years in irons. Later, on 8 September, 1793, the penalty for such offences was made death, with confiscation of the property of the heirs, and a reward offered to any person informing the authorities regarding any such transaction. The Convention decreed, in May 1794, that the death penalty should be inflicted on any person convicted of 'having asked, before a bargain was concluded, in what money payment was to be made".

Georges Couthon, in August 1793, proposed and won passage of a law punishing any person who should sell assignats at less than their fixed value with imprisonment for 20 years in chains, and later passed a law making investment in foreign countries punishable by death. Prisons, guillotines, enactments inflicting 20 years' imprisonment in chains upon persons twice convicted of buying or selling paper money at less than its nominal value, and death upon investors in foreign securities, still did not stop people from procuring the necessities of life by bargaining and exchange; on 1 August, 1795, the gold louis of 25 francs was worth in paper, 920 francs; on 1 September, 1,200 francs; on 1 November, 2,600 francs; on 1 December, 3,050 francs. In February 1796, it was worth 7,200 francs or one franc in gold was worth 288 francs in paper. Prices of all commodities went up nearly in proportion. <ref>Andrew Dickson White, Fiat Money: Inflation in France, Foundation for Economic Education, Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, 1959, pp. 75-89; first published in 1912 as revised version of 1876 lecture. Reproduced in ''Choice in Currency'', F. A. Hayek, The Institute of Economic Affairs 1976, "A Note on Government Monopoly of Money in Theory and History", [http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-book409pdf?.pdf France, 1789], pgs. 34 - 38.</ref>

==Legacy of the Revolution==

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy. But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror. Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards [[Christianity]] that continues to this day in France.

==References==
<references/>
* [[Simon Schama]], 'Citizens', London 1989.
* 'The French Revolution'
* [[William Doyle]]. ''Oxford history of the French Revolution'', 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X

== See also ==

*[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]

[[Category:French Revolution| ]]
[[Category:French History]]

French Revolution

2008-10-08T21:18:43Z

Hugjan:

[[Image:Delacroix La liberte guidant le peuple.jpg|250px|right|La liberte guidant le peuple]]
'''The French Revolution''' is one of the most famous revolutions in all of history. It started out with hope and promise, but then there was a "[[Reign of Terror]]", a chaos wherein anyone could be killed at any time. At least 18,000 people were executed on the [[guillotine]], and perhaps as many as 40,000 were. The cause was "the overthrow of religion, government and human society ... Murder, butchery and war ... are declared by them to be completely justifiable ...."<ref>Yale President Timothy Dwight (the grandson of [[Jonathan Edwards]]), http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-22&view=View</ref> Anyway the main goal of the French Revolution is the changemment of the European absolutistic system. Revolutionary ideals became the seed of Democracy and Liberalism in Europe.

Before the Revolution, [[France]] had three levels in its social system: The First, Second, and Third Estates. The [[First Estate]] was about 1% of the population, but it controlled 10% of the land. The First Estate consisted of the clergy, and they did not pay any taxes. The [[Second Estate]] was about 2% of the population and they controlled 20% of the land. These were the nobility, and they too payed very little taxes. The [[Third Estate]] was everyone else, and they were badly overtaxed by the monarch. This overtaxing was a major cause of the [[French]] Revolution.

The leaders of the Third Estate were the middle class, called the [[bourgeoisie]]. They were educated in the ideas of the [[Enlightenment]], most importantly [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]. Rousseau's book, "The Social Contract" supported a [[direct democracy]], rather that the republican government that had been adopted in [[America]]. The social contract spoke against titles for nobility and demanded complete equality for all people. These ideas later inspired the Liberal and Democratic movements in XIX Century.

==Chronology of the French Revolution==

In 1785 a drought led to the poorest harvest in France for many years. Realizing the need to increase taxes, the [[King]] imposed measures such as building a wall around [[Paris]] to act as a customs post. In 1787 he called a meeting of 144 leading nobles to attempt to persuade them to pay tax in return for increased powers. The nobles refused his requests and were supported by the local assembly; the Parlement de Paris.

The King withdrew his demands at this challenge to his authority, which was greeted by thousands taking to the street to celebrate. When troops were ordered to "Get some lead into the bastards' backsides", they fired into the air instead. In hindsight this can be seen as the start of dissent. It is notable that the initiators of this unrest were the upper classes, who had little reason to think there was any thirst for revolution. In April 1787, [[Calonne]] resigned in disgrace and the middle classes, strengthened by the protests, began to demand an Estates-Generale, a Parliament in which they would be represented.

==1789 - Year of Revolution==

With growing unrest and France nearing bankruptcy, the King agreed to call the Estates-Generale in May 1789. The [[Estate-Generale]] was divided into the three estates, with the first two estates (nobility and clergy) electing their representatives. The third estate representation required a series of elections in which all property owners over the age of twenty-five were eligible to take part. They elected a group of electors, who in turn chose delegates. The delegates themselves were overwhelmingly middle class, including the young lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]]. Furthermore, the Third Estate was required to produce a list of grievances.

Between 25,000 and 60,000 documents were filed with grievances. Thousands demanded a constitution, reorganization of the clergy, lessening of the tax burden and an end to [[Royal]] waste. Few of these demands could be resolved without challenging the basis of [[Absolute Monarchy]]. However, not one of these document has been found to advocate abolition of the monarchy, with the large majority requesting moderate reform and many including expression of adoration towards the King.

The Estates-General had not met in 175 years and retained many of its former characteristics. Each Estate had one vote in the Assembly, such that the First and Second Estates could always outvote the Third Estate. That was acceptable in the early 1600s, but the Third Estate would not allow this in 1789 after learning the Enlightenment ideas. By this time the alliance between the nobility and the third estate had broken down; the nobles may have called a march, but they drew the line at burning down tax offices. The Third Estate wanted a system of one vote per delegate, which would have given the Third Estate the same number of votes as the First and Second Estate combined.

The opening of the Estates-Generale did not bode well. The opening session was in an open coach house, which meant that the Third Estate struggled to hear the proceedings as they were on wooden benches at the far end of the room. Upon the entry of the King, the first and second estates were expected to remove their hats and sit down after the King, before replacing their hats. The Third Estate were expected to remain standing until after the first and second estates had replaced their hats, however, they chose to sit at the same time as the first and second estates. The First Estate were to wear glittering robes, the second estate were to wear silk coats, whilst the third estate were required to wear black coats. There was no question at this point of rudeness towards the King himself, and at this point none of the delegates (including Robespierre) was a republican in their beliefs. There then followed a speech by [[Necker]] on possible solutions to the economic crisis, that was of such length and dullness that Necker had to pass it on to a delegate to complete.

The Third Estate began to win votes in the Estates-Generale by attracting poorer clergy to their side. In an attempt to reassert his control, the king announced on 14 June that Estates-Generale was postponed. However, news of the postponement did not reach the delegates of the Third Estate, who arrived on the 20 June to find the room locked.

Following a period of confusion, Dr [[Guillotin]] (one of the Third Estate delegates) suggested it might be possible to convene at a nearby indoor tennis court and the group of over 500 delegate proceeded to meet at the court. The session was chaired by Bailly (a celebrity astronomer) and Mirabeau proposed that the delegation should not break up until a constitution was passed, which was opposed by only one delegate (Martin d'Auch). In effect the delegates had declared themselves the Government of France, pending a constitution to be organized by [[Mirabeau]].

The [[National Assembly]] approved the “[[Declaration of the Rights of Man]],” which combined ideas of the [[American Declaration of Independence]] with some Enlightenment concepts. The result of this combination had many debatable claims. The entire document is short and worth reading in full: [http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html] .

The King responded by ordering the delegates to disperse, however this had little effect. The following week the King sent a messenger, the Marquis de Breze, to order the finishing of the session. Mirabeau ordered the messenger to leave.
[[Image:David OathHoratti.jpg|left]]
In the last week of June the royal [[Government]] ordered 20,000 troops to march on Paris. It became apparent that compromise was not working. This was emphasized with the replacement of Necker by the hard line [[Baron de Breteuil]]. Thousands took to the streets to demand the reinstatement of [[Necker]], possibly one of the most boring men in history to have ever prompted such a reaction. Mirabeau spoke to the assembly, invoking the oath taken at the tennis court. [[Camille Desmoulins]] had ridden to Versailles to report on events and galloped back to Paris to report on the replacement of Necker.

Crowds marched to [[Abbaye]] prison to demand the release of the soldiers who had been arrested for not firing on the crowds. Troops were offered drinks by the crowd if they shouted 'Viva le tiers-etat'. Dummies of [[Necker]] and [[Duc d'Orleans]] were stolen to be paraded as heroes.

The deputies were now faced with a dilemma, requiring a mass movement for defence of the National Assembly, but fearing crowds getting out of control. Militia were therefore established, that excluded all unemployed and vagrants, and many districts demanded employers' references before admission. Admission varied enormously across districts, with 1,200 being recruited in [[Le Petit-St-Antoine]], but [[Les Minimes]] mustering four.

==Storming of the [[Bastille]]==

With the militia formed to repel the royal troops, there was an urgent need for weapons. The royalist [[Swiss Guard]]s had stored 30,000 pounds in the Bastille, to be used against the National Assembly. On the morning of July 14, 1789 (“[[Bastille Day]]”), a crowd of about a thousand people made up predominantly of small tradesmen arrived at the prison to demand the gun powder be handed over. The prison Governor invited a delegation in for breakfast, which proceeded for three and a half hours. Meanwhile, rumours circulated that royalist troops were committing atrocities across Paris.

A demonstrator outside the Bastille realized he would be able to get to the chains of the drawbridge by climbing from a nearby perfume shop. At this point the prison Governor, [[De Launay]], broke off negotiations and late in the afternoon cannon shots were aimed at the crowd. Two companies of French Guards were persuaded to the Bastille to the defend protesters being killed by cannon fire.

A Swiss Guard handed over the keys to the second drawbridge, leading to a moat. A clerk from a pawn office visited a carpenter and returned with eleven pieces of wood, one of which was able to span the moat. Once inside, seven prisoners were freed, though contrary to what is widely though, this did not include the [[Marquis de Sade]] (he had been moved as he had shouting at passers by through a pipe he had been given to urinate through. This took time however, as the keys to release the cells were the same as the keys to open the first draw bridge and the man with the keys had gone home.

In total six defenders of the Bastille were killed, including De launay, and ninety protestors.

The aftermath was one of euphoria throughout much of [[Paris]]. Much of the nobility proclaimed support for the act, realizing that it was not healthy to oppose public opinion on the matter. [[Louis XVI]] recalled Necker to his job and agreed to recognise the National Assembly, which included the Third Estate delegates, poorer clergy and nobility sympathetic to the Third Estate cause. [[Lafayette]] was appointed head of the police and the army, which was to be known as the National Guard. Bailly became the Mayor of Paris.

The King agreed to come to Paris and accept the gift of a cockade that had become a symbol of the revolution, which the king fastened to his hat, whilst the crowd cheered "Vive le Roi!". Whilst the significance of the day was evident, that it would produce a republic was far from clear. The plan of the King to take Paris with 20,000 troops had failed, but he was able to satisfy the populace that it was not intended and a peaceful resolution was reached. The changes that had so far occurred in a brief period of time were so dramatic that the thought that things could change further was difficult to conceive.

==The Great Fear==

During the week following the storming of the Bastille, news of events spread to the rest of France. This led to a panic as to what the response of the nobility would be to the events, The [[Great Fear]] or panic resulted. Many villages defended themselves against imaginary threats by forming peasant militias; riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes.

The rural uprising prompted the National Assembly to pass a motion to 'destroy the [[feudal]] regime entirely', on August 4th. However, in order to release himself a peasant would have to pay twenty times his annual rent to the landlord, making the measure ineffectual.

==Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen==

The Assembly also passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on the 4th August. This annulled the right of nobles to demand taxes, tithes and labor from peasants working on their family land. The declaration was inspired by the American Revolution and was partially written by LaFayette.

Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.”

Whilst the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”

Some declarations were troublesome; “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law” left questions of definition. Also, the rights of French people to rebel were enshrined in the very constitution itself.

The water wheel was abolished as the method of execution in place of the more humane [[guillotine]]. It is notable that the only delegate to vote for the abolition of the [[death penalty]] was [[Robespierre]].

==A New Government==

France remained a republic. Although a republic has been established in North America at this time and a previous English republic, a European republic was still alien to the thoughts of most French people, including revolutionaries. Negotiations over the new constitution continued, with Mirabeau and Lafayette appealing for calm less the King withdraw from negotiation. [[Jean Paul Marat]] took a less moderate line. Marat argued for universal suffrage and for the King to retain only an advisory role, a constitutional monarchy such as those seen in the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Sweden]] to this day.

==Royal Faux Pas==

On 1st October, 1789, a party was thrown at the [[Palace of Versailles]]. Louis XVI took the cap he had been presented with following the storming of the Bastille and trampled it underfoot. The king later denied this, however several witnesses recalled the incident and news of the incident spread to Paris. A contingent of women raided the Town Hall was raided for weapons and set off from Paris to Versailles, becoming a crowd of 10,000, who were later joined by the National Guard to ensure good order.

Upon the arrival for the group at the palace two guards opened fire, but were interrupted by decapitation. A small delegation of women were permitted to meet the Queen, however one fainted upon witnessing the beauty of the Palace of Versailles. The crowd became impatient by six o'clock the following morning and a militant group of fishwives broke in with a cry of "We are going to cut off her head, tear out her heart, fry her liver and that will not be the end of it"(Documents of the French Revolution, page 62). It was a forceful enough argument to force the Royal family back to Paris, where it was felt it would be possible to keep closer watch. It was also clear by now that the King was in no position to demand a veto.

Antoinette is reputed to have responded unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!” Historians doubt she ever actually said that.

==Anniversary Pledge==

On the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille a large ceremony was held in Paris at which members of the Government and the King pledges themselves to uphold the 'law, the nation and the King'. This represents a compromise in that the King was still seen as central, however all pledges had previously been to the King alone, and the King was required to make no pledge.

==1791 - The King Strikes Back==

In the two years following the storming of the Bastille French society had been transformed. There were an estimated 133 political journals in Paris, Parish priests had been dismissed and replaced by elected Priests. Robespierre had advanced plans for the emancipation of [[Jews]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]], equal treatment of all military ranks and the abolition of the property qualification for the National Guard. Robespierre remained incorruptible at this point, refusing to be the Duc d'Orleans let the luxury affect his judgement.

This situation was intolerable for the Royal Family, who began to organize a foreign force to invade France and restore their power. In December 1790 Louis wrote a secret note to the King of Prussia requesting a European army invade France. Furthermore, the King and Queen (herself Austrian) decided to flee Paris to help organise the invasion force from without France, let their presence in Paris compromise the invasion.

The royal couple decided to disguise themselves and flee across the border, which they did at night setting off at at a seven miles in part due to the weight requirements for the Queen to travel in the least luxury that she expected. The next morning the Kings letter to the National Assembly was found condemning all the measure which he had claimed to support for the previous two years.

The royal party reached [[Ste-Menehould]], where the papers of the party were checked by Drouet, who had been a staunch supporter of the revolution. Despite having seen the servant in the corner and 'struck by the resemblance of his face to the likeness of the King printed on the bank note', in disbelief he allowed the party to continue. Having discussed the incident with his colleague, Guillaume, the two raced to catch up with the party and spread word through the surrounding villages that the Royal family were attempting to flee. The family were captured and returned to Paris, with posters informing the gathering crowd "Whoever applauds the King will be flogged; whoever insults him will be hanged".

Most delegates wished to hold together a compromise, but the Head of State fleeing to lead a hostile invasion of the nation had created difficulties. Many insisted that the King must have been kidnapped. General Bouille wrote a statement confessing his involvement, but many insisted he was lying to implicate the King. While the only punishment towards the King was stripping of his powers of veto on laws and finance, talk began to emerge for the first time of the possibility of a republic. At this point Robespierre and most of the Paris commune strongly opposed the republic, whilst Lafayette rallied to the slogan 'The Revolution is Over'. By then the French Revolution was in full swing.

==Declaration of the Rights of Woman==

In 1791, a French journalist named [[Olympe de Gouges]] proposed a “[[Declaration of the Rights of Woman]],” (inspired by the writings of [[Mary Woolstonecraft]]) but the National Assembly rejected her proposal. She, like many other leaders of that time, was eventually executed by guillotine. Other sans-culotte groups were established including the [[Society of Revolutionary Women]]

==New Start==

Politics in France became divided between the moderate [[Girondins]] and the more radical [[Jacobins]]. At this point the Girondins appeared to be in the stronger position, however the Jacobins were growing in strength. At this point the Jacobins were led by [[Robespierre]], who made a strong speech in favor of a republic.

The French National Assembly established a [[constitutional monarchy]] and, in 1791, adopted a new constitution that created a Legislative Assembly. Three factions quickly formed in the new Legislative Assembly, known as the radicals (liberals), moderates (centrists) and conservatives, similar to those political movements today in the United States. The three factions sat in different sections of the large assembly hall, with the radicals (liberals) sitting on the left, the moderates sitting in the center, and the conservatives sitting on the right. That gave rise to the left-center-right terminology that we still use today in the United States to describe these three political groups.

==German Invasion==

A large number of noblemen had gathered in [[Koblenz]] to form an army to invade France and restore the King to full rule. The emigrants carried stories of atrocities and encouraged reaction against the National Assembly and atrocities associated with lower class democracy. The Duke of Brunswick declared "We will soon be marching on Paris".

This was a matter of some concern in France, as many of the officers that had been in the French army in 1789 had joined the emigrant army in Germany. The Girondins remained confident, but Robespierre saw little cause for initial optimism. The Royal Family strongly supported war with the Prussian and Austrian force in the hope that the French would be defeated and they be restored.

On April 1792, the King declared war on the [[Hapsburg Empire]], who wished to restore his power. The French army suffered a series of defeats along the border, creating optimism in the Royal house. The National Assembly ordered the dispersal of the Kings bodyguard who were supporting the foreign invasion, but this was vetoed by the King. The Assembly then voted for 20,000 French patriots to come from across France to protect Paris, but this was also vetoed by the King.

The use of the royal veto to undermine the defense of France prompted a strong reaction, with demonstrators managing to pour into the royal apartments. The King was forced to wear a red cap while being taunted for several hours with taunts of "Fat Louis" and "Tyrants must Tremble". The time of compromise was nearing an end.

Lafayette planned a coup to restore the old order to as it was in 1787, using the National Guard. This force was resisted by a volunteer group of citizens. Traditionally this latter group are portrayed as ne'er-do-well criminals, however it is questionable whether such groups would march typically 800 miles. The volunteer groups were greeted as heroes in towns they passed through and [[Rouget de Lisle]] composed 'La Marseillaise' as a call to arms.

The war started badly for the French and on 25th July the Duke of Brunswick prepared to March on Paris and pledged to restore the French Royal Family to their original statue, but that he had no intention of meddling in the internal affairs of France. He demanded total surrender or the Prussian and Austrian armies would "take an exemplary and never-to-be-forgotten vengeance, by giving up the town of Paris to military execution..and the guilty rebels to the death they deserve".

==Second Revolution==

Paris was divided, with 20,000 signing a petition to support the full restoration of an absolute monarchy and a foreign army was invading France rapidly. Moderates such as Mme Roland supported withdrawal from Paris, whereas Maton would accept no backward step. On 10th August a larger demonstration marched on the palace demanding the removal of the King.

==Valmy==

The National Assembly called for volunteers to defend the state, with assurances that this army would be different to the one that had gone before and collapsed before the troops of the Duke of Brunswick. The soldiers would sing Les Maseillaise into battle and officers and men would wear similar uniforms. The majority of the officers would be voted for by the soldiers.

The army was formed, and the Duke of Brunswick brought his army round to meet the French on by the village of [[Valmy]]. The French were grouped around a windmill in an area of uncommon tranquillity. The battle involved a day long exchange of cannon fire with little result. The significance of the battle is that the French volunteer troops remained firm.

[[Johann Goethe]] was present at the battle, as one of the troops of the Duke of Brunswick; "In the morning we had been talking of spitting and eating the French. Now everyone was thinking again. Almost everyone remained silent. Only a few men spoke and their reflections seemed illogical or frivolous".

In the opinion of Goethe, what had changed in the French was their spirit. They had won their freedom and did not wish to return to the days before the revolution, they had debated and were politically active. They were therefore able to stand firm. The news of the battle had a strong effect on French national morale, as the French came to believe they could win.

==Republic==

On the day following the [[Battle of Valmy]], the newly elected French Government (the Convention). The Convention declared France to be an 'Indivisible Republic'. The Convention was made of three factions; the [[Girondins]], the [[Montagnards]] Including Robespierre, Danton and Marat) and the [[Grenouilles de la Marais]]. Robespierre won an argument to allow a public gallery for debates.

All factions favored deposing the King, but were far from united beyond that point. The Montannards saw this as the first step to greater social equality, as opined by Robespierre, "Royalty has been destroyed, not the reign of equality is beginning". He attacked the wealthiest businessmen "those goods which are necessary to keep people alive as nothing more than an ordinary item of trade" - a sentiment echoed later by [[Karl Marx]]'s assertion that businessmen see objects not for their usefulness but for their value as commodities.

However, the Jocobin position was far from modern [[Socialism]], as they sought a nation of small property owners. The Government would be elected by property owners. Support for a republic was recently and had little idea of how to progress with the power they now found they had.

The Girdondins accused the Montagnards of preparing a dictatorship. However, the Girdondins had lost credibility by suggesting retreat from Paris and furthermore lacked the social roots that enabled the Montagnards to motivate thousands of volunteers. It reflects on the differing social backgrounds of the delegates that it was at this point Robespirre met a cabinet maker, M. {{Duplay]]. Duplay invited Robespierre back to his flat to meet his family and, finding that the family had been trying to let a spare room, Robespierre moved in. It is worth considering the contrast between the setting of the reign of Louis XVI to Robespierre who, whilst the most powerful man in France, has to queue behind his landlord to use the toilet in the morning.

==Trial of the King==

The King and family were detained in the Temple prison, but retained the trappings of luxury. The King had a library of 1,500 books, still ordered his shoes from his preferred cobbler and the family was provided with servants. The majority of servants remained utterly devoted to the family, feeling their employment to be a sacred duty.

This loyalty was not universal however, a former locksmith of the King revealed to the Paris Commune that there is secret cupboard containing correspondence between the King and invading powers showing collusion. Mirabeau and Lafayette were also implicated, though Mirabeau had no died and Lafayette had fled to [[Austria]].

The trial was debated by a number of key speakers. [[Louis St-Just]] debated the very validity of Kings, that to try the King as a bad King suggested it was possible to be a good, legal King, which was not acceptable. He was opposed by [[Thomas Paine]] who wished the King to be exiled to the [[USA]]. The vote was won for death by 387 to 334.

Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.

==Dechristianization movement==

The measures taken by the Convention to substitute the Revolutionary calendar for the old Christian calendar, and the decrees ordering the municipalities to seize and melt down the bells and treasures of the churches, proved that certain currents prevailed tending to the [[dechristianization]] of France.

The rest of décadi, every tenth day, replaced the Sunday rest. The "missionary representatives", sent to the provinces, closed churches, hunted down citizens suspected of religious practices. Persecution of all religious ideas began. Many churches were forcibly closed and converted into [[Cult of Reason|Temples of Reason]] <ref>John Hall Stewart, ''A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution'', Macmillan, New York, 1963.</ref>

During the first days of the Republic, provision had been made for dating public documents from "the first year of the French Republic," but no definite plan for a revised calendar had been proposed. A decree of 2 January, 1793, provided for the second year of the Republic to begin on 1 January, 1793. The new calendar took form in October and November, and lasted until 1806.

A vital force intended to sustain the political and economic terror was the creation of an ideology based on love of '' la Patrie'', "the Country" or "fatherland", and the subjugation of the individual to the collective will of whole. The Church of Notre-Dame-de-Paris became a temple of Reason, and the feast of Reason was celebrated on 10 November. The idea of honouring the fatherland, which had its origin in the festival of the Federation in 1790 gave rise to successive cults. Chamber Deputy Laloi commented they had "wiped out eighteen centuries of error".

Robespierre adopted the position that from the religious and Republican standpoint the idea of a Supreme Being was advantageous to the State, that religion should dispense with a priesthood, and that priests were to religion what charlatans were to medicine, and that the true priest of the Supreme Being was Nature. The Convention adopted a decree of which the first article was: "The French people recognize the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul". The same decree states that freedom of worship is maintained but adds that in the case of disturbances caused by the exercise of a religion those who "excite them by fanatical preaching or by counter Revolutionary innovations", shall be punished according to the rigour of the law. Thus the condition of the Catholic Church remained equally precarious and the first festival of the Supreme Being was celebrated throughout France on 8 June, 1794. with aggressive splendour. Whereas the Exagérés wished simply to destroy Catholicism, and in the temples of Reason political rather than moral doctrines were taught. Robespierre desired that the civic religion should have a moral code which he based on the two dogmas of God and the immortality of the soul. He was of the opinion that the idea of God had a social value, that public morality depended on it and that Catholics would more readily support the republic under the auspices of a Supreme Being. <ref>Catholic Encyclopdeia, [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13009a.htm French Revolution]</ref>

==Committee of Public Safety==

The Committee of Public Safety was formed in 1793, and passed a rule that Generals were to live in camp with the army. This had the practical effect of testing the belief in equality of the many Nobles in the army. [[General Dumouriez]] made overtures to the Prince of Coburg for the invasion of France and have Louis XVI's son proclaimed King Louis XVII.

By this time many countries, including [[Great Britain]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], had formed a First Coalition to invade France and restore monarchy. The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army. Historians claim women were drafted, but such a politically inspired claim is worth investigating before accepting it. The war lasted for several years, on several fronts, but the First Coalition was eventually defeated.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the [[Reign of Terror]]. [[Maximilian Robespierre]], head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette. In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders [[Georges Danton]] (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and [[Jean-Paul Marat]] (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub. Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory. The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named [[Napoleon]] to lead the French army. The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its [[dictator]], in November 1799.

==Economic controls==

On 29 September, 1793, in the Law of the Maximum was formulated to deal with the steady rise in prices of the necessities of life. Committees of experts had been appointed to study the whole subject. Prices were set at one and one-third its price in 1790, transportation costs were regulated at a fixed rate, a 5 per cent markup was allowed the wholesaler and 10 per cent to the retailer. Bertrand Barrere declared, "The needs of the people will no longer be spied upon in order that the commercial classes may arbitrarily take advantage".

The first result was farmers produced as little as they possibly could. Scarcity increased, and the people of the large cities were put on an rationing. Many shopkeepers went out of business, and the remainder forced buyers to pay enormous charges under the very natural excuse that the seller risked his life in trading at all. That this excuse was valid is easily seen by the daily lists of those condemned to the guillotine, in which not infrequently figure the names of men charged with violating the Maximum laws. Manufactures were crippled and frequently destroyed.

To detect goods concealed by farmers and shopkeepers, a spy system was established with a reward to the informer of one-third of the value of the goods discovered. To spread terror, the Criminal Tribunal at Strassburg was ordered to destroy the dwelling of anyone found guilty of selling goods above the price set by law. The farmer often found that he could not raise his products at anything like the price required by the new law; and when he tried to hold back his crops or cattle, alleging that he could not afford to sell them at the prices fixed by law, they were frequently taken from him by force and he was fortunate if he was paid in the depreciated fiat currency or escaped execution.

The Convention decreed that any person selling gold or silver coin, or making any difference in any transaction between paper banknotes (assignats), and precious metal coin (specie) should be imprisoned in irons for six years; that anyone who refused to accept a payment in assignats, or accepted assignats at a discount, should pay a fine of 3,000 francs; and that anyone committing this crime a second time shou1d pay a fine of 6,000 francs and suffer imprisonment 20 years in irons. Later, on 8 September, 1793, the penalty for such offences was made death, with confiscation of the property of the heirs, and a reward offered to any person informing the authorities regarding any such transaction. The Convention decreed, in May 1794, that the death penalty should be inflicted on any person convicted of 'having asked, before a bargain was concluded, in what money payment was to be made".

Georges Couthon, in August 1793, proposed and won passage of a law punishing any person who should sell assignats at less than their fixed value with imprisonment for 20 years in chains, and later passed a law making investment in foreign countries punishable by death. Prisons, guillotines, enactments inflicting 20 years' imprisonment in chains upon persons twice convicted of buying or selling paper money at less than its nominal value, and death upon investors in foreign securities, still did not stop people from procuring the necessities of life by bargaining and exchange; on 1 August, 1795, the gold louis of 25 francs was worth in paper, 920 francs; on 1 September, 1,200 francs; on 1 November, 2,600 francs; on 1 December, 3,050 francs. In February 1796, it was worth 7,200 francs or one franc in gold was worth 288 francs in paper. Prices of all commodities went up nearly in proportion. <ref>Andrew Dickson White, Fiat Money: Inflation in France, Foundation for Economic Education, Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, 1959, pp. 75-89; first published in 1912 as revised version of 1876 lecture. Reproduced in ''Choice in Currency'', F. A. Hayek, The Institute of Economic Affairs 1976, "A Note on Government Monopoly of Money in Theory and History", [http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-book409pdf?.pdf France, 1789], pgs. 34 - 38.</ref>

==Legacy of the Revolution==

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy. But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror. Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards [[Christianity]] that continues to this day in France.

==References==
<references/>
* [[Simon Schama]], 'Citizens', London 1989.
* 'The French Revolution'
* [[William Doyle]]. ''Oxford history of the French Revolution'', 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X

== See also ==

*[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]

[[Category:French Revolution| ]]
[[Category:French History]]

Napoleon Bonaparte

2008-10-08T21:09:09Z

Hugjan:

'''Napoleon''' ('''Napoleon Bonaparte''' or, after 1804, '''Napoleon I, Emperor of the French''') was a world historic figure and First Consul of France of [[France]] from 1799 to 1804 and Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814 and from 1 March to 22 June 1815. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended it when he became dictator in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804 He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

He fought an unending series of wars against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies and abdicated in 1814. In 1815 he returned from exile, took control of France, built a new army, and in 100 days almost succeeded--but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to a remote island. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]

==Origins==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa ([[Italy]]). He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer with some claim to noble rank; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility.

Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, a pauper even among the aristocratic poor, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in [[Paris]] to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made 5 extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]

==Rise to Power==
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off [[Egypt]]. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Marmelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref>

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), and closed down the council of five hundred. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

The treaty of Tilsit in 1807 ended the War of the Third Coalition--in which Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated in turn and Napoleon gained control of most of the continent.

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a [[combined arms]] formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for [[military synchronization|synchronizing]] operations, than had previous military commanders.

His failure in [[Russia]] was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The corps was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated logistics (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight. At the same time the British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancien régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

[[Religion]] had been a major issue during the [[Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>

The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible. He kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personalities neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by J. L. David]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

== See also ==

*[[Horatio Nelson]]
*[[George C. Marshall]]
*[[Porfirio Diaz]]

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The Wars of Napoleon'' (1995)
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812-14)." ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 2006 7(2): 283-308. Issn: 1531-023x Fulltext: in Project Muse. Argues Alexander's successful strategy has been neglected
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}}

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French People]]

Archaeology

2008-09-19T13:03:57Z

Hugjan:

'''Archaeology''' (or '''archeology''') is the branch of American [[Anthropology]] that reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behavior and [[cultural]] patterns through material remains such as [[artifact]]s, ecofacts, and lithics.<ref>Kottak, Conrad. 2005. ''Window on humanity: A Concise Introduction to Anthropology'' New York: McGraw-Hill</ref> In most European universities, Archaeology is typically a part of the history department. Archaeologists generally are divided by specialty. Historic archaeologists concentrate on sites and cultures associated with modern times. Classical archaeologists are interested in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and other similar societies. [[Prehistoric]] archaeologists tend to concentrate on societies not possesing a written language. There is also the field of Cultural Resource Management, or Applied Archaeology, which is entailed with screening for, and then preserving archaeological sites. There is also a number of [[Biblical]] archaeologists interested in excavating sites related to Biblical stories or timeframes.

Archaeologists rely on the careful [[excavation]] interpretation of artfacts in order to explore the past. The quinesential experience of all archaeologists is the "dig", or field excavation. In actuality, an excavation is nothing more than very precise, very scientific hole digging. Archaeologists must measure and record the exact position in three dimensions of an artifact, and also note differences in soil composition, stratification, color, and consistency. When an arcaheological dig is complete, the researchers must be able to reconstruct the exact locations of all the artifacts and ecofacts that were removed from the site. Failure to do this results in a loss of context, and ultimately data that are unusable.

==See Also==

* [[Israel Tourism]] for biblical archaeological and other sites of Israel
* [[Church#The possibly first church structure|The possibly first church structure]]
* [[Göbekli Tepe]], the most ancient discovered temple built in the 10th millennium BC, ca 11,500 years ago.

== Refs ==
<References/>

[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:History]]

Archaeology

2008-09-19T13:03:39Z

Hugjan: /* See Also */

'''Archaeology''' (or '''archeology''') is the branch of American [[Anthropology]] that reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behavior and [[cultural]] patterns through material remains such as [[artifact]]s, ecofacts, and lithics.<ref>Kottak, Conrad. 2005. ''Window on humanity: A Concise Introduction to Anthropology'' New York: McGraw-Hill</ref> In most European universities, Archaeology is typically a part of the history department. Archaeologists generally are divided by specialty. Historic archaeologists concentrate on sites and cultures associated with modern times. Classical archaeologists are interested in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and other similar societies. [[Prehistoric]] archaeologists tend to concentrate on societies not possesing a written language. There is also the field of Cultural Resource Management, or Applied Archaeology, which is entailed with screening for, and then preserving archaeological sites. There is also a number of [[Biblical]] archaeologists interested in excavating sites related to Biblical stories or timeframes.

Archaeologists rely on the careful [[excavation]] interpretation of artfacts in order to explore the past. The quinesential experience of all archaeologists is the "dig", or field excavation. In actuality, an excavation is nothing more than very precise, very scientific hole digging. Archaeologists must measure and record the exact position in three dimensions of an artifact, and also note differences in soil composition, stratification, color, and consistency. When an arcaheological dig is complete, the researchers must be able to reconstruct the exact locations of all the artifacts and ecofacts that were removed from the site. Failure to do this results in a loss of context, and ultimately data that are unusable.

==See Also==

* [[Israel Tourism]] for biblical archaeological and other sites of Israel
* [[Church#The possibly first church structure|The possibly first church structure]]
* [[Göbekli Tepe]] the most ancient discovered temple built in the 10th millennium BC, ca 11,500 years ago.

== Refs ==
<References/>

[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:History]]

Torah

2008-09-19T12:51:54Z

Hugjan:

'''Torah''' (Hebrew: '''תורה''') is the [[Hebrew]] word meaning ''"teaching"''. Its root means ''to throw'' or ''shoot an arrow.'' God uses this word in scripture to signify His teaching to His people. When Torah is mentioned it is most often associated with the Torah of [[Moses]], or [[Pentateuch]], which is the first five books of the Bible ([[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Numbers]], and [[Deuteronomy]]) written down, in traditional view, by [[Moses]].

However, God uses the word Torah to signify His instructions ''throughout'' the Hebrew scriptures, including the [[Prophet]]s and the [[Psalms]]. Since all of His Word is His Teaching, all of it is His Torah.

[[Christian]]s usually call the Torah "the Law," because most English translations of scripture translate "torah" as "law". The reason this came about is because rabbis before the time of Christianity are alleged to have translated the Torah into [[Greek]], called the [[Septuagint]]. Other works were later added to it anonymously. The Septuagint translated "torah" into the Greek word "nomia". Nomia was used in Greek culture to mean "an unalterable law". Following this tradition, the Greek [[New Testament]] also used nomia to signify the torah. The Torah ''is'' unalterable, and technically it ''is'' law, since breaking it does have penal consequences. However, the Torah is first of all the teaching of a protective parent who loves His children enough to preserve them in righteousness.

This is the way which God wanted His people to view His instructions. To view Torah as arbitrary condemnatory legalese, used as tedious entrapment against mankind, is the gravest of misconceptions. Many have had this erroneous view of Torah, and thus feel impelled to find an excuse to discount or destroy its value.

Another Greek word used in the New Testament is ''"dogma"''. Sometimes this word is incorrectly translated as ''"ordinances"'', but the proper translation is ''"the authoritative opinions of men"''. This word is confused with nomia, and thus Torah, by many, yet they have nothing in common. It is dogma which Jesus has overcome and put away, but He Himself said the Torah would never, in time, pass away, because the Torah is His Word.

{{Bible quote|18For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. 19Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
|book=Matthew|chap=5|verses=18-19|version=KJV}}

Since the New Testament confirms that the Torah is holy, righteous and good ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%207:12;&version=9; Romans 7:12]), Torah cannot in any way be a thing to be disdained or disregarded by true Bible believers. Also, Bible believers should consider that the very concept of Torah must include ALL that God ever commanded to be written as His instruction. If you believe the New Testament was given by God, then that makes it a part of Torah. Thus, to disdain Torah is to disdain the New Testament also. The Most High does not differentiate His Word, since He is always the same.

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Judaism]]

Torah

2008-09-19T12:51:22Z

Hugjan:

'''Torah''' (Hebrew: '''תורה''') is the [[Hebrew]] word meaning ''"teaching"''. Its root means ''to throw'' or ''shoot an arrow.'' God uses this word in scripture to signify His teaching to His people. When Torah is mentioned it is most often associated with the Torah of [[Moses]], or [[Pentateuch]], which is the first five books of the Bible ([[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Numbers]], and [[Deuteronomy]]) written, in traditional view, down by [[Moses]].

However, God uses the word Torah to signify His instructions ''throughout'' the Hebrew scriptures, including the [[Prophet]]s and the [[Psalms]]. Since all of His Word is His Teaching, all of it is His Torah.

[[Christian]]s usually call the Torah "the Law," because most English translations of scripture translate "torah" as "law". The reason this came about is because rabbis before the time of Christianity are alleged to have translated the Torah into [[Greek]], called the [[Septuagint]]. Other works were later added to it anonymously. The Septuagint translated "torah" into the Greek word "nomia". Nomia was used in Greek culture to mean "an unalterable law". Following this tradition, the Greek [[New Testament]] also used nomia to signify the torah. The Torah ''is'' unalterable, and technically it ''is'' law, since breaking it does have penal consequences. However, the Torah is first of all the teaching of a protective parent who loves His children enough to preserve them in righteousness.

This is the way which God wanted His people to view His instructions. To view Torah as arbitrary condemnatory legalese, used as tedious entrapment against mankind, is the gravest of misconceptions. Many have had this erroneous view of Torah, and thus feel impelled to find an excuse to discount or destroy its value.

Another Greek word used in the New Testament is ''"dogma"''. Sometimes this word is incorrectly translated as ''"ordinances"'', but the proper translation is ''"the authoritative opinions of men"''. This word is confused with nomia, and thus Torah, by many, yet they have nothing in common. It is dogma which Jesus has overcome and put away, but He Himself said the Torah would never, in time, pass away, because the Torah is His Word.

{{Bible quote|18For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. 19Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
|book=Matthew|chap=5|verses=18-19|version=KJV}}

Since the New Testament confirms that the Torah is holy, righteous and good ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%207:12;&version=9; Romans 7:12]), Torah cannot in any way be a thing to be disdained or disregarded by true Bible believers. Also, Bible believers should consider that the very concept of Torah must include ALL that God ever commanded to be written as His instruction. If you believe the New Testament was given by God, then that makes it a part of Torah. Thus, to disdain Torah is to disdain the New Testament also. The Most High does not differentiate His Word, since He is always the same.

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Judaism]]

Göbekli Tepe

2008-09-19T12:45:54Z

Hugjan:

'''Göbekli Tepe''' is an important shrine or a sanctuary in [[Turkey]] built in the 10th millennium BC, ca 11,500 years ago. It is considered the most ancient discovered temple in the world.
In [[Turkish language]] Göbekli Tepe means ''Hill with a Belly''.

[[Category:Turkey]]

Göbekli Tepe

2008-09-19T12:43:52Z

Hugjan:

Göbekli Tepe

2008-09-19T12:43:04Z

Hugjan: New page: '''Göbekli Tepe''' is a shrine or a sanctuary in Turkey built in the 10th millennium BC, ca 11,500 years ago. Category:Turkey

'''Göbekli Tepe''' is a shrine or a sanctuary in [[Turkey]] built in the 10th millennium BC, ca 11,500 years ago.

[[Category:Turkey]]