Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

User talk:Hess

2015-09-11T02:44:59Z

Hess:

== Your edits ==

Please don't make wholesale changes like that - use the talk pages, that is what they are for. If you can't be constructive you may find your time here short....[[User:JohnSelway|JohnSelway]] ([[User talk:JohnSelway|talk]]) 22:44, 10 September 2015 (EDT)

Well then I'm out.

Bye
[[User:Hess|Hess]] ([[User talk:Hess|talk]]) 22:44, 10 September 2015 (EDT)

Calcutta

2015-09-11T02:44:19Z

Hess:

'''Calcutta''' is the capital of the state of [[West Bengal]] in [[India]]. Until Delhi was declared capital in the early twentieth century, it was the capital of [[British India]] and it was the largest city in India until its population was overtaken by that of [[Bombay]] in the 1980s.
'''Kolkata''' is the name now used in [[India]] for it.

Today Calcutta has a population of 4.5 million (city) 14.6 million ([[conurbation]]).
However, it had suffered a severe blow to its prosperity in 1947 when, during the [[Partition]] of India, the larger part of the province of [[Bengal]] was allotted to the new state of [[Pakistan]], becoming [[East Pakistan]] and later, in 1971, [[Bangladesh]]. This partition deprived the city of much of its economic hinterland.

==Links==
*[http://www.caluniv.ac.in/ University of Calcutta]

[[Category:Indian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Indian History]]

Calcutta

2015-09-11T02:36:53Z

Hess:

'''Calcutta''' is the capital of the state of [[West Bengal]] in [[India]]. Until Delhi was declared capital in the early twentieth century, it was the capital of [[British India]] and it was the largest city in India until its population was overtaken by that of [[Bpmbay]] in the 1980s.
'''Kolkata''' is the name now used in [[India]] for it.

Today Calcutta has a population of 4.5 million (city) 14.6 million ([[conurbation]]).
However, it had suffered a severe blow to its prosperity in 1947 when, during the [[Partition]] of India, the larger part of the province of [[Bengal]] was allotted to the new state of [[Pakistan]], becoming [[East Pakistan]] and later, in 1971, [[Bangladesh]]. This partition deprived the city of much of its economic hinterland.

==Links==
*[http://www.caluniv.ac.in/ University of Calcutta]

[[Category:Indian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Indian History]]

India

2015-09-11T02:31:53Z

Hess: /* Industry */ Conservatives should not be using the new names for Indian cities, as they are tied into anticolonialist thought, like B. Hussein Obama

{{Country
|name =''भारत गणराज्य <br/>Bhārat Gaharājya''
|map =India rel01.jpg
|map2 =India location.png
|flag =Flag of India svg.png
|arms =Emblem of India.png
|capital =New Delhi
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Hindi, English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Pranab Mukherjee
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Narendra Modi
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,590 sq mi
|pop =1,189,866,154 (2011)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$4.2 trillion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$3,800 (2006)
|currency =[[rupee]]
|idd =
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}}
The '''Republic of India''' is a major [[Social democracy|social democratic]] nation located in [[South Asia]] with a [[population]] of 1.1 billion people. It spans from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It borders [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]]. India is the 7th largest country in the world in terms of area and second most populous country (standing at around 1.1 billion according to 2006 estimate), only behind China. Founded on August 15th, 1947, the country was known as the ''Union of India'' until it re-declared itself a [[democratic republic]]. Though India is the world's fourth largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, it has high levels of [[poverty]], [[illiteracy]], [[corruption]] and [[crime]].

==Etymology==
The name "India" came from the word 'Indus', which derives from the [[Persian]] word "[[Hindu]]" which was used to describe the Sindhu river (now known as the [[Indus]]).

==People==
[[File:Indians.jpg|right]]
Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population; only China has a larger population. India's median age is 25, one of the youngest among large economies. About 70% live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over the thousands of years of its history, India has been invaded from the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, Arabia, Afghanistan, and the West; Indian people and culture have absorbed and modified these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis.

Religion, [[caste]], and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. However, with more job opportunities in the private sector and better chances of upward social mobility, India has begun a quiet social transformation in this area. The government has recognized 18 official languages;<ref>"In the early 1900s ... English was ascendant in India. ... It was the lingua franca to which Indians, who spoke more than a dozen distinct languages, turned when they did not otherwise understand one another." ([http://www.amazon.com/The-Man-Who-Knew-Infinity/dp/0671750615 ''The Man Who Knew Infinity''], page 25 - [[Robert Kanigel]])</ref> Hindi, the national language, is the most widely spoken, although English is a national lingua franca. Although 81% of its people are Hindu, India also is the home of more than 138 million Muslims--one of the world's largest [[Muslim]] populations. The population also includes [[Christian]]s, [[Sikh]]s, [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Parsi]]s.

The Hindu [[caste system]] reflects Indian occupational and socially defined hierarchies. Ancient [[Sanskrit]] sources divide society into four major categories, priests ([[Brahmin]]), warriors ([[Kshatriya]]), traders-[[merchant]]s ([[Vaishya]]) and farmers/laborers ([[Shudra]]). Although these categories are understood throughout India, they describe reality only in the most general terms. They omit, for example, the tribes and those once known as "[[untouchables]]." In reality, Indian society is divided into thousands of jatis--local, endogamous groups based on occupation--and organized hierarchically according to complex ideas of purity and pollution. Discrimination based on caste is officially illegal, but remains prevalent, especially in rural areas. Nevertheless, the government has made strong efforts to minimize the importance of caste through active affirmative action and social policies. Moreover, caste has been diluted if not subsumed in the economically prosperous and heterogeneous cities, where an increasing percentage of India's population lives. In the countryside, expanding education, land reform and economic opportunity through access to information, communication, transport, and credit have lessened the harshest elements of the caste system.

==Religions==

===Overview===
[[File:Indian family going to church.jpg|thumb|Indian family going to church.]]
India has over 900 million [[Hindu]]s, 150 millions [[Muslim]]s, 25 million [[Christian]]s and 20 million [[Sikh]]s among the many religious groups that make up the country<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html</ref> including communities of [[Jain]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Bahai]].

India is the region where four major world religions were founded:
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Jainism]]
*[[Sikhism]]

Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, after Christianity and Islam, with a collective 1.4 billion followers.

===Hinduism in India===
[[Image:Krishna a la flute.gif|right|180px]]
Hinduism as it is identified today has existed in India for over 4000 years; in the past it had spread to the rest of South-East [[Asia]] and [[Indonesia]], although Hinduism is practiced outside India today only in the island of [[Bali]].

The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BC) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the [[Vedas]],a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit]] literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.[, the oldest of which is the [[Rigveda]], dated to 1700–1100BC. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as [[Indra]], Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to [[Zoroastrian]]ism and with other Indo-European religions. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] were written roughly from 500–100BC, although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period. The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

===Buddhism in India===

Buddhism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of Asia through individual and organized missionaries, although there are few practicing Buddhists left in India today.

===Jainism in India===

Jainism originated in Eastern India in the 6th century B.C. and spread to the rest of India; today they are mostly concentrated in the Southern and Western parts of the country.

===Sikhism in India===

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in India in the 16th century A.D.

===Other Religions in India===

[[Christianity]] arrived in India in the first century A.D., possibly through the travels of the [[Apostle Thomas]], whose tomb in the Indian city of Chennai is a major pilgrimage site for Christians in India.

[[Islam]] arrived in the latter half of the 8th century A.D. as a consequence of both war and trade. It continued to spread with invasions, wars and forced conversions by Afghans and Turkic Mongols. They slowly integrated into the society and formed India's Islamic tradition. The [[Taj Mahal]], India's national monument, was built by a Muslim emperor named Shah Jahan. Islam is practiced by around 13.4% of all Indians.
[[Image:Taj Mahal.jpg|thumb|Taj Mahal]]

Although small in number, India does have a Jewish community. The first identifiably [[Judaism|Jewish]] migrants arrived in India as the Bene Israel group. There is some debate as to the Jewishness of a possibly older group of Indians in the Northeastern part of the country called the Bnei Menashe.

===Religious Persecution===

While for many years India has been known as an area of the world where a melting pot of religions could be practiced freely, troubling and persistent persecution against [[Christian]]s by the [[Hindu]] majority arose in the 1990s and has continued since that time. In October 2008, 38 Christians were killed and 30,000 fled from efforts of Hindu nationalist militants to force them to convert to Hinduism.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27380721</ref>

There are also frequent attacks upon Indian Christians by [[Muslims]] in India, who make up a large proportion of the population. They subject the Indian Christian population to harrassment and intimidation, particularly those who were previously Muslims. In 2006, a Muslim who converted to Christianity in the Indian state of Kashmir was shot dead by [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] militants.<ref>http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=6705</ref>

==Government==
According to its Constitution, India is a "sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and has adopted a British-style parliamentary system.

The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. A special electoral college elects the president and vice president indirectly for 5-year terms. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president.

Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (Cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority in the Lok Sabha (lower house). The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister.
[[File:Delhi Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub Minar Complex.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Imam Zamin Qutub, Delhi.]]
India's bicameral Parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members, who serve 5-year terms; 543 are directly elected, and two are appointed.

India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.

India has 28 states* and 7 union territories. At the state level, some legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to Parliament.

Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor, who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or panchayats, to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives. Over half a million panchayats exist throughout India.

<br>

==Principal Government Officials==
*President--Pranab Mukherjee
*Vice President--Mohammed Hamid Ansari
*Prime Minister--Narendra Modi
*Home Minister--Sushilkumar Shinde
*Minister of External Affairs--Salman Khurshid
*Ambassador to the U.S.--Nirupama Rao
*Ambassador to the UN--Hardeep Singh Puri

===Politics ===
The governing coalition led by the Indian National Congress sailed to a decisive victory in India’s parliamentary elections in May 2009, adding 57 seats. The election gave a second term to prime minister Manmohan Singh, age 77, a soft-spoken economic reformer, and ended the prospect of political instability in the world’s most populous democracy. The election confirmed that Sonia Gandhi, age 62, dominates the Congress Party. She is the the Italian-born widow of the assassinated former prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and the daughter-in-law of the prime minister before him, [[Indira Gandhi]], who was also assassinated. The Congress-led coalition built its near-majority with an appeal to the rural poor. During its first term, buoyed by robust economic growth, it used record government revenues to increase social spending, not just raising health and education budgets, but also starting an ambitious public works program in the countryside and a costly loan repayment waiver for farmers. Mrs. Gandhi won support by casting herself as a leader who relinquished power, turning down her party’s appeals to become prime minister, first in 2004 and again this time. Instead, she chose the soft-spoken economist, Mr. Singh, and between them, they controlled the party and the government. She took care of the politics of keeping the coalition together, while he served as the chief executive who followed her advice.

[[File:India-14.jpg|thumb|390px]]
Emerging as the nation's single largest party in the April/May 2004 Lok Sabha election, Congress currently leads a coalition government under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Party President Sonia Gandhi was re-elected by the Party National Executive in May 2005. Also a Member of Parliament, she heads the Congress Lok Sabha delegation. Congress prides itself as a secular, left of center party, with a long history of political dominance. Although its performance in national elections had steadily declined during the last 12 years, its surprise victory in 2004 was a result of recruiting strong allies into the UPA, the anti-incumbency factor among voters, and its courtship of India's many poor, rural and Muslim voters. Congress political fortunes suffered badly in the 1990s, as many traditional supporters were lost to emerging regional and caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Samajwadi Party, but have rebounded since its May 2004 ascension to power. It currently rules either directly or in coalition with its allies in 9 states. In November 2005, the Congress regained the Chief Ministership of Jammu and Kashmir state, under a power-sharing agreement.

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Rajnath Singh, holds the second-largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee serves as Chairman of the BJP Parliamentary Party, and former Deputy Prime Minister L.K. Advani is Leader of the Opposition. The Hindu-nationalist BJP draws its political strength mainly from the "Hindi Belt" in the northern and western regions of India.

The party holds power in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa--in coalition with the Biju Janata Dal. Popularly viewed as the party of the northern upper caste and trading communities, the BJP made strong inroads into lower castes in recent national and state assembly elections. The party must balance the competing interests of Hindu nationalists, (who advocate construction of a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, and other primarily religious issues), and center-right modernizers who see the BJP as a party of economic and political reform.
[[Image:Haveli in Mandawa, India.jpg|240px|right|Haveli in Mandawa.]]

Four Communist and Marxist parties are united in a bloc called the "Left Front," which controls 57 parliamentary seats. The Left Front rules the states of West Bengal and Kerala. Although it has not joined the government, Left Front support provides the crucial seats necessary for the UPA to retain power in New Delhi; without its support, the UPA government would fall. It advocates a secular and Communist ideology and opposes many aspects of economic liberalization and globalization, resulting in dissonance with Prime Minister Singh's liberal economic approach.

==Foreign Relations==
:''See also: [[Foreign relations of India]]''

India's size, population, and strategic location give it a prominent voice in international affairs, and its growing economic strength, military prowess, and scientific and technical capacity give it added weight. The end of the Cold War dramatically affected Indian foreign policy. India remains a leader of the developing world and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). India is now strengthening its political and commercial ties with the United States, Japan, the European Union, Iran, China, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. India is an active member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

Always an active member of the United Nations, India now seeks a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. India has a long tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations.

==Bilateral and Regional Relations==

===Tense relations with Pakistan===

India and Pakistan have been locked in a tense rivalry since the partition of the subcontinent upon achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. The principal source of contention has been Kashmir, whose Hindu Maharaja at that time chose to join India, although a majority of his subjects were Muslim. India maintains that his decision and subsequent elections in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. This dispute triggered wars between the two countries in 1947 and 1965 and provoked the Kargil conflict in 1999.

Pakistan and India fought a war in December 1971 following a political crisis in what was then East Pakistan and the flight of millions of Bengali refugees to India. The brief conflict left the situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies reached an impasse, but a decisive Indian victory in the east resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
[[File:Iran Pakistan India gas pipeline.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline.]]
Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made slow progress toward normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the Indian hill station of Simla. They signed an agreement by which India would return all personnel and captured territory in the west and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade relations were re-established in 1976.

The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused new strains between India and Pakistan. Pakistan supported the Afghan resistance, while India implicitly supported the Soviet occupation. In the following eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms purchases, U.S. military aid to Pakistan, and Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries formed a joint commission. In December 1988, Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto concluded a pact not to attack each other's nuclear facilities and initiated agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation.

In 1997, high-level Indo-Pakistani talks resumed after a three-year pause. The Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice, and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997 at Lahore, the foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status of Jammu and Kashmir, an issue since partition, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists upon the implementation of UN resolutions calling for self-determination for the people of the state.

In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that separate working groups treat each issue. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then Pakistan, conducted nuclear tests. Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in Lahore and their signing of three agreements. These efforts were stalled by the intrusion of Pakistani-backed forces into Indian-held territory near Kargil in May 1999 (that nearly turned into full scale war), and by the military coup in Pakistan that overturned the Nawaz Sharif government in October the same year. In July 2001, Mr. Vajpayee and General Pervez Musharraf, leader of Pakistan after the coup, met in Agra, but talks ended after two days without result.

After an attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, India-Pakistan relations cooled further as India accused Pakistan of involvement. Tensions increased, fueled by killings in Jammu and Kashmir, peaking in a troop buildup by both sides in early 2002.

Prime Minister Vajpayee's April 18, 2003 speech in Srinagar (Kashmir) revived bilateral efforts to normalize relations. In November 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf agreed to a ceasefire, which still holds, along the Line-of-Control in Jammu and Kashmir. After a series of confidence building measures, Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf met on the sidelines of the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad and agreed to commence a Composite Dialogue addressing outstanding issues between India and Pakistan, including Kashmir. The UPA government has continued the Composite Dialogue with Pakistan.

In February 2004, India and Pakistan agreed to restart the "2+6" Composite Dialogue formula, which provides for talks on Peace and Security and Jammu and Kashmir, followed by technical and Secretary-level discussions on six other bilateral disputes: Siachen Glacier, Wuller Barrage/Tulbul Navigation Project, Sir Creek estuary, Terrorism and Drug Trafficking, Economic and Commercial cooperation, and the Promotion of Friendly Exchanges in various fields. The Foreign Secretary talks resumed in November 2006, after a three-month delay following the July 11, 2006 terrorist bombings in Mumbai. The meeting generated modest progress, with the two sides agreeing to establish a joint mechanism on counter-terrorism and agreeing to a follow-on meeting in February 2007. The restart of the Composite Dialogue process is especially significant, given the almost six years that transpired since the two sides agreed to this formula in 1997-98.

Following the October 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, the two governments coordinated relief efforts and opened access points along the Line-of-Control to allow relief supplies to flow from India to Pakistan and to allow Kashmiris from both sides to visit one another.

===South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)===

Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with the People's Republic of China, Iran, Japan, European Union, Republic of Korea, and the U.S. as observers. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics, and terrorism.

SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided those which could prove divisive, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC had slowed because of tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC summit scheduled for 1999 was not held until January 2002. In addition, to boost the process of normalizing India's relationship with Pakistan, the January 2004 SAARC summit in Islamabad produced an agreement to establish a South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA). All the member governments have ratified SAFTA, which was slated to come into force on January 1, 2006, with a series of graduated tariff cuts through 2015. As of December 2006, however, the FTA partners were still negotiating sensitive product lists, rules of origin, and technical assistance. India hosted the 2007 SAARC summit, which called for greater regional cooperation on trade, environmental, social, and counterterrorism issues.

===Relations with China===

Despite suspicions remaining from a 1962 border conflict between India and [[China]] and continuing territorial/boundary disputes, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. Their bilateral trade reached $24 billion in 2006. China is India's second-largest trading partner behind the U.S.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations has improved relations. In December 1996, Chinese President Jiang Zemin visited India on a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he and the Indian Prime Minister signed a series of confidence-building measures along the disputed border, including troop reductions and weapons limitations.

Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao invited Prime Minister Vajpayee to visit China in June 2003. They recognized the common goals of both countries and made the commitment to build a "long-term constructive and cooperative partnership" to peacefully promote their mutual political and economic goals without encroaching upon their good relations with other countries. In Beijing, Prime Minister Vajpayee proposed the designation of special representatives to discuss the border dispute at the political level, a process that is still under way.

In November 2006, President Hu Jintao made an official state visit to India, further cementing Sino-Indian relations. India and China are building on growing economic ties to improve other aspects of their relationship such as counter-terrorism, energy, and trade. In another symbol of improved ties, the two countries opened the Nathu La Pass to bilateral trade in July 2006 for the first time in 40 years. Though it is the first direct land trade route in decades, trade is expected to be local and small since the pass is open only four months a year.

===Russia===

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. India's substantial trade with the region plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing. Russia nonetheless remains India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.

Russia and India have not renewed the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. The visit of Russian President Boris Yeltsin to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defense purchases. UPA leader Sonia Gandhi and Prime Minister Singh visited Russia in July 2005. President Vladimir Putin traveled to India in January 2007 to attend an Indo-Russia Summit and was the guest of honor at India's Republic Day celebrations.

==Defense==
The supreme command of the Indian armed forces is vested in the President of India. Policies concerning India's defense, and the armed forces as a whole, are formulated and confirmed by the Cabinet.

===Indian Army===

The Indian Army numbers over 1.1 million strong and fields 34 divisions. Its primary task is to safeguard the territorial integrity of the country against external threats. The Army has been heavily committed in the recent past to counterterrorism operations in Jammu and Kashmir, as well as the in the Northeast. Its current modernization program focuses on obtaining equipment to be used in combating terror. The Army often provides aid to civil authorities and assists the government in organizing relief operations.

===Indian Navy===

The Indian Navy is by far the most capable navy in the region. The Navy's primary missions are the defense of India and of India's vital sea lines of communication. India relies on the sea for 90% of its oil and natural gas and over 90% of its foreign trade. The Navy currently operates one aircraft carrier with two on order, 14 submarines, and 15 major surface combatants. It is capable of projecting power within the Indian Ocean basin and occasionally operates in the South China Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Gulf. Fleet introduction of the Brahmos cruise missile and the possible lease of nuclear submarines from Russia will add significantly to the Indian Navy's flexibility and striking power.

Although small, the Indian Coast Guard has been expanding rapidly in recent years. Indian Navy officers typically fill top Coast Guard positions to ensure coordination between the two services. India's Coast Guard is responsible for control of India's huge exclusive economic zone.

===Indian Air Force===

The Indian Air Force is becoming a 21st century force through modernization, new tactics and the acquisition of modern aircraft, such as the SU-30MKI, a new advanced jet trainer (BAE Hawk) and the indigenously produced advanced light [[helicopter]] (Dhruv). In June 2007, the Indian Government announced intentions to release a request for proposals for 126 multi-role combat aircraft for the Indian Air Force.

=== India the Nuclear-Weapon State: A Likely [[Nuclear target structures|Nuclear Target Structure]]===

India is considered a "nuclear-weapon state" (NWS) since it has [[nuclear weapon]] capabilities making it one of the [[Nuclear_target_structures#Primary_Targets|primary targets]] among the world's major [[nuclear target structures]] in a possible [[nuclear war]]<ref>[http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/india/nuclear/ ''Nuclear Country Profile''], [[Washington, DC]]: Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), Last updated: May, 2014. Accessed January 15, 2015</ref>.
[[Category : Nuclear Target Structures]]

==Economy==

===General overview===
[[File:India...jpg|right|340px]]

India's population is estimated at more than 1.1 billion and is growing at 1.3% a year. It has the world's 12th largest economy--and the third largest in [[Asia]] behind [[Japan]] and [[China]]--with total [[GDP]] of around $1 trillion ($1,000 billion). Services, industry, and [[agriculture]] account for 55%, 27%, and 18% of GDP respectively. Nearly two-thirds of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. 700 million Indians live on $2 per day or less, but there is a large and growing [[middle class]] of 325-350 million with disposable income for consumer goods.

India is continuing to move forward with market-oriented economic reforms that began in 1991. Recent reforms include liberalized foreign investment and exchange regimes, industrial decontrol, significant reductions in [[tariff]]s and other trade barriers, reform and modernization of the financial sector, significant adjustments in government monetary and fiscal policies, and safeguarding intellectual property rights.

Real GDP growth for the fiscal year ending March 31, 2007 was 9.4%, up from 9.0% growth in the previous year. Growth for the year ending March 31, 2008 is expected to be between 8.5-9.0%. Foreign portfolio and direct investment inflows have risen significantly in recent years. They have contributed to $255 billion in foreign exchange reserves by June 2007. Government receipts from privatization were about $3 billion in fiscal year 2003-2004, but the privatization program has stalled since then.

Economic growth is constrained by inadequate infrastructure, a cumbersome bureaucracy, corruption, labor market rigidities, regulatory and foreign investment controls, the "reservation" of key products for small-scale industries, and high (although declining) fiscal deficits. The outlook for further trade liberalization is mixed. India eliminated quotas on 1,420 consumer imports in 2002 and has incrementally lowered non-agricultural customs duties in recent successive budgets. However, the tax structure is complex, with compounding effects of various taxes.

The [[United States]] is India's largest trading partner. Bilateral trade in 2006 was $32 billion. Principal U.S. exports are diagnostic or lab reagents, aircraft and parts, advanced machinery, [[cotton]], [[fertilizer]]s, ferrous waste/scrap metal, and computer hardware. Major U.S. imports from India include [[textile]]s and ready-made garments, Internet-enabled services, agricultural and related products, gems and jewelry, leather products, and chemicals.

The rapidly growing software sector is boosting service exports and modernizing India's economy. Software exports crossed $28 billion in FY 2006-2007, while business process outsourcing (BPO) revenues hit $8.3 billion in 2006-2007. Personal computer penetration is 14 per 1,000 persons. The cellular/mobile market surged to 140 million subscribers by November 2006. The country has 54 million [[cable TV]] customers.

The United States is India's largest investment partner, with a 13% share. India's total inflow of U.S. direct investment is estimated at more than $9 billion through 2006. Proposals for direct foreign investment are considered by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board and generally receive government approval. Automatic approvals are available for investments involving up to 100% foreign equity, depending on the kind of industry. Foreign investment is particularly sought after in power generation, telecommunications, ports, roads, petroleum exploration/processing, and mining.

India's external debt was $155 billion in 2006-2007, up from $126 billion in 2005-2006. Foreign assistance was approximately $3 billion in 2006-2007, with the United States providing about $126 million in development assistance. The [[World Bank]] plans to double aid to India to almost $3 billion a year, with focus on infrastructure, education, health, and rural livelihoods.

===Agriculture===
[[Image:Varma Lady Carrying Fruits.jpg|thumb|Lady Carrying Fruits by Ravi Varma.]]
India has a cultivated area of 138 million hectares which almost equals that of the [[European Union]]. A lot of the land has good agriculture potential especially where water supplies are available. Arable farming, especially cereals is the main kind of farming. India, which has two thirds of its working population relying on the land to earn a living, desperately needs to improve agriculture production in order to develop its economy.

When India became independent from [[Britain]] in 1947 the Indian government recognized agriculture as a key area for economic development. Despite this there has been limited modernization of the sector. There hasn’t been an effective land reform package introduced to redistribute land from wealthy landlords to landless peasants. In the 1990’s almost half of rural families had plots of 0.5 hectares or no land at all, but a quarter of India’s agricultural land was owned by five percent of rich landowning families. This has made it nearly impossible to mechanize and introduce modern farm practices.

The dominant type of farming throughout India is intensive [[Subsistence farming]]. It is used especially in rural areas with high population density, where people depend on being able to feed themselves. [[Rice]] is very important for this type of farming, especially in the Indus and Ganges flood plains. Other crops such as wheat and millet are grown in drier parts of peninsular India. Farming is a family affair, with all planting, flooding and harvesting done by hand. One of the reasons rural Indians have such large families is to provide free labour to help harvest crops. This adds to the pressure on India’s service sector and India’s agriculture sector to meet the demands of India’s ever-growing population.

India is a country that has benefited from the Green revolution. This refers to the development and introduction of genetically modified, high yield varieties of staple crops, such as rice and wheat. These ‘miracle’ crops produce high yields and are resistant to disease and pests. Due to the Green revolution, India has managed to become a net exporter of food.

There is however some problems linked to the Green revolution. It depends on large inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that may be costly and harmful to the soil in the long run. Labour is often replaced with machinery, so rural unemployment goes up and more people leave the land and go to towns, increasing rural-urban migration. A well-educated farm population and capital investment are needed. It only really benefits comparatively few, large-scale farmers; large numbers of small-scale farmers may not be able to benefit from the process.

For a large number of Indian farmers a better solution would be the introduction of more intermediate technology and a more effective programme of land reform. While the Green revolution has brought some positive results, the vast majority of India’s rice farmers use traditional farm practices that depend heavily on the natural environment. The need to match food production to match India’s growing population is a major concern for government.

===Industry===

When India became independent in 1947 it had a largely underdeveloped Industrial system, with textiles and food processing been the key industries in the country. Only two percent of the working population had been employed in industry, which was concentrated in the major cities; [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]]. On gaining independence the new government was determined to reduce India’s dependence on imported goods and to promote greater wealth and employment throughout the country.

The size of India’s population provided it a large home market and the country had some natural resources (coal and Iron) a large and cheap labour force and outputs from agriculture (cotton, Jute) Mineral resources encouraged the government to develop heavy industries, such as Iron and steel, shipbuilding and chemicals. Despite these advantages development was relatively slow and only benefited a few growth centers. In addition, by the 1980’s, many heavy industries were in decline, Industrial policy has changed to emphasize Agri-industries, consumer goods industries and small craft industries, rural development (community based development and self-help schemes) and high technology industries.

Agri-industries would be advantageous to India in that it already employs a large number of people in the agricultural sector. The development of fertilizers, machinery and food processing benefits rural communities and helps in the modernization of India’s agricultural system.

[[Consumer goods]] industries are more labour intensive than large-scale heavy industries, so more jobs are created as a result. They also benefit from low labour costs and traditional skills, which make them more competitive in, export markets. E.g. jewellary, clothing, leather goods etc.

With more than 70% of India’s population living in rural areas, jobs need to be taken to these people rather than encouraging migration to urban areas. This involves support for community development projects and self-help schemes that improve skills levels among the workforce.

High technology (Hi-tech) industries are attracted to India by the growing number of India’s skilled workers (Which produces more university graduates than USA and Canada combined) low costs and improved communication systems. These high value industries add a modern face to Indian industry. Many major multinationals, such as [[IBM]] and [[Texas instruments]], have located in India. Large numbers of locally owned companies have also set up to supply software components to western markets. (See [[Spin-off Effect]])

Although the government has tried to spread industry across the country, this growing sector remains concentrated in a growing number of city regions. The most important are [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay]] and [[Bangalore]]. Bangalore is known as ‘India’s silicon valley’ as a result of all the high-tech industries which have set up there.

===Education===
[[File:Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar India.jpg|thumb|300px|Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar.]]
India has a large number of universities, but the quality ranges from poor to medicore. The best students head to the U.S. or Britain. To cover this weakness, the government in July 2009 announced plans to expand the higher education budget by 40%, to $3.1-billion, for 2009-10.

The government in 2009 allotted an extra $435-million to the prestigious Indian Institutes of Technology and the National Institutes of Technology, and $170.5-million more to open 16 central universities in states that lack one. In keeping with its agenda of inclusive economic growth, the government has also announced interest-free loans for disadvantaged students to take technical and professional courses.

To increase India’s college-going rate to 21% by 2017, Prime Minister Singh has announced plans to start five new Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, eight new Indian Institutes of Technology, seven new Indian Institutes of Management, and 20 new Indian Institutes of Information Technology — thus doubling the number of top-tier institutions in the country. He also wants to set up 16 central universities, 14 “world class” universities, and almost 400 colleges.

==History==
See [[History of India]]

==Further reading==
* Cohen, Stephen P. ''India: Emerging Power'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0815715013/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Nilekani, Nandan. ''Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation'' (2009) business in India [http://www.amazon.com/Imagining-India-Idea-Renewed-Nation/dp/1594202044/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545602&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., The major recent history; for advanced readers. [http://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''India'' (4th ed. 2009), 264pp; excellent overview and introduction [http://www.amazon.com/India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0520260325/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255296028&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
===Guides===
* ''India'' (Lonely Planet Guide) by Sarina Singh et al. (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/India-Country-Guide-Sarina-Singh/dp/1741043085/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* '' India'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/India-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789483955/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545500&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search]
* ''India - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette'' by Nicki Grihault (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/India-Culture-Smart-customs-etiquette/dp/1857333055/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to India'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-India-Travel-Guides/dp/1858289947/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==See Also==
* [[World History Lecture Three]] for more information on Ancient India.
* [[Anti-conversion legislation in India]]
* [[Oriental art]]
* [[Indian Painting]]
* [[Nuclear target structures]]
* [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]

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{{Copyright Details (US Government)|source=[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm]}}

{{Asian Countries}}
[[Category:India]]
[[Category:Indian History]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category : Nuclear Target Structures]]

Mumbai

2015-09-11T02:29:02Z

Hess: Conservatives should use Bombay, not Mumbai, which is associated with liberal anticolonialist thinking

#REDIRECT [[Bombay]]

Bombay

2015-09-11T02:28:51Z

Hess:

'''Bombay''' (officially '''Mumbai''') is the capital of the [[India]]n state of [[Maharashtra]] and the financial capital of [[India]]. With a population of 13,662,885, it is the second most populous city proper in the world.<ref name=WG>[http://world-gazetteer.co
m/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500&pt=c&va=&srt=pnan World Gazetteer estimate for 2008-01-01]</ref> Along with the neighbouring suburbs of [[New Bombay]] and [[Thane]], it forms, at 19 million, the [[List of metropolitan areas by population|world's fifth most populous]] metropolitan area. Bombay lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural [[harbor|harbor]]. Bombay's port handles over half of India's maritime cargo.<ref name="Manorama2006">{{ cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 | year = 2006 | publisher = Malayala Manorama | location = Kottayam, India | isbn = 8189004077 }}</ref>

Bombay is the commercial and entertainment centre of India, generating 5% of India's [[GDP]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://mmrdamumbai.org/projects_muip.htm
|title=Mumbai Urban Infrastructure Project
|publisher=[[Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority|Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)]]
|accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref> and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 40% of maritime trade, and 70% of capital transactions to [[Economy of India|India's economy]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://img214.imageshack.us/img214/2299/dscn7619ql4.jpg
|title=Navi Mumbai International Airport
|publisher=City & Industrial Development Corporation of Maharashtra Limited
|format=[[JPEG|JPG]]
|accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref> Bombay is one of the world's top ten centres of [[commerce]] by global financial flow,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/jun/18mumbai.htm |title=Mumbai among world's top 10 financial flow hubs |date=2007-06-18 |publisher=Rediff News}}</ref> home to important financial institutions such as the [[Reserve Bank of India]], the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]], the [[National Stock Exchange of India]] and the corporate headquarters of many Indian companies and numerous multinational corporations. The city also houses India's hindi [[Indian cinema|film and television industry]], known as [[Bollywood]]. Bombay’s business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a better [[Standard of living in India|standard of living]], attract migrants from all over India and, in turn, make the city a potpourri of many communities and [[culture of India|cultures]].

== History ==
In 1534, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] appropriated the islands from [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]]. They were ceded to [[Charles II of England]] in 1661, as [[dowry]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019061813652 |title=UK Government Foreign and Commonwealth Office |accessdate=2008-01-06 |date=2007-06-28}}</ref> for [[Catherine de Braganza]]. These islands, were in turn leased to the [[British East India Company]] in 1668 for a sum of [[pound sterling|£]]10 [[per annum]]. The company found the deep [[harbour]] on the east coast of the islands to be ideal for setting up their first port in the sub-continent. The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675; In 1687, the British East India Company transferred its headquarters from [[Surat]] to Mumbai. The city eventually became the headquarters of the [[Bombay Presidency]].

From 1817 onwards, the city was reshaped with large [[civil engineering]] projects aimed at merging all the islands in the archipelago into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as the [[Hornby Vellard]], was completed by 1845, and resulted in the total area swelling to 438 [[Square kilometre|km²]]. In 1853, India's first passenger [[railway]] line was established, connecting Bombay to the town of [[Thane]]. During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), the city became the world's chief [[cotton]] trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy and subsequently enhancing the city's stature.

The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dossal |first=Mariam |title=Imperial Designs and Indian Realities. The Planning of Bombay City 1845–1875 |location=Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1991}}</ref> Over the next thirty years, the city grew into a major urban centre, spurred by an improvement in infrastructure and the construction of many of the city's institutions. The population of the city swelled to one million by 1906, making it the second largest in India after [[Calcutta]]. As capital of the [[Bombay Presidency]], it was a major base for the [[Indian independence movement]], with the [[Quit India Movement]] called by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in 1942 being its most rubric event. After India's independence in 1947, it became the capital of [[Bombay State]]. In the 1950 the city expanded to its present limits by incorporating parts of Salsette island which lay to the north.

After 1955, when the [[State of Bombay]] was being re-organised along linguistic lines into the states of [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]], there was a demand that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state. [[Bombay Citizens' commitee]], an advocacy group comprising of leading [[Gujarati]] industrialists lobbied for Bombay independent status. However, the [[Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti|Samyukta Maharashtra movement]] opposed this, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra. Following protests in which 105 people were killed by police firing, Maharashtra state was formed with Bombay as its capital on May 1, 1960.

The city's secular fabric was torn apart in the [[Bombay Riots|riots]] of 1992–93, after large scale sectarian violence caused extensive loss of life and property. A few months later, on March 12, [[1993 Bombay bombings|a series of co-ordinated bombings]] at several city landmarks by Islamic groups and the Bombay underworld killed around three hundred people.

In 1996, the city was renamed ''Mumbai''<ref>http://geography.about.com/b/2008/11/26/mumbai-was-bombay.htm</ref> by the Shiv Sena government of Maharashtra, in keeping with their policy of renaming colonial institutions after historic local names. There have also been armed attacks, sponsored by Islamic groups, on public transport buses in past years. In 2006, Bombay was also the site of a [[11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings]] in which over two hundred people were killed when several bombs exploded almost simultaneously on the [[Bombay Suburban Railway]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/south_asia/2006/mumbai_train_attacks/default.stm |title=Special Report: Mumbai Train Attacks |date=2006-09-30 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Recently the city has seen a series of politically motivated assaults on the North Indian population by the members of [[Maharashtra Navnirman Sena]], a party headed by [[Raj Thackeray]].<ref>http://www.gulfnews.com/world/India/10255505.html</ref>

On the evening of 26 November, 2008, a group of armed men launched [[November 2008 Bombay attacks|attacks in the southern part of Bombay]], killing over 160 people, injuring hundreds and taking hostages in multiple locations.<ref>http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=p_esnE-3Z3p-HehX1YOZIaw</ref> Amongst those killed was [[Hemant Karkare]], the chief of the [[Bombay police]]'s anti-terror squad.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/27/india.attacks/index.html |title=Live Breaking News: Mumbai toll climbs as hotel standoffs remain |date=2008-11-27 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=2008-11-27}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

[[Category: Indian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Indian History]]

Warsaw

2014-11-14T22:39:37Z

Hess:

[[Image:Warsaw.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Warsaw''' (Polish: ''Warszawa'', German: ''Warschau'') is the capital city of [[Poland]]. The city is situated on the banks of the Vistula River and is home to 1.7 million people. The city was extensively destroyed during [[World War Two]]. Many historic buildings and precincts were restored in the post war period. Warsaw is home to the Polish Parliament (Sejm).

==See also==
* [[Cracow]]

==External links==
*[http://www.e-warsaw.pl/index.php City of Warsaw official website]

[[category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Polish Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

Cracow

2014-11-14T22:38:45Z

Hess:

'''Cracow''' (Polish: ''Kraków'', German: ''Krakau'') is one of the oldest and historically most important cities of Poland. Over 750,000 inhabitants live here, making second only to [[Warsaw]] in size.

The Jagiellonian University of Cracow (''Uniwersytet Jagielloński'') was founded in 1364 by Casimir III the Great with a license of pope Urban V.

Since 1978, the historical center and the Wawel castle are listed as [[World Heritage Site]]s by the [[UNESCO]].
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

Cracow

2014-11-14T22:38:30Z

Hess:

'''Cracow''' (Polish: ''Kraków'', German: ''Krakau) is one of the oldest and historically most important cities of Poland. Over 750,000 inhabitants live here, making second only to [[Warsaw]] in size.

The Jagiellonian University of Cracow (''Uniwersytet Jagielloński'') was founded in 1364 by Casimir III the Great with a license of pope Urban V.

Since 1978, the historical center and the Wawel castle are listed as [[World Heritage Site]]s by the [[UNESCO]].
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

Dinesh D'Souza

2014-10-10T22:58:36Z

Hess: adding middle name and birthplace

[[File:Dineshdsouza-full.jpg|thumb|150px|right]]
'''Dinesh Joseph D'Souza''' (b. 1961 in [[Bombay]], [[India]]) is a [[conservative]] scholar, author, blogger and commentator. He is the former President of [[The King's College]] in New York.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tkc.edu/abouttkc/president_pressrelease.html|title=Dinesh D'Souza Named President of The King's College in NYC|date=Aug. 23, 2010|accessdate=Aug. 30, 2012}}</ref>

In college, he was a prominent writer with ''The [[Dartmouth]] Review'', a conservative publication. He is a former editor of ''[[Policy Review]]'', a conservative journal. He was a fellow at the Hoover Institute at [[Stanford University]].

A Christian immigrant from [[India]] who wrote a book entitled ''What's So Great About Christianity,'' D'Souza wrote a piece entitled "Thank God for America" on his blog on November 21, 2007.<ref>http://news.aol.com/newsbloggers/bloggers/dinesh-dsouza</ref> Today he is mostly involved with exposing the contradictions and hypocrisy of [[atheists]], and the censorship of Christian leadership in the modern world.

He regularly participates in debates with [[New Atheism|New Atheist]]s. These have included [[Christopher Hitchens]] (6 times), [[Daniel Dennett]] (once), [[Peter Singer]] (twice), [[Dan Barker]] (twice), and [[Michael Shermer]] (twice).

In September 2010, D'Souza published ''Roots of Obama's Rage'', which explores possible influences that Barack Obama, Sr may have had on his son, the President. D'Souza asserts:
<blockquote>The most powerful country in the world is being governed according to the dreams of a Luo tribesman of the 1950s—a polygamist who abandoned his wives, drank himself into stupors, and bounced around on two iron legs (after his real legs had to be amputated because of a car crash caused by his drunk driving). This philandering, inebriated African socialist, who raged against the world for denying him the realization of his anti-colonial ambitions, is now setting the nation’s agenda through the reincarnation of his dreams in his son.<ref>http://www.amazon.com/Roots-Obamas-Rage-Dinesh-DSouza/dp/1596986255</ref></blockquote>
The book did not receive wide attention until it was made into a motion picture entitled, "[[2016: Obama's America]]" which was released during the 2012 Presidential campaign. The movie has become a box office success, on track to garner the second-highest box office receipts for a documentary in history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/2016-obama-america-fact-checking-conservative-author-dinesh-ouza-film-article-1.1146143|title=‘2016: Obama’s America’: Fact checking conservative author Dinesh D’Souza’s film|work=NY Daily News|date=August 28, 2012|accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/nightline|title='2016': Anti-Obama Film's Giant Success|date=August 29, 2012|accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref>
== Criminal conviction ==
In September 2014 D'Souza was convicted of making $20,000 in illegal campaign contributions and sentenced to 5 years probation.[http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/dinesh-souza-5-years-probation-campaign-donations-article-1.1949769]
== See also ==
*[[Richard Dawkins and Dinesh D'Souza]]
*[[What's So Great About America]]

== References ==
<references/>

==External link==
*[http://www.ygodinstitute.com/ God debates]

{{DEFAULTSORT:D'Souza, Dinesh}}

[[Category:Authors]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Christians]]
[[Category:India]]

Poland

2014-10-09T02:14:34Z

Hess: /* Communist Party Domination */

{{Country
|name =''Rzeczpospolita Polska''
|map =Poland rel00.jpg
|map2 =Poland location.png
|flag =Flag of Poland.png
|arms =Arms of Poland.png
|capital =Warsaw
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Polish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Bronisław Komorowski
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Donald Tusk
|pm-raw =
|area =120,728 sq mi
|pop =38,441,588
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$413.3 billion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$10,858 (2006)
|currency =Złoty (PLN)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Poland''' is the most [[pro-life]] nation in [[Central Europe]] (Middle Europe) located on its western side. It has suffered many hardships before and after [[World War I]] and [[World War II|II]] disappearing as a nation in 1875 and re-appearing in 1918. Emerging as a nation again after World War I, Poland was partitioned between [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] at the start of World War II. Given nationhood again at the end of the war, it was under the shroud of being a Soviet satellite controlled by a [[communist]] regime. Poland finally became liberated from the communist rule in late 1980s. The exact date of the end of communism in Poland is hard to difine, but it is often accepted as July 4, 1989 (the date of the elections won by the ''Solidarność'', or ''Solidarity'' movement. [[Pope John Paul II]] was from Poland and played a major part in bringing down [[communist|communism]] in Poland. Among the nations under Soviet domination, Poland was unique in continuing to keep its strong [[Catholic]] roots even in the face of persecution. The [[capital]] of Poland is [[Warsaw]].

== People ==
[[File:Fickowa Pokusa Poland.JPG|thumb|left|Polish folk musician.]]
Poland today is ethnically almost homogeneous (98% Polish), in contrast with the period before and during World War II, when there were significant ethnic minorities--4.5 million [[Ukrainiane|Ukrainians]], 3 million [[Jew]]s, 1 million [[Belorusse|Belorussians]], and 800,000 [[German]]s. The majority of the Jews were murdered during the German occupation in World War II, and many others emigrated in the succeeding years.

Most Germans left Poland at the end of the war, while many Ukrainians and Belorussians lived in territories incorporated into the then-U.S.S.R. Small Ukrainian, Belorussian, [[Slovakia]]n, and [[Lithuania]]n minorities reside along the borders, and a German minority is concentrated near the southwest city of Opole.
*Population (July 2006): 38.5 million.
*Annual growth rate: Unchanging.
*Ethnic groups: Polish 98%, German, Ukrainian, Belorussian, Lithuanian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, Eastern Orthodox, Uniate, Protestant, Judaism.
*Language: Polish.
*Education: Literacy--98%.
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate--7.2/1,000. Life expectancy--males 71 yrs., females 79 yrs.
*Work force: 17.2 million. Industry and construction--29%; agriculture--16%; services--54%.
=== Religion ===
[[File:St John Cathedral Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|St. John Cathedral, Warsaw.]]
[[File:Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice Poland.jpg|thumb|Altar in St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Gliwice.]]
More than 94% of the population is Roman Catholic. According to the 2007 Annual Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the formal membership of the listed religious groups includes: 33,862,800 Roman Catholics; 506,800 Polish Orthodox Churchmembers; 53,000 Greek Catholics; 126,827 Jehovah's Witnesses; 77,500 Lutherans (Augsburg Confession); 23,670 Old Catholic Mariavits; 21,199 Pentecostals; 9,620 Seventh-day Adventists; 19,035 members of the Polish Catholic Church; 4,881 members of the New Apostolic Church; 4,726 Baptists; 4,445 Methodists; 3,516 Lutherans (Reformed); 2,500 Jews; 2,425 members of the Church of Christ; 2,195 Catholic Mariavits; 1,299 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons); 915 members of the Church of Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas); and 112 registered members of Muslim associations. These figures do not account for persons who adhere to a particular faith but do not maintain formal membership. Figures for Jews and Muslims in particular are significantly deflated as a result. Jewish and Muslim organizations estimate their actual numbers to be 30,000-40,000 and 25,000, respectively.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/ U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The majority of asylum seekers are Muslims from Chechnya. In the refugee centers around the country, they organize their own mosques where they practice their religion.

Currently, there is a movement in Poland to completely ban [[abortion]]<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,262104,00.html</ref>, however there is an opposite movement to allow abortion to greater extent than it is now. Most political forces in the parliament are in favor of keeping abortion law as it is (allowing abortion when the women's life or health is threatened, when pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, when the fetus is irreversibly damaged). The attempts to change constitution so that it would be stated that life would be protected from the moment of conception to natural death failed.

== Government and Political Conditions ==
The current government structure consists of a council of ministers led by a Prime Minister, typically chosen from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (Sejm). The president, elected every five years for no more than two terms, is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The judicial branch plays a minor role in decision-making.

The parliament consists of the 460-member Sejm and the 100-member Senat, or upper house. The new constitution and the reformed administrative division (as of 1999) required a revision of the election ordinance (passed in April 2001). The most important changes were liquidation of a national list (all deputies are elected by voters in electoral districts) and introduction of a new method of calculating seats (the modified St. Lague method replaced the d'Hondt method, thus eliminating the premium for the top parties). The law stipulated that with the exception of guaranteed seats for small ethnic parties, only parties receiving at least 5% of the total vote could enter parliament.

Parties represented in the newly elected (October 2011) Sejm are [[Civic Platform]] (PO), [[Law and Justice]] (PiS), Palikot's Movement (RP), Polish Peasant Party (PSL), Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), and the United Poland (SP) which was created after elections by former Law and Justice members. There is also one representative of the German Minority and some non-allied members of Parliament

[[File:Warszawy by Night.jpg|frame|center|[[Warsaw]] by night.]]

=== Principal Government Officials ===
*President--Bronisław Komorowski
*Prime Minister--Donald Tusk (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration--Jerzy Miller (PO)
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy--Waldemar Pawlak (PSL)

[[File:Bronislaw Komorowsk Poland.jpg|left|300px]]

<br>
President of the Republic of Poland, Bronislaw Komorowski.
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign Relations ===
Poland became an associate member of the EU and its defensive arm, the Western European Union, in 1994. In a June 2003 national referendum, the Polish people approved EU accession by an overwhelming margin, and Poland gained full membership on May 1, 2004.

Changes since 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, and Poland has had to forge relationships with seven new neighbors. Poland has actively pursued good relations, signing friendship treaties replacing links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West.

== Defense ==
Poland became a full member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) in March 1999 as part of the first wave of enlargement outlined at the July 1997 NATO Summit in [[Madrid]]. Poland's top national security goal is to further integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic, and political institutions while modernizing and reorganizing its military. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defense posture as its Alliance partners.

Poland maintains a sizable armed force currently numbering about 140,572 troops divided among an army of 87,877, an air and defense force of 31,147, and a navy of 21,548. Poland relies on military conscription for the majority of its personnel strength. All males (with some exceptions) are subject to a 12-month term of military service. The Polish military continues to restructure and to modernize its equipment. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure. Although budget constraints remain a drag on modernization, Poland has been able to move forward with U.S. assistance on acquiring 48 [[F-16]] multi-role fighters, [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]] cargo planes, HMMWVs, and other items key to the military’s restructuring.

Poland continues to be a regional leader in support and participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace Program and has actively engaged most of its neighbors and other regional actors to build stable foundations for future European security arrangements. Poland continues its long record of strong support for UN peacekeeping operations by maintaining a unit in Southern Lebanon, a battalion in NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR), and by providing and actually deploying the KFOR strategic reserve to Kosovo. Polish military forces have served in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Poland assumed command of a multinational division of stabilization forces in Iraq (MDN-CS) on September 3, 2003. Poland and its MND-CS partners have worked effectively since then to stabilize south central Iraq while working to train Iraqi forces to take over MND-CS responsibilities and operate independently. <ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat_coalition.htm</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Pol-cia.jpg|thumb|320px]] Since its reunification with the rest of the West, the Polish economy grew rapidly in the mid-1990s, slowed considerably in 2001 and 2002, returned again to healthy growth rates in 2003, then faltered during the worldwide [[recession of 2008]]. Poland’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annualized rate of 5.2% in the first quarter of 2006. Faster growth has begun to reduce persistently high unemployment, from nearly 20% in the middle of 2004 to 16.5% in May 2006. Tight monetary policy and dramatic productivity growth have helped to hold down inflation, which was 2.1% in 2005. Likewise, Poland's current account deficit, which grew rapidly in the late 1990s, has since moderated to 1.4% of GDP in 2005. The 2005 budget deficit was 27.5 billion zloty, or 2.8% of GDP in 2005, and the current government pledged to restrain the 2006 and 2007 budgets at 30 billion zloty.

Throughout the 1990s, the United States and other Western countries supported the growth of a free enterprise economy by reducing Poland's foreign debt burden, providing economic aid, and lowering trade barriers. Poland graduated from U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance in 2000 and paid the balance of its U.S.-held Paris Club debt in 2005. Poland officially joined the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004.
*GDP (2006): $265.4 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 5.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $14,100.
*Rate of inflation (2006): 1.3%.
*Natural resources: [[Coal]], [[copper]], [[sulfur]], [[natural gas]], [[silver]], [[lead]], [[salt]].
*Agriculture: Products--grains, hogs, dairy, potatoes, horticulture, sugarbeets, oilseed.
*Industry: Types--machine building, iron and steel, mining, shipbuilding, automobiles, furniture, textiles and apparel, chemicals, food processing, glass, beverages.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$110.7 billion: furniture, cars, ships, coal, apparel. Imports--$113.2 billion: crude oil, passenger cars, pharmaceuticals, car parts, computers.

=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture employs 16.1% of the work force but contributes only 5% to the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting relatively low productivity. Unlike the industrial sector, Poland's agricultural sector remained largely in private hands during the decades of communist rule. Most of the former state farms are now leased to farmer tenants. Lack of credit is hampering efforts to sell former state farmland. Currently, Poland's 2 million private farms occupy 90% of all farmland and account for roughly the same percentage of total agricultural production. These farms are small--8 hectares (ha) on average--and often fragmented. Farms with an area exceeding 15 ha accounted for only 9% of the total number of farms but cover 45% of total agricultural area. Over half of all farming households in Poland produce only for their own needs with little, if any, commercial sales.

Poland is a net exporter of confectionery, processed fruit and vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Processors often rely on imports to supplement domestic supplies of wheat, feed grains, vegetable oil, and protein meals, which are generally insufficient to meet domestic demand. However, Poland is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye and is one of the world's largest producers of sugarbeets. Poland also is a significant producer of rapeseed, grains, hogs, and cattle. Attempts to increase domestic feed grain production are hampered by the short growing season, poor soil, and the small size of farms.

Pressure to restructure the agriculture sector intensified as Poland prepared to accede to the European Union, which is unwilling to subsidize the vast number of subsistence farms that do not produce for the market. The changes in agriculture are likely to strain Poland's social fabric, tearing at the heart of the traditional, family-based small farm as the younger generation drifts toward the cities. Nonetheless, dramatically increasing agricultural exports to the EU-15 (38% growth in 2005) and payments to farmers from Brussels following accession have enriched Polish commercial farmers and dramatically increase support for EU membership in Poland’s rural areas.

[[File:Panorama-Morskiego-Oka Poland.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panoramic view of Morskie Oko ("Marine Eye").]]

=== Industry ===
[[File:Locomotive train station Poland..jpg|thumb|Locomotive at a train station.]]
Before World War II, Poland's industrial base was concentrated in the coal, textile, chemical, machinery, iron, and steel sectors. Today it extends to fertilizers, petrochemicals, machine tools, electrical machinery, electronics, and shipbuilding.

Poland's industrial base suffered greatly during World War II, and many resources were directed toward reconstruction. The communist economic system imposed in the late 1940s created large and unwieldy economic structures operated under a tight central command. In part because of this systemic rigidity, the economy performed poorly even in comparison with other economies in central Europe.

In 1990, the Mazowiecki government began a comprehensive reform program to replace the centralized command economy with a market-oriented system. While the results overall have been impressive, many large state-owned industrial enterprises, particularly the railroad and the mining, steel, and defense sectors, have remained resistant to the change and downsizing required to survive in an open market economy.

=== Economic Reform Program and Direct Foreign Investment ===
The economic reforms introduced in 1990 removed price controls, eliminated most subsidies to industry, opened markets to international competition, and imposed strict budgetary and monetary discipline. Poland was the first former centrally planned economy in central Europe to end its recession and return to growth in the early 1990s. The private sector now accounts for over two-thirds of GDP.

In early 2002, the government announced a new set of economic reforms known as the Hausner Plan, designed in many ways to complete the process launched in 1990. The package acknowledged the need to improve Poland's investment climate, particularly the conditions for small and medium-sized enterprises, and better prepare the economy to compete as a European Union (EU) member. The government also aimed to improve Poland's public finances to prepare for eventual adoption of the euro. Though the government was able to enact only portions of the Hausner Plan, those successes coupled with successful monetary efforts to strengthen the zloty, have put Poland within reach of the National Bank’s goal of Euro accession in 2008-2009.

As a result of Poland's growth and investment-friendly climate, the country has received over $85 billion in direct foreign investment (DFI) since 1990, with roughly $7 billion in 2004 alone. According to a recently publish report by Ernst and Young, Poland is tied with Germany as the most attractive destination for foreign investment in Europe. The availability of cheap land and a large, relatively skilled labor force are among Polish strengths. However, the government continues to play a strong role in the economy, as seen in excessive red tape and the high level of politicization in many business decisions. Investors complain that state regulation is not transparent or predictable, and the economy suffers from a lack of competition in many sectors, notably telecommunications.

=== Foreign Trade ===
With the collapse of the ruble-based COMECON trading bloc in 1990, Poland scrambled to reorient its trade. As early as 1996, 70% of its trade was with EU-15 members, and neighboring Germany today is Poland's dominant trading partner. Most of Poland's imports are capital goods needed for industrial retooling and for manufacturing inputs, rather than imports for consumption. Therefore, a deficit is expected and should even be regarded as positive at this point. Poland, a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and European Union, applies the EU’s common external tariff to goods from other countries--including the U.S.

In the year after it joined the EU, Poland experienced an overall growth in exports of 30%. This growth was not confined to trade among EU partners: while exports to EU countries rose by 27%, exports to developing countries rose by 46%, and exports to Russia rose an unexpected 77%. Poland’s trade balance continued to improve, with export growth significantly outpacing import growth. Opportunities for trade and investment continue to exist across virtually all sectors. The American Chamber of Commerce in Poland, founded in 1991 with seven members, now has more than 300 members. Strong economic growth potential, a large domestic market, EU membership, and political stability are the top reasons U.S. and other foreign companies do business in Poland.

== History ==
{{main|History of Poland}}
[[File:Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.jpg|thumb|Polish composer Wojciech Kilar.]]
Poland's written history begins with the reign of [[Mieszko I]], who accepted [[Christianity]] for himself and his kingdom in AD 966. The Polish state reached its zenith under the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] in the years following the union with [[Lithuania]] in 1386 and the subsequent defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]] at Grunwald in 1410. The Union of Lublin united the [[Kingdom Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on July 1, 1569, in Lublin, Poland which created a single state known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish Commonwealth was at one point the largest country in Europe, covering much of what is today Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland. The Polish experienced their Golden Age during the 16th century. The monarchy survived many upheavals but eventually went into a decline, which ended with the final partition of Poland by [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], and [[Austria]] in 1795.

Independence for Poland was one of the 14 points enunciated by [[President Woodrow Wilson]] during [[World War I]]. Many Polish Americans enlisted in the military services to further this aim, and the United States worked at the postwar conference to ensure its implementation.
[[Image:Communazi Peace Pact.jpg|left]]
However, the Poles were largely responsible for achieving their own independence in 1918 and keeping it shortly thereafter against [[Polish-Soviet War|Red aggression]] from [[Bolshevik]] Russia. Authoritarian rule predominated for most of the period before [[World War II]]. In the years preceding the outbreak of the World War 2, German leader, Adolf Hitler, repeatedly requested an alliance with Poland. On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov nonaggression pact]], which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939, Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and then occupied eastern Poland under the terms of this agreement. On October 6, all remaining Polish resistance inside Poland ceased and Poland fell to Soviet and German occupation.

The eastern half of Poland known as the Kresy, was annexed into the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. After Germany terminated the Hitler-Stalin pact and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.

The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a government in exile, first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Western powers (the USA, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union). During World War II, 400,000 Poles fought in the [[Polish Peoples Army]] under Soviet command, whereas 200,000 served in the [[Polish Home Army]] in underground resistance in Poland, North Africa, Italy, and the Western front and remained loyal to the Free Polish government in exile.

After the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyn]] in April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile. The Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports. In July 1944, the Soviet Red Army entered Poland and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" (PKWN) at Lublin.

Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including uprisings by Jews in the Warsaw ghetto and by the Polish underground, was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city while Red Army units waited just outside.<ref>Solzhenitsyn writes: "''in October, 1944, the Germans threw in Kaminsky's brigade—with its Moslem units—to suppress the Warsaw uprising. While one group of Russians sat traitorously dozing beyond the Vistula, watching the death of Warsaw through binoculars, other Russians crushed the uprising!"'' The Gulag Archipelago Three (1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation I-II, p. 257. [http://ia700304.us.archive.org/BookReader/BookReaderImages.php?zip=/29/items/Gulag_Archipelago_I/Gulag_Archipelago_jp2.zip&file=Gulag_Archipelago_jp2/Gulag_Archipelago_0267.jp2&scale=6&rotate=0]</ref>

During the war, about 6 million Poles were killed, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. More than 3 million Jews (all but about 100,000 of the Jewish population) were killed in death camps like those at Oswiecim ([[Auschwitz]]), Treblinka, and Majdanek.

Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945; the U.S. recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination.

==== Communist Party Domination ====
[[File:Socialist reliefs Warsaw.jpg|thumb|left|Socialist relief, Pałac Kultury i Nauki, Warsaw.]]

In 1945, Poland was forced to give up its eastern territories to the Soviet Union, in exchange for Germany's eastern territories of Pomerania and Silesia. Poland took over Germany's former eastern territories and its territories illegally seized by the Soviet Union, including the cities of Lvov and Vilnius were incorporated and annexed under an agreement by the Communist rulers of Poland and the Soviet Union. Poland ended up losing its eastern territories which comprised half of the country and a sizable portion of the population.

In October 1956, after the 20th ("de-Stalinization") Soviet Party Congress in Moscow and riots by workers in Poznan, there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka liberalized Polish internal life.

In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an "anti-Zionist" campaign initially directed against Gomulka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. Edward Gierek replaced Gomulka as First Secretary.

Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.

In October 1978, the Bishop of Cracow, Cardinal Charles Wojtyla, became [[Pope John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.

In July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coalmines in Silesia. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.

==== The Solidarity Movement ====
[[File:Lech Walesa.jpg|thumb|Lech Walesa.]]
On August 31, 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Walesa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at Szczecin and in Silesia. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers' right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement--"Solidarity"--swept Poland.

The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania as First Secretary.

Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September-October 1981, Lech Walesa was elected national chairman of the union.

On December 12-13, the regime declared martial law, under which the army and special riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.

In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.

In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and 2 years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored.

==== Roundtable Talks and Elections ====
[[File:Royal Castle of Warsaw Poland.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Royal Castle of Warsaw.]]
The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May, and August 1988. In an attempt to take control of the situation, the government gave de facto recognition to Solidarity, and Interior Minister Kiszczak began talks with Lech Walesa on August 31. These talks broke off in October, but a new series, the "roundtable" talks, began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly open National Assembly elections. The June election produced a Sejm (lower house), in which one-third of the seats went to communists and one-third went to the two parties which had hitherto been their coalition partners. The remaining one-third of the seats in the Sejm and all those in the Senat were freely contested; virtually all of these were won by candidates supported by Solidarity.

The failure of the communists at the polls produced a political crisis. The roundtable agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of some Solidarity deputies, elected General Jaruzelski to that office. Two attempts by the communists to form governments failed, however.

On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by non-communists.

In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland." The Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. Most of the property of the former Communist Party was turned over to the state.

The May 1990 local elections were entirely free. Candidates supported by Solidarity's Citizens' Committees won most of the races they contested, although voter turnout was only a little over 40%. The cabinet was reshuffled in July 1990; the national defense and interior affairs ministers--holdovers from the previous communist government--were among those replaced.

In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In December, Lech Walesa became the first popularly elected President of Poland.

==== The Republic of Poland ====
The [[Republic of Poland]] in the early 1990s made great progress toward achieving a fully democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Walesa was elected President for a 5-year term. Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, at Walesa's request, formed a government and served as its Prime Minister until October 1991, introducing world prices and greatly expanding the scope of private enterprise.
[[File:Downtown Warsaw skyline Poland 2006.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Downtown Warsaw skyline, 2006.]]
Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, representing a full spectrum of political views. No single party received more than 13% of the total vote.

Since 1991, Poland has conducted five general parliamentary elections and four presidential elections--all free and fair. Incumbent governments have transferred power smoothly and constitutionally in every instance to their successors. The post-Solidarity center-right and post-Communist center-left have each controlled the parliament and the presidency since 1991. Most recently, Poles elected Law and Justice (PiS) candidate and Mayor of Warsaw Lech Kaczynski to a 5-year term as President. Kaczynski narrowly defeated Civic Platform (PO) candidate Donald Tusk and was sworn in December 23, 2005.

PiS was also the top vote-getter in September 25, 2005, parliamentary elections. After coalition talks with runner-up PO collapsed, PiS alone formed a minority government under Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. Frustrated by its inability to achieve its legislative program alone, PiS formed a formal coalition government with Self-Defense (SO) and the League of Polish Families (LPR) in April 2006. In July 2006, Prime Minister Marcinkiewicz resigned and was replaced by PiS party leader Jaroslaw Kaczynski as Prime Minister.
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Lech Kaczyński]] - President
*[[Jarosław Kaczyński]] - PM
==Further reading==
* Library of Congress. ''A Country Study: Poland'' (1993), highly detailed factual report by U.S. government (it is in the public domain, with no copyright) [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pltoc.html online edition]
* ''Poland'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides by DK Publishing) (2007)
* ''Lonely Planet Poland'' by Tom Parkinson, et al. (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Poland-Tom-Parkinson/dp/174059522X/ref=pd_bbs_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1188096687&sr=8-2 online excerpt and search from Amazon.com]
* Biskupski, M. B. ''The History of Poland.'' Greenwood, 2000. 264 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28002395 online edition]
* Davies, Norman. ''Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland.'' Oxford University Press, 1984. 511 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Heart-Europe-Past-Polands-Present/dp/0192801260/ref=pd_bbs_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192604734&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Podgórecki, Adam. ''Polish Society'' Praeger, 1994 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28518609 online edition]
* Turnock, David. ''The Human Geography of East Central Europe.'' Routledge. 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108154408 online edition]

== References ==
<References/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm]

{{European Union}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact Members]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Warsaw

2014-10-09T02:13:59Z

Hess:

[[Image:Warsaw.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Warsaw''' is the capital city of [[Poland]]. The city is situated on the banks of the Vistula River and is home to 1.7 million people. The city was extensively destroyed during [[World War Two]]. Many historic buildings and precincts were restored in the post war period. Warsaw is home to the Polish Parliament ([[Sejm]]).

==See also==
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[Cracow]]

==External links==
*[http://www.e-warsaw.pl/index.php City of Warsaw official web-site]

[[category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Polish Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]

Warsaw

2014-10-09T02:13:38Z

Hess:

[[Image:Warsaw.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Warsaw''' is the capital city of [[Poland]]. The city is situated on the banks of the [[Wisła River|Vistula]] River and is home to 1.7 million people. The city was extensively destroyed during [[World War Two]]. Many historic buildings and precincts were restored in the post war period. Warsaw is home to the Polish Parliament ([[Sejm]]).

==See also==
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[Cracow]]

==External links==
*[http://www.e-warsaw.pl/index.php City of Warsaw official web-site]

[[category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Polish Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Germany]]
[[Category:Poland]]
[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Central Europe]]
[[Category:European Cities and Towns]]